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    58 Phonitcs

    Uploaded by

    محمود خليل حمودي

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 10

    ‫ خلدون وليد حسام‬.

    ‫م‬
    ‫قسم اللغة االنجليزية‬
    ‫ الرابعة‬: ‫المرحلة‬
    ‫ علم اللغة‬: ‫المادة‬
    Inst. Khaldoon Waleed Husam
    Department of English
    Year: Fourth
    Subject: Linguistics / Lecture Notes
    PRAGMATICS – George Yule

    1. DEFINITIONS AND BACKGROUND


    2. “The study of contextual meaning communicated by a
    speaker or writer, and interpreted by a listener or reader.”
    (G.Yule)
    3. “The study of the relation of signs to their
    interpreters.” (Charles Morris)
    4. “The study of the relations between linguistic forms and its
    users(…)Only pragmatics allows humans into the analysis:
    their assumptions, purposes, goals, and actions they
    perform while speaking.” (G.Yule)

    1- THE STUDY OF SPEAKER MEANING


    WHAT PEOPLE MEAN by their utterances rather than what the
    words or phrases might mean by themselves.
    3-The study of how more gets communicated than said.
    • The INFERENCES made by listeners or readers in order to
    arrive at an interpretation of the intended meaning.
    • A great deal of what is UNSAID is recognized as part of
    what is communicated.
    The study of “invisible meaning”
    4-The study of the expression of relative distance
    • The CLOSENESS or DISTANCE of the listener or reader
    determines how much needs to be said.
    For example:
    A: there is a store over there (Let‘s go inside) B: no (I don‘t
    want to go inside)
    A: why not? (why do you not want to go inside?) B: I‘m tired.
    (I don‘t want to because I‘m tired.)
    IN OTHER WORDS…
    PRAGMATICS studies HOW PEOPLE MAKE SENSE OF EACH
    OTHER LINGUISTICALLY.
    For example:
    A: So_ did you?
    B: Hey_ who wouldn’t?
    Two friends in a conversation may imply some things and infer
    some others without providing any clear linguistic evidence.
    So, pragmatics requires us to make sense of what people have
    in mind.
    2.DEIXIS and DISTANCE
    • DEIXIS: “pointing via langauge”
    To accomplish this pointing we use deictic expressions or
    indexicals.
    i.e: “What’s that?” (used to indicate sth. in the immediate
    context.)
    Deictic expressions depend on the speaker and hearer sharing
    the same spatial context, in face-to face spoken interaction.

    Types of indexicals

     Person deixis: used to point people. (me, you)


     Spatial deixis: used to point location (here, there).
     Temporal dexis: used to point location in time (now,
    then).
    i.e: “I’ll put this here, ok?”

    PERSON DEIXIS
    There are 3 categories:
    • SPEAKER (I)
    • ADDRESSEE (YOU)
    • OTHERS (HE- SHE-IT- THEY)
    SOCIAL DEIXIS: forms used to indicate relative social status. In
    many languages deictic categories become markers of relative
    social status.
    HONORIFICS: expressions that mark that the addressee is of
    higher status.

    Examples of SOCIAL DEIXIS


    • The choice of one form will communicate something, not
    directly said, about the speaker’s view of his relation with
    the addressee.
    • The higher, older and more powerful speaker will tend to
    use the “tú” and viceversa.
    • Nowadays, the age distinction remains more powerful
    than the economic distinction in many countries.
    SPATIAL DEIXIS
    Forms used to point to
    LOCATION
    i.e: “Here” and “There” “Come” and “Go”
    PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTANCE
    When speakers mark how close or distant something is
    perceived to be.
    i.e: “That man over there” implies psychological distance.
    DEICTIC PROJECTION: when
    speakers act as if they are somewhere else.
    i.e: “I´m not here now.” (telephone answering machine)
    Recording is a performance for a future audience in which I
    project my presence to be in the required location

    TEMPORAL DEIXIS
    Forms used to point to location in time. i.e: “now” - “then”
    In contrast to now, the distal expression then applies to both
    past and future time relative to the speaker’s present time.
    i.e: “I was in Scotland then” “I’ll see you then”

    3. REFERENCE AND INFERENCE


    REFERENCE: an act in which a speaker or writer, uses
    linguistic forms to enable a listener or reader, to identify
    something.
    Words in themselves do not refer anything. People refer.
    REFERRING EXPRESSIONS: linguistic forms like proper nouns,
    definite or indefinite noun phrases, and pronouns.
    The choice of one type of these expressions rather than
    another is based on what the speaker assumes the listener
    already knows.
    FOR EXAMPLE:
    “Look at him” (use of pronoun)
    “The woman in red” (definite article)
    “A woman was looking at you” (indefinite article and pronoun)
     So, reference is tied to the speaker’s goals and beliefs
    about the listener knowledge in the use of language.
    INFERENCE
    • For successful reference to occur, we must recognize the
    role of INFERENCE and COLLABORATION between
    speaker and listener in thinking what the other has in
    mind.
    Sometimes we use vague expressions relying on the listener’s
    ability to infer what referent we have in mind:
    i.e: “The blue thing”, “That stuff”
    We sometimes even invent names.

    THE ROLE OF CO-TEXT


    Co- text: the linguistic environment in which a word is used.
    The co-text clearly limits our range of possible interpretations
    we might have for a word.
    i.e: “Brazil wins World Cup”
    Brazil would be the referring expression, and the rest of the
    sentence the co-text.

    CO- TEXT
    Just a linguistic part of the environment in which a referring
    expression is used

    CONTEXT
    • The physical environment in which a word is used.

    ANAPHORIC REFERENCE
    The expressions used to maintain reference to something or
    someone already mentioned.
    i.e: “A man was looking at us. He then disappeared.”
    The initial reference is often indefinite (A man…) and is called
    the ANTECEDENT.
    The subsequent reference is definite or a prononun (He…) and
    is called ANAPHORA.
    6. SPEECH ACTS and EVENTS

    • Actions performed via utterances are called


    Speech Acts.
    In English they are commonly known as: apology, compliment,
    complaint, invitation, promise, or request and apply to the
    speaker’s communicative intention.
    • The circumstances surrounding the utterance are called
    the Speech Event and it’s their nature that determines the
    interpretation of an utterance as performing a particular
    speech act.
    • This tea is really cold!”
    • This utterance can be interpreted as a complaint or as a
    praise, depending on the circumstances. (If it is winter or
    summer, a cold or a hot day, etc.)
    DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS
    • DIRECT: when there’s a direct relationship between the
    structure (declarative, interrogative, imperative) and its
    communicative function (statement, question,
    commnad/request.)
    • INDIRECT: Indirect relation between the structure and
    function.

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