The discipline of Applied Mathematics must respond to the demands of conceptual analysis, principles

and problem solving for a new world filled with more advanced tools of technology. The main
emphasis of the applied course is on developing the ability of the students to start with a problem in
a non-mathematical form and transform it into mathematical language. This will enable them to bring
mathematical insights and skills in devising a solution, and then interpreting this solution in real-world
terms.

Students accomplish this by exploring problems using symbolic, graphical, numerical, physical and
verbal techniques in the context of finite or discrete real-world situations. Furthermore, students
engage in mathematical thinking and modelling to examine and solve problems arising from a wide
variety of disciplines including, but not limited to, economics, medicine, agriculture, marine science,
law, transportation, engineering, banking, natural sciences, social sciences and computing.

What is Statistics?

Statistics - Statistics is a group of methods used to collect, analyse, present, and interpret data and to
make decisions.

Broadly speaking, applied statistics can be divided into two areas: descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics.

Descriptive Statistics - Descriptive statistics consists of methods for organizing, displaying, and
describing data by using tables, graphs, and summary measures.

Inferential Statistics - Inferential statistics consists of methods that use sample results to help make
decisions or predictions about a population.
COLLECTING AND DESCRIBING DATA

(a) Sources of Data

Primary Data: It is a term for data collected at source. This type of information is obtained directly
from first-hand sources by means of surveys, observations and experimentation and not subjected to
any processing or manipulation. Primary data means original data that has been collected specially for
the purpose in mind. It means someone collected the data from the original source first-hand. Eg.
Questionnaires, interviews, surveys done by the user etc.

Secondary Data: It refers to the data collected by someone other than the user i.e. the data is already
available and analysed by someone else. Common sources of secondary data include various
published or unpublished data, books, magazines, newspaper, trade journals etc.

Element or Member - An element or member of a sample or population is a specific subject or object

(for example, a person, firm, item, state, or country) about which the information is collected.

Variable - A variable is a characteristic under study that assumes different values for different
elements. In contrast to a variable, the value of a constant is fixed.

Observation or Measurement - The value of a variable for an element is called an observation or

measurement.

Data Set - A data set is a collection of observations on one or more variables.

a. What is the variable for this data set?

b. How many observations are in this data set?

c. How many elements does this data set contain?

i. Quantitative, qualitative, discrete and continuous data.

Quantitative Variable - A variable that can be measured numerically is called a

quantitative variable. The data collected on a quantitative variable are called
quantitative data.

Incomes, heights, gross sales, prices of homes, number of cars owned, and number of
accidents are examples of quantitative variables because each of them can be
expressed numerically. For instance, the income of a family may be $81,520.75 per
year, the gross sales for a company may be $567 million for the past year, and so forth.
Such quantitative variables may be classified as either discrete variables or continuous
variables.

Discrete Variable - A variable whose values are countable is called a discrete variable.
In other words, a discrete variable can assume only certain values with no
intermediate values.

For example, the number of cars sold on any day at a car dealership is a discrete
variable because the number of cars sold must be 0, 1, 2, 3,... and we can count it. The
number of cars sold cannot be between 0 and 1, or between 1 and 2. Other examples
of discrete variables are the number of people visiting a bank on any day, the number
of cars in a parking lot, the number of cattle owned by a farmer, and the number of
students in a class.

Continuous Variable - A variable that can assume any numerical value over a certain
interval or intervals is called a continuous variable.

The time taken to complete an examination is an example of a continuous variable

because it can assume any value, let us say, between 30 and 60 minutes. The time
taken may be 42.6 minutes, 42.67 minutes, or 42.674 minutes. (Theoretically, we can
measure time as precisely as we want.) Similarly, the height of a person can be
measured to the tenth of an inch or to the hundredth of an inch. However, neither
time nor height can be counted in a discrete fashion. Other examples of continuous
variables are weights of people, amount of soda in a 12-ounce can (note that a can
does not contain exactly 12 ounces of soda), and yield of potatoes (in pounds) per
acre. Note that any variable that involves money is considered a continuous variable.

Qualitative or Categorical Variable - A variable that cannot assume a numerical value

but can be classified into two or more nonnumeric categories is called a qualitative or
categorical variable. The data collected on such a variable are called qualitative data.
 For example, the status of an undergraduate college student is a qualitative variable
because a student can fall into any one of four categories: freshman, sophomore,
junior, or senior. Other examples of qualitative variables are the gender of a person,
the brand of a computer, the opinions of people, and the make of a car.

EXERCISES

CONCEPTS AND PROCEDURES

Explain the meaning of the following terms:

a. Quantitative variable

b. Qualitative variable

c. Discrete variable

d. Continuous variable

e. Quantitative data

f. Qualitative data

APPLICATIONS

Indicate which of the following variables are quantitative and which are qualitative.

a. Number of persons in a family

b. Colours of cars

c. Marital status of people

d. Time to commute from home to work

e. Number of errors in a person’s credit report

Classify the quantitative variables in the above Exercise as discrete or continuous.

Indicate which of the following variables are quantitative and which are qualitative.

a. Number of typographical errors in newspapers

b. Monthly TV cable bills

c. Spring break locations favoured by college students

d. Number of cars owned by families

e. Lottery revenues of states

Classify the quantitative variables in the above Exercise as discrete or continuous.

ii. Populations, parameters, censuses, samples, statistics, sample surveys.

Population or Target Population - A population consists of all elements—

individuals, items, or objects—whose characteristics are being studied. The
population that is being studied is also called the target population.

Most of the time, decisions are made based on portions of populations. For
example, the election polls conducted in the United States to estimate the
percentages of voters who favour various candidates in any presidential election are
based on only a few hundred or a few thousand voters selected from across the
country.

Sample - A portion of the population selected for study is referred to as a sample.

Most of the time, decisions are made based on portions of populations. For
example, the election polls conducted in the United States to estimate the
percentages of voters who favor various candidates in any presidential election are
based on only a few hundred or a few thousand voters selected from across the
country. In this case, the population consists of all registered voters in the United
States. The sample is made up of a few hundred or few thousand voters who are
included in an opinion poll. Thus, the collection of a few elements selected from a
population is called a sample.
 Census and Sample Survey - A survey that includes every member of the population
is called a census. The technique of collecting information from a portion of the
population is called a sample survey.

The purpose of conducting a sample survey is to make decisions about the

corresponding population. It is important that the results obtained from a sample
survey closely match the results that we would obtain by conducting a census.
Otherwise, any decision based on a sample survey will not apply to the
corresponding population. As an example, to find the average income of families
living in New York City by conducting a sample survey, the sample must contain
families who belong to different income groups in almost the same proportion as
they exist in the population. Such a sample is called a representative sample.
Inferences derived from a representative sample will be more reliable.

Parameter - A numerical measure such as the mean, median, mode, range, variance,
or standard deviation calculated for a population data set is called a population
parameter, or simply a parameter.

Statistic - A summary measure calculated for a sample data set is called a sample
statistic, or simply a statistic.

Thus, 𝜇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 are population parameters, and 𝑥 and s are sample statistics.

iii. Sampling Frame

Sampling Frame - In statistics, a sampling frame is the source material or device

from which a sample is drawn. It is a list of all those within a population who can be
sampled, and may include individuals, households or institutions.

A sampling frame is a list of all the items in your population. It’s a complete list of
everyone or everything you want to study. The difference between a population
and a sampling frame is that the population is general and the frame is specific. For
example, the population could be “People who live in Jacksonville, Florida.” The
frame would name all of those people, from Adrian Abba to Felicity Zappa. A couple
more examples:
Population: People in STAT101.
Sampling Frame: Adrian, Anna, Bob, Billy, Howie, Jess, Jin, Kate, Kaley, Lin, Manuel,
Norah, Paul, Roger, Stu, Tim, Vanessa, Yasmin.
Population: Birds that are pink.
Sampling Frame:
• Brown-capped Rosy-Finch.
• White-winged Crossbill.
• American Flamingo.
• Roseate Spoonbill.
• Black Rosy-Finch.
• Cassin’s Finch.

APPLICATIONS

Explain whether each of the following constitutes a population or a

sample.

a. Pounds of bass caught by all participants in a bass fishing derby

b. Credit card debts of 100 families selected from a city
c. Number of home runs hit by all Major League baseball players in the
2009 season
d. Number of parole violations by all 2147 parolees in a city
e. Amount spent on prescription drugs by 200 senior citizens in a large
city

Explain whether each of the following constitutes a population or a

sample.

a. Number of personal fouls committed by all NBA players during the

2008–2009 season
b. Yield of potatoes per acre for 10 pieces of land
c. Weekly salaries of all employees of a company
d. Cattle owned by 100 farmers in Iowa
e. Number of computers sold during the past week at all computer
stores in Los Angeles
iv. Random and non-random sampling.

Random Sample - A sample drawn in such a way that each element of the
population has a chance of being selected is called a random sample.

One way to select a random sample is by lottery or draw. For example, if we are to
select 5 students from a class of 50, we write each of the 50 names on a separate
piece of paper. Then we place all 50 slips in a box and mix them thoroughly. Finally,
we randomly draw 5 slips from the box. The 5 names drawn give a random sample.
On the other hand, if we arrange all 50 names alphabetically and then select the first
5 names on the list, it is a nonrandom sample because the students listed 6th to
50th have no chance of being included in the sample. select the next element. Thus,
in sampling with replacement, the population contains the same number of items
each time a selection is made. As a result, we may select the same item more than
once in such a sample. Consider a box that contains 25 marbles of different colors.
Suppose we draw a marble, record its color, and put it back in the box before
drawing the next marble. Every time we draw a marble from this box, the box
contains 25 marbles. This is an example of sampling with replacement. The
experiment of rolling a die many times is another example of sampling with
replacement because every roll has the same six possible outcomes. Sampling
without replacement occurs when the selected element is not replaced in the
population. In this case, each time we select an item, the size of the population is
reduced by one element. Thus, we cannot select the same item more than once in
this type of sampling. Most of the time, samples taken in statistics are without
replacement. Consider an opinion poll based on a certain number of voters selected
from the population of all eligible voters. In this case, the same voter is not selected
more than once. Therefore, this is an example of sampling without replacement.

Non-Random Sample - In a non-random sample, some members of the population

may not have any chance of being selected in the sample.

Suppose we have a list of 100 students and we want to select 10 of them. If we write
the names of all 100 students on pieces of paper, put them in a hat, mix them, and
then draw 10 names, the result will be a random sample of 10 students. However, if
we arrange the names of these 100 students alphabetically and pick the first 10
names, it will be a non-random sample because the students who are not among the
first 10 have no chance of being selected in the sample.
v. Simple random, stratified random, systematic random, cluster and quota
sampling.

Random Sample - A sample drawn in such a way that each element of the
population has a chance of being selected is called a random sample. If all
samples of the same size selected from a population have the same chance of
being selected, we call it simple random sampling. Such a sample is called a
simple random sample.

Advantages:

1. One of the great advantages of simple random sampling method is that it

needs only a minimum knowledge of the study group of population in
advance.

2. It is free from errors in classification.

3. This is suitable for data analysis which includes the use of inferential
statistics.

4. Simple random sampling is representative of the population

5. It is totally free from bias and prejudice

6. The method is simple to use.

7. It is very easy to assess the sampling error in this method.

Disadvantages:

1. This method carries larger errors from the same sample size than that are
found in stratified sampling.

2. In simple random sampling, the selection of sample becomes impossible if

the units or items are widely dispersed.

3. One of the major disadvantages of simple random sampling method is that

it cannot be employed where the units of the population are heterogeneous
in nature.

4. This method lacks the use of available knowledge concerning the

population.
5. Sometimes, it is difficult to have a completely catalogued universe.

6. It may be impossible to contact the cases which are very widely dispersed.

Stratified Random - Sample In a stratified random sample, we first divide the

population into subpopulations, which are called strata. Then, one sample is
selected from each of these strata. The collection of all samples from all strata
gives the stratified random sample.

Thus, whenever we observe that a population differs widely in the possession

of a characteristic, we may prefer to divide it into different strata and then
select one sample from each stratum. We can divide the population on the
basis of any characteristic, such as income, expenditure, sex, education, race,
employment, or family size.

Suppose we need to select a sample from the population of a city, and we

want households with different income levels to be proportionately
represented in the sample. In this case, instead of selecting a simple
random sample or a systematic random sample, we may prefer to apply a
different technique. First, we divide the whole population into different
groups based on income levels. For example, we may form three groups of
low-, medium-, and high-income households. We will now have three
subpopulations, which are usually called strata. We then select one sample
from each subpopulation or stratum. The collection of all three samples
selected from three strata gives the required sample, called the stratified
random sample. Usually, the sizes of the samples selected from different
strata are proportionate to the sizes of the subpopulations in these strata.
Note that the elements of each stratum are identical with regard to the
possession of a characteristic.

Advantages:

1. A stratified sample can provide greater precision than a simple random

sample of the same size.

2. Because it provides greater precision, a stratified sample often requires

a smaller sample, which saves money.
 3. A stratified sample can guard against an "unrepresentative" sample
(e.g., an all-male sample from a mixed-gender population).

4. We can ensure that we obtain sufficient sample points to support a

separate analysis of any subgroup.

5. Free from researcher bias

6. beyond the influence of the researcher

7. produces a representative sample

Disadvantages:

1. Can't Be Used in All Studies- Unfortunately, this method of research

cannot be used in every study. The method's disadvantage is that
several conditions must be met for it to be used properly. Researchers
must identify every member of a population being studied and classify
each of them into one, and only one, subpopulation. As a result,
stratified random sampling is disadvantageous when researchers
can't confidently classify every member of the population into a
subgroup. Also, finding an exhaustive and definitive list of an
entire population can be challenging.

2. Overlapping can be an issue if there are subjects that fall into multiple
subgroups. When simple random sampling is performed, those who are
in multiple subgroups are more likely to be chosen. The result could be
a misrepresentation or inaccurate reflection of the population.

3. Cannot reflect all differences

4. Complete representation is not possible

Systematic Random - Sample In systematic random sampling, we first
randomly select one member from the first k units. Then every kth
member, starting with the first selected member, is included in the sample.

Systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling method in which

sample members from a larger population are selected according to a
random starting point but with a fixed, periodic interval. This interval,
called the sampling interval, is calculated by dividing the population size by
the desired sample size. Despite the sample population being selected in
advance, systematic sampling is still thought of as being random if the
periodic interval is determined beforehand and the starting point is
random.

The simple random sampling procedure becomes very tedious if the size of
the population is large. For example, if we need to select 150 households
from a list of 45,000, it is very timeconsuming either to write the 45,000
names on pieces of paper and then select 150 households or to use a table
of random numbers. In such cases, it is more convenient to use systematic
random sampling. The procedure to select a systematic random sample is
as follows. In the example just mentioned, we would arrange all 45,000
households alphabetically (or based on some other characteristic). Since
the sample size should equal 150, the ratio of population to sample size is
45,000/150 = 300. Using this ratio, we randomly select one household from
the first 300 households in the arranged list using either method. Suppose
by using either of the methods, we select the 210th household. We then
select every 210th household from every 300 households in the list. In
other words, our sample includes the households with numbers 210, 510,
810, 1110, 1410, 1710, and so on

Advantages:
1. It is simple and convenient to use - The algorithm to make selections is
predetermined, which means the only randomized component of the
work involves the selection of the first individual. Then the selection
process moves across the linear or circular pattern initiated until the
desired population group is ready for review.

2. There isn’t a need to number each member of a sample - There isn’t a

need to number each member of the sample because the goal is to
create representative data of the entire group without specific
individualized identifiers. This advantage makes it possible to create
data for analysing quickly because the only step necessary to get
started is to identify the targeted demographic.
 3. The created samples are based on precision - That means there is a
much lower risk of favouritism occurring in the data because the
individuals in charge of the research have no control over who gets to
have their data included in the work. Everything is predetermined for
them once the population group gets chosen.

4. It reduces the potential for bias in the information - The processes of

systematic sampling create an advantage here because the selection
method is at a fixed distance between each participant.

Disadvantages:

1. This process requires a close approximation of a population - The

systematic sampling method must assume that the size of the population
in specific demographics is available and measurable. If that isn’t possible,
then this method requires a reasonable approximation of the demographic
in question. The selection process cannot occur correctly if that figure isn’t
available, because the size of the pool pulled for participation comes from
the division of that overall figure.

2. Some populations can detect the pattern of sampling - If a smaller

population group is under review, then the systematic sampling method
can get detected by some participants. When this disadvantage occurs,
then it can bias the population as non-participants will be different than
those who get to be part of the process. It can encourage some individuals
to provide false answers as a way to influence the results for personal
purposes, working against the perceived hypothesis under study.

3. Systematic sampling is less random than a simple random sampling effort

- If randomness is the top priority for research, then systematic sampling is
not the best option to choose. Although it takes less time and isn’t as
tedious as other methods of data collection, there is a predictable nature
to its efforts that can influence the final results.

4. A high risk of data manipulation exists - Researchers can construct their

systems of systematic sampling to increase the likelihood that a targeted
outcome can occur. Instead of letting random data produce the repetitive
answer organically, the information comes out with an inherent bias that
no one else would recognize upon analysis.
Cluster Sampling - In cluster sampling, the whole population is first divided
into (geographical) groups called clusters. Each cluster is representative of the
population. Then a random sample of clusters is selected. Finally, a random
sample of elements from each of the selected clusters is selected.

Sometimes the target population is scattered over a wide geographical area.

Consequently, if a simple random sample is selected, it may be costly to
contact each member of the sample. In such a case, we divide the population
into different geographical groups or clusters and as a first step select a
random sample of certain clusters from all clusters. We then take a random
sample of certain elements from each selected cluster. For example, suppose
we are to conduct a survey of households in the state of New York. First, we
divide the whole state of New York into, say, 40 regions, which are called
clusters or primary units. We make sure that all clusters are similar and, hence,
representative of the population. We then select at random, say, 5 clusters
from 40. Next, we randomly select certain households from each of these 5
clusters and conduct a survey of these selected households. This is called
cluster sampling. Note that all clusters must be representative of the
population.

Advantages:

1. It allows for research to be conducted with a reduced economy - If you

were to research a specific demographic or community, the cost of
interviewing every household or individual within the group would be very
limiting. By using cluster sampling, it becomes possible to compile
information about certain demographics or communities by reducing the
number required to generate accurate data.

2. Cluster sampling reduces variability - cluster sampling provides is an

estimation process that is more accurate when the clusters have been put
together appropriately.

3. It is a more feasible approach - If you need to find data which is

representative of a large population group, cluster sampling makes it
possible to extrapolate collected information into a usable format.

4. Cluster sampling can be taken from multiple areas - Clusters can be defined
within a single community, multiple communities, or multiple
demographics. The procedures used for obtaining information follow the
same process, no matter how large the sample happens to be.
 Disadvantages:

1. It is easier to create biased data within cluster sampling - If a researcher is

attempting to create specific results to reflect a personal bias, then it is
easier to generate data that reflects the bias by structure the clusters in a
specific way. Even if it is an unconscious bias, the data will be a reflection
of the structuring, creating a false impression of accuracy.

2. Sampling errors can be a major problem - Information collected through

cluster sampling is heavily reliant on the skills of the researcher. If the
information or collection methods are subpar, then the data collected will
not be as beneficial as it could be. The errors found in such data would
appear to be legitimate points, when in reality, they may be an inaccurate
reflection of the general population.

3. Many clusters are placed based on self-identifying information -

Researchers often determine cluster placement of individuals or
households based in self-identifying information. That means individuals
can influence the quality of the data by misrepresenting themselves in
some way. All it may take to create a negative influence is a misstatement
of income, ethnicity, or political preference.

4. Every cluster may have some overlapping data points - The goal of cluster
sampling is to reduce overlaps in data, which may affect the integrity of the
conclusions which can be found. When creating a cluster, however, every
demographic, community, or population group will have some level of
overlap on an individual level. That creates a level of variability within the
data that creates sampling errors on a regular basis. In some instances, the
sampling error could be large enough to reduce the representative nature
of the data, invalidating the conclusions.

Quota Sampling - Quota sampling is defined as a non-probability sampling method in

which researchers create a sample involving individuals that represent a population.
Researchers choose these individuals according to specific traits or qualities. They
decide and create quotas so that the research samples can be useful in collecting data.
These samples can be generalized to the entire population. The final subset will be
decided only according to the interviewer’s or researcher’s knowledge of the
population.
For example, a cigarette company wants to find out what age group prefers what
brand of cigarettes in a particular city. He/she applies quotas on the age groups of 21-
30, 31-40, 41-50, and 51+. From this information, the researcher gauges the smoking
trend among the population of the city.

Advantages:

1. Saves time: Because of the involvement of a quota for sample creation,

this sampling process is quick and straightforward.
2. Research convenience: By using quota sampling and appropriate research
questions, interpreting information and responses to the survey is a much
convenient process for a researcher.
3. Accurate representation of the population of interest: Researchers
effectively represent a population using this sampling technique. There is
no room for over-representation as this sampling technique helps
researchers to study the population using specific quotas.
4. Saves money: The budget required for executing this sampling method is
minimalistic.

Disadvantages:

1. Quota sampling does not allow random selection of participants of the research.

2. Quota sampling increases the risk of researcher bias as a researcher might include
people in research who he finds easy to approach or have co-operative nature.

3. The outcome of quota sampling is not accurate as it lacks randomness of the

selection of participants.

4. The result of quota sampling research is not reliable as it is affected by many

factors.

5. The accuracy of quota sampling largely depends on the judgment of the study. The
biased approach of the researcher influences the accuracy of the result of the
quota sampling research method.
Vi Random numbers, “lottery” techniques

Random Numbers - Random numbers are numbers that occur in a sequence such
that two conditions are met: (1) the values are uniformly distributed over a
defined interval or set, and (2) it is impossible to predict future values based on
past or present ones. Random numbers are important in statistical analysis and
probability theory.
Lottery Technique - The most common set from which random numbers are
derived is the set of single-digit decimal numbers {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. The
task of generating random digits from this set is not trivial. A common scheme is
the selection (by means of a mechanical escape hatch that lets one ball out at a
time) of numbered ping-pong balls from a set of 10, one bearing each digit, as the
balls are blown about in a container by forced-air jets. This method is popular in
lotteries. After each number is selected, the ball with that number is returned to
the set, the balls are allowed to blow around for a minute or two, and then another
ball is allowed to escape.
There are four major uses of random numbers:
(1) To protect against selective bias in the acquisition of information from sample
surveys and experiments. In these same contexts, random numbers provide a
known probability structure for statistical calculations.
(2) To gain insight, by simulation, into the behaviour of complex mechanisms or
models.
(3) To study theoretical properties of statistical procedures, such as efficiency of
estimation and power of statistical tests.
(4) To obtain approximate solutions to other mathematical problems.
(5) Random numbers are useful for a variety of purposes, such as generating data
encryption keys, simulating and modelling complex phenomena and for selecting
random samples from larger data sets. They have also been used aesthetically, for
example in literature and music, and are of course ever popular for games and
gambling.
(b) Data Collection

What is a Questionnaire?
A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or other types
of prompts that aims to collect information from a respondent. A research questionnaire
is typically a mix of close-ended questions and open-ended questions. Open-ended, long-
form questions offer the respondent the ability to elaborate on their thoughts. Research
questionnaires were developed in 1838 by the Statistical Society of London.
The data collected from a data collection questionnaire can be both qualitative as well as
quantitative in nature. A questionnaire may or may not be delivered in the form of a
survey, but a survey always consists of a questionnaire.

Questionnaire Examples
The best way to understand how questionnaires work is to see the types of questionnaires
available. Some examples of a questionnaire are:
1. Customer Satisfaction Questionnaire: This type of research can be used in any
situation where there’s an interaction between a customer and an organization. For
example, you might send a customer satisfaction survey after someone eats at your
restaurant. You can use the study to determine if your staff is offering excellent
customer service and a positive overall experience.

2. Product Use Satisfaction: You can use this template to better understand your
product’s usage trends and similar products. This also allows you to collect customer
preferences about the types of products they enjoy or want to see on the market.

3. Company Communications Evaluation: Unlike the other examples, a company

communications evaluation looks at internal and external communications. It can be
used to check if the policies of the organization are being enforced across the board,
both with employees and clients.
 Advantages of a good design
• With a survey questionnaire, you can gather a lot of data in less time.
• There is less chance of any bias creeping if you have a standard set of questions to be
used to your target audience. You can apply logic to questions based on the
respondents’ answers, but the questionnaire will remain standard for a group of
respondents that fall in the same segment.
• Surveying online survey software is quick and cost-effective. It offers you a rich set of
features to design, distribute, and analyze the response data.
• It can be customized to reflect your brand voice. Thus, it can be used to reinforce your
brand image.
• The responses can be compared with the historical data and understand the shift in
respondents’ choices and experiences.
• Respondents can answer the questionnaire without revealing their identity. Also,
many survey software complies with significant data security and privacy regulations.

Characteristics of a good questionnaire

Your survey design depends on the type of information you need to collect from respondents.
Qualitative questionnaires are used when there is a need to collect exploratory information
to help prove or disprove a hypothesis. Quantitative questionnaires are used to validate or
test a previously generated hypothesis. However, most questionnaires follow some essential
characteristics:
• Uniformity: Questionnaires are very useful to collect demographic information,
personal opinions, facts, or attitudes from respondents. One of the most significant
attributes of a research form is uniform design and standardization. Every respondent
sees the same questions. This helps in data collection and statistical analysis of this
data.
• Exploratory: It should be exploratory to collect qualitative data. There is no
restriction on questions that can be in your questionnaire. For example, you use a
data collection questionnaire and send it to the female of the household to
understand her spending and saving habits relative to the household income. Open-
ended questions give you more insight and allow the respondents to explain their
practices. A very structured question list could limit the data collection.

• Question Sequence: It typically follows a structured flow of questions to increase the

number of responses. This sequence of questions is screening questions, warm-up
questions, transition questions, skip questions, challenging questions, and
classification questions. For example, our motivation and buying experience
questionnaire template covers initial demographic questions and then asks for time
spent in sections of the store and the rationale behind purchases.
Types & Definitions
As we explored before, questionnaires can be either structured or free-flowing. Let’s take a
closer look at what that entails for your surveys.

Structured Questionnaires: Structured questionnaires collect quantitative data. The

questionnaire is planned and designed to gather precise information. It also initiates a formal
inquiry, supplements data, checks previously accumulated data, and helps validate any prior
hypothesis.
Unstructured Questionnaires: Unstructured questionnaires collect qualitative data. They use
a basic structure and some branching questions but nothing that limits the responses of a
respondent. The questions are more open-ended to collect specific data from participants.
Steps Involved in Questionnaire Design
1. Identify the scope of your research:
Think about what your questionnaire is going to include before you start designing the look
of it. The clarity of the topic is of utmost importance as this is the primary step in creating the
questionnaire. Once you are clear on the purpose of the questionnaire, you can begin the
design process.

2. Keep it simple:
The words or phrases you use while writing the questionnaire must be easy to understand. If
the questions are unclear, the respondents may simply choose any answer and skew the data
you collect.

3. Ask only one question at a time:

At times, a researcher may be tempted to add two similar questions. This might seem like an
excellent way to consolidate answers to related issues, but it can confuse your respondents
or lead to inaccurate data. If any of your questions contain the word “and,” take another look.
This question likely has two parts, which can affect the quality of your data.

4. Be flexible with your options:

While designing, the survey creator needs to be flexible in terms of “option choice” for the
respondents. Sometimes the respondents may not necessarily want to choose from the
answer options provided by the survey creator. An “other” option often helps keep
respondents engaged in the survey.

5. The open-ended or closed-ended question is a tough choice:

The survey creator might end up in a situation where they need to make distinct choices
between open or close-ended questions. The question type should be carefully chosen as it
defines the tone and importance of asking the question in the first place.

If the questionnaire requires the respondents to elaborate on their thoughts, an open-ended

question is the best choice. If the surveyor wants a specific response, then close-ended
questions should be their primary choice. The key to asking closed-ended questions is to
generate data that is easy to analyze and spot trends.
6. It is essential to know your audience:
A researcher should know their target audience. For example, if the target audience speaks
mostly Spanish, sending the questionnaire in any other language would lower the response
rate and accuracy of data. Something that may seem clear to you may be confusing to your
respondents. Use simple language and terminology that your respondents will understand,
and avoid technical jargon and industry-specific language that might confuse your
respondents.

For efficient market research, researchers need a representative sample collected using one
of the many sampling techniques, such as a sample questionnaire. It is imperative to plan and
define these target respondents based on the demographics required.
Observation Schedules - Observation research is a qualitative research technique where
researchers observe participants’ ongoing behaviour in a natural situation. Usually, it is an
analytical form, or coding sheet, filled out by researchers during structured observation.
It carefully specifies beforehand the categories of behaviours or events under scrutiny and
under what circumstances they should be assigned to those categories. Observations are
then fragmented, or coded, into these more manageable pieces of information, which are
later aggregated into usable, quantifiable data.
Procedure - Depending on the type of observation research and the goal of the study, the
researcher will have varying levels of participation in the study. Sometimes the researcher
will insert themselves into the environment, and other times, the researcher will not
intervene in the setting and observe from a distance or in a laboratory setting.
The purpose of this type of research is to gather more reliable insights. In other words,
researchers can capture data on what participants do as opposed to what they say they
do.

When should a researcher use observational research?

As a researcher, you have several different research methodologies at your disposal,
including surveys, interviews, observations, etc.
Using observational data is best when one of the following situations apply:
• You need to gather sensitive information, and you don’t trust your participants will be
honest with their self-reporting.
• You need to understand the how or what of a research question.
• The topic is new, and you need robust data to explain consumer behaviour.
• When behaviour in a natural setting is vital to your research question.
• When behaviour in a controlled setting is critical to your research question.
• If you are concerned that self-reported data about behaviours will differ from actual
actions, even if it’s unintentional.
• When you need more information about a specific research question to formulate a
more complete and accurate survey.
If any of these situations describe you or your current research state, then an
observational study may be just what you need.
TYPES OF OBSERVATION SCHEDULES:

1. Controlled Observation
Controlled observations are typically a structured observation that takes place in a psych
lab. The researcher has a question in mind and controls many of the variables, including
participants, observation location, time of the study, circumstances surrounding the
research, and more.
During this type of study, the researcher will often create codes that represent different
types of behaviours. That way, instead of writing a detailed report, they can classify
behaviour into different categories and analyse the data with more ease.

The advantages of controlled observation include:

• You can make an observation schedule for your sampling, and have other market
researchers use the same codes if they replicate the study. This helps test for
reliability.
• The coded data is easy to analyse and quantify.
• Controlled studies aren’t as time-consuming.
Disadvantages of a controlled observation include:
• It may be challenging to determine the validity of the study if participants know they
are being watched.

2. Naturalistic observation
Naturalistic observation is another type of observation research method used by market
researchers. This type of observation is when market researchers study the behaviours of
participants in a natural surrounding. There are typically no predetermined behavioural
codes. Instead, the researcher will take rigorous notes and code the data later.
Some advantages of naturalistic observation include:
• The study ensures validity when participants are in their natural setting.
• This type of study can generate new ideas and research questions.
• It opens researchers’ minds to possibilities they might not have considered before.
• Researchers can collect authentic data and avoid any potential problems with self-
reported data.
Disadvantages include:
• You can’t control different variables, making it difficult to replicate the study and test
for reliability.
• It may be challenging to conduct this type of study on a wide scale.
• You have to use skilled researchers, so you don’t risk missing critical behavioral data.
• You aren’t able to manipulate any variables.

3. Participant observation
The last type of observation method is participant observation. This is a type of naturalistic
observation in the fact that market researchers will observe participants in their natural
habitat. The difference is market researchers will insert themselves into the environment.

Some advantages of this type of observation include:

• You can control some of the variables by being part of the natural environment.
• You can still observe participants in their natural habitat, even if they know you are
part of the study.
• You can avoid incorrect self-reported data through this method of observation as well.

Disadvantages to this type of study to consider:

• It can be challenging to take notes openly without blowing your cover as the market
researcher.
• If you can’t take notes openly, you’ll have to rely on memory for note-taking, and
memory can be faulty.
• If a researcher becomes too involved in the study, they could become less objective.
This could threaten the validity of the study.
Each type of study will help you gather insight into how customers and participants
behave, but they also come with their own set of limitations.
Interviews - An interview is generally a qualitative research technique which involves
asking open-ended questions to converse with respondents and collect elicit data about
a subject. The interviewer in most cases is the subject matter expert who intends to
understand respondent opinions in a well-planned and executed series of questions and
answers. Interviews are similar to focus groups and surveys when it comes to garnering
information from the target market but are entirely different in their operation – focus
groups are restricted to a small group of 6-10 individuals whereas surveys are quantitative
in nature. Interviews are conducted with a sample from a population and the key
characteristic they exhibit is their conversational tone.
Fundamental Types of Interviews in Research
A researcher has to conduct interviews with a group of participants at a juncture in the
research where information can only be obtained by meeting and personally connecting
with a section of their target audience. Interviews offer the researchers with a platform
to prompt their participants and obtain inputs in the desired detail. There are three
fundamental types of interviews in research:
• Structured Interviews:
Structured interviews are defined as research tools that are extremely rigid in their
operations are allows very little or no scope of prompting the participants to obtain and
analyze results. It is thus also known as a standardized interview and is
significantly quantitative in its approach. Questions in this interview are pre-decided
according to the required detail of information.
Structured interviews are excessively used in survey research with the intention of
maintaining uniformity throughout all the interview sessions.
They can be closed-ended as well as open-ended – according to the type of target
population. Closed-ended questions can be included to understand user preferences from
a collection of answer options whereas open-ended can be included to gain details about
a particular section in the interview.
Advantages of structured interviews:
• Structured interviews focus on the accuracy of different responses due to which
extremely organized data can be collected. Different respondents have different type
of answers to the same structure of questions – answers obtained can be collectively
analyzed.
• They can be used to get in touch with a large sample of the target population.
• The interview procedure is made easy due to the standardization offered by
structured interviews.
• Replication across multiple samples becomes easy due to the same structure of
interview.
• As the scope of detail is already considered while designing the interview, better
information can be obtained and the researcher can analyze the research problem in
a comprehensive manner by asking accurate research questions.
• Since the structure of the interview is fixed, it often generates reliable results and is
quick to execute.
• The relationship between the researcher and the respondent is not formal due to
which the researcher can clearly understand the margin of error in case the
respondent either degrees to be a part of the survey or is just not interested in
providing the right information.
Disadvantages of structured interviews:
• Limited scope of assessment of obtained results.
• The accuracy of information overpowers the detail of information.
• Respondents are forced to select from the provided answer options.
• The researcher is expected to always adhere to the list of decided questions
irrespective of how interesting the conversation is turning out to be with the
participants.
• A significant amount of time is required for a structured interview.

• Semi-Structured Interviews:
Semi-structured interviews offer a considerable amount of leeway to the researcher to
probe the respondents along with maintaining basic interview structure. Even if it is a
guided conversation between researchers and interviewees – an appreciable flexibility is
offered to the researchers. A researcher can be assured that multiple interview rounds
will not be required in the presence of structure in this type of research interview.
Keeping the structure in mind, the researcher can follow any idea or take creative
advantage of the entire interview. Additional respondent probing is always necessary to
garner information for a research study. The best application of semi-structured interview
is when the researcher doesn’t have time to conduct research and requires detailed
information about the topic.
Advantages of semi-structured interviews:
• Questions of semi-structured interviews are prepared before the scheduled interview
which provides the researcher with time to prepare and analyze the questions.
• It is flexible to an extent while maintaining the research guidelines.
• Researchers can express the interview questions in the format they prefer, unlike the
structured interview.
• Reliable qualitative data can be collected via these interviews.
• Flexible structure of the interview.
Learn more: Quantitative Data
Disadvantages of semi-structured interviews:

• Participants may question the reliability factor of these interviews due to the
flexibility offered.
• Comparing two different answers becomes difficult as the guideline for
conducting interviews is not entirely followed. No two questions will have the
exact same structure and the result will be an inability to compare are infer
results.
• Unstructured Interviews:
Also called as in-depth interviews, unstructured interviews are usually described as
conversations held with a purpose in mind – to gather data about the research study.
These interviews have the least number of questions as they lean more towards a normal
conversation but with an underlying subject.
The main objective of most researchers using unstructured interviews is to build a bond
with the respondents due to which there are high chances that the respondents will be
100% truthful with their answers. There are no guidelines for the researchers to follow
and so, they can approach the participants in any ethical manner to gain as much
information as they possibly can for their research topic.
Since there are no guidelines for these interviews, a researcher is expected to keep their
approach in check so that the respondents do not sway away from the main research
motive. For a researcher to obtain the desired outcome, he/she must keep the following
factors in mind:
• Intent of the interview.
• The interview should primarily take into consideration the participant’s interest and
skills.
• All the conversations should be conducted within permissible limits of research and
the researcher should try and stick by these limits.
• The skills and knowledge of the researcher should match the purpose of the interview.
• Researchers should understand the do’s and don’ts of unstructured interviews.
Advantages of Unstructured Interviews:
• Due to the informal nature of unstructured interviews – it becomes extremely easy
for researchers to try and develop a friendly rapport with the participants. This leads
to gaining insights in extreme detail without much conscious effort.
• The participants can clarify all their doubts about the questions and the researcher
can take each opportunity to explain his/her intention for better answers.
• There are no questions which the researcher has to abide by and this usually increases
the flexibility of the entire research process.
Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews:
• As there is no structure to the interview process, researchers take time to execute
these interviews.
• The absence of a standardized set of questions and guidelines indicates that the
reliability of unstructured interviews is questionable.
• In many cases, the ethics involved in these interviews are considered borderline
upsetting.

Methods of Research Interviews:

There are three methods to conduct research interviews, each of which is peculiar in its
application and can be used according to the research study requirement.
Personal Interviews:
Personal interviews are one of the most used types of interviews, where the questions
are asked personally directly to the respondent. For this, a researcher can have a guide
online surveys to take note of the answers. A researcher can design his/her survey in such
a way that they take notes of the comments or points of view that stands out from the
interviewee.
Advantage:
• Higher response rate.
• When the interviewees and respondents are face-to-face, there is a way to adapt the
questions if this is not understood.
• More complete answers can be obtained if there is doubt on both sides or a particular
information is detected that is remarkable.
• The researcher has an opportunity to detect and analyze the interviewee’s body
language at the time of asking the questions and taking notes about it.
Disadvantages:
• They are time-consuming and extremely expensive.
• They can generate distrust on the part of the interviewee, since they may be self-
conscious and not answer truthfully.
• Contacting the interviewees can be a real headache, either scheduling an appointment
in workplaces or going from house to house and not finding anyone.
• Therefore, many interviews are conducted in public places, such as shopping centers
or parks. There are even consumer studies that take advantage of these sites to
conduct interviews or surveys and give incentives, gifts, coupons, in short; There are
great opportunities for online research in shopping centers.
• Among the advantages of conducting these types of interviews is that the respondents
will have more fresh information if the interview is conducted in the context and with
the appropriate stimuli, so that researchers can have data from their experience at
the scene of the events, immediately and first hand. The interviewer can use an online
survey through a mobile device that will undoubtedly facilitate the entire process.
Telephonic Interviews:
Telephonic interviews are widely used and easy to combine with online surveys to carry
out research effectively.
Advantages:
• To find the interviewees it is enough to have their telephone numbers on hand.
• They are usually lower cost.
• The information is collected quickly.
• Having a personal contact can also clarify doubts, or give more details of the questions.
Disadvantages:
• Many times researchers observe that people do not answer phone calls because it is
an unknown number for the respondent, or simply already changed their place of
residence and they cannot locate it, which causes a bias in the interview.
• Researchers also face that they simply do not want to answer and resort to pretexts
such as they are busy to answer, they are sick, they do not have the authority to
answer the questions asked, they have no interest in answering or they are afraid of
putting their security at risk.
• One of the aspects that should be taken care of in these types of interviews is the
kindness with which the interviewers address the respondents, in order to get them
to cooperate more easily with their answers. Good communication is vital for the
generation of better answers.
Email or Web Page Interviews:
Online research is growing more and more because consumers are migrating to a more
virtual world and it is best for each researcher to adapt to this change.
The increase in people with Internet access has made it popular that interviews via email
or web page stand out among the types of interviews most used today. For this nothing
better than an online survey.
More and more consumers are turning to online shopping, which is why they are a great
niche to be able to carry out an interview that will generate information for the correct
decision making.
Advantages of email surveys:
• Speed in obtaining data
• The respondents respond according to their time, at the time they want and in the
place they decide.
• Online surveys can be mixed with other research methods or using some of the
previous interview models. They are tools that can perfectly complement and pay for
the project.
• A researcher can use a variety of questions, logics, create graphs
and reports immediately.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Measures of Central Tendency is a critical decision making
criteria for several elements in Six Sigma.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Measures of Central Tendency
Trimmed Mean

Advantages
A trimmed mean is obviously less susceptible to the effects of extreme scores than is the
arithmetic mean. It is therefore less susceptible to sampling fluctuation than the mean for
extremely skewed distributions.
Eg. Trimmed means are often used in Olympic scoring to minimize the effects of extreme
ratings possibly caused by biased judges.

Disadvantages
It is less efficient than the mean for normal distributions.
Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is a statistic that looks at how far from the mean a group of numbers
is, by using the square root of the variance. The calculation of variance uses squares
because it weighs outliers more heavily than data closer to the mean. This calculation also
prevents differences above the mean from canceling out those below, which would result
in a variance of zero.

Standard deviation is calculated as the square root of variance by figuring out the variation
between each data point relative to the mean. If the points are further from the mean,
there is a higher deviation within the date; if they are closer to the mean, there is a lower
deviation. So the more spread out the group of numbers are, the higher the standard
deviation.

Variance
The variance is the average of the squared differences from the mean. To figure out the
variance, first calculate the difference between each point and the mean; then, square
and average the results.

For example, if a group of numbers ranges from 1 to 10, it will have a mean of 5.5. If you
square the differences between each number and the mean, and then find their sum, the
result is 82.5. To figure out the variance, divide the sum, 82.5, by N-1, which is the sample
size (in this case 10) minus 1. The result is a variance of 82.5/9 = 9.17. Standard deviation
is the square root of the variance so that the standard deviation would be about 3.03.

Because of this squaring, the variance is no longer in the same unit of measurement as
the original data. Taking the root of the variance means the standard deviation is restored
to the original unit of measure and therefore much easier to interpret.