Philosophy and History

of Environmental Education 2

The concept of history plays a fundamental role in human thought. It invokes notions of
human agency, change, the role of material circumstances in human affairs, and the
putative meaning of historical events. It raises the possibility of “learning from history.”
And it suggests the possibility of better understanding ourselves in the present, by
understanding the forces, choices, and circumstances that brought us to our current
situation.
Daniel Little, Philosophy of History, 2020.

Abstract managed the planet’s natural resources by storing

and cultivating vegetables (crops) and raising
In the first chapter, we discussed the definition of livestock.
environmental education. In Chap. 2, we discuss China’s environmental education can be traced
environmental education based on the pragmatic back 2,500 years to Sima Qian (司馬遷) of the
view of environmental protection. This view is Western Han Dynasty (145–86 BC), the Records
that the interpretation of the living environment of the Grand Historian (Shiji)《史記》 is
is complicated, but because the process of described. In the Five Emperors’ Records, it was
human reasoning it is finite in nature. Our recorded that during the reign of Emperor Shun
actions should be rooted in our past history, (舜), the position/role of a Yu (虞) officer was
philosophy, and experience in environmental created to take charge of the protection of
protection that may allow improvement of our mountains, forests, rivers, plants, birds, and ani-
physical environment. The essential part of this mals. In the Book of Yi Zhou (Lost Book of
process is the ability to recognize the compo- Zhou) 《逸周書》, it was recorded that Yu the
nents of our ecosystems that can be managed and Great (禹)(c. 2123–2025 BC) ordered the fol-
when adaptation is the only option or survival. lowing regulations or methods to manage the
natural resources:
During spring, do not hack trees with an axe in the
2.1 Philosophy of Environmental mountainous areas, so that you can see vegetation
Protection growing up. During summer, do not catch fish with
fishing nets in rivers and swamps, and you can see
fish and turtles growing up.
The philosophy of environmental protection has
a long history and possesses characteristics of He established protocols that prohibited log-
Eastern and Western philosophy. In the early ging in the spring and fishing during the summer.
days of agrarian-based cultures, we used and By the Zhou Dynasty, local officials were given

© The Author(s) 2023 25

W.-T. Fang et al., The Living Environmental Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4234-1_2
26 2 Philosophy and History of Environmental Education

the responsibility of protecting the mountains, data. Aristotle believed that there are key and
rivers, forests, and swamps, which further minor differences in the elements that comprise
strengthened the protocols in place to protect an ecosystem. A contemporary view of these
these natural resources. The use of the environ- concepts is that they are the keystone and foun-
ment and its resources by the Chinese emperors dation species and ecosystem engineers; concepts
has generally been pragmatic. Although the laws where an organism defines the entire ecosystem
and regulations that were established were not and without that species the ecosystem would
originally intended to protect the environment, probably not exist (Soga and Gaston 2016;
these people had inadvertently established the Gaston and Soga 2020). Once a key element is
concept and practice of environmental sustain- lost or changed, it causes the overall ecosystem
ability and inspired future generations to take to change, although the disappearance of a minor
note and adopt the environmental practices of part will not affect the integrity of the ecosystem.
other or previous cultures. For example, Mencius For example, Aristotle believed that rats cause
(孟子)(372–289 BC) said: ecological harm. Therefore, it was necessary to
Without delaying the time for the people to culti- rely on the power of nature, such as the creator to
vate, the grains will be much to eat. If you can go create natural enemies for these rodents to reduce
to the pond without utilizing a fine fishing net, you their impact to ecosystems and people.
can eat many fish. If you can go to the forest to cut In the Middle Ages, Europe was similar to
at the right time, then you cannot run out of wood.
There are many grains and fish to eat, as well as ancient China because of the influence of reli-
much wood to use to be satisfied by human lives. gion. Through forest regulations and/or hunting
laws, hunting was prohibited at specific times.
From the perspective of eastern philosophy, Some areas were designated as sacred sites for
the consciousness of environmental protection is geographical or religious reasons and were pro-
based on the richness of realist products and does tected from being used for anything but ecolog-
not resort to the conservation factors of envi- ical purposes. In medieval Japan, strict laws
ronmental ethics. banned the cutting trees or harvesting of forest
products. In the Americas, the traditional Indian
belief is that there is a spiritual relationship
2.1.1 Theory of Ideas and Empiricism between humans and prey. Such a relationship
will restrict their hunting behavior and the people
In the fifth century BC, ancient Greek philoso- will not excessively hunt wild animals.
phers believed that nature was a growing and
changing organism. Plato (429–347 BC) put
forward a holistic view of nature (Table 2.1). 2.1.2 Transcendence and Efficiency
In Ennead, Plotinus described Plato’s theory of
ideas as: the universe as a whole. Plato believed In modern times, due to the natural view of
that in natural ecosystems, there is a mutual Christianity, humanitarian thought and the natu-
relationship between the biotic and abiotic com- ral view of romanticism, there has been an en-
ponents of ecosystems. For example, every vironmental awareness was incorporated into the
creature designed by the creator in nature has a belief that the creator has given the environment
special niche in nature. If one species disappears, and its resources to mankind trust nature.
it can then cause discord in the system. This consciousness is not new, because
According to Plato, what can be seen by human humans have long used the natural environment,
senses is not real, but rather a form and projec- but protecting the environment and its resources
tion of perfect rationality. Aristotle (384–322 seems difficult. As a result, people with lofty
BC) opposed the theory of ideas. He used ex- ideals are worried about the gradual destruction
perience to define the world, tried to observe of the environment and the natural resource
nature, and collected huge amounts of biological protection thoughts that result. This idea of
2.1 Philosophy of Environmental Protection 27

Table 2.1 Western environmental philosophy

Time Scholars Theory Overview
Fifth Plato, 429–347 Rationalism In Ennead, Plato portrays the universe as a whole
century BC
BC
Fourth Aristotle, 384–322 Empiricism Aristotle believes that there are critical and secondary
century BC differences in ecosystems. Once the criticality is lost, it will
BC cause changes in the overall ecosystem
1836 Ralph Waldo Transcendence Emerson published Nature, which emphasizes the direct
Emerson, 1803– communication between man and God, and explores divinity in
1882 human nature
1903 Gifford Pinchot, Efficiency Pinchot advocates ecological best interests and is considered a
1865–1946 theory realist
1949 Aldo Leopold, Preservation Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac advocates the need for
1887–1948 theory resource conservation and habitat preservation
1972 James Lovelock, Vitalism Lovelock proposed the Gaia hypothesis that the earth’s
1919– biosphere, including the inanimate environment and living
things, constitutes a self-regulating function
1973 Arne Næss, 1912– Fundamentalism Gaia’s hypothesis influenced the deep ecology advocated by
2009 Næss. Deep ecology advocates environmental philosophy and
is committed to changing current economic policies and natural
values
2009 Peter Ward, 1949– Killing theory Ward proposed the Medea Hypothesis, saying that in the
process of self-evolution, the earth has not achieved the
optimization of the earth, is conducive to life, has not formed a
steady-state mechanism, and even caused the phenomenon of
killing living things

conservation has gradually become the main- preservation included Emerson, Thoreau (Thoreau
stream human approach to environmental pro- 1927, 1990), and Muir (John Muir, 1838–1914). In
tection (Marsden 1997). addition, Gifford Pinchot (1865–1946) advocated
In the nineteenth century the concept of natural for resource conservation (Pinchot 1903).
resource conservation came into being in the United Emerson and Thoreau, advocated for wilder-
States. However, after Westerners entered the New ness conservation and were elite intellectuals in
World as conquerors, wilderness preservation and the New England region. They embraced the New
resource conservation became issues in nature England Puritans’ mission and are full of the ideal
conservation because wilderness preservation and character for the protection of wilderness ecol-
resource conservation were not a priority. In 1836, ogy. Pinchot, who advocated for the conservation
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) published of natural resources, conducted material man-
Nature to emphasize the direct communication agement in a wise use manner. He promoted the
between man and God with Transcendentalism and study of conservation biology, applied ecology,
explored the divinity in human nature. Henry David public economics, conservation, and utilization,
Thoreau (1817–1862) published Walden; or, Life in renewable resources were achieved to the highest
the Woods in 1854, Marsh’s Man and Nature, were yield on a sustainable basis.
published by George Perkins (1862–1920) in 1864. However, Pinchot’s idea of sustainability
Through these books, one can see the dialogue or mirrored that of the fourth century Chinese
relationship between nature and man from the point Confucian philosopher, Mencius (孟子) (372–
of view of a nineteenth century naturalist. Among 289 BC), who said:
them, scholars who advocated for wilderness
28 2 Philosophy and History of Environmental Education

Without delaying the time for the people to culti- pursuing an affluent life was appropriate at the
vate, the grains will be much to eat. If you can go expense of the environment? This thinking laid
to the pond without utilizing a fine fishing net, you
can eat a lot of fish. If you can go to the forest to the foundation for environmental awakening and
cut at the right time, then you cannot run out of reconciliation. By 1970, the American people
wood. There are many grains and fish to eat, as were fighting for civil rights, and with the Viet-
well as much wood to use to be satisfied by human nam and Cold Wars, people began to worry
lives; There is no regret for health and wellbeing,
and the beginning of the art of ruling as a king. about the effects of radiation, chemical disasters,
air pollution, and radiation pollution, and the
The principle of profit distribution seeks the general public was exposed to environmentalism.
greatest benefit for the largest number of people As a result, enthusiastic citizens began to sup-
within the longest period (Pinchot 1903). Pinchot port, promote, and participate in environmental
was considered a realist because he advocated for education. On April 22, 1970, Earth Day laun-
ecology’s best interests based on the anthro- ched in the United States opened a new milestone
pocentrism’s enlightened selfishness. The point for the modern environmental education
to be made here is that even during the industrial movement.
revolution and humanity’s rise to power, a subset In 1971, the National Environmental Educa-
of individuals had not forgotten how dependent tion Association was established. It is now
humanity had become on nature and known as the North American Association for
protecting/preserving these resources were in the Environmental Education (NAAEE), hoped to
best interests of the survival of the living world, provide teachers with sufficient teaching resour-
including our species. ces to improve students’ environmental literacy.
As one of the key roles for an Executive Director
at NAAEE’s Board, Judy Braus also served as
2.1.3 Preservation Theory many roles as possible to guide ee360 Partner
and eeBLUE programs for NAAEE. She tried to
In the early twentieth century, John Muir (1838– create healthier communities that empower local
1914), Enos Mills (1870–1922), Robert Marshall communities, stakeholders, and individuals to
(1901–1939), and Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) restore and protect their environment in the
advocated for the need for resource protection world.
and habitat preservation, instead of focusing on
environmental quality, environmental awareness,
and environmental literacy through their publi- 2.1.4 Vitality Theory and Killing
cations, public lectures, and appearances (Leo- Theory
pold 1933, 1949; Gottlieb 1995).
Leopold died in 1948 because of a heart attack In 1972, ecologist James Lovelock (1919–) de-
while fighting a fire on a neighbor’s farm. After veloped the Gaia hypothesis (Lovelock 1972).
his death, the publication of Leopold’s posthu- Gaia is the goddess of the earth in Greek
mous work A Sand County Almanac in 1949 mythology and Lovelock believed that the Earth’s
caused a sensation in the book market and his biosphere, including the biotic and abiotic com-
work remains a cornerstone of the American ponents constitute a new property of self-
environmental movement and modern environ- regulation (emergent property). Biologist Lynn
mental thinking. He questions the mainstream Margulis (1938–2011) supports this hypothesis
value of pursuing an affluent life at the expense that this synergistic and self-regulating function
of the environment (Leopold 1949). This think- helps maintain living conditions and ecosystems
ing laid the foundation for environmental awak- on Earth. Lovelock said:
ening and movements in the 1970s. He Gaia is not an organism, but an emergent property
questioned whether the mainstream value of of interaction among organisms.
2.1 Philosophy of Environmental Protection 29

The Gaia hypothesis was an inspiration for This means that during the evolution of life and
animistic religious scholars and environmental- the environment, there is a connection between
ists. Towards the twenty-first century, human the biological, geophysical, and chemical envi-
needed a strong philosophical sense of environ- ronments (Tyrrell 2013).
mental protection. Many scholars of ecological
philosophy and environmental education have
accepted this hypothesis to some extent. As a 2.1.5 Deep Ecology
result, the Gaia hypothesis peaked in the 1990s
as major environmental issues were being rec- Arne Næss (1912–2009), a proponent of deep
ognized such as acid rain and polychlorinated ecology, advocates environmental philosophies
biphenyl (PCBs) and the public wanted solutions that embrace the intrinsic value of living things
that the scientific community was not able to and reject what Banjo calls the ecosystem’s
provide. To put forth the idea that the planet instrumental value to humans (Pinchot 1903).
would heal itself in time bought the scientific Deep ecology is the balanced relationship
community much needed time to study these between the earth’s evolution of biotic and abi-
problems more deeply and develop policy to otic processes. He believed that nature is based
minimize the damage these issues had caused. on complex and delicately balanced relation-
The topics discussed by scientists included on ships. Therefore, human interference in nature
how the co-evolution of the biosphere and not only affects human survival, but also poses a
organisms affected the stability of global tem- threat to all living things. The Gaia hypothesis is
peratures. Ocean precipitation and rocks release an explanation of deep ecology.
salt, how to maintain the salinity of seawater. Deep ecology transcends the nature of biology
Plants absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide and uses a social conceptual framework and de-
(CO2), how to maintain the oxygen content in the nies human-centered environmentalism through
atmosphere, and the circulation hydrosphere the exploration of human morals, values, and
formed by the ocean, freshwater, and groundwa- philosophical perspectives. As a result, deep
ter on the earth’s surface, and how it affects the ecology strengthens the theoretical foundations
livable environment of the earth. However, biol- of the environment, ecology, and green move-
ogists have criticized life and the environment for ments, advocating wilderness conservation,
development in a coupled way; they have even population control, and simplicity in life (Næss
criticized the Gaia hypothesis as wishful thinking 1973, 1985a, b, 1989). From this philosophical
of human beings (Kirchner 2002). point of view of environmental protection is in of
In 2009, paleontologist Peter Ward (1949–) itself a process within which individuals and
proposed the Medea hypothesis (Fig. 1.10). society recognize the environment in which they
Medea, a witch in Greek mythology, killed her live and the interaction between the biological,
child. Ward listed that throughout geologic time, physical, and social and cultural components that
the Earth’ atmosphere was devoid of oxygen and comprise the environment. Individual or collec-
at times was composed of methane and hydrogen tive knowledge, skills and values may be able to
sulfide, both of which are toxic to life and address present and future environmental issues
induced extinction. The impact of this biocidal (Fig. 2.1).
phenomenon is directly opposite to the Gaia Environmental conservation must not stop at
hypothesis (Ward 2009). Therefore, in the pro- the biological species level. It needs to consider
cess of self-evolution, the earth has not reached genetics, ecology, and cultural landscapes. The
Earth optimal, nor has it been favored for life, or most basic level the educational process of en-
formed a homeostatic mechanism. vironmental protection, includes value clarifica-
Earth system scientist Tyrrell believes that the tion, knowledge, attitude and skills, and problem
earth can be said at the best to form the process solving. The philosophy of these elements also
of Gaia-Co-evolutionary and Influence Gaia. needs to be considered to lay the foundation for
30 2 Philosophy and History of Environmental Education

Fig. 2.1 Ward’s (2009) Medea hypothesis illustrates that and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas, which induced mass
throughout geological time the Earth’s atmosphere was extinctions at times (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)
once reducing and consisted of poisoning methane (CH4)

the conservation of basic biodiversity and a Deep versus Shallow Ecology (Næss 1985b). The
model of land ethics. Therefore, the foundation Deep Ecological Movement: Some Philosophical
of environmental protection lies in the imple- Aspects (Næss 1986), Self-Realization: An Eco-
mentation of environmental education that builds logical Approach to Being in the World (Næss
an appropriate foundation in environmental lit- 1987). These papers have had an impact on the
eracy. Therefore, environmental education needs environmental and ecological movements of the
to provide students with the correct environ- twenty-first century.
mental knowledge that is based on sound science The concept of deep ecology has been com-
and to develop attitudes and values towards the bined with environmental movements such as:
environment that cultivate student awareness of ecofeminism, social ecology, and bioregional-
the surrounding environment, accountability for ism. However, the environmental problems
their actions, and take to take actions to solve caused by human beings are increasing
environmental problems (Fig. 2.2). (Fig. 2.3). The net weight of materials and fuels
The United Nations adopted five conservation used by humans had increased by 800% in the
principles of the World Charter for Nature in twentieth century. In addition, the amount of
1982 to guide and judge human behavior that waste returned to the environment has increased
affects nature. The Charter states: substantially as biomass and pollution. By 2023,
Mankind is a part of nature and life depends on the the global population will exceed 8 billion. By
uninterrupted functioning of the natural system 2050, global population is estimated to reach to
that provides living organisms with a supply of 9.7 billion people, and could peak at nearly 11
energy and nutrients.” Civilization is rooted in billion around 2100 (United Nations Department
nature, which has shaped human culture and
influenced all artistic and scientific achievements. of Economic and Social Affairs 2019). How can
Living in harmony with nature gives humanity the we limit economic development, protect the en-
best opportunities for the development of creativ- vironment, and human health and reconcile these
ity, rest, and recreation. elements so that they function in harmony with
Between 1985 and 1987, Næss published a one another without exceeding earth’s carrying
series of book chapters on deep ecology, vocif- capacity have become core themes in environ-
erously calling for changes in human lifestyles mental development and sustainable growth
such as: Identification as a Source of Deep (Victor 2010)? Coronary artery disease and
Ecological Attitudes (Næss 1985a), Ecosophy T: strokes caused by excessive or poor nutrition
2.1 Philosophy of Environmental Protection 31

Fig. 2.2 Environmental education needs to provide actions to solve environmental problems (National
students with environmental knowledge that is based on Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art, Seoul,
sound science, accountability, and takes environmental Republic of Korea, 2018) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

Fig. 2.3 Human development exceeds the limits of earth’s carrying capacity, becoming a core theme for environmental
development and sustainable growth (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)
32 2 Philosophy and History of Environmental Education

account for 32% of all global deaths in 2019 They would bathe in the river, follow the airs of
(World Health Organization 2021) and ranks first the rain dance, and return home singing, after
in human mortalities whereas deaths due to air sharing in a sacrificial meal in the late spring (Ching
pollution, i.e., exposure to ambient particulate 1997). When Confucius heard this, he heaved a
matter pollution (APMP), such as respiratory long sigh at the time and said: I am with Dian!
infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary dis- Confucius’ social values for learning in the
ease, and lung, tracheal, and bronchial cancers, environment reflect the rich learning process of
account for 11.65% of the deaths globally in outdoor activities (Fig. 2.4). The historical
2019 (Ritchie and Roser 2021). The side effects changes of these education courses not only
of economic growth and development come with reflect the history of environmental education,
environmental and human costs. For example, but also the knowledge, beliefs, skills, values,
deaths due to Covid-19 are expected to reach and cultural heritage of the environment that
6.24 million by April 28th, 2022 (Statista, scholars experienced.
Worldometer 2022). Unfortunately, Covid-19 is
probably a prelude to future pandemics that may
occur and we’re not prepared to manage these
types of problems in systematic and efficient
means.

2.2 History of Environmental

Education

2.2.1 Early Era of Environmental

Education

When or should environmental education be

defined and from what point of view? Can the
history of environmental education be defined
only after the definition was created and what
does the definition encompass in scope? If we
define environmental education in terms of the
history of education, then we need to clarify or
identify when and where humankind has evolved
from a systematic teaching and learning process.
From the transformation course of human civi-
lization, the eastern and western academies have
been singing about the natural environment—
The Analects of Confucius《論語》, once talked
about the dialogue between Master Kong (Con-
fucius)(孔子) (551–479 BC) and his students,
including Zeng Dian (曾點). Zeng Dian said:
In the late spring, after the spring clothes have Fig. 2.4 Confucius loves outdoor education, and he
been newly made, I would like, in the company of preferred his student’s behaviors that: In the late spring,
five or six young men and six or seven children, to after the spring clothes have been newly made, I would
cleanse ourselves in the Yi River, to revel in the like, in the company of five or six young men and six or
cool breezes at the Altar for Rain, and then return seven children, to cleanse ourselves in the Yi River (Photo
home singing (Ni 2002: 133). by Wei-Ta Fang)
2.2 History of Environmental Education 33

As such, we should expand the horizon of definition of an experience that has been assessed
environmental education and promote the differently based on the time, place, and philos-
awakening of human culture because the envi- ophy. This is because human beings impart en-
ronment is us and we are the environment vironmental values, environmental research
(Figs. 2.5 and 2.6). The study of environmental methods, and skills to survive in the environment
education is currently based on the perspective of to the next generation, not only based on the
material, institutional, and spiritual cultures. theoretical teaching of teachers, but also
Therefore, while we admire the liveliness and emphasize the observation and learning of stu-
prestige of Confucius’ teachings and philosophy, dents themselves (2.7).
it is difficult to discuss when environmental ed- The learning results produced by these
ucation began because we really can’t narrowly teaching models are probably not similar to the
regulate or define what is considered environ- teaching models used today because each person
mental education. These self-limiting frame- learns and processes information differently. In
works are all based on what scholars believed in addition, to being inspired by a teacher, the
the professional field of the self, because society knowledge and skills each student possesses and
is more psychological, and rejects the ideology of the reason for learning these data are different. As
other academic schools to represent the main- such, environmental protection technologies and
stream of scholars in their own education field or professional attainment are different.
institution. That is, the definition of environ- The Indian Buddha Śākyamuni (566–486 BC)
mental education is not only spatially and tem- held up a white flower without a word in his
porally controlled, but social norms and values teaching. The other disciples were at a loss
play a substantial role. The definition of envi- because no one in the audience understands the
ronmental education is/or should no longer be Flower Sermon. Only His Holiness Mahākā-
based on the identification, understanding, and śyapa (550–549 BC) and the Buddha was

Fig. 2.5 The environment is us and we are the environment (Model by Laura Chung; Photo by Max Horng)
34 2 Philosophy and History of Environmental Education

Fig. 2.6 We should expand the horizon of environmental education and promote the awakening of human culture
(Qixing Mountain, Yangminshan National Park, Taipei, Taiwan) (Photo by Max Horng)

indulged in heart and smile with the silence of The philosopher Michael Polanyi (1891–
Zen. Han Yu (韓愈)(768–824) of the Tang 1976) proposed tacit knowledge in 1958 (Polanyi
Dynasty once said in his article Master Disciples 1958, 1966). He said: I shall reconsider human
《師說》: knowledge by starting from the fact that we can
A disciple does not need to be inferior to his tea- know more than we can tell. Environmental ed-
cher, nor does a teacher necessarily need to be ucation goes beyond the inner perception of The
more virtuous and talented than his student. heart of fools is in their mouth, but the tongue of
the wise is in their heart. If the knowledge of
He also said:
environmental education cannot be taught
The real fact is that one might have learned the through the book descriptions, then we will dis-
doctrine earlier than the other, or might be a master
in his own special field.
cuss it through the history of environmental ed-
ucation, the ideas and methods of environmental
In the historical development of environmen- education, and the development process records
tal education for our special field, we can see of environmental action. Through indwelling,
examples similar to those realized by the Flower reorienting, and recognizing we will know the
Sermon. This is a kind of tacit knowledge, that is, stories. Perhaps these stories have happened
looking outside the scene, looking inside the before environmental education has been
heart, and we shall find between the sensation of defined. However, for us, they are all important
touch and the idea of extension is inexplicable stories. We discuss the history of environmental
reflected on our perception. education since the eighteenth century.
2.2 History of Environmental Education 35

Fig. 2.7 The definition of environmental education is not only spatially and temporally controlled, but social norms
and values play a substantial role (Shesan, Taiwan) (Photo by Max Horng)

2.2.2 Environmental Education pioneered the ideological tradition of naturalistic

in the Eighteenth education and further influenced later generations
and Nineteenth Centuries of thinkers like Immanuel Kant (1724–1804),
Johann Pestalozzi (1744 –1827), Friedrich
The roots of contemporary environmental educa- Fröebel (1782–1852), John Dewey (1859–1952),
tion can be traced back to the eighteenth century. At and Maria Montessori (1870–1952).
the time, the novel Émile, written by Jean-Jacques In the early nineteenth century, Pestalozzi, the
Rousseau (1712–1778), emphasized the philo- father of civilian education in Europe, set up a
sophical argument of civic education and empha- school for the poor in Switzerland at his own
sized the concern that children’s natural education expense. He used observation to conduct nature
was important (Rousseau and Bloom 1979). He education. Pestalozzi talked about first-level
proposed three types of education in the book, observations, perceptual activities, telling, and
arguing that educators need to teach according to then advanced learning with measurement,
the natural nature of human beings. The connota- drawing, writing, numbers, and calculations.
tion of education includes natural education, things Friedrich Fröbel (1782–1852) founded the first
education, and human education. kindergarten or the children’s garden at
Rousseau’s educational thought was influ- Blankenburg, Thuringia, Germany in 1837. It
enced by people, like Plato, Michel de Mon- used games and manual labor to promote gar-
taigne (1533–1592), John Locke (1632–1704), dening activities in the flowerbeds, vegetable
and others. However, he was believed to have gardens, and orchards. By 1907, Maria
36 2 Philosophy and History of Environmental Education

Montessori (1870–1952) opened the Casa dei rigorous scientific training, not the philosophical
Bambini in her home in Rome. She designed her study of natural history. Conservation education
school in a prepared environment based on hu- forms an important scientific management and
man tendencies called Land-based education. planning tool, which helps to solve contemporary
Montessori Education used tailor-made education social, economic, and environmental problems.
methods to teach students at different stages and A Scottish geologist, Sir Archibald Geikie
with different personalities. At the university (1835–1924), believed that human beings could
level, Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz (1807– learn endless knowledge from the natural envi-
1873) responded to Rousseau’s philosophy ronment, so he included love of nature as an
because he encouraged students to learn about educational goal (Marsden 1997: 11–12). Later,
nature, not books. In 1847, Agassi applied to Sir Scott Patrick Geddes (1854–1933), a Scottish
Harvard University as a professor of zoology and botanist, promoted the study of civic areas, criti-
geology, and founded the Harvard Museum of cally sought to improve the actual living envi-
Comparative Zoology. Agassiz believed in ex- ronment, and carried out local town research
perimental knowledge, not knowledge in worth- courses.
less books.

2.2.3 Environmental Education 2.2.4 Environmental Education After

in the Early Twentieth the Middle
Century of the Twentieth Century
and in the Early Twenty-
Western scholars promoted natural studies First Century
around 1890, and began to lead students in nat-
ural studies in the early twentieth century. The At the end of World War II outdoor education
Cornell University’s professor of natural studies, was introduced in the 1950s. The 1960s gave
Anna Botsford Comstock (1854–1930) was an birth to the modern environmental movement. To
outstanding figure in the natural research move- protect the environment, the US has established
ment. She authored the Handbook of Nature many international conservation organizations,
Study in 1911 and said: The object of the nature such as the International Union for Conservation
study teacher should be to cultivate a child’s of Nature (IUCN). The first Secretary-General of
power of accurate observation and to build up UNESCO, Sir Julian Huxley (1887–1975), was
within them, understanding (Comstock 1986). hoping to provide an academic platform for the
Comstock assisted community leaders, teachers, International Union for Conservation of Nature,
and scientists in transforming science education initiated a conference. The first conference held
curricula for American children. at the Palace of Fontainebleau or Château de
At that time, the people were beginning to feel Fontainebleau in Paris, France (Fig. 2.8). As a
that environmental damage was getting worst. result, France, the host country, put nature con-
Scholars were realizing the environmental dam- servation and habitat protection in its policy
age caused by human beings and paid more framework in 1948.
attention to the topic of environmental education Later, the inter-sessional meeting, that first
in promoting global conferences (Marsden used the term environmental education, led to the
1997). Environmental education responded to the 1949 International Union for Conservation of
Great Depression and sandstorms in the USA Nature (IUCN). By the 1960s, the United States
economy, and formed the Conservation Educa- Congress enacted legislation required that
tion that emerged in the 1920s. knowledge of natural resource conservation had
Conservation education is very different from to be taught at the primary and secondary school
pure natural research. The learning process levels. In 1968, the United Nations convened a
focuses on monitoring the data generated by biosphere conference in Paris to promote the
2.2 History of Environmental Education 37

Fig. 2.8 The History of Environmental Education (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

meaning of environmental education. By 1969, Resources, Ohio State University (OSU), and
James A. Swan, under the guidance of William spent half his life on his faculty position leading
Stapp, published the first article on environmental OSU’s ERIC clearinghouse, established in 1966,
education in Phi Delta Kappa, within which he known as a resource center for science education,
discussed the importance of environmental edu- mathematics, and environmental education. From
cation in caring for the natural and human envi- 1979 to 1991, academics in science and environ-
ronment (Swan 1969). Stapp also confirmed the mental education also led the U.S. EPA’s infor-
definition of environmental education in that year mation outreach program in USA. Among them,
in the Journal of Environmental Education John F. Dinsinger (1930–2005)(see Fig. 2.9),
(Stapp 1969). He defined environmental educa- Robert E. Roth (1937–2021)(see Figs. 2.9 and
tion as a subject that aimed at producing a citi- 2.10), Rosanne W. Fortner (1945–), and Joe E.
zenry that is knowledgeable concerning the Heimlich (see Fig. 2.9) are professors in the two
biophysical environment and its associated fields of cross-environmental education and sci-
problems, aware of how to help solve these ence education at the School of Natural Resources
problems, and motivated to work and participate (SNR, OSU)(now the School of Environment and
their solution actively (Stapp 1969: 31). Natural Resources, SENR, OSU) (Disinger 2001;
An important milestone in the history of Fortner 2001; Heimlich et al. 2022). Gary W.
environmental education of curriculum field was Mullins (see Fig. 2.10) served as director of the
reached in the 1970s (Disinger and Monroe School of Natural Resources (SNR), OSU from
1994; Reid 2019). Governments of various 1998–2004. Mullins worked as an interpretive
countries had begun to formulate environmental naturalist and National Park Ranger/Planner (see
protection regulations in an effort to solve envi- Fig. 2.10). The academic programs of the Nature
ronmental protection issues. Center Symposium were engaged on the topics of
John F. Disinger, undoubtedly one of the pio- the World Earth Day’s special lectures provided
neers of environmental education in the United by the OSU’s faculties during 2001 (see
States, retired from the School of Natural Figs. 2.11 and 2.12).
38 2 Philosophy and History of Environmental Education

Fig. 2.9 From 1979 to 1991, academics in science and projects. These project results driven by OSU’s faculties
environmental education also led the U.S. EPA’s infor- (Left: John F. Dinsinger (1930–2005); middle: Joe E.
mation outreach program in USA. Some faculties may be Heimlich; right: Robert E. Roth (1937–2021)) had been
served as a consultant to the Nature Conservancy, the discussed with one of their students, Tim Hsu, in 1995
USDA Forest Service, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, (Photo by Yi-Hsuan (Tim) Hsu)
and the National Park Service as EE and communications

The cooperation of environmental education Environment were resolved. Among them, Prin-
programs originated very early. Back to 1970, ciple 19 specifically requires:
UNESCO and the IUCN organized an interna- Education in environmental matters, for the
tional environmental education schools’ curricu- younger generation as well as adults, giving due
lum work conference in Carson City, Nevada, consideration to the underprivileged, is essential in
United States, which stated: order to broaden the basis for an enlightened
opinion and responsible conduct by individuals,
Environmental education is the process of recog- enterprises and communities in protecting and
nizing values and clarifying concepts in order to improving the environment in its full human
develop the skills and attitudes necessary to under- dimension. It is also essential that mass media of
stand and appreciate the interrelationships among communications avoid contributing to the deteri-
man, his culture, and his biophysical surroundings. oration of the environment, but, on the contrary,
disseminates information of an educational nature
Environmental education also requires self- on the need to project and improve the environ-
regulation in terms of environmental quality ment in order to enable man to develop in every
issues and practice. This meeting set the goals of respect.
school education and detailed the content of each The Declaration of the United Nations Con-
stage (UNESCO 1970). ference on the Human Environment hopes that
In 1972, the United Nations convened a human beings will begin to pay attention to en-
conference on the human environment in vironmental issues and opens up the possibility
Stockholm, Sweden. During the meeting, the of a positive interaction between humans and the
United Nations Declarations on the Human natural environment. The declaration emphasized
2.2 History of Environmental Education 39

Fig. 2.10 The academic programs were engaged in at Resources, OSU), Gary Mullins (School of Natural
OSU and NTNU faculties, while research being con- Resources, OSU), Ju Chou (GIEE, NTNU), and Shih-
ducted by faculties from OSU’s alumina. From left to Jang Hsu (National Hualien University of Education, now
right: Huei-Min Tsai (GIEE, NTNU), Tzuchau Chang the National Dong Hwa University) during 2001 (Photo
(GIEE, NTNU), Robert Roth (School of Natural by Huei-Min Tsai)

that Both aspects of our environment, the natural promoted the International Environmental Edu-
and the man-made, are essential to our well- cation Programme (IEEP). This project discusses
being and to the enjoyment of basic human rights how to raise environmental awareness and pro-
the right to life itself. Humans began to attach mote the environment educational vision
importance to the quality of environmental life (UNESCO 1975).
and environmental protection issues began to get In 1975, UNESCO introduced the Belgrade
attention. Charter at the International Environmental
In 1974, the United Kingdom held the Workshop held in Belgrade. The Charter
Schools’ Council’s Project Environment and emphasized:
revealed three themes of environmental educa- We need nothing more than a new global ethic—
tion. They are: Education about the Environ- an ethic, which espouses attitudes and behavior for
ment, Education in the Environment or from the individuals and societies, and are consonant with
Environment, and Education for the Environ- humanity’s biosphere; which recognizes and sen-
sitively responds to the complex and ever—
ment. This attracted worldwide attention has a changing relationships between humanity and na-
wide range of applications (Palmer 1998). ture and between people. Significant changes must
In 1975, UNESCO and the United Nations occur in all of the world’s nations to assure the
Environment Programme (UNEP) jointly kind of rational development, which will be guided
40 2 Philosophy and History of Environmental Education

Fig. 2.11 The academic programs of the Nature Center School of Natural Resources, OSU) for NTNU and Dong
Symposium are engaged on the topics of the World Earth Hwa’s graduate students at National Dong Hwa Univer-
Day’s special lectures provided by the OSU’s faculties sity, Taiwan, April 22th, 2001 (Photo by Ju Chou)
(Robert Roth and Gary Mullins, two former Deans of the

Fig. 2.12 Two former Deans of OSU’s School of OSU’s alumni (Natioswnal Dong Hwa University, Tai-
Natural Resources, as the key persons in environmental wan, April 22th, 2001) (Photo by Ju Chou)
education were invited to Taiwan by Ju Chou, one of the
2.2 History of Environmental Education 41

by this new global ideal—changes which will be improve the environment. As for the goal of
directed towards an equitable distribution of the environmental education, it mentions the need to
world’s resources and more fairly satisfy the needs
of all peoples. help social groups and individuals to acquire an
awareness and sensitivity… a set of values and
The Charter distinguishes environmental ed- feelings of concern for the environment and the
ucation from formal education and non-formal motivation for actively participating in environ-
education (UNEP 1975). The Belgrade Charter mental improvement and protection. Therefore,
regulates the content and goals of environmental the Tbilisi Declaration put forward five goals of
education, promotes the world’s human beings to environmental education including awareness,
understand and care about the environment and knowledge, attitude, skills, and participation.
related issues, possesses appropriate knowledge, The United Nations established the World
technologies, attitudes, motivations, and com- Commission on Environment and Development
mitments, and is committed to solving today’s (WCED) in 1983. It was concerned about envi-
environmental problems. ronmental protection and economic develop-
In 1976, UNESCO released the Environmen- ment. It symbolized the relationship between
tal Education Newsletter Connect, which serves human beings and the environment, care for
as an information exchange channel for human survival, and development in the envi-
UNESCO and the official agency of the United ronment. In 1987, the committee issued the Our
Nation’s International Environmental Education Common Future declaration at the United
Program (IEEP). The purpose was to disseminate Nations General Assembly by its chair, Gro
environmental education messages and to estab- Harlem Brundtland (1939–), who officially
lish a network of environmental education insti- defined sustainable development. Sustainable
tutions and individuals. In 1977, UNESCO and development was a development model that
the United Nations Environment Programme could meet our current needs without compro-
held the Tbilisi UNESCO-UNEP Intergovern- mising future generations to meet their needs.
mental Conference in Belize, Georgia (UNESCO She called for global recognition and care for the
1977). The Tbilisi Declaration’s 41 Guiding natural environment and for vulnerable groups.
Principles on environmental education included In 1990, the U.S. Congress passed the
environmental education tasks, curriculum National Environmental Education Act (NEEA)
teaching, implementation strategies, and inter- to solve environmental problems by improving
national cooperation. Participants of the Tbilisi the problems through educating people using
Declaration stated: environmental education. And in 1992, the Uni-
The goals of environmental education are: (1) to ted Nations convened the Earth Summit in Rio de
foster clear awareness of, and concern about, Janeiro, Brazil. It adopted the world-famous
economic, social, political, and ecological inter- Agenda 21 and planned the concept of sustain-
dependence in urban and rural areas; (2) to provide
every person with opportunities to acquire the
able development as a concrete action plan,
knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment, and emphasizing the future generation towards car-
skills needed to protect and improve the environ- ing, awareness of the limited nature of natural
ment; (3) to create new patterns of behavior of environment resources, and assistance to disad-
individuals, groups, and society as a whole
towards the environment (UNEP 1977).
vantaged ethnic groups (UN 1992).

The fundamental task of environmental edu-

cation was supposed to closely link with ethics 2.2.5 Environmental Education
and values. For example, its purpose was to in the Twenty-First
illustrate about the need for environmental edu- Century
cation and provide everyone with the opportunity
to learn the knowledge, values, attitudes, com- In 2002 the United Nations again convened
mitments, and technologies needed to protect and world leaders and chose Johannesburg, South
42 2 Philosophy and History of Environmental Education

Africa to host the World Sustainable Develop- planned to implement 2030 Education and plan-
ment Summit. The organizers decided to invite ned to adopt the Incheon Declaration on Educa-
partner organizations to work together to resolve tion 2030. The Global Education Monitoring
the issue of protecting the environment, nar- Report (GEM Report) plans to ensure inclusive
rowing the gap between rich and poor, and pro- and fair quality education and to provide lifelong
tecting the environment of human life. In 2002, learning opportunities for all. In September 2015,
the UN General Assembly passed a resolution the UN General Assembly passed the 2030
declaring that the UN Decade (2005–2014) had Agenda for Sustainable Development to promote
passed the UN Decade of Education for Sus- the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
tainable Development (UN DESD 2005–2014). The international community understands that in
By 2005, UNESCO officially promoted the addition to promote Goal 4: Quality education, as
Decade of Education for Sustainable Develop- well as other sustainable goals need to be devel-
ment and strived to mobilize international edu- oped through education.
cation resources to create a sustainable future. Today, with the international recognition and
Five principles are imagining a better future, adoption of the Global Education 2030 Agenda,
critical thinking and reflection, participation in its aim is to eradicate poverty through sustainable
decision-making, partner relationships, and sys- development by 2030. At present, UNESCO uses
tems thinking. The adoption of Chapter 40 of the mechanism of SDGs, the GEM Report, and
Agenda 21 emphasizes the education was a way the Education for All (EFA) based on Regional
for capacity-building. Although education alone Comprehensive Report to develop the GAP.
cannot achieve a sustainable future, without As a result, formal and non-formal educators
sustainable development of education and learn- around the world are continuing their efforts to
ing, humankind will not be able to achieve this promote education for sustainable development,
goal. The overall goal of the UN DESD is to especially in reimagine urban EE and in restoring
integrate the principles, values, and practices of the Nature in EE (Reid et al. 2021). One of the
sustainable development into the education and key authors in Reid et al. (2021), Justin Dillon,
learning dimension. Education should be based the UK Professor at the Science and Environ-
on sustainable development that encourages mental Education, Director for Research in
changes in human behavior and creates a more STEM Education at the South West Institute of
sustainable future in terms of environmental Technology Observatory, University of Exeter,
integrity, economic viability, and a just society also taught at the University of Bristol before,
that meets contemporary and future generations. has developed urban EE in science education
In 2012, the United Nations returned to Rio de working with schools, museums, science centers,
Janeiro, Brazil to host the UN Conference on aquariums, and botanic gardens. As the President
Sustainable Development (Rio + 20) to com- of the National Association for Environmental
memorate the twentieth anniversary of the 1992 Education (UK), Dillon emphasized the impor-
Earth Summit. The conference took green econ- tance of the STEM education as well as
omy as the theme and aimed to eradicate poverty encouraged people to learn outside beyond
and promote global development. It is hoped to school environment (Dillon 2014, 2019).
promote a green economy by establishing relevant Many EE conferences have been organized
mechanisms and organizations. By 2014, the UN around the world. The World Environmental
called for mainstreaming sustainable development Education Congress (WEEC) congresses are the
education at the World Conference on Sustainable most significant existing experience of connect-
Development Education in Nagoya, Japan. ing all actors at the international level in the field
UNESCO launched the Global Action Pro- of environmental education as well as the sus-
gramme on Education for Sustainable Devolep- tainability education. Since 2003 the interna-
ment (GAP). In May 2015, at the World Education tional network has organized eleven World
Forum held in Incheon, Republic of Korea, it Congresses, attracted the participation of
2.2 History of Environmental Education 43

Fig. 2.13 Education based on sustainable development of tidal wetlands, Smithsonian Environmental Research
encourages changes in human behavior and creates a Center, SERC, USA); William J. Mitsch (an ecosystem
more sustainable future in terms of environmental ecologist and ecological engineer, OSU & Florida Gulf
integrity, economic viability, and a just society that meets Coast University, USA); and Hwey-Lian Hsieh (an
contemporary and future generations to save limited ecosystem ecologist and ecological engineer, Academia
resources. From left to right: Chang-Po Chen (an Sinica, Taiwan, ROC) (2019 Society of Wetland Scien-
ecosystem ecologist and ecological engineer, Academia tists (SWS) Asia Chapter Meeting, Suncheon, Republic of
Sinica, Taiwan, ROC); Patrick Megonigal (a soil ecologist Korea)(Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

thousands of people from over 100 different Nanyang Technological University of Singapore
countries (please see https://weec2022.org). invited fifteen international scholars, including
The content of education for sustainable Wei-Ta Fang, Tzu-Chau Chang from the
development encompasses a humanistic educa- National Taiwan Normal University, and Yi-
tion and development concept, and we share our Hsuan (Tim) Hsu (Global Environmental
responsibilities and obligations with human Enhancement Inc.), Gillian Kidman (Monash
rights, dignity, social justice, tolerance, protec- University, Australia), Judy Braus (NAAEE) as
tion, culture, language, and ethnic diversity, and well as other professors recommended by Global
work together, such as international chapter’s Environmental Education Partnership (GEEP)
meetings held for wetland conservation, restora- (https://geepaprc.org/en) to discuss the draft and
tion, and education worldwide (as one of the issue the Singapore Declaration on Research in
examples: 2019 Society of Wetland Scientists Education for Sustainable Development, in
(SWS) Asia Chapter Meeting, Suncheon, response to the demands for education research
Republic of Korea; please see Fig. 2.13). on sustainable development in 2030, see
In 2019, Chew-Hung Chang, the Dean of Table 2.2.
Academic and Strategic Development in
44 2 Philosophy and History of Environmental Education

Table 2.2 Development history of environmental education conferences

Year Host Organizers Conference name Meeting content
country/city/
school
1948 Paris, France UNESCO The Conference of The Conference used the
Fontainebleau term environmental
education for the first time.
In 1949, the International
Union for the Protection of
Nature was established
1965 Staffordshire, Keele University The Conference in The term environmental
United Education education was used for the
Kingdom first time in the United
Kingdom
1968 Paris, France UNESCO International Conference on Promoted environmental
Global Biosphere Protection education at the Biosphere
Conference
1970 Carson, International Union for International Working The meeting accepted the
Nevada Conservation of Nature, Meeting on Environmental definition of the
IUCN Education in the School environmental education
Curriculum
1970 Paris, France UNESCO UNESCO Convention Establishment of Division of
Science, Technical and
Environment Education,
UNESCO
1972 Stockholm, United Nations The United Nations Convened a conference on
Sweden Conference on the Human the human environment and
Environment issued the Declaration of the
UN Conference on the
Human Environment, or
Stockholm Declaration
1975 Paris, France UNESCO, United Nations International Environmental Creation of the
Environment Programme Education Programme UNESCO/UNEP
(UNEP) International Environmental
Education Programme
(IEEP)
1975 Belgrade, UNESCO International Environmental The Belgrade Charter was
Former Workshop proposed to standardize the
Yugoslavia content and goals of
environmental education, to
promote human awareness
and concern about the
environment and related
issues in the world, to
possess appropriate
knowledge, technology,
attitudes, motivations and
commitments, and to work
to resolve today’s
environmental problems
(continued)
2.2 History of Environmental Education 45

Table 2.2 (continued)

Year Host Organizers Conference name Meeting content
country/city/
school
1977 Tbilisi, Former UNESCO Intergovernmental The Tbilisi Declaration,
Soviet Conference on which made 41
Republic of Environmental Education recommendations, provides
Georgia countries with a complete
framework for promoting
environmental education.
The declaration proposes
five goals of environmental
education including
awareness, knowledge,
attitude, skills, and
participation
1980 Gland, UN Environment International Union for Published the World
Switzerland Programme (UNEP), Conservation of Nature and Conservation Strategy:
International Union for Natural Resources (IUCN) Living Resource
Conservation of Nature at Gland’s Meeting Conservation for
(IUCN), World Wildlife Sustainable Development
Fund (WWF)
1982 New York, United Nations UN General Assembly Adopted World Charter for
USA Nature, to proclaim five
principles of conservation,
guiding and judging all
human behaviors that
affected nature, confirming
the ethical relationship and
responsibility of the
international community to
humans and nature
1987 New York, The World Commission on UN General Assembly Adopted Our Common
USA Environment and Future and put forward the
Development concept of sustainable
development
1992 Rio de Janeiro, UN Conference on The World Summit on Adopted Agenda 21 and
Brazil Environment and Sustainable Development signed at the UN
Development (UNCED) (Earth Summit) Framework Convention on
Climate Change
2002 Johannesburg, UN Conference on The World Sustainable Committed to solving the
South Africa Environment and Development Summit problem of protecting the
Development (UNCED) (Earth Summit 2002) environment, narrowing the
gap between rich and poor,
and protecting the
environment of human life
2005 Paris, France United Nations Educational, UN General Assembly A formal education system
Scientific and Cultural Resolution (2002) seeks to mobilize
Organization (UNESCO) international education
resources to create a
sustainable future
(continued)
46 2 Philosophy and History of Environmental Education

Table 2.2 (continued)

Year Host Organizers Conference name Meeting content
country/city/
school
2009 Bonn, UNESCO UNESCO World Discussed the Decade of
Germany Conference on Education Education for Sustainable
for Sustainable Development (DESD)
Development: Moving into (2005–2014) and proposed
the Second Half of the UN the Bonn Declaration
Decade
2012 Rio de Janeiro, UN Conference on The World Sustainable The goal of eradicating
Brazil Environment and Development Summit poverty and promoting
Development (UNCED), (Earth Summit 2002) global development is to
Rio + 20 promote a green economy
by establishing relevant
mechanisms and
organizations
2014 Nagoya, Japan UNESCO World Conference on Including sustainable
Education for Sustainable development education in
Development the post-2015 development
agenda, launched the Global
Action Plan for Sustainable
Development Education
which highlighting five
priority areas of action
2015 Incheon, UNESCO World Education Forum Implemented sustainable
Republic of 2015 development goals and
Korea promote 2030 Education
2019 Singapore Nanyang Technological Workshop on Singapore Published the Singapore’s
University Declaration on Sustainable Declaration on Research in
Development Education Education for Sustainable
Development in response to
the demands for education
research on sustainable
development in 2030
2022 Prague, Czech Faculty of Social Studies, 11th World Environmental The 11th World
Republic Masaryk University, Czech Education Congress Environmental Education
Republic Congress has been held in
Prague, March 14–18th,
2022. Programs have been
including cross-cutting
dialogues and parallel
sessions

chapter we proposed a theoretical and practical

2.3 Summary framework from the studies of the philosophy
and history of EE, and discussed the framework
We conducted research on environmental edu- of research and practice from multiple perspec-
cation in the early twentieth century, conserva- tives and orientations in multi-cultures. We
tion education in the 1920s, environmental explored the in-depth fields of environmental
protection education in the 1970s, and sustain- education according to the different cultural and
able development education in the 2000s. In this social backgrounds of great teachers’ and
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