3 Igcse Book 2016 Final

NES/Chemistry/IGCSE
Cambridge International Examinations
IGCSE Chemistry
Syllabus Code 0620
2016 Syllabus Update
Paper Type of Paper Duration Marks Weighting
2 Multiple Choice 45 Minutes 40 30%
4 Written Paper 1 Hour and 15 Minutes 80 50%
Alternative to
6 1 Hour 40 20%
Practical
A Gru and minion production.
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NES/Chemistry/IGCSE
Table of Contents
Topic
Topic Name Page
Number
1 The particulate nature of matter 4
2 Experimental techniques 13
2.1 Measurement 14
2.2.1 Criteria of purity 16
2.2.2 Methods of purification 20
3 Atoms, elements and compounds 28
3.1 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table 31
3.2.1 Bonding: the structure of matter 36
3.2.2 Ions and ionic bonds 38
3.2.3 Molecules and covalent bonds 49
3.2.4 Macromolecules 54
3.2.5 Metallic bonding 57
4.1 Stoichiometry 59
4.2 The mole concept 73
5 Electricity and chemistry 89
6 Chemical energetics 108
6.1 Energetics of a reaction 109
6.2 Energy transfer 114
7 Chemical reactions 117
7.1 Physical and chemical changes 119
7.2 Rate (speed) of reaction 122
7.3 Reversible reactions 137
7.4 Redox 146
8 Acids, bases and salts 151
8.1 The characteristic properties of acids and bases 153
8.2 Types of oxides 162
8.3 Preparation of salts 164
8.4 Identification of ions and gases 172
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Table of Contents
Topic
Topic Name Page
Number
9 The Periodic Table 176
9.1 The Periodic Table 178
9.2 Periodic trends 178
9.3 Group properties 179
9.4 Transition elements 183
9.5 Noble gases 184
10 Metals 185
10.1 Properties of metals 187
10.2 Reactivity series 189
10.3 Extraction of metals 194
10.4 Uses of metals 199
11 Air and water 200
11.1 Water 202
11.2 Air 203
11.3 Nitrogen and fertilisers 210
11.4 Carbon dioxide and methane 213
12 Sulfur 215
13 Carbonates 218
14 Organic chemistry 221
14.1 Names of compounds 225
14.2 Fuels 231
14.3 Homologous series 233
14.4 Alkanes 235
14.5 Alkenes 237
14.6 Alcohols 244
14.7 Carboxylic acids 249
14.8.1 Polymers 253
14.8.2 Synthetic polymers 256
14.8.3 Natural polymers 258
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Topic 1 - The Particulate Nature of Matter
 State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases

 Describe the structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of particle
separation, arrangement and types of motion
 Describe changes of state in terms of melting, boiling, evaporation,
freezing, condensation and sublimation
 Explain changes of state in terms of the kinetic theory
 Describe qualitatively the pressure and temperature of a gas in terms of
the motion of its particles
 Show an understanding of the random motion of particles in a
suspension (sometimes known as Brownian motion) as evidence for the
kinetic particle (atoms, molecules or ions) model of matter
 Describe and explain Brownian motion in terms of random molecular
bombardment
 State evidence for Brownian motion
 Describe and explain diffusion
 Describe and explain dependence of rate of diffusion on molecular mass
Diffusion is the spreading of one substance through another from a region of

high concentration to a region of low concentration due to the continuous
random motion of particles
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States of Matter
All matter is made of tiny particles and these particles have energy, which causes
them to vibrate and/or move. This type of energy is called kinetic energy.
There are 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Property Solid Liquid Gas

takes the shape of takes the shape of
Shape definite shape the bottom of the the whole
container container
changes to fill the

Volume definite definite
whole container
particles are still large distance

particles are packed close together, but between particles
Arrangement of
close together in a with a random and have a
particles
regular arrangement arrangement random
arrangement
particles can slip and
particles move in a
Movement of they vibrate about a slide over each other
continuous rapid
particles fixed point in a continuous
random motion
random motion
high due to the close
Density packed arrangement of less than solids low
particles
Forces of virtually non

very strong weak
attraction existent
Diffusion little diffusion slow diffusion rapid diffusion
easily compressed
no, because the due to the large
Compressible no particles are packed distance between
very close together particles which can
be reduced
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Changing State
The 3 states of matter are interchangeable which means a solid can be changed to a
liquid and this to a gas.
sublimation
melting boiling / evaporation
solid liquid gas

freezing / solidifying condensing
sublimation
Melting point is the temperature at which a pure solid changes to a liquid without a
change in temperature. (water = 0oC, ethanol = -117oC)
Boiling point is the temperature at which a pure liquid changes to vapour without a
change in temperature (water = 100oC, ethanol = 78oC)
Evaporation is when liquids change into gases over a range of temperature below
the boiling point.
Solidifying point/freezing point is the temperature at which a pure liquid changes

to a solid without a change in temperature (water = 0oC, ethanol = -117oC)
Condensation point is the temperature at which vapour changes to a liquid without

a change in temperature (water = 100oC, ethanol = 78oC)
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Diagrams of Changing State
solid liquid gas
heat heat
Sublimation
This is where a solid changes straight to a gas, without changing to a liquid, or a

gas changes to a solid without changing to a liquid. The process for both directions
is called sublimation.
 Example 1: iodine
 Example 2: carbon dioxide
 Example 3: graphite
 Example 4: ammonium chloride
Heat Energy
Process Change in Heat Energy Exothermic / Endothermic

Melting gain endothermic
Boiling gain endothermic
Condensing loss exothermic
Freezing loss exothermic
Sublimation loss or gain (depends on process) exothermic or endothermic
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Kinetic Particle Theory
When a solid is heated, the particles vibrate faster

about a fixed point. This causes the particles to
move further apart and so the solid expands.
force of
attraction
When the particles gain sufficient energy to

overcome the strong forces of attraction holding
them together, they can move out of their fixed
positions. They can slip and slide over each other
in a continuous random motion. When this
happens the solid melts.
The particles in the liquid are still close to each

other. They have enough kinetic energy to move
around each other closely, but do not have enough
energy to overcome the forces that hold them
close to each other.
increasing
temperature
If more heat energy is supplied to the particles, they
move faster until they have enough energy to
overcome the forces holding them together.
The particles then escape from the liquid surface
and move around in a continuous rapid random
motion. The liquid now boils.
In the vapour formed, the particles move in a rapid

random motion. The movement is random due to
the collision of the vapour particles with the air
particles.
An increase in temperature will cause the particles

to move faster and an increase in pressure will
cause gas particles to move closer together.
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Brownian Motion
Gases and Liquids are made up of particles that are always moving. This can been
seen using a microscope in a "smoke cell". The smoke particles move because they
are being constantly bombarded (hit) by gaseous air particles. The smoke particles
can be seen moving in a zig-zag pattern.
Diffusion
Remember diffusion is when the substance moves by itself - not being mixed, or
stirred by anyone; or the wind.
Most liquids and gases are colourless, so it is hard to see them move. In
experiments to show diffusion a coloured substance is usually placed in water, or air
so we can watch it move and spread out.
Diffusion in the different states of matter:
1. Solids
2. Liquids
3. Gases
1. Solids
Solids diffuse so slowly that we say they do not diffuse.
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2. Liquids
Liquids diffuse slowly. It can take many hours, or days for a liquid to diffuse.
 Example 5: If a crystal of purple potassium manganate(VII) is placed in a

beaker of water, the purple colour spreads throughout the whole
beaker due to the continuous random motion of particles. After
24 hours the purple colour would be uniformly spread
throughout the whole beaker.
at the start later after 24 hours
water uniform
colour
purple
potassium
manganate(VII)
crystal
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3. Gases
Gases diffuse the fastest out of the three states of matter. Different gases diffuse at
different speeds - it depends on the mass, or density of the gas.
 Example 6: Red brown volatile bromine liquid is placed in the bottom gas jar.
This vaporises to fill the whole of the gas jar with orange/brown
vapour. A gas jar of air is placed on top. When the glass lid is
removed from between the jars the gases diffuse due to the
constant rapid random motion of the particles. After about 20
minutes the colour would be uniformly orange/brown in both gas
jars.
gas jar containing air

after 20 uniform colour throughout
lid minutes the two gas jars due to the
diffusion of gases
orange brown
bromine vapour
Both of these investigations demonstrate that one substance can move through
another due to the continuous random motion of particles (diffusion). The purple
manganate(VII) ions spread between the water molecules. The molecules of orange
brown bromine vapour mix with the gases in air. Gases diffuse faster than liquids.
This is because the particles in a gas are moving in a continuous rapid random
motion whereas particles in a liquid move much more slowly.
A volatile liquid easily turns into a gas as it has a low boiling point (close to room
temperature).
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How the Mass of Gas affects Rate of Diffusion
 The rate of diffusion is faster for low density/low Mr or Ar gases and slower for
higher density/high Mr or Ar gases. (see Topic 4.1 for details on Ar and Mr)
 The rate of diffusion will increase as the temperature increases.
Long-Tube Experiment to Demonstrate Rate of Diffusion
Two volatile liquids (concentrated ammonia and concentrated hydrochloric acid) are
put at opposite ends of a long glass tube. The gases will diffuse in the tube and mix
together to form a white solid precipitate of ammonium chloride.
cotton wool soaked cotton wool soaked

in concentrated aqueous ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) in concentrated
ammonia hydrochloric acid
Where the ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas meet, a white precipitate is
produced. This is solid ammonium chloride (NH4Cl).
To find which gas moves faster we need to calculate the relative molecular mass of
both gases, using the mass numbers from the Periodic Table.
 ammonia gas (NH3) = 14 + (3 x 1) = 17

 hydrogen chloride gas (HCl) = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5
Particles with a lower relative molecular mass/lower density, diffuse faster than
particles with a higher relative molecular mass/higher density, with the same
energy (at the same temperature).
As ammonia gas has a lower relative molecular mass/lower density compared

with hydrogen chloride gas, so the ammonia diffuses faster than the hydrogen
chloride gas. This means that the white ammonium chloride forms closer to the
hydrochloric acid side as it is the slower diffusing gas.
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Topic 2 - Experimental Techniques
2.1 Measurement
 Name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, temperature,

mass and volume, including burettes, pipettes and measuring cylinders
2.2.1 Criteria of purity
 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of paper chromatography

 Interpret simple chromatograms
 Identify substances and assess their purity from melting point and
boiling point information
 Understand the importance of purity in substances in everyday life, e.g.
foodstuffs and drugs
 Interpret simple chromatograms, including the use of Rf values
 Outline how chromatography techniques can be applied to colourless
substances by exposing chromatograms to substances called locating
agents (Knowledge of specific locating agents is not required.)
2.2.2 Methods of purification
 Describe and explain methods of purification by the use of a suitable

solvent, filtration, crystallisation and distillation (including use of
fractionating column). (Refer to the fractional distillation of petroleum in
section 14.2 and products of fermentation in section 14.6.)
 Suggest suitable purification techniques, given information about the
substances involved
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2.1 - Measurement
Apparatus Units
Time stop clock hours, minutes, seconds
o
Temperature thermometer C
Mass electronic balance kg, g, milligram, *tonne
measuring cylinder
Volume
*burette cm3, dm3
(liquids)
*pipette
Volume
gas syringe cm3, dm3
(gas)
*A pipette measures fixed liquid volumes very accurately e.g. 25.00 cm3
*A burette measures liquid volumes between 0.00 – 50.00 cm3. It is very accurate
having 2 decimal places.
* A tonne is 1000 kg
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Common Laboratory Apparatus
beaker separating funnel conical flask
crucible evaporating basin (graduated) pipette
burette funnel gas jar
gas syringe measuring cylinder pestle + mortar
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2.2.1 - Criteria of Purity
Chromatography
Chromatography is used to separate and identify a mixture of substances due to

their different solubilities and their attraction to the chromatography paper.
In chromatography, a piece of paper is placed in a beaker of solvent. The solvent

travels up the paper, and carries the dissolved substances (solutes) with it. The
substances will only move if they are soluble. Insoluble substances remain on the
pencil line.
The substance, which is the most soluble and with the least attraction to the paper,
travels furthest up the paper.
The distance moved up the paper by the solvent is called the solvent front.
The distance moved up the paper by each solute in a mixture is called a 'dot'.
Some substances, like amino acids and sugars (see Topic 14.8.3) are colourless
and cannot been seen on the chromatograph. They must be sprayed with a locating
agent, like ninhydrin, which adds colour and makes the 'dots' visible.
We identify unknown mixtures of solutes by comparing them to known

chromatograms, or by comparing Rf values.
glass
start of experiment results
rod
solvent
front
chromatography
paper
datum line/
base line x x x x
suitable
solvent
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Chromatography Method
 Draw a pencil line 2cm from the bottom of the chromatography paper called
the datum line. (Pencil is used as it is insoluble in the solvent)
 Place concentrated spots of different samples on the base line or datum
line.
 Suspend the paper in a suitable solvent, with the solvent level below the
datum line.
 When the solvent front reaches near the top of the paper remove the paper
from the solvent and observe the spots if coloured. The paper is now referred
to as a chromatogram.
 If the spots are colourless then spray the chromatogram with a 'locating agent'
to make the colourless spots become visible.
 If the chromatogram shows one spot for a sample (sample A), then that
sample is pure, but if there are a number of spots per sample (sample B, C,
D), then the sample is impure.
 A very soluble component in a sample travels high up the paper.
Rf values
The Rf value of a sample is calculated by:
 measuring the distance travelled by the sample from the datum line
 measuring the distance from the datum line to the solvent front
Now substitute into the equation:
distancetravelledby sample
Rf valueof a sample 
distancetravelledby solventfront
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 Example 1: Identifying Proteins A and B
solvent front
10 cm
7 cm
4 cm
X X
sample A sample B
initial level
of solvent
distancetravelledby sampleA 4 cm
Rf valueof a sampleA    0.4
distancetravelledby solventfront 10 cm
distancetravelledby sampleB 7 cm
Rf valueof a sampleB    0.7
distancetravelledby solventfront 10 cm
Some Rf values for amino acids are:
glutamic acid = 0.4

glycine = 0.5
alanine = 0.7
leucine = 0.9
So, sample A is glutamic acid and sample B is alanine.
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Test for Purity using Melting Point and Boiling Point
Pure substances melt and boil at a temperature that is fixed for a particular
substance.
 Example 2: Pure ice always melts at 0 oC and pure water boils at 100oC.
 Example 3: Frozen salt-water melts at a temperature lower than 0oC and

over a temperature range, and boils at a temperature above
100oC and over a temperature range
A pure and an impure substance was heated from below its melting point to a
temperature above its boiling point.
Heating curve for a pure substance Heating curve for an impure substance
boiling range
boiling point
temperature (oC)
temperature (oC)
melting range
melting point
time (seconds) time (seconds)
A pure substance melts and boils at a temperature that is fixed for that substance.
An impure substance melts over a temperature range and below that of the pure
substance and boils over a temperature range above the boiling point of the pure
substance.
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2.2.2 - Methods of Purification
1. Decanting
Decanting is the process of removing a liquid from a solid, which has settled, or from
an immiscible heavier liquid by pouring.
2. Filtration
Filtration is used to separate a soluble solid from an insoluble solid, or separate an

insoluble solid from a liquid.
The insoluble material cannot pass

through the tiny holes in the filter paper
and so remains on the filter paper. It is
now called the residue.
insoluble solid (rock)
The soluble material consists of very
small particles, which can pass through
the filter paper with the solvent.
filter paper
The liquid containing the dissolved
material, which passed through the filter
filter funnel paper, is called the filtrate.
filtrate (salt solution) Solute is a soluble solid, which dissolves

in a solvent.
Solvent is a liquid, which dissolves a

solute.
Solution is solvent which has a solute

dissolved in it.
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3. Evaporation
Evaporation is used to separate a soluble salt from solution by boiling with a Bunsen
burner.
This method is not used if the salt crystals contain water of crystallisation
The solution in the evaporating dish is heated until all the water has evaporated.
A steam bath is used to provide a gentle even heating of the evaporating dish and
prevents the salt from being lost from the dish by “spitting out”.
 Example 4: Separating salt from rock salt (Filtration and Evaporation)
Step 1 - Crushing:
pestle
The material is crushed into small pieces
mortar
to increase the surface area of the rock
salt allowing the salt to dissolve faster.
Step 2 - Dissolving:
glass stirring rod

The salt dissolves as it is soluble, but the
rock being insoluble does not dissolve.
water The mixture of rock salt and water are

heated and stirred to increase the rate of
wire gauze dissolving and the amount of salt
dissolved.
tripod
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Step 3 - Filtration:
Filtration separates the insoluble

material (rock) from the soluble
material (salt). The dissolved salt
passes through the filter paper because
its particles are much smaller than the
tiny holes in the filter paper, whereas the
filter paper particles of rock are too big to fit through
rock (residue) the holes.
filter funnel The rock remaining in the filter paper is

called the residue.
salt solution The filtered salt solution is called the

(filtrate) filtrate.
Step 4 - Evaporation:
salt solution
This separates the soluble material
(salt) from the solvent (water).
steam bath A steam bath is used to provide a

gentle, even heating of the evaporating
basin. This reduces the loss of salt
from the evaporating basin by
“spitting out”.
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4. Crystallisation
Crystallisation is the process of forming crystals (hydrated salts) in a solution of a

crystalline substance.
Crystallisation is important when producing salt crystals, which contain water of

crystallisation. If these salts were heated to dryness, then the salt would not
contain the water of crystallisation. The product would not be crystals, but would be
an anhydrous powder.
Method of Crystallisation
1. Heat the solution on a steam bath until the crystallisation point is reached.
2. Cool the saturated solution to crystallise.
3. Any crystals formed are filtered and then washed with minimal amounts of
cold distilled water to obtain pure crystals.
4. Dry the crystals between two wads of filter paper or in a desiccator.
A desiccator is an airtight glass container, which contains a chemical, which

absorbs water. Crystals can be dried in this apparatus without losing any water of
crystallisation.
A desiccator will dry the crystals, but an oven would dry and dehydrate the
crystals.
Finding the Point of Crystallisation
Dip a glass rod into the solution being heated, and then remove the glass rod. If
crystals form on the rod, then the solution is saturated and at its crystallisation point.
A saturated solution is a solution, which contains the maximum amount of dissolved

material at that particular temperature.
Slow evaporation produces large crystals, and fast evaporation produces small
crystals.
 Example 5: Blue hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals (CuSO4.5H2O) contain

water of crystallisation. If they were heated to dryness then
anhydrous CuSO4 (white) powder would be produced. So the
hydrated salt has to be made by crystallisation.
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5. Sublimation
Two solids can be separated if one of the solids sublimes. An example would be a
mixture of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and sodium chloride (NaCl). Some
ammonium compounds sublime. When the mixture is heated, the NH4Cl sublimes to
form vapour which then sublimes on the cold surface of the funnel forming the solid
NH4Cl. The sodium chloride solid should remain in the evaporating basin.
Observations
 white fumes
 white solid forms on the inner surface of the funnel
6. Simple Distillation
Simple distillation separates a solvent from a solution by boiling and condensing.
thermometer
Distillation is a 2-step process of boiling
water out and then condensing.
Liebig
condenser Residue will be left in the round bottom
flask and distillate will be produced in
the conical flask.
round
bottom Anti-bumping granules are added to
flask water in the round bottom flask in order to make
the boiling smoother.
HEAT receiver flask
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7. Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation is used to separate a mixture of miscible liquids with different

boiling points.
To separate a mixture of ethanol and

thermometer
water, heat the mixture up. At 78oC the
water out ethanol boils, enters the fractionating
Liebig column where it condenses and
condenser evaporates repeatedly until it finally enters
the condenser and condenses back to
liquid and trickles into the receiving flask.
fractionating
column
The thermometer at the top of the
glass water in fractionating column tells us the boiling
beads point of the vapour entering the
electrical receiver flask condenser and thus allows us to identify

the distillate and possibly determine the
heating
mantle purity of the distillate.
The longer the fractionating column, the better the separation of liquids will be and
the purer the distillate.
The water enters from the bottom of the condenser because there is a better flow of
water which completely surrounds the inner tube, keeping it cooler and therefore
improving the amount of condensing.
 Example 6: Separating an ethanol and water mixture.
As the ethanol vapour is entering the condenser, the

thermometer will read 78oC until all the ethanol has distilled
over. Then the thermometer reading will steadily increase until
100oC when water will be entering the condenser.
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Solubility
The solubility of a solute in water at a given temperature is the number of grams of

that solute which can be dissolved in 100g of water to produce a saturated solution
at that temperature.
Solubility has the units g of substance / 100g of water.
 Example 7: Finding the solubility of sodium chloride at 30oC.
Measure *exactly 100 cm3 of distilled water into a beaker.

Place this beaker into a water bath at 30oC.
Add a known mass (excess) of sodium chloride and stir.
When no more solute dissolves filter the mixture.
Evaporate the solution in a pre-weighed evaporating basin until
dry.
Measure the mass of the evaporating basin and solute.
Subtract the mass of the empty evaporating basin to obtain the
mass of dissolved solute, in g solute / 100g solvent.
*If a different volume of water is used then the mass of substance dissolved has to
be changed using the following formula:
100
Solubility = x mass dissolved,g
volumeof water, cm3
Solubility Curves
These curves are obtained by finding the maximum amount of solute that can
dissolve at various different temperatures. The solubility of most solids increases
with temperature. The solubility of most gases decreases with temperature.
The composition by mass of a saturated solution at any temperature can be read off
a solubility curve.
When a saturated solution is cooled, some of the solute crystallises out of solution.
By using the solubility curve it is possible to determine the amount of solute which
crystallises out of solution at different temperatures.
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 Example 8: Using the graph find the mass of solid that would precipitate if a
saturated solution of potassium nitrate was cooled from 50 oC to
10oC.
sketch of solubility curves
solubility (g substance per 100 g of water)

100
90
potassium nitrate
80
70
60
50
40 sodium chloride
30
20 calcium ethanoate
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
temperature (oC)
As the solution of potassium nitrate is saturated, it has the

maximum amount of solid dissolved in water. So using the
graph, we can see that at 50oC there would be 85g of potassium
nitrate dissolved in a saturated solution.
The maximum mass of potassium nitrate that can dissolve at

10oC is found from the graph as being only 19g.
So as the solution cools it can hold less solid in solution. The

mass of potassium nitrate that would precipitate is:
85g - 19g = 66g
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Topic 3 - Atoms, Elements and Compounds
3.1 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table
 State the relative charges and approximate relative masses of protons,

neutrons and electrons
 Define proton number (atomic number) as the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom
 Define nucleon number (mass number) as the total number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
 Use proton number and the simple structure of atoms to explain the basis of
the Periodic Table (see section 9), with special reference to the elements of
proton number 1 to 20
 Define isotopes as atoms of the same element which have the same proton
number but a different nucleon number
 State the two types of isotopes as being radioactive and non-radioactive
 State one medical and one industrial use of radioactive isotopes
 Understand that isotopes have the same properties because they have the
same number of electrons in their outer shell
 Describe the build-up of electrons in ‘shells’ and understand the significance
of the noble gas electronic structures and of the outer shell electrons
Note: a copy of the Periodic Table, as shown in the Appendix, will be available
in Papers 2 and 4 (not Paper 6).
3.2.1 Bonding: the structure of matter
 Describe the differences between elements, mixtures and compounds, and

between metals and non-metals
 Describe an alloy, such as brass, as a mixture of a metal with other elements
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3.2.2 Ions and ionic bonds
 Describe the formation of ions by electron loss or gain

 Describe the formation of ionic bonds between elements from Groups I and
VII
 Describe the formation of ionic bonds between metallic and non-metallic
elements
 Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds as a regular arrangement of
alternating positive and negative ions
3.2.3 Molecules and covalent bonds
 Describe the formation of single covalent bonds in H2, Cl2, H2O, CH4, NH3 and
HCl as the sharing of pairs of electrons leading to the noble gas configuration
 Describe the differences in volatility, solubility and electrical conductivity
between ionic and covalent compounds
 Describe the electron arrangement in more complex covalent molecules such
as N2, C2H4, CH3OH and CO2
 Explain the differences in melting point and boiling point of ionic and
covalent compounds in terms of attractive forces
3.2.4 Macromolecules
 Describe the giant covalent structures of graphite and diamond

 Relate their structures to their uses, e.g. graphite as a lubricant and a
conductor, and diamond in cutting tools
 Describe the macromolecular structure of silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide)
 Describe the similarity in properties between diamond and silicon(IV) oxide,
related to their structures
3.2.5 Metallic bonding
 Describe metallic bonding as a lattice of positive ions in a ‘sea of electrons’

and use this to describe the electrical conductivity and malleability of metals
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Definitions
An atom is the smallest part of an element that can exist as a stable entity
An ion is a species with a positive or negative charge
An element is a substance that contains only one type of atom
A compound is a pure substance, which contains two or more different elements,

chemically bonded together
A molecule is the smallest part of an element or a compound, which can exist alone
under ordinary conditions
A mixture is two or more substances that can be separated by physical means
Proton (atomic) number is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Nucleon (mass) number is equal to the number of particles (protons and neutrons)
in the nucleus of an atom
Isotopes are atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons
Radioactivity is a nuclear change where energy is released as radiation and a new

nucleus is formed with a different proton number
Elements are made up of the same type of atom. They cannot be broken down into
simpler chemicals
A macromolecule consists of a large number of atoms bonded together to form one

molecule with a very high relative molecular mass (Mr)
Allotropes are different crystalline forms of the same element. They have the same
chemical properties, but different physical properties
Metallic bonding is the strong non-directional electrostatic force of attraction

between the lattice of positive ions and the mobile ‘sea’ of valence electrons in a 3-
dimensional structure
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3.1 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
All materials are made from atoms. Atoms are made from 3 types of particles:
 protons (found in the nucleus)
 neutrons (found in the nucleus)
 electrons (found in shells)
Relative Charge and Mass of the Particles in an Atom
Particle Relative charge Relative mass

Proton 1+ 1
Neutron 0 1
1
Electron 1– 1837
In an atom, the number of the electrons equals the number of protons in the nucleus.
Electrons fill the shells around the nucleus.
nucleus
The electrons start filling the
inner electron shell closest to first shell holds up to 2 electrons
the nucleus first. Only once
this shell is full can electrons second shell holds up to 8 electrons
then start filling up the next
third shell holds up to 8 electrons
shell, which is further away
from the nucleus.
Symbols of Elements
All elements are denoted by a symbol, which consists of 1 or 2 letters. The first letter is
always a capital/upper case, the second (if there is one) is a lower case.
 Example 1:
hydrogen = H sodium = Na chlorine = Cl
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Proton Number and Nucleon Number
Two numbers are associated with the elements in the Periodic Table.
The larger top number is called the nucleon (mass) number (A) 23
The smaller bottom number is called the proton (atomic) number (Z) 11
Na
These two numbers allow us to work out the number of protons, neutrons and electrons
in the atom.
Proton Number
This is how many protons are in the nucleus of an atom. It is also equal to the number of
electrons in the shells of the atom.
Atoms contain the same number of protons and electrons. Each positively charged
proton cancels out each negatively charged electron, so there is no net charge - all
atoms are neutral.
Nucleon Number
This is how many nucleons are in the nucleus of an atom. A nucleon is a particle in the
nucleus - either proton, or neutron.
Number of neutrons = nucleon number – proton number
 Example 2: hydrogen and helium
1
1
H protons =1
neutrons =0
electrons =1
4
2 He protons =2
neutrons =2
electrons =2
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Isotopes
Isotopes of an element have the same chemical reactions, because isotopes have the
same number of valence electrons and so lose, gain or share the same number of
electrons to have a full outer shell, and it is these electrons which determine the chemical
properties of an element, so therefore the same chemical reactions. The only difference
is the density of each isotope.
 Example 3: chlorine
35 37
17 Cl and 17 Cl
 Example 4: carbon
12 13 14
6 C and 6 C and 6 C
Isotopes may be radioactive, or non-radioactive.
 Example 5: isotopes of hydrogen:
1
1 H non-radioactive
2
1 H - also called deuterium and can also have the symbol 21 D non-radioactive
3
1 H - also called tritium and can have the symbol 31 T radioactive
Due to radioactivity, a new atom is formed, this is not a chemical change, it is a nuclear
change. Some of these radioactive isotopes occur naturally, but others are made in
nuclear reactors.
Medical Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
 cobalt-60 ( 60
27 Co) is used in treating inaccessible cancerous cells
 strontium-90 ( 90
38 Sr) is used in treating skin cancer
 iodine-131 ( 131
53 I) is used to monitor the function of the thyroid gland
 gamma rays can be used to sterilise surgical equipment
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Industrial Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
 strontium-90 ( 90
38 Sr) is used to monitor the thickness of paper or metal on a
production line to make sure it is not too thick or too thin

 uranium-235 ( 23592 U) is used to generate electricity in a nuclear power station
Electronic Configuration of Atoms
This is simply the number of electrons in each electron shell of an atom starting from the
electron shell closest to the nucleus.
 Example 6:
Element Proton Number Number of Electrons Electronic Configuration

Hydrogen 1 1 1
Oxygen 8 8 2.6
Potassium 19 19 2.8.8.1
34
hydrogen helium
protons = 1 protons = 2
electrons = 1 electrons = 2
neutrons = 0 neutrons = 2
1 2
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon

protons = 3 protons = 4 protons = 5 protons = 6 protons = 7 protons = 8 protons = 9 protons = 10
electrons = 3 electrons = 4 electrons = 5 electrons = 6 electrons = 7 electrons = 8 electrons = 9 electrons = 10
neutrons = 4 neutrons = 5 neutrons = 6 neutrons = 6 neutrons = 7 neutrons = 8 neutrons = 10 neutrons = 10
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
35
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
protons = 11 protons = 12 protons = 13 protons = 14 protons = 15 protons = 16 protons = 17 protons = 18
electrons = 11 electrons = 12 electrons = 13 electrons = 14 electrons = 15 electrons = 16 electrons = 17 electrons = 18
neutrons = 12 neutrons = 12 neutrons = 14 neutrons = 14 neutrons = 16 neutrons = 16 neutrons = 18 neutrons = 22
2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8
Electronic Configurations for the First 20 Elements
potassium calcium
protons = 19 protons = 20
electrons = 19 electrons = 20
neutrons = 20 neutrons = 20
2.8.8.1 2.8.8.2
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3.2.1 Bonding: The Structure of Matter
Elements are made of atoms of the same type. For example, oxygen is made up of oxygen
atoms.
Properties of Elements
A physical property is something about the appearance or state of a material.
The most common properties are:
 melting and boiling points (either high or low)

 electrical conductivity (either good or poor)
 density (either high or low)
A chemical property is something about the chemistry of a material.
The most common properties are:
 form positive, or negative ions

 form basic, or acidic oxides
The Periodic Table arranges elements in order of ascending proton number and can be
split into metals and non-metals. There is a change from metallic character to non-metal
character going from left to right across the periodic table.
Group number (number of valence electrons)

I II III IV V VI VII 0
1 H He
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Period number 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
(number of shells) 4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5 Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
6 Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
7 Fr Ra
alkali metals transition metals halogens noble gases
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Physical Properties
Metals Non-Metals
usually high density (except group I) usually low density
usually silvery/shiny and can be polished dull
malleable (can be hammered into shapes
usually soft or brittle when solid
without breaking)
Ductile (can be drawn into thin wires) usually soft or brittle when solid
usually have high melting and boiling points usually have low melting and boiling points
good conductor of heat and electricity poor conductors of heat and electricity
Chemical Properties
Metals Non-Metals
usually form basic oxides usually form acidic oxides
form positive ions usually form negative ions
react with non-metals forming ionic bonds react with metals forming ionic bonds
react with non-metals forming covalent bonds
Compounds are made up of different elements. They have their elements chemically
bonded together and can only be separated by chemical reactions.
Mixtures do not have their elements bonded together, so they can be separated by
physical methods, such as filtration, decanting, distillation, evaporation, crystallisation and
chromatography (see Topic 2).
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals which have been made molten and then mixed
together. It is then cooled and allowed to solidify. Alloys are used because they have the
properties of each of the different metals mixed together. They are always stronger than
the metals they are made from.
Steel is an alloy made from iron and carbon, so it only contains one metal (carbon is a
non-metal) but it is still an alloy.
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3.2.2 Ions and Ionic Bonds
Ions
Ions can be formed two different ways:
1. Cations are positive ions that are formed when metal atoms give away their valence
(outer shell) electrons.
2. Anions are negative ions that are formed when a non-metal atom takes in electrons
to fill their valence shell.
They do this to obtain the noble gas electronic configuration by having a full, or empty,
valence (outer) shell.
Metal Ions
Metal ions have the same electronic configuration as the noble gas, which is at the end of
the period above where the metal was.
 Example 7: sodium
Sodium is in period 3, so it forms a cation with the noble gas electronic structure of neon,
which is in period 2.
X
XX XX +
X X
electron
XX
XX
XX
XX
Na Na + e–
X X
XX XX
nucleus
sodium atom sodium ion
electronic configuration 2.8.1 2.8
Valency is the number of electrons that have been given away, or taken in by an atom.
The valency for metals is the same number as the group number in the Periodic table.
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Number of Valence
Element Valency Charge on the Ion
Electrons
sodium 1 1 1+
magnesium 2 2 2+
aluminium 3 3 3+
Non-Metal Ions
When non-metals atoms form ions they have the noble gas electronic configuration of a
noble gas in the same period.
 Example 8: chlorine
Chlorine in period 3 forms an anion with the same electronic configuration as argon in
period 3.
–
electron
X
Cl
+ e– Cl
nucleus
chlorine atom chloride ion
2.8.7 2.8.8
The valency for non-metals = 8 - group number
Number of
Charge on
Element Valence Valency Name of Ion
the Ion
Electrons
chlorine 7 1 chloride 1–
oxygen 6 2 oxide 2–
nitrogen 5 3 nitride 3–
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Electronic configuration of ions
Electronic
Metal or Electronic Loss, or Gain
Element Configuration of
Non-Metal Configuration of Ion of Electrons
Atom
potassium metal 2.8.8.1 2.8.8 loss
chlorine non-metal 2.8.7 2.8.8 gain
oxygen non-metal 2.6 2.8 gain
aluminium metal 2.8.3 2.8 loss
nitrogen non-metal 2.5 2.8 gain
Electronic Noble Gas with the Same Electronic

Ions Period
Configuration Configuration
Li+, Be2+ 2 2 He
Na+, Mg2+, Al3+ 3 2.8 Ne
K+, Ca2+, Ga3+ 4 2.8.8 Ar
F-, O2-, N3- 2 2.8 Ne
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Ionic Bonds
An ionic bond is a strong non-directional electrostatic force of attraction between cations

and anions formed due to the transfer of electrons.
An ionic bond is formed by a metal atom losing its valence electrons to a non-metal atom
or atoms. The metal ion formed has a positive charge and the non-metal ion formed has a
negative charge. Both ions formed have a noble gas electronic configuration / full outer
shell.
In naming ionic compounds, always put the metal ion first.
 Example 9: sodium chloride:
Formation of sodium chloride showing full electron structures
X
–
XX XX
X X +
X
XX
XX
XX
Na Cl Na XX Cl
X X
XX XX
2.8.1 2.8.7 2.8 or [2.8]+ 2.8.8 or [2.8.8]–
Formation of sodium chloride showing valence electrons only
X
–
[Na]+
X
Na Cl Cl
2.8.1 2.8.7 2.8 or [2.8]+ 2.8.8 or [2.8.8]–
Key:
X = electron from Na
= electrons from Cl
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Why do Cl– ions have a larger ionic radius than Na+ ions?
The Cl– ions have a larger ionic radius than the Na+ ions as chloride ions have three
complete shells of electrons, whereas sodium ions have only two complete electron shells.
 Example 10: magnesium chloride:
Number of
Element Symbol
Protons Neutrons Electrons
magnesium Mg 12 12 12
chlorine Cl 17 18/20 17
X
Cl
–
X
Mg
2.8.7 [Mg]2+ 2 X
Cl
Cl
2.8.2 2.8 or [2.8]2+ 2.8.8 or [2.8.8]–
Formula = MgCl2
One magnesium atom reacts with two chlorine atoms. Magnesium has two valence
electrons, which it loses. One chlorine atom can only accept one of the electrons, so a
second chlorine atom is required. For every one magnesium atom we need two chlorine
atoms.
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 Example 11: magnesium oxide:
Number of
Element Symbol
magnesium Mg 12 12 12
oxygen O 8 8 8
X
2–
X
Mg O
X
[Mg]2+ O
x
2.8.2 2.6 2.8 or [2.8]2+ 2.8 or [2.8]2–
Formula = MgO
One magnesium atom reacts with one oxygen atom. Magnesium has two valence
electrons, and one oxygen atom requires two electrons to have the noble gas electronic
configuration. So one atom of magnesium reacts with one atom of oxygen.
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 Example 12: aluminium fluoride:
Number of
Element Symbol
aluminium Al 13 14 13
fluorine F 9 10 9
F
X
–
x
F
X
Al F
[Al]3+ 3
X
2.8 or [2.8]3+ 2.8 or [2.8]–
F
2.8.3 2.7
Formula = AlF3
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 Example 13: sodium oxide:
Number of
Element Symbol
sodium Na 11 12 11
oxygen O 8 8 8
Na
2–
X
O 2[Na]+ O
X
x
Na
2.8.1 2.6 2.8 or [2.8]+ 2.8 or [2.8]2–
Formula = Na2O
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Ionic Compounds
When ions form due to the transfer of electrons, they do not exist in pairs, but form giant
3-dimensional crystal lattice structures with millions of ions arranged in regular rows
with opposite charges next to each other.
The lattice structure of ionic compounds is a regular arrangement of alternating positive

and negative ions in a 3-dimensional structure.
Structure
In sodium chloride crystals, each sodium ion is surrounded by 6 chloride ions. Each
chloride ion is surrounded by 6 sodium ions forming a giant ionic crystal.
Cl– surrounded by 6 Na+ ions

Na+ surrounded by 6 Cl– ions
The alternating positive and negative ions in the crystal lattice of ionic compounds are held
together by strong non-directional electrostatic forces of attraction.
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This diagram below is a 2-dimensional representation of the ionic compound sodium

chloride.
Na+ Cl Na+ Cl Na+ Cl Na+ Cl
Cl Na+ Cl Na+ Cl Na+ Cl Na+
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Physical Properties
Property Reason
Conduct electricity when
molten or dissolved in There are mobile ions
solution
High melting points and There are strong non-directional electrostatic forces of
boiling points attraction holding the ions together in the giant lattice
Water molecules are able to bond with the positive and
Soluble in water negative ions, which breaks up the lattice and keeps the ions
apart
If a force is applied to the bottom rows of ions so they move by
1 ion length, then we see that positive ions are lined up with
Brittle
positive ions, and negative ions are lined up with negative
ions. We get repulsion between layers and the crystal breaks
Brittle describes a solid material that easily breaks into small pieces under force and does
not bend.

repulsion

force
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3.2.3 Molecules and Covalent Bonds
Covalent Bonds
A covalent bond is a directional bond formed between two non-metal atoms by sharing
one or more pairs of electrons in the overlap in order to have a full outer shell.
A full valence shell is a stable arrangement of electrons, and this is why the noble gases
do not react and have chemical stability.
 Example 14: hydrogen gas:
Hydrogen gas does not consist of individual atoms (monatomic like the noble gases),
but two atoms of hydrogen which are bonded by a covalent bond to form a hydrogen
molecule H2 (diatomic)
This pairing allows the atoms to share electrons (one from each atom) so that each
hydrogen atom has two electrons in its valence shell. The first shell is full with two
electrons, and a full shell is a more stable arrangement of electrons.
valence electrons covalent bond
H H H H
+
The H2 molecule can be represented as this stick diagram H – H.
The dash in between the two H‟s represents two electrons (one from each atom)
Group VII (halogens) have seven valence electrons. Two chlorine atoms share a pair
of electrons (one from each atom) in the overlap so both atoms have a full outer shell.
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 Example 15: chlorine gas:
A single covalent bond formed between two atoms both with a valency of 1 (e.g. Group VII
and hydrogen), has two electrons in the overlap. One from each atom.
Dot-Cross Diagram Stick Diagram
Cl Cl Cl - Cl
Double Bonds and Triple Bonds
A double covalent bond formed between two atoms both with a valency of 2 (e.g. oxygen),
has four electrons in the overlap. Two from each atom.
A triple covalent bond formed between two atoms both with a valency of 3 (e.g. nitrogen),
has six electrons in the overlap. Three from each atom.
Summary of Covalent Bonds for Non-Metals
Number of Bonds
Atom Valence Electrons Valency
per Atom
Hydrogen 1 1 1
Carbon 4 4 4
Nitrogen 5 3 3
Oxygen 6 2 2
Fluorine 7 1 1
Chlorine 7 1 1
Bromine 7 1 1
Iodine 7 1 1
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Examples of Covalently Bonded Molecules
Name and
Stick Diagrams Dot and Cross Diagram Structure
Formulae
hydrogen gas
simple molecular
(H2) H H H H
chlorine gas
Cl Cl simple molecular
(Cl2)
Cl Cl
xx
xx
oxygen gas
xxx x
O O simple molecular
(O2) O O xx
xx
nitrogen gas
N N simple molecular
(N2) N N
hyrdogen
chloride gas H Cl simple molecular
(HCl) H Cl
H
methane gas H
H C H simple molecular
(CH4) H C H
H H
water
O O simple molecular
(H2O)
H H H H
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Name and
Stick Diagrams Dot and Cross Diagram Structure
Formulae
carbon
xx
xx
dioxide gas simple molecular
xx
xx
O C O
(CO2) O C O
xx
xx
ethene gas H H H H
C C C C simple molecular
(C2H4)
H H H H
H
H xx
methanol
H C x O xH simple molecular
(CH3OH) H C O H
xx
H H
ammonia gas H N H
N simple molecular
(NH3)
H H
H H
phosphorus Cl P Cl
trichloride simple molecular
(PCl3) P
Cl Cl Cl
Cl
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Simple Molecular
Water is a small molecule composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom
covalently bonded. As one molecule is made from a small number of atoms, water is
therefore described as simple molecular. Other examples of simple molecules are:
carbon dioxide (CO2) hydrogen chloride (HCl) nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

carbon monoxide (CO) ammonia (NH3) sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Physical Properties
Property Reasons
The molecules are simple molecular with

Liquids, gases or low melting point
only weak intermolecular van der Waals
solids at room temperature.
forces of attraction.
Due to weak intermolecular van der Waals
forces of attraction a low amount of energy
Low melting and boiling points
has to be supplied to overcome these
relatively weak forces.
Covalent molecular (non-polar) substances
Soluble in organic solvents such as dissolve in covalent (non-polar) solvents
benzene. Very slightly soluble or such as hexane or benzene. Water is a polar
insoluble in water. solvent and so will not usually dissolve
covalent molecular substances.
Do not conduct electricity when There are no mobile electrons or mobile

molten or dissolved ions.
Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction between molecules e.g. van der Waals.
Intramolecular bonds are found inside molecules e.g. covalent bonds.
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3.2.4 Macromolecules
Macromolecules are giant arrangements of covalently bonded atoms. They are:
1. Diamond (an allotrope of carbon)

2. Graphite (an allotrope of carbon)
3. Fullerenes (an allotrope of carbon)
4. Silicon Dioxide (a compound)
Allotropes of Carbon
1. Diamond
Structure:
Each carbon forms 4 strong covalent rigid bonds with other

carbon atoms forming a tetrahedral arrangement giving rise to
a macromolecular structure.
Physical Properties
Property Reasons
All the intramolecular covalent bonds are
very strong and rigid, so a large amount of
High melting point/very hard energy has to be supplied to overcome the
strong bonds. This is why diamond is hard
and has a high melting point.
Diamond does not contain any mobile
Poor electrical conductor electrons or mobile ions and so does not
conduct electricity.
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2. Graphite
Structure:
Each carbon atom forms 3 strong

covalent bonds with other carbon
atoms forming layers of flat
hexagonal rings.
van der Waals forces
There are mobile, delocalised carbon atoms

electrons between the flat layers of
carbon atoms. This is where carbon's covalent bonds
fourth valence electron is found.
The layers are only bonded together

by weak van der Waals forces of attraction, so the layers can slide over each other.
Physical Properties
Property Reasons
The layers are only bonded together by
Lubricant weak van der Waals forces of attraction,
and so the layers can slide over each other.
There are mobile electrons between the
Electrical conductor
layers.
A lubricant is a substance, which reduces friction between moving parts.
Comparing Diamond and Graphite
Properties of Diamond Properties of Graphite

Does not conduct electricity (no mobile Conducts electricity (has mobile
electrons or mobile ions) electrons)
A very hard substance Soft and slippery
A transparent crystal which sparkles in light A grey-black shiny solid
Uses of Diamond Uses of Graphite

To make pencil “lead”
Used for cutting rocks
used as a lubricant
Used in glass engraving
carbon brushes in motors
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3. Fullerenes
Fullerenes are another allotrope of carbon. They contain 60 carbons in a spherical

structure and have the formula, C60.
Silicon dioxide
Even though silicon and carbon are in the same group, and so have similar chemical
properties, their physical properties differ. Carbon dioxide is simple molecular and is a
gas at room temperature, however, silicon dioxide is a macromolecule and is a solid at
room temperature.
Structure:
O
Each silicon atom is covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms, and
each oxygen is bonded to two silicon atoms by strong rigid covalent
Si
bonds in a tetrahedral arrangement giving rise to a 3-dimensional
macromolecular structure, like diamond. The substance is hard as O O O
all the intramolecular bonds are strong covalent bonds.
Si
SiO2 has the same properties as diamond.
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3.2.5 Metallic Bonding
Metals are held together by metallic bonds forming giant metallic structures.
Metallic structure is a lattice of positive metal ions surrounded by a mobile „sea‟ of valence
electrons in a 3-dimensional structure.
The valence electrons of each metal atom in the crystal are delocalised and move around
the positive ions. This means that the metal is a giant lattice consisting of regular rows
of positive ions surrounded by a “sea of electrons”. A strong non-directional
electrostatic force of attraction operates between the delocalised valence electrons
and the lattice of positive ions.
Structure:
e e
e delocalised mobile
e e e valence electrons
that have separated
from the atoms
e
e e e
e
e e
e e
lattice of
e metal cations
e
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Physical Properties
Property Reasons
Due to the strong non-directional
electrostatic forces of attraction
Metals usually have high melting points operating between the positive ions and the
and delocalised mobile valence electrons, a
Metals are usually hard large amount of energy has to be supplied
to overcome the strong forces holding the
ions in fixed positions in the giant lattice.
Large numbers of ions are packed together
Metals usually have a high density
very closely in a regular arrangement.
Metals conduct electricity as they have
mobile valence electrons.
In a metal the valence electrons move
Metals are good electrical conductors
randomly, however when a potential
difference is applied across the metal, the
„sea‟ of valence electrons move in one
direction only.
The layers of ions slide over each other due
to the continual non-directional electrostatic
force of attraction between the lattice of
Metals are malleable
positive ions and the delocalised mobile
valence sea of electrons, changing the
shape of the metal without breaking.
Malleable means that the metal can be bent into shape without breaking.
e e
e
e e e
e
e e e
e
e e
force e e
e e
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Topic 4.1 - Stoichiometry
 Use the symbols of the elements and write the formulae of simple
compounds (see Topic 3 notes)
 Deduce the formula of a simple compound from the relative numbers of
atoms present
 Deduce the formula of a simple compound from a model or a
diagrammatic representation
 Construct word equations and simple balanced chemical equations
 Define relative atomic mass, Ar as the average mass of naturally
occurring atoms of an element on a scale where the 12C atom has a
mass of exactly 12
 Define relative molecular mass, Mr as the sum of the relative atomic
masses
 Determine the formula of an ionic compound from the charges on the
ions present
 Construct equations with state symbols, including ionic equations
 Deduce the balanced equation for a chemical reaction, given relevant
information
Definitions
Ar is the mass of one atom of an element relative to one twelfth of the mass of
one atom of 12C
Mr is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in one molecule of
the compound
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Naming Compounds
Compounds take their names from the elements they are made up from. The rules
for naming compounds are:
 The metal, or positive ion, goes first and the non-metal goes second.
 If a compound does not have a metal, then the non-metal that is most to the
left on the Periodic Table goes first.
 The (second) non-metal's name changes its ending.
Non-Metal Element Changed Name in a Compound

Fluorine Fluoride
Chlorine Chloride
Bromine Bromide
Iodine Iodide
Oxygen Oxide
Sulphur Sulphide
Nitrogen Nitride
Phosphorous Phosphide
Carbon Carbide
Hydrogen Hydride
So a compound containing calcium and oxygen would be called calcium oxide and a
compound containing lithium and hydrogen would be called lithium hydride and a
compound containing phosphorus and chlorine would be called phosphorus chloride.
When naming transition metal compounds it is important to include the valency of

the transition metal cation. This is because transition metals have variable valencies.
Copper sulphate is actually called copper(II) sulphate because the copper has a
valency of 2+.
Note - organic molecules (see Topic 14) are named by a different system.
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Formula of Compounds
To work out the formula of a compound you must know the valency of the elements
in the compound. Most elements' valency can be found from the periodic table. The
exceptions to this are transition metals, other elements with variable valencies and
polyatomic ions.
Cations Anions
Name Formula Valency Name Formula Valency

+ -
hydrogen H 1+ hydride H 1-
silver(I) Ag +
1+ nitrate NO3– 1-
mercury(I) Hg+ 1+ nitrite NO2– 1-
copper(I) Cu+ 1+ hydroxide OH– 1-
hydrogen
gold Au+ 1+ HCO3– 1-
carbonate
ammonium NH4+ 1+ manganate(VII) MnO4- 1-
ethanoate CH3COO– 1-
Name Formula Valency
zinc Zn2+ 2+ Name Formula Valency
mercury(II) Hg2+ 2+ carbonate CO32– 2-
copper(II) Cu2+ 2+ sulphate SO42– 2-
2+
iron(II) Fe 2+ sulphite SO32– 2-
2+ 2–
lead(II) Pb 2+ sulphide S 2-
2+
manganese(II) Mn 2+ silicate SiO32– 2-
chromate(VI) Cr2O72- 2-
Name Formula Valency
aluminium Al3+ 3+ Name Formula Valency
iron(III) Fe3+ 3+ nitride N3- 3-
chromium(III) Cr3+ 3+ phosphate PO43– 3-
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Symbols and Formula
All elements have symbols as a quick way of writing their names

Some elements are diatomic and two atoms are found in each molecule:
Formula of
Element
Diatomic Molecule
Hydrogen H2
Nitrogen N2
Oxygen O2
Fluorine F2
Chlorine Cl2
Bromine Br2
Iodine I2
Astatine At2
Compounds have a formula that tells you the number and type of atoms in the
molecule. The formula is always in a fixed ratio.
For example, water is H2O which means that water contains hydrogen and oxygen
bonded together. It also means that the H:O ratio is always 2:1.
Working Out Formula
Step 1 - Write down the symbols of each element

Step 2 - Write down the valency of each element (number only, not the sign)
Step 3 - Swap the valencies over
Step 4 - Simplify the numbers if possible
 Example 1: sodium chloride
Step 1 Symbol Na Cl
Step 2 Valency 1 1
Step 3 Swap Na1Cl1
Step 4 Simplify NaCl
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 Example 2: magnesium bromide
Step 1 Mg Br
Step 2 2 1
Step 3 Mg1Br2
Step 4 MgBr2
 Example 3: potassium oxide
Step 1 K O
Step 2 1 2
Step 3 K2O1
Step 4 K2O
 Example 4: calcium sulphide
Step 1 Ca S
Step 2 2 2
Step 3 Ca2S2
Step 4 CaS
 Example 5: germanium oxide
Step 1 Ge O
Step 2 4 2
Step 3 Ge2S4
Step 4 GeS2
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Polyatomic Ions
These are ions made of more than one element, for example SO42–, or CO32–. These
ions need (brackets) if they have a number.
 Example 6: calcium hydroxide
Step 1 Ca OH
Step 2 2 1
Step 3 Ca1(OH)2
Step 4 Ca(OH)2
 Example 7: magnesium carbonate
Step 1 Mg CO3
Step 2 2 2
Step 3 Mg2(CO3)2
Step 4 MgCO3
Brackets are not needed as there is no other number following

CO3 after being simplified.
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Working Out the Number of Elements Present in Compounds from the Formula
If we have the formula of a compound we can work out the number of different
elements present in the compound by counting the number of different symbols in
the formula.
H2SO4
subscript after each
If no subscript is element tells us the
present then it is number of atoms of that
taken to be one type
So sulphuric acid, H2SO4 has 2 hydrogen atoms, 1 sulphur atom and 4 oxygen
atoms all bonded together in one molecule.
 Example 8:
Number of Different Total Number of Atoms in

Formula
Elements Molecule
HCl 2 2
HNO3 3 5
H2SO4 3 7
CuSO4. 5H2O 4 21
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Types of Formula
1. Structural formula shows all the atoms and bonds in a molecule.

2. Molecular formula shows how which atoms are in a molecule and how many
there are.
3. Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the molecular
formula.
 Example 9:
Name of Molecular Empirical

Structural Formula
Compound Formula Formula
H H
O
H C C C
lactic acid C3H6O3 CH2O
O H
H O H
H 2C CH3
CH
H2 C CH2
limonene C10H16 C5H8
HC CH2
C
CH3
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Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
This is the relative mass of an atom compared to a standard (carbon-12).
mass of one atom of an element

Ar = 1
.
12 the mass of one atom of carbon- 12
Calculating Average Isotopic Mass
Average mass = (mass 1 x % isotope 1) + (mass 2 x % isotope 2)

100 100
 Example 10: We know that about 75% of all chlorine is 35

17 Cl and only 25%
37
is 17 Cl
Average mass = (35 x 75/100) + (37 x 25/100) = 35.5
The average mass of the isotopes is 35.5 so the Ar of Cl is 35.5
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Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)
This is the relative mass of a compound, or molecule compared to a standard

(carbon-12).
To do this multiply each Ar by the number of that type of atom present and then add
all the masses together.
 Example 11: water
Number of Each
Molecule Formula Atoms Present Ar Total Mass
Type of Atom
H 2 1 2
water H2O
O 1 16 16
Total 18
Mr of water is 18
 Example 12: calcium carbonate
Number of each
Molecule Formula Atoms present Ar Total Mass
type of atom
Ca 1 40 40
calcium
CaCO3 C 1 12 12
carbonate
O 3 16 48
Total 100
Mr of calcium carbonate is 100
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Symbol Equations
A chemical equation is balanced when there are equal number of atoms and charges
on both sides of the equation.
Step 1 - Write symbols, or formula for each chemical

Step 2 - Count the number of atoms of each element on the left and on the right
Step 3 - Balance each element by adding either more reagent, or more product.
 Example 13: magnesium + hydrochloric acid  magnesium chloride +

hydrogen.
Step 1 Mg + HCl  MgCl2 + H2
Step 2 1 magnesium 1 magnesium

1 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
1 chlorine 2 chlorine
Step 3 Mg + 2 HCl  MgCl2 + H2
By adding an extra hydrochloric acid, all of the

atoms now balance.
1 magnesium 1 magnesium
2 chlorine 2 chlorine
In step 3 we always use numbers before the

symbol, or formula to show how many molecules
there are of that chemical.
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 Example 14: methane burning in oxygen to make carbon dioxide and water.
Step 1 CH4 + O2  CO2 + 2H2O
Step 2 1 carbon 1 carbon

2 oxygen 3 oxygen
Step 3 CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
By adding an extra oxygen and an extra water, all

of the atoms now balance.
1 carbon 1 carbon
4 oxygen 4 oxygen
Use of Fractions in Equations
 Example 15: ethane burning in oxygen to make carbon dioxide and water.
Step 1 C2H6 + O2  CO2 + H2O
Step 2 2 carbon 1 carbon

2 oxygen 3 oxygen
Step 3 2 C2H6 + 7 O2  4 CO2 + 6 H2O
We can also write the equation like this
C2H6 + 7
2 O2  2 CO2 + 3 H2O
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State Symbols
When writing equations, it is sometimes required to write state symbols after each
compound, or element:
(s) solid
(l) liquid
(g) gas
(aq) aqueous, which means dissolved in water
Ionic Equations
 Example 16: Write an ionic equation for the displacement / redox / exothermic
reaction between aluminium powder and copper(II) sulphate
solution
Step 1 Write a symbol equation
2Al(s) + 3CuSO4(aq)  Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3Cu(s)
Step 2 Write the equation with all aqueous solutions ionised, or

dissociated. To do this split each aqueous compound into its
ions:
2Al(s) + 3Cu2+(aq) + 3SO42–(aq)  2Al3+(aq) + 3SO42–(aq) + 3Cu(s)
Step 3 Cancel out any species on both sides of the equation

which have not changed their valency, or state of matter. These
are called spectator ions.
2Al(s) + 3Cu2+(aq) + 3SO42–(aq)  2Al3+(aq) + 3SO42–(aq) + 3Cu(s)
Step 4 Write out what is left
2Al(s) + 3Cu2+(aq)  2Al3+(aq) + 3Cu(s)
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Balancing Redox Equations
 Example 17: Balance the redox equation
Al + Cu2+  Al3+ + Cu
Step 1 Split the equation into two ionic half-equations - one for
oxidation and one for reduction.
Al  Al3+ + 3e–
Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu
Step 2 Balance each half-equation so there are the same number of

electrons in each equation.
2Al  2Al3+ + 6e–
3Cu2+ + 6e–  3Cu
Step 3 Cancel out the electrons
2Al  2Al3+ + 6e–

3Cu2+ + 6e–  3Cu
Step 4 Add the two ionic half-equations together
2Al + 3Cu2+  2Al3+ + 3Cu
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Topic 4.2 - The Mole Concept
 Define the mole and the Avogadro constant

 Use the molar gas volume, taken as 24dm3 at room temperature and
pressure
 Calculate stoichiometric reacting masses, volumes of gases and
solutions, and concentrations of solutions expressed in g/dm3 and
mol/dm3 (Calculations involving the idea of limiting reactants may be
set. Questions on the gas laws and the conversion of gaseous volumes
to different temperatures and pressures will not be set.)
 Calculate empirical formulae and molecular formulae
 Calculate percentage yield and percentage purity
Definitions
A mole is the amount of substance which contains 6 x 10 23 atoms, ions or
molecules
The limiting reactant in a particular experiment is the reactant that governs the
maximum amount of product that can be formed
Empirical formula shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms present
Molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element present
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Moles
It was discovered that if you have 6 x 10 23 particles of any chemical, then the mass
in grams will be the same as the chemicals mass number (Ar or Mr)
 Example 1: Calculate the mass of 6 x 1023 particles of calcium.
Calcium has a mass number of 40, so the mass is 40g
 Example 2: Calculate the mass of 6 x 1023 particles of water.
Water has a mass number of (16 + 1 + 1), so the mass is 18g
The number 6 x 1023 is the Avogadro constant.
1 mole = 6 x 1023 particles
Using Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
Ar is the same as the element's mass number and can be found on the Periodic
Table. It has the units g/mol, which just means how many grams there are in 1 mole.
We can use the Ar to work out the mass of one mole of an element. The Ar of sodium
is 23g/mol. So if we wanted to weigh out 1 mole of sodium atoms then we simply
weigh out 23g. This will contain 6 x 1023 atoms (Avogadro's constant).
The relative atomic mass (Ar), in grams, of any element contains 1 mole of
atoms.
mass used
Number of moles = mass
relative atomicmass used
mole Ar
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 Example 3: How many moles are there in 46g of sodium?
46
Number of moles = = 2 moles of sodium atoms
23
Using Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)
The relative molecular mass (Mr) in grams, of any compound contains 1 mole
of molecules
mass
mass used
Number of moles = used
relative molecular mass
mole Mr
 Example 4: How many moles are there in 1.8g of water?
1.8
Number of moles = = 0.1 moles of water molecules
18
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Using the Mass of Reacting Material
This combines using the number of moles formula above, with an equation.
Step 1 Write a balanced equation

Step 2 Find the number of moles of 1 of the chemicals
Step 3 Use the mole ratio to find the number of moles of the other
chemicals
Step 4 Calculate the mass of the other chemicals
 Example 5: 20g of sodium hydroxide reacts with an excess of hydrochloric

acid to form sodium chloride and water. Calculate the mass of
salt made.
Step 1 NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
20
Step 2 Number of moles NaOH = = 0.5 moles
40
Step 3 1 1 1 1 mole ratio
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 moles
Step 4 Mass sodium chloride = Mole x Ar

Mass sodium chloride = 0.5 x 58.5 = 29.25g
 Example 6: Iron(III) oxide is reduced to iron using carbon monoxide in the

blast furnace. How much iron will be produced from 100g of
iron(III) oxide?
Step 1 Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3CO2
100
Step 2 Number of moles Fe2O3 = = 0.625 moles
160

0.625 1.875 1.25 1.875 moles
Step 4 Mass iron = Mole x Ar

Mass iron = 1.25 x 56 = 70g
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 Example 7: Insoluble salts are made by precipitation. An equation for the

preparation of barium sulfate is:
FeSO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq)  BaSO4(s) + FeCl2(aq)
This reaction can be used in an experiment to find the value of x

in the formula for hydrated iron(II) sulfate crystals (FeSO4.xH2O)
A known mass of the crystals of hydrated iron (II) sulfate was

dissolved in water. Excess barium chloride solution was added.
The precipitated barium sulfate was filtered, washed and dried.
Finally it was weighed.
Mass of hydrated iron (II) sulfate crystals = 1.390g

Mass of barium sulfate formed = 1.165g
Calculate the value for x in FeSO4.xH2O.
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Step 1 FeSO4 + BaCl2  BaSO4 + FeCl2
1.165
Step 2 Number of moles BaSO4 =
233
= 5 x10–3 moles
5 x10–3 5 x10–3 5 x10–3 5 x10–3 moles
Step 4 rearranging mass FeSO4.xH2O = Mole x Mr
mass used
Mr FeSO4.xH2O =
mole
1.390
Mr FeSO4.xH2O = = 278 g/mol
0.005
And we know that Mr FeSO4 = 152 g/mol
So the mass of water is 278g – 152g = 126 g
mass used 126

So Number of moles of water is = = 7
Mr 18
Formula of hydrated iron(II) sulfate is FeSO4.7H2O
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Limiting Reagent
This is used when we have different numbers of moles of reagents. The reagent with
the least number of moles is the limiting reagent and will all react (there will be
none left after the reaction has finished). The other reagent will be in excess (there
will be some left over after the reaction has finished).
To calculate the limiting reagent you must calculate the number of moles of each
reagent and use the mole ratio to compare values.
Step 1 Write the equation for the reaction

Step 2 Calculate the number of moles of a reagent
Step 3 Calculate the number of moles of the other reagent
Step 4 Use the mole ratio to compare which reagent has fewer moles -
this is the limiting reagent
 Example 8: 10g of calcium carbonate reacts with 29.4g of sulphuric acid.

Which reagent is in excess?
Step 1 CaCO3 + H2SO4  CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
10
Step 2 Number of moles CaCO3 = = 0.1 moles
100
29.4
Step 3 Number of moles H2SO4 = = 0.3 moles
98
Step 4 As the mole ratio is 1:1 then CaCO3 is the limiting

reagent as it has fewer moles
The limiting reagent is used to calculate the number of moles of the other reagents
as it is all used up in the reaction.
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Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula
 Example 9: Glucose molecular formula C6H12O6

empirical formula CH2O
So glucose, C6H12O6 is made up from 6 empirical units of

CH2O.
To calculate the empirical formula of a compound you must use the following steps:
Step 1 Write down the elements in the compound
Step 2 Write down the % or mass in grams of each element
Step 3 Divide by the Ar to get the ratio of atoms
Step 4 Divide by the smallest number to turn the atom ratio into a whole
number for the formula
And then to calculate the molecular formula you will also need:
Step 5 number of empirical units = molecular mass

empirical mass
Step 6 molecular formula = empirical formula x number of units
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 Example 10: A carbohydrate of molar mass 180g/mol contains by weight

40.0% carbon; 6.7% hydrogen and 53.3% oxygen. What is the
empirical formula and molecular formula?
Step 1 carbon hydrogen oxygen
Step 2 40.0 6.7 53.3
40 6.7 53.3
Step 3
12 1 16
3.3 6.7 3.3
3.3 6.7 3.3

Step 4
3.3 3.3 3.3
1 2 1
So the empirical formula = CH2O
with a mass of (12+2+16) = 30
180
Step 5 number of empirical units =
30
Step 6 molecular formula = CH2O x 6
so the molecular mass = C6H12O6
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 Example 11: An oxide of phosphorus has a mass of 0.98g, which formed from
0.39g of phosphorus reacting with oxygen. Calculate the
empirical formula and molecular formula?
Step 1 phosphorus oxygen
Step 2 0.39 (0.98-0.39) = 0.5
0.39 0.5
Step 3
31 16
0.0126 0.0313
0.0126 0.0313
Step 4
0.0126 0.0126
1 2.5
As the empirical formula must be whole numbers, we must

double the ratio
2 5
So the empirical formula = P2O5
For ionic compounds the molecular formula = empirical formula
So the molecular formula = P2O5
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Mole Calculations for Gases
1 mole of any gas occupies a volume of 24dm3 at a temperature of 25oC and a

pressure of one atmosphere (this is at r.t.p. - room temperature and pressure).
If the question gives the volume of gas in dm3:
volume
volumeof gas (dm3 )
number of moles of gas = (dm3)
24
mole 24
If the question gives the volume of gas in cm3:
Gas volume conversion 1dm3 = 1000cm3
volumeof gas (cm3 )

number of moles of gas =
24000
 Example 12: Find the number of moles there are of ammonia gas at r.t.p. in a
200cm3 gas jar.
200
number of moles =
24000
= 0.00833 moles of ammonia gas
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 Example 13: A 10cm3 sample of alkene gas X needed 45cm3 of O2 for

complete combustion and 30cm3 of CO2 were produced. By
completing the following equation, work out the formula of gas
X, which is a hydrocarbon.
Because 1 mole of any gas at room temperature and pressure

(r.t.p.) occupies a volume of 24dm3, we can compare volumes
of gas without having to calculate the number of moles.
C…..H….. + …..O2  …..CO2 + …..H2O
10 cm3 45 cm3 30 cm3
Using the volumes to balance the equation gives us
1 C…..H….. + 4½ O2  3 CO2 + .....H2O
We know that there are 3 carbons in the hydrocarbon, and using

the alkene general formula CnH2n we also know there are 6
hydrogens
So the formula of the hydrocarbon is C3H6
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Mole Calculations for Solutions
 Molar concentration (molarity) is measured in mol/dm3

 Mass concentration (molality) is measured in g/dm3
This can be used to work out the Mr of a solute:
mass concentration
Mr =
molarconcentration
Or the number of moles in a solution:
Number of moles = volume of solution (in dm3) x molar concentration
volumeof solution(cm3 )
Number of moles = x molar concentration
1000
mole
volume conc
(dm3)
To calculate the concentration of a solution in a reaction you must use the following
steps:
Step 1 Write down the chemical equation

Step 2 Write down the mole ratio
Step 3 Calculate the number of moles of reagent
Step 4 Use the mole ratio to calculate the number of moles of the other
reagent
Step 5 Calculate the concentration of the other reagent
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 Example 14: 25.0cm3 of hydrochloric acid is neutralised by 30.0cm3 of a

solution of sodium hydroxide of concentration 0.25mol/dm3. Find
the concentration of the hydrochloric acid.
Step 1 HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
Step 2 1 1 1 1
volume
Step 3 Moles NaOH = x concentration
1000
30.0
Moles NaOH = x 0.25
1000
= 7.5 x 10–3 moles
Step 4 Moles HCl = 7.5 x 10–3 moles
–3
mole 7.5 x 10
Step 5 Concentration HCl = =
volume 0.025
Concentration HCl = 0.3mol/dm3
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Percentage Yield
The percentage yield of a product is the percentage of its theoretical yield achieved
in practice.
The theoretical yield of a product is the maximum calculated mass that can be
obtained from a given mass of specified reactant.
mass produced
Percentage yield = x 100%
theoretical yield
Step 1 Write the equation

Step 2 Calculate the number of moles of reagent
Step 3 Use the mole ratio to work out the number of moles of the other
chemicals
Step 4 Calculate the theoretical mass of product
Step 5 Calculate the percentage yield
 Example 15: Copper(II) sulfate-5-water was prepared by the following

reactions.
CuO + H2SO4  CuSO4 + H2O

CuSO4 + 5H2O  CuSO4.5H2O
In an experiment, 25cm3 of 2.0mol/dm3 sulfuric acid was

neutralised with an excess of copper(II) oxide. The yield of
crystals, CuSO4.5H2O, was 7.3g. Calculate the percentage yield.
Step 1 CuO + H2SO4  CuSO4 + H2O

CuSO4 + 5H2O  CuSO4.5H2O
Step 2 Number of mole of H2SO4 = 0.025 x 2.0

= 0.05 mol
Step 3 1 1 1 1
0.05 mol 0.05 mol 0.05 mol 0.05 mol
Step 4 Theoretical mass CuSO4.5H2O = 0.05 x 250

= 12.5 g
7.3
Step 5 Percentage yield = x 100 = 58.4%
12.5
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Percentage Purity
The percentage purity of a reactant is the actual mass reacted divided by the initial
mass used expressed as a percentage.
Percentage purity is used when a reagent is impure. It contains impurities that do not
react.
actual mass (pure)reacted

Percentage purity = x 100%
initial mass(impure)used
 Example 16: An excess (more than is needed) of hydrochloric acid was

added to 1.570g of impure barium carbonate. The volume of
carbon dioxide gas collected was 0.120dm3. The impurities did
not react with the acid. Calculate the percentage purity of the
barium carbonate. Molar gas volume at r.t.p. is 24dm3
Step 1 2HCl + BaCO3  BaCl2 + H2O + CO2
0.120
Step 2 moles of CO2 = = 5 x 10–3 moles
24
Step 3 2 1 1 1 1
1x10–2 5x10–3 5x10 5x10 5x10–3
–3 –3
Step 4 actual mass BaCO3 = 5 x 10–3 x 197 = 0.985 g
0.985
Step 5 Percentage purity = x 100
1.570
= 62.7% pure
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Topic 5 - Electricity and Chemistry
 Define electrolysis as the breakdown of an ionic compound, molten or in

aqueous solution, by the passage of electricity
 Describe the electrode products and the observations made during the
electrolysis of:
1. molten lead(II) bromide
2. concentrated hydrochloric acid
3. concentrated aqueous sodium chloride
4. dilute sulfuric acid
 between inert electrodes (platinum or carbon)
 State the general principle that metals or hydrogen are formed at the
negative electrode (cathode), and that non-metals (other than hydrogen)
are formed at the positive electrode (anode)
 Predict the products of the electrolysis of a specified binary compound
in the molten state
 Describe the electroplating of metals
 Outline the uses of electroplating
 Describe the reasons for the use of copper and (steel cored) aluminium
in cables, and why plastics and ceramics are used as insulators
 Relate the products of electrolysis to the electrolyte and electrodes
used, exemplified by the specific examples in the Core together with
aqueous copper(II) sulfate using carbon electrodes and using copper
electrodes (as used in the refining of copper)
 Describe electrolysis in terms of the ions present and reactions at the
electrodes in the examples given
 Predict the products of electrolysis of a specified halide in dilute or
concentrated aqueous solution
 Construct ionic half-equations for reactions at the cathode
 Describe the transfer of charge during electrolysis to include:
1. the movement of electrons in the metallic conductor
2. the removal or addition of electrons from the external circuit at
the electrodes
3. the movement of ions in the electrolyte
 Describe the production of electrical energy from simple cells, i.e. two
electrodes in an electrolyte. (This should be linked with the reactivity
series in section 10.2 and redox in section 7.4.)
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 Describe, in outline, the manufacture of:

1. aluminium from pure aluminium oxide in molten cryolite (refer
to section 10.3)
2. chlorine, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide from concentrated
aqueous sodium chloride (Starting materials and essential
conditions should be given but not technical details or diagrams.)
Definitions
Electrolysis is the decomposition of an electrolyte using electricity
An electrolyte is a substance, which when molten or dissolved in solution

conducts electricity and is decomposed (broken down) by it
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Electrolysis
Before starting this topic a review of bonding (see Topic 3) would be helpful.
Electrolysis involves splitting up compounds by using electricity. The compound will

turn back into atoms usually. It is a bit like bonding in reverse.
Diagram of an Electrolytic Cell
battery
external circuit
electron flow
bulb
anode (+) cathode (-)
anions release cations remove

e to the anode e from the cathode
forming atoms
cation
electrolyte
anion (molten or aqueous)
The external circuit is made up of the battery, bulb, electrodes and wires. This is
where the electricity is conducted by electrons. The other part of the circuit is the
electrolyte, where the electricity is conducted by mobile ions.
During electrolysis, ions are changed back to being atoms by losing, or gaining
electrons. It is a bit like bonding in reverse.
There are two types of electrolyte molten (liquid) and aqueous (dissolved in water).
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Electrolytic Cell
An electrolytic cell converts electrical energy into chemical energy and consists of
two electrodes connected to a power supply by an external circuit and an electrolyte.
The battery pushes electrons around the circuit.

The electrons travel around an electrolytic cell from anode to cathode.
The ions in the electrolyte move to the oppositely charged electrodes.
A negatively charged ion is called an anion - this gets attracted to the positively
charged electrode, called an anode.
A positively charged ion is called a cation - this gets attracted to the negatively
charged electrode, called a cathode.
This means electrons are moving in the external circuit and ions are moving in the
electrolyte.
Electrons enter the external circuit at the anode (anions lose their extra electrons
to the electrode forming atoms/molecules; oxidation).
Electrons are removed from the external circuit at the cathode (cations gain
electrons and are reduced to form atoms; reduction).
A bulb may be added to the circuit to show that the circuit is complete and working.
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Molten Electrolysis
For molten (liquid) salts, metals are formed at the cathode, and non-metals at the
anode.
cathode (-) metals

molten electrolyte
anode (+) non-metals (except hydrogen gas)
 Example 1: electrolysis of molten lead (II) bromide
Carry out in a fume cupboard as lead is poisonous and

bromine is toxic.
battery
+ -
Use inert electrodes of graphite or platinum.

When the circuit is complete the bulb does not
initially light. This is because when the lead
(II) bromide is a solid the ions are not free to
move and so does not conduct electricity.
The solid is heated with a Bunsen burner, and

electrodes when enough energy has been supplied to
overcome the electrostatic forces of
attraction holding the ions in the lattice, the
solid melts and the bulb lights due to the
molten presence of mobile ions and so the molten
PbBr2 lead (II) bromide conducts electricity.
bromine
gas (Br2)
molten
lead
HEAT
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At the Anode:
2Br –(l)  Br2(g)+ 2e–
The Br– anions are attracted to the anode where they lose their extra electron to
the electrode forming atoms.
Bubbles of brown gas (Br2) are observed.
At the Cathode:
Pb2+(l) + 2e–  Pb(l)
The Pb2+ cations are attracted to the cathode where they gain electrons from the
cathode to form lead atoms.
A silvery liquid (molten lead) is collected at the bottom of the boiling-tube.
Adding the two half-ionic equations together we get the following full ionic
equation:
Pb2+(l) + 2Br–(l)  Pb(l) + Br2(g)
Why can the bulb continue to glow, even after the battery is switched off?
After 30 minutes many lead cations (Pb2+) have been

reduced to molten lead atoms which fill the bottom of the
test tube.
Eventually there is so much lead metal that it is in contact

with both electrodes, so even if the heat is removed and the
lead solidifies the circuit is still complete as solid metal
conducts electricity.
solid
lead
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Aqueous Electrolysis
Aqueous solutions are more difficult to predict than molten. This is because as well
as the cation and anion from the salt, there is a cation (H+) and anion (OH–) from the
water.
Remember water ionises very slightly to form ions
H2O ⇌ H+ + OH–
Predicting the Products of Aqueous Solutions
At the Cathode (-) At the Anode (+)
 If the metal is Dilute solutions Concentrated solutions

more reactive
than hydrogen,
then hydrogen Oxygen gas is the only  If the anions fluoride,
gas is produced. product formed by the chloride, bromide or
equation: iodide are present
 If the metal is less then fluorine,
reactive than chlorine, bromine or
4OH–  O2 + 2H2O + 4e– iodine is produced.
hydrogen, then
the metal is
deposited.  If there is no halide
anion present, then
oxygen gas is
produced.
The most unreactive cation in the reactivity series (see Topic 10.1) will be the
product
halogen
concentrated
anode (+) oxygen
aqueous dilute oxygen
electrolyte metal
cathode (-)
hydrogen gas
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 Example 2: electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulfate solution
Platinum or graphite electrodes are used because they are

inert (unreactive) and so do not affect the products made at
each electrode.
electrolytic cell The four ions present in the solution

are:
test tube
cations Cu2+ H+
anions SO42– OH–
electrode
Ions attracted to the cathode
Cu2+ and H+
Product formed at the cathode is

copper metal because it is less
reactive than hydrogen.
Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu
Product formed at the anode is oxygen

gas because there is no concentrated
halide ion present.
4OH–  O2 + 2H2O + 4e–
The solution left over at the end is sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

made from the H+ and SO42- ions left over. The other ions have
been discharged.
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Products and Observations of Some Aqueous Electrolytes
The table shows the products and observations of the most common aqueous
electrolytes:
Electrolyte Products Observations

Cathode - Hydrogen gas Cathode - bubbles of
Concentrated
2H+(aq) + 2e–  H2(g) colourless gas
aqueous
hydrochloric
Anode - Chlorine gas Anode - bubbles of
acid
2Cl–(aq)  Cl2(g) + 2e– green gas
Concentrated
2H+(aq) + 2e–  H2(g) colourless gas
aqueous
sodium
Anode - Chlorine gas Anode - bubbles of
chloride
2Cl–(aq)  Cl2(g) + 2e– green gas
Dilute 2H+(aq) + 2e–  H2(g) colourless gas
aqueous
sulphuric acid Anode - Oxygen gas Anode - bubbles of
4OH (aq)  2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e–
–
colourless gas
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Purification or Refining of Copper using Active Metal Electrodes
This is carried out using a pure copper cathode and an impure copper anode.
The electrolyte is blue acidified copper(II) sulfate solution.
Active metal electrodes mean that the anode decreases in mass/size as the
copper atoms are oxidised to form Cu2+ ions and enter the electrolyte and the
cathode increases in mass/size as the Cu2+ ions are reduced to copper atoms so
Cu gets deposited. Therefore the anode decreases in mass/size and the cathode
increases in mass/size.
start later
electron
flow
impure pure
copper copper
anode cathode
impure copper anode

pure Cu
decreases in mass/size cathode
Cu2+ ions are formed CuSO4(aq) increases
which enter the electrolyte electrolyte in
mass/size
anode sludge/impurities
Anode
At the anode copper atoms on the impure copper plates are oxidised, each
losing two valence electrons to form copper(II) ions (Cu2+) which enter the
electrolyte. The anode decreases in mass/size. The electrons travel around the
external circuit to the cathode.
Cu(s)  Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
The anode sludge/impurities are left on the bottom of the beaker and can be
removed by filtration.
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Cathode
At the cathode the copper(II) ions are reduced, each gaining 2 electrons, forming
pink brown copper atoms which are deposited on the cathode surface. The
cathode increases in mass/size and is pure copper metal.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e–  Cu(s)
The concentration of the electrolyte stays constant throughout electrolysis because

for every one copper atom oxidised to Cu2+ at the anode, only one Cu2+ ion is
reduced to a copper atom at the cathode, therefore the number of Cu2+ ions per
unit volume remains constant, so the colour remains the same - blue.
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Electroplating
Electroplating is the process of depositing metals from solution in the form of a layer
on other surfaces such as metal or plastic.
The object to be plated is always the

cathode.
cathode The metal used to plate the object is the

(object to anode.
be plated)
The electrolyte is always an aqueous salt
electrolyte:- solution of the metal. If you are unsure of
aqueous the solubility of a salt always use a nitrate
copper(II) salt as all nitrates are soluble (see Topic
nitrate
8.3)
Cu(NO3)2
copper anode
(metal used to
plate the object)
Anode
At the anode copper atoms are oxidised, each losing two valence electrons
forming copper(II) ions which enter the electrolyte, therefore the anode decreases
in mass/size.
The electrons travel around the external circuit to the cathode (key).
Cathode
At the cathode copper(II) ions in the electrolyte are reduced, each gaining two
electrons forming copper atoms which are deposited on the surface of the clean
key.
The key has to be cleaned using steel wool or sand paper otherwise the deposited
layer will not adhere to the surface.
The key has to be continually rotated to uniformly coat the key with a layer of
copper.
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The longer the experiment is left running for, the thicker the layer of copper
deposited.
The closer the key is to the anode the higher the rate of reduction of copper(II)
ions and so the faster the experiment proceeds (the bulb will glow brighter).
If the object is to be The anode must be

The electrolyte must be
plated with made from
copper copper aqueous copper(II) nitrate
silver silver aqueous silver(I) nitrate
zinc zinc aqueous zinc nitrate
Uses of Electroplating
 Silver is used to electroplate ornaments or cutlery, which has been made from
copper or an alloy of copper. This makes it look more attractive and
expensive.
 Gold is used to electroplate ornamental items to make them look more

expensive. The metal parts of electronic components are often gold plated to
ensure the contacts will be free of corrosion and therefore provide good
contacts.
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Production of Electricity from Simple Cells
A cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy and is
composed of two metals of different reactivity connected by an external circuit and
an electrolyte
The bigger the difference in reactivity between the two metals, the higher the
voltage, or the brighter the bulb.
 Example 3: zinc - iron cell
Zinc atoms, being more reactive than iron atoms, form their
positive ions in preference to the iron. The zinc ions enter the
electrolyte.
Zn  Zn2+ + 2e– (oxidation)
The electrons travel around the external circuit to the iron

electrode. Here the hydrogen ions in the electrolyte remove
the electrons from the iron electrode forming hydrogen
molecules (H2).
2H+ + 2e–  H2 (reduction)
voltmeter
V electron
flow
positive
negative terminal
terminal
more less
reactive reactive
metal (Zn) metal (Fe)
electrolyte
(aqueous
sulphuric bubbles of
acid) hydrogen gas
The zinc anode decreases in mass/size but the iron cathode

stays the same mass/size.
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The voltage could be increased by replacing the Zn electrode

with a piece of Mg metal or replacing the Fe electrode with a
piece of copper metal.
Use of Batteries
Batteries are used as a convenient portable source of energy.

Batteries are used to operate mobile telephones and personal stereos without the
need to be connected to a mains supply of electricity.
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Electrolysis of Concentrated Aqueous Sodium Chloride Solution (Brine)
Brine enters the electrolytic

brine chlorine gas hydrogen gas cell. The ions present in
solution are Na+, H+, Cl–
and OH–.
diaphragm
Na+ The diaphragm is used to
H+
Cl– prevent the chlorine gas
OH– Na+ produced from reacting
H2O H+
OH–
H2O
aqueous with the sodium
sodium hydroxide solution inside
hydroxide the cell.
power supply Material used for cathode -

steel
Material used for anode -
titanium
Anode
At the anode chloride ions lose electrons and so are oxidised to form chlorine
gas.
2Cl–(aq)  Cl2(g) + 2e–
The cations now pass through the diaphragm but the Cl– ions cannot.
Cathode
At the cathode hydrogen cations gain electrons and are reduced to H2

molecules.
2H+(aq) + 2e–  H2(g)
This leaves the ions Na+ and OH– ions which form aqueous sodium hydroxide.
Overall Reaction
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l)  2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
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Extraction of Aluminium by Electrolysis
Aluminium cannot be extracted like iron and zinc because it is more reactive than
carbon and cannot be reduced by carbon. So aluminium is made by the
electrolysis of pure aluminium oxide also called alumina. Molten aluminium is
produced at the cathode.
The ore of aluminium is called bauxite. This contains aluminium oxide

(Al2O3.2H2O) or alumina, which is amphoteric, and the impurity iron(III) oxide,
which is basic.
The ore is heated with aqueous sodium hydroxide. The aluminium oxide acts as an
acidic oxide and reacts with the NaOH(aq) to form a solution of sodium aluminate.
The basic Fe2O3 does not react with NaOH(aq).
The mixture is then filtered to separate the insoluble Fe2O3 from the solution of
sodium aluminate.
Pure aluminium oxide is made from this solution.
Solid pure aluminium oxide/alumina does not conduct electricity as there are no
mobile electrons or mobile ions. The melting temperature of pure aluminium oxide is
about 2050 oC, which is extremely high and so requires a lot of energy to be
used.
So molten cryolite (Na3AlF6) is used to dissolve the pure aluminium

oxide/alumina which lowers the working temperature of the cell to about 900 oC,
therefore the process is more efficient, saving a lot of energy.
pure aluminium oxide

dissolved in molten cryolite
cathode
(carbon
in the form anode
of graphite) (carbon
in the form
molten of graphite)
aluminium
outer casing
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Also, the cryolite ionises producing many moles of ions, improving the electrical
conductivity of the electrolyte and again the process is more efficient, saving
energy.
The electrolyte is kept molten due to the electrical heating effect of the current.
The electrodes are made from the element carbon in the form of graphite.
Cathode
Molten aluminium is formed and can be siphoned/tapped off from the bottom.
cathode reaction (reduction) Al3+(cryolite) + 3e–  Al(l)
Anode
Oxygen gas is formed at the anode, but F2(g), CO(g) and CO2(g) are also formed.
anode reaction (oxidation) 2O2–(cryolite)  O2(g) + 4e–
Fluorine from the cryolite is attracted to the anode and as the electrolysis is carried
out at a high temperature, the oxygen formed at the anode reacts with the carbon
anode forming CO(g) and CO2(g) which escape. This is why the anode decreases
in mass and has to be replaced on a regular basis.
Uses of Aluminium
 Food containers because it is not poisonous, does not corrode and is

malleable.
 Aircraft because it has a low density and a high strength to weight ratio.
 Electric power lines because it is a good conductor of electricity.
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium is covered by a surface layer of unreactive, protective impermeable

(to water and oxygen) aluminium oxide(Al2O3), which prevents (or slows) any
further reactions with water, acids or heat.
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Copper and Steel-Cored Aluminium Electrical Cables
Copper electrical cable:
 copper is a good conductor of electricity due to mobile valence electrons.

 copper is ductile and so can be drawn into wires
Steel cored aluminium cables:
plastic aluminium
coating cable  aluminium is used as it is a good
conductor and has a low density
 steel is used as it is a good conductor of
electricity and it is strong
steel  This combination gives the greatest

core
combination of strength, conductivity and
low density.
Recycling
Recycling is where a material, such as an aluminium can, can be used again.
 It conserves the reserves of the ore for the future.

 It saves energy and fuels as large amounts of electricity are used to extract
aluminium.
 It saves money as extracting aluminium by electrolysis is an expensive
process.
 Recycling metal articles prevents them causing litter.
Problems with Recycling
Recycling is not always an economic possibility because of the cost of sorting,

collecting and processing the waste material. The higher the value of the material,
the more economical it is to recycle.
Recycling plastics presents a particular problem because of the difficulty of

identifying the type of polymer used. It is easy to separate iron from copper in
recycling, but p.v.c. and poly(ethene) are much more difficult to distinguish and
separate.
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Topic 6 - Chemical Changes
6.1 Energetics of a reaction
 Describe the meaning of exothermic and endothermic reactions

 Interpret energy level diagrams showing exothermic and endothermic
reactions
 Describe bond breaking as an endothermic process and bond forming
as an exothermic process
 Draw and label energy level diagrams for exothermic and endothermic
reactions using data provided
 Calculate the energy of a reaction using bond energies
6.2 Energy transfer
 Describe the release of heat energy by burning fuels

 State the use of hydrogen as a fuel
 Describe radioactive isotopes, such as 235U, as a source of energy
 Describe the use of hydrogen as a fuel reacting with oxygen to generate
electricity in a fuel cell. Details of the construction and operation of a
fuel cell are not required.
Definitions
An exothermic reaction is one that releases heat energy into the surroundings
An endothermic reaction is one which absorbs heat energy from the

surroundings
A fuel is a substance which can be conveniently used as a source of energy
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6.1 Energetics of a Reaction
A change in energy, either an endothermic change or an exothermic change is a

sign that a chemical reaction has taken place. Most chemical reactions are
exothermic because reactants lose energy in the form of heat and light to form
more energetically stable products of lower energy.
In exothermic reactions the reactants are higher in energy than the products.
In endothermic reactions the reactants are lower in energy than the products.
Exothermic Reactions Endothermic Reactions

Combustion Electrolysis
Neutralisation Thermal decomposition
Displacement Photosynthesis
Synthesis
Rusting
Respiration
Energy Level Diagrams
The amount of energy stored in the reactants before the reaction is shown by the
line on the left. The line on the right is the energy stored in the products. The
difference between the two lines shows the energy given out during the reaction and
is represented by the symbol H.
Energy is measured in Joules (J) and kilojoules (kJ) so: 1kJ = 1000J
Most reactions do not happen spontaneously as some energy is required to start the
reaction by breaking the bonds of the reactants. This is called the activation energy
(EA).
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Exothermic Reactions
In an exothermic reaction, the

energy of the reactants is
higher than the energy of the
products. The value for H will
activation be negative. This is because
Energy (kJ)
energy
reactants the reactants are transferring
(losing) energy to their
H surroundings.
products
reaction coordinate
Endothermic Reactions
In an endothermic reaction,
the energy of the reactants is
activation lower than the energy of the
energy
products. The value for H will
Energy (kJ)
products be positive. This is because

the reactants are transferring
H
reactants (gaining) energy from their
surroundings.
reaction coordinate
Energy Changes when Bonds Break and Form
Bond breaking is when bonds in reactants are broken, which requires energy and
therefore is an endothermic process and H is positive.
Bond forming is when bonds are made in a product, which releases energy and
therefore is an exothermic process and H is negative.
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 Example 1: The combustion of methane
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
The intramolecular covalent bonds in the methane and oxygen

molecules break. H is positive.
The carbon forms two C=O bonds and four O–H bonds are also
formed. H is negative.
individual atoms
1 x C, 4 x O, 4 x H
energy needed energy released when

to break bonds new bonds are formed
H
O O
Energy (kJ)
H C H +
O O
H
O
H is negative H H
O C O + O
H H
The first process involves the breaking of bonds which is endothermic and energy
is absorbed. H is positive.
The second process involves the forming of bonds which is exothermic and
energy is released. H is negative.
If more energy is released on forming bonds than is absorbed to break bonds, then
the overall process is exothermic.
If less energy is released on forming bonds than is absorbed to break bonds, then
the overall process is endothermic.
If we want to calculate the energy change in a reaction and know if it is exothermic,

or endothermic, then we need to know bond energy values.
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Bond Energy
Bond energy is the amount of energy consumed or liberated when a bond is broken
or formed in kJ/mol.
It is not essential to learn the values in the table below, although you should be
aware that different bonds require different amounts of energy to break them.
Energy needed to break bond Energy released on forming this bond

Bond
(Endothermic) (kJ/mol) (Exothermic) (kJ/mol)
H–H +436 -436
Cl–Cl +242 -242
H–Cl +431 -431
C–H +413 -413
C–C +347 -347
C–O +335 -335
O=O +497 -497
C=O +740 -740
O–H +463 -463
How to Calculate the Change in Enthalpy
Step 1: Write out the equation

Step 2: Draw out all the bonds in the reactants and the products
Step 3: Calculate the energy required to break the reactant bonds
Step 4: Calculate the energy required to form the product bonds
Step 5: Calculate the enthalpy change using the equation
H for the reaction = (bond breaking + bond forming)
Remember - bond breaking values are positive

- bond forming values are negative
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 Example 2: calculating H for the combustion of methane
Step 1 CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
Step 2
H
O O O O
H C H + O C O +
O O H H H H
H
Step 3
Bonds Broken (Endothermic)
Heat Energy
Type of Bond
kJ/mol
C–H x 4 +413 x 4
O=O x 2 +497 x 2
total amount of heat
+2646
energy needed
Step 4 Bonds Formed (Exothermic)

Heat Energy
Type of Bond
kJ/mol
C=O x 2 -740 x 2
O–H x 4 -463 x 4
total heat energy
-3332
released
Step 5 H for the reaction = (bond breaking + bond

forming)
     H = +2646 + (-3332) = -686 kJ/mol
Therefore the reaction is exothermic.
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6.2 Energy Transfer
Most fuels are combusted in oxygen to release the energy.
A good fuel would:

 be cheap
 be available in large quantities
 be a liquid at room temperature so is easily transported and stored
 release a large amount of energy when combusted
 not produce polluting gases.
Combustion of Fuels
In order for any material to combust (burn) three things must be present:
 heat
 a fuel
 oxygen
Combustion of Different Fuels - Comparing the Heat Energy Released
 Use a measuring cylinder to put 100

thermometer cm3 of water into the copper can
 Record the initial mass of the fuel on an
electronic balance
 Use a thermometer to record the initial
temperature of the water
copper can  Light the fuel and allow to burn until the
temperature rises by about 30oC
 Record the final temperature of the
water
spirit burner  Record the final mass of fuel
 Repeat this for the other fuel
 The best fuel produces the greatest
temperature rise per gram of fuel
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Hydrogen
Advantages of Hydrogen Disadvantages of Hydrogen

It releases large amounts of heat energy As hydrogen is a gas at room
when it burns temperature, it cannot be easily stored
and transported as it requires large
pressurised containers, which are very
heavy.
Produces less pollution Hydrogen forms an explosive mixture
with air making it very dangerous
Renewable
Uses of Hydrogen
 reacting with oxygen to generate electricity in a fuel cell

 to make ammonia
 as a fuel for rockets
 used to manufacture margarine from olive oil
Hydrogen Fuel Cell
– +
hydrogen oxygen
hydrogen + oxygen
water vapour
porous anode containing a porous cathode containing a

nickel catalyst nickel catalyst
electrolyte (concentrated KOH(aq)
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The hydrogen fuel cell is the most common type of fuel cell. It produces electricity
from hydrogen and oxygen with the product being water. A hydrogen fuel cell is
composed of a catalyst, anode, cathode and an electrolyte. A fuel cell produces
electricity directly from the fuel. The electrons produced at the anode pass around
the external circuit to the cathode.
Anode Reaction
H2(g) + 2OH–(aq)  2H2O(l) + 2e–
Cathode Reaction
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e–  4OH–(aq)
Overall Reaction
H2(g) + ½O2(g)  H2O(l)
Uranium-235
Advantages of Uranium-235 Disadvantages of Uranium-235

A small amount of fuel releases large Radioactive, so needs careful handling
amounts of heat energy and storage
Does not burn, so does not produce Disposal of used uranium-235 fuel rods
polluting gases
Does not burn, so does not need oxygen
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Topic 7 - Chemical Reactions
7.1 Physical and chemical changes
 Identify physical and chemical changes, and understand the differences

between them
7.2 Rate (speed) of reaction
 Describe and explain the effect of concentration, particle size, catalysts

(including enzymes) and temperature on the rate of reactions
 Describe the application of the above factors to the danger of explosive
combustion with fine powders (e.g. flour mills) and gases (e.g. methane in
mines)
 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of a practical method for
investigating the rate of a reaction involving gas evolution
 Interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with rate of reaction
 Devise and evaluate a suitable method for investigating the effect of a given
variable on the rate of a reaction
 Describe and explain the effects of temperature and concentration in terms of
collisions between reacting particles (An increase in temperature causes an
increase in collision rate and more of the colliding molecules have sufficient
energy (activation energy) to react whereas an increase in concentration only
causes an increase in collision rate.)
 Describe and explain the role of light in photochemical reactions and the
effect of light on the rate of these reactions (This should be linked to section
14.4.)
 Describe the use of silver salts in photography as a process of reduction of
silver ions to silver; band photosynthesis as the reaction between carbon
dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight (energy) to
produce glucose and oxygen
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7.3 Reversible reactions
 Understand that some chemical reactions can be reversed by changing the

reaction conditions (Limited to the effects of heat and water on hydrated and
anhydrous copper(II) sulfate and cobalt(II) chloride.) (Concept of equilibrium
is not required.)
 Predict the effect of changing the conditions (concentration, temperature and
pressure) on other reversible reactions
 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the concept of equilibrium
7.4 Redox
 Define oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen loss/gain. (Oxidation state

limited to its use to name ions, e.g. iron(II), iron(III), copper(II),
manganate(VII).)
 Define redox in terms of electron transfer
 Identify redox reactions by changes in oxidation state and by the colour
changes involved when using acidified potassium manganate(VII), and
potassium iodide. (Recall of equations involving KMnO4 is not required.)
 Define oxidising agent as a substance which oxidises another substance
during a redox reaction. Define reducing agent as a substance which reduces
another substance during a redox reaction.
 Identify oxidising agents and reducing agents from simple equations
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7.1 Physical and Chemical Changes
Physical Properties
 Melting point Temperature where a solid changes to a liquid

 Boiling point Temperature where a liquid forms vapor
 Viscosity The ability of a liquid to flow
 Brittle A material that breaks instead of bending when under
stress
 Malleable A material that can be bent, or hammered into shape
 Ductile Can be stretched into a wire
 Sonorous Makes a ringing sound when hit
 Solubility Ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent
 Concentration Amount of one substance in a mixture
 Density Mass per unit volume of a substance
 Electrostatic charge Positive, or negative charge on a particle
 Electrical conductivity A material's ability to conduct electricity
 Thermal conductivity Ability of a material to conduct heat
Physical Changes
These are changes that only involve a change in physical properties, such as
 Melting Changing from solid to liquid

 Freezing/Solidifying Changing from liquid to solid
 Boiling/Evaporating Changing from liquid to gas
 Condensing Changing from gas to liquid
 Subliming Changing from solid to gas, or the opposite
 Diffusion Spreading out, from an area of high concentration to
low concentration by random motion.
Physical changes are easy to reverse and do not involve new substances being made.
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Chemical Properties
 Valency Number of electrons that can be lost, gained,

or shared during a chemical reaction
 Forming Ions Forming positive ions (cations), or negative
ions (anions)
 Act as catalyst Speed up other chemical reactions, without being
used up
 Reactivity How reactive a chemical is
 Forming coloured compounds
 Forming acidic oxides
 Forming basic oxide
Chemical Changes
Chemical changes occur when chemicals react together. New chemicals are made which
will have new, different physical and chemical properties. Most chemical changes are
difficult to reverse.
All chemical changes can be written as word, or symbol, equations. Symbol equations
must always be balanced.
Word Equations
Reagent A + Reagent B  Product C + Product D
The chemicals at the start of a reaction are called reagents, they are always on the left
hand side of the equation.
The new chemicals at the end of a reaction are called products, they are always on the
right hand side of the equation.
The + sign means "with"

The  sign means "changes into"
 Example 1: When iron reacts with sulphur a new chemical called iron sulphide
is made. This new substance will have different chemical and
physical properties to iron and sulphur.
iron + sulphur  iron sulphide
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Symbol Equations
These equations show the symbols and formula of the reagents and products. Symbol
equations must always be balanced, so the number of each type of atom is the same on
the left hand side as the right hand side.
 Example 2: Write a symbol equation for the reaction of iron and sulphur,
producing iron (II) sulphide.
Fe + S  FeS
 Example 3: Write a symbol equation for the reaction of calcium hydroxide with
hydrochloric acid, producing calcium chloride and water.
Ca(OH)2 + 2 HCl  CaCl2 + H2O
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7.2 Rate (Speed) of Reaction
Definitions
Activation energy is the minimum energy required to break the bonds of the reagent
particles
Rate of a chemical reaction is the concentration of reagent used up, or product

made, in a given time
A catalyst is a substance which speeds up a chemical reaction, but remains

chemically unchanged at the end
Enzymes are biological catalysts which speed up reactions, but remain chemically
unchanged at the end
A photochemical reaction is one where light causes a reaction to occur. The higher
the light intensity the higher the rate of the reaction
Collision Theory
In order for a reaction to occur there must be successful collisions between reagent
particles. This requires:
1. The reacting particles (reagents) must collide

2. The particles must collide with enough energy - called activation energy, EA.
If particles do not collide, or do not have enough energy when they do collide, then no
reaction takes place and the particles keep moving.
Rate of Reaction
The higher the number of successful collisions per unit time, the higher the rate of
reaction.
Most reactions start of at a maximum rate of reaction and then slow down. This is because
the concentration of reagents is the greatest just as the reaction starts, then as the
reagents get used up, their concentration decreases. Once the reaction is over the
concentration of the reagents is usually zero.
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Units of Rate of Reaction
This is the change of concentration, per unit time. Concentration is measured in mol/dm3
and time is usually measured in s. The rate of a reaction is measured in mol/dm3/s
Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction
1. Concentration (of a solution)

2. Temperature
3. Particle Size
4. Pressure (of a gas)
5. Catalyst, or Enzyme
1. Concentration of Solutions
Increasing concentration of reagents increases the rate of reaction. This is because

there are more particles per unit volume, so the collision rate between reacting
particles increases, therefore the successful collision rate increases, which results in
an increased rate of reaction.
lower concentration higher concentration
2. Temperature
Increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction. This is because the average
kinetic energy of the particles increases, which means they are moving faster. So more
particles have an energy greater than, or equal to the activation energy, therefore the
collision rate and the successful collision rate increases; resulting in an increased
rate of reaction.
For every 100C the temperature increases, the rate of reaction doubles (approximately).
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3. Particle Size
Decreasing the particle size (increasing surface area) increases the rate of reaction.
This is because there are more reagent particles exposed to collide, so the collision
rate increases. The successful collision rate increases, resulting in an increased rate
of reaction.
larger particle size smaller particle size

(smaller surface area) (larger surface area)
Very small particles (powder) can be dangerous as they will react very quickly. Any type of
dry food, or solid fuel powder may easily explode if ignited (set on fire).
4. Pressure of Gases
Increasing the pressure in a gaseous system increases the rate of reaction. The
distance between particles is reduced as the pressure increases. There are more
particles per unit volume, so the collision rate increases, therefore the successful
collision rate increases, resulting in an increased rate of reaction.
Low pressure High pressure
Less particles per unit volume More particles per unit volume
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5a. Catalyst
Adding a catalyst increases the reaction rate. A catalyst allows the reaction to go by an
alternative pathway with a lower activation energy. More particles will have an energy
greater than, or equal to the activation energy on collision, therefore the successful
collision rate increases, resulting in an increased reaction rate.
uncatalysed
energy (kJ)
catalysed
reagents
products
Increasing the surface area of a catalyst will also increase the rate of the reaction.
There can often be more than 1 catalyst for a particular reaction.
 Example 1: The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
2H2O2(l)  2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Without a catalyst this reaction takes a long time

With manganese(IV) oxide (black powder), the reaction takes only
seconds.
When a piece of liver (contains iron(III) ions) is added the reaction
takes only seconds.
5b. Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins, complex organic molecules (we will study them in more detail in
Topic 14). Most enzymes only work in a narrow range of temperature, or pH.
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Measuring Rates of Reaction
This can be done by:
 Measuring volume of gas made, per unit time

 Measuring the mass loss, per unit time
 Measuring the colour change, per unit time
 Measuring the increase in turbidity (cloudiness of a suspension), per unit time
Measuring Volume of Gas Made
Reagents that will produce a gas on mixing must be chosen. The gas is collected and
measured; usually in a gas syringe, or an inverted measuring cylinder.
The reagents are best kept separate so as to avoid losing any gas at the start.
The experiment can be repeated varying concentration of solution, temperature, particle

size, pressure of a gas, or a catalyst. All other variables must be kept the same to ensure
a fair test for the comparison of results.
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 Example 2: mixing calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
gas syringe
suspended test tube
containing CaCO3(s)
HCl(aq)
stop clock
 Using an electronic balance weigh out a specific mass of calcium

carbonate and place inside the suspended test tube
 Using a measuring cylinder add a specific volume (excess) of dilute
hydrochloric acid into the conical flask.
 Set the gas syringe to read zero
 Place the bung in the conical flask
 Shake the conical flask (to tip over the test tube allowing the acid and
calcium carbonate to react) and start the stop clock simultaneously
 Record the volume of gas produced every ten seconds for five
minutes
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Results - Changing Particle Size
Plotting the graph of volume (y-axis) against time (x-axis) would

produce the following graphs, using different particles sizes as a
comparison.
powdered
volume of gas (cm3)
fine
coarse
time (s)
Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts vigorously with powdered calcium

carbonate and the reaction is completed in the shortest time. This is
because the powder has a smaller particle size (larger surface area)
and so more reagent particles are exposed to collide, so the
collision rate is higher than in the fine and coarse experiments,
therefore the successful collision rate is higher, resulting in a
higher rate of reaction
The initial rate of reaction is usually greatest because there is the

highest concentration of acid particles present and also the
greatest mass of CaCO3(s) present at the start, so the collision
rate is the highest, therefore the successful collision rate is the
highest, resulting in a the highest reaction rate.
The graphs level off (volume of gas remains constant) showing that
the CaCO3(s) has been completely used up (the limiting reagent). If
all the graphs level off at the same final volume, then a fair test has
been carried out.
The reaction rate decreases as time increases because the

concentration of HCl(aq) decreases with time and the mass of
CaCO3(s) decreases, so the collision rate decreases, therefore the
successful collision rate decreases, resulting in a decreasing
reaction rate.
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Results - Changing Solution Concentration
Plotting the graph of volume (y-axis) against time (x-axis) would

produce the following graphs, using different acid concentrations as a
comparison.
3 mol/dm3
Volume of gas (cm3)
2 mol/dm3
1 mol/dm3
CaCO3 is the limiting reagent
time (s)
Limiting Reagent is CaCO3 (fixed variable) - so changing acid

concentration has no effect on volume of gas made.
excess CaCO3 used

volume of gas (cm3)
3 mol/dm3
2 mol/dm3
1 mol/dm3
time (s)
Limiting Reagent is HCl (independent variable) - so changing acid

concentration will affect the volume of gas made.
For both graphs, the initial rate will increase with increased
concentration of acid.
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 Example 3: The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
2H2O2(aq)  2H2O(l) + O2(g)
This reaction happens very slowly at room temperature and pressure.

The rate of reaction increases considerably if a catalyst is used. The
volume of oxygen gas made per unit time can be used to measure the
rate of the reaction. Different catalysts will having varying effects on
the rate of reaction.
 Place a specific volume of hydrogen peroxide into the conical flask

 Add a specific mass of manganese(IV) oxide (catalyst) into the
suspended test tube and place in the conical flask
 Put the bung into position
 Use a gas syringe to record the volume of gas produced every 10
seconds
The experiment can be repeated using different catalysts to see which

speeds up the reaction the most.
Other variables (mass of catalyst, particle size of catalyst, volume of
hydrogen peroxide and temperature) must be kept the same to make
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Measuring the Mass Loss
This method can be used when there is a loss in mass due to one of the products being
gaseous. An electronic balance is used to measure the mass change during the
experiment.
The experiment can be repeated varying concentration of solution, temperature, particle

size, pressure of a gas, or a catalyst. All other variables must be kept the same to ensure
 Example 4: mixing calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
cotton
wool
plug
tare
-0.11
electronic balance
 Place a specific mass of powdered calcium carbonate in a conical

flask and place on the electronic balance
 Measure out a specific volume (excess) of hydrochloric acid and
place on the electronic balance
 Press the “tare” to set the balance reading to zero.
 Add the hydrochloric acid to the calcium carbonate and insert the
cotton wool plug.
 Record the mass every ten seconds.
A cotton wool plug is used to allow the CO2(g) to escape, but stop
acid spray from effervescence.
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Results Obtained from the Experiment
Plotting the graph of mass loss (y-axis) against time (x-axis) would
produce the following graphs, using different particle size as a
comparison.
powdered
loss in mass (g)
fine
coarse
time (s)
All graphs level off at the same mass loss. This shows that equal
masses of calcium carbonate have been used for each experiment.
Measuring the Increase in Turbidity (Cloudiness)
 Example 5: Sodium thiosulfate reacting with hydrochloric acid, producing a

precipitate of sulfur.
Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g) + S(s)

yellow solid
 As the reaction takes place more and

more precipitate of sulfur is made.
 This makes the flask cloudier.
cross drawn  After some time, the cross is no longer
on paper visible from above.
 To ensure a fair comparison the depth
of liquid in the flask must be kept
constant.
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 Add aqueous sodium thiosulfate into a conical flask

 Add hydrochloric acid to the conical flask
 Swirl the flask to mix and start the stop clock simultaneously
 Place the conical flask on the cross drawn on a piece of paper
 Stop the stop clock when the solution turns cloudy and the cross
cannot be seen anymore
Results - Changing Solution Concentration

concentration mol/dm3
time (s)
The graph shows as concentration increases, time taken for the

reaction decreases, so rate of reaction increases.
1/time (s–1)
0 concentration (mol/dm3)
Rate (1/time) of reaction is directly proportional to concentration.

If you double the concentration you double the rate of reaction and the
time taken halves.
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. Results - Changing Temperature
Plot a graph of temperature against time and then plot a graph of

1/time (rate) against temperature.
temperature (oC)
time (s)
1/time (s–1)
temperature (oC)
As temperature increases, rate of reaction increases. However,

rate is not directly proportional to temperature. As a general rule the
rate doubles for every 100C rise in temperature.
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Explosive Reactions
Any reaction that happens very quickly is dangerous as it is explosive.
 Any dry substance that can burn may explode if it is a fine powder. This includes
flour powder/dust in flour mills and coal powder/dust in coal mines.
 Gases can build up in poorly ventilated rooms and explode. This includes methane
gas in coal mines.
Refrigerators
 Food will decompose (go off) when left for a few days. This is a chemical reaction
and can be slowed down by reducing the temperature. Most refrigerators keep food
at 30C and this makes the food last much longer.
Photochemical Reactions
Light is a form of energy and provides energy for some reactions. It is not a catalyst.
There are only a few chemical reactions that are affected by light:
1. Film photography - silver(I) ion reduction

2. Photosynthesis
3. Halogenation of alkanes
1. Silver(I) Ions
The silver halides (AgCl, AgBr, AgI) are all photo sensitive (sensitive to light). This is how
older film photography works. On a piece of photographic film the chemical is cream
silver(I) bromide crystals. Light causes the silver(I) ions in the silver(I) bromide crystals to
gain electrons and are reduced to silver atoms.
Ionic half-equation Ag+ + e–  Ag

.
Ionic half-equation Br–  Br2 + 2e–
Symbol equation 2AgBr(s)  2Ag(s) + Br2(g)
The more light that shines on the photographic film, the darker it gets. So the rate of
reaction is proportional to the light intensity.
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2. Photosynthesis
Chlorophyll molecules absorb light by a process called photosynthesis.
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)  C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)
3. Halogenation of Alkanes
Alkanes react with halogens, in the presence of UV light to form halogenoalkanes.
CH4 + Cl2  CH3Cl + HCl
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7.3 Reversible Reactions
A reversible reaction is a reaction in which reagents form products and the

product(s) can then react or decompose to form the reagents
Dynamic equilibrium is reached in a closed system when the rate of the forward
reaction and the rate of the backward reaction are equal and the concentration of
reagents and products remain constant
Reagents react together to form products.
A + B  C + D
In some reactions, when the products are made, they can react together to form the
reagents. These are called reversible reactions.
C + D  A + B
Instead of writing two separate equations, they are combined into one equation.
A + B ⇌ C + D
The ⇌ symbol means a reversible reaction.
 Example 1: hydrated copper(II) sulfate
hydrated copper(II) sulfate ⇌ anhydrous copper(II) sulfate + water
CuSO4.5H2O(aq) ⇌ CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
Reading the equation forwards: when the hydrated copper(II) sulfate

is heated, it decomposes into anhydrous copper(II) sulfate and steam.
The process is endothermic and requires heating, which is why the
water is steam.
Reading the equation backwards: when water is added to anhydrous

copper(II) sulfate it forms hydrated copper(II) sulfate. The process is
exothermic.
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Equilibrium
This is when a reaction is reversible and the forward and backward reactions happen at
the same time. All the reagents and products will be present in the equilibrium mixture.
At dynamic equilibrium:
 Rate of forward reaction = rate of backward reaction

 The concentrations of reagents and products are constant
A + B ⇌ C + D
Concentration at start maximum minimum (zero)
As the reaction happens decreases increases
Rate of reaction at start maximum minimum (zero)
As the reaction happens decreases increases
At some point, the rate of the forward reaction must be equal to the rate of the backward
reaction. This is called dynamic equilibrium. Once the rates of reaction are equal, the
concentrations will not change any more and become constant.
rate of forward reaction decreases with time

rate of reaction
dynamic equilibrium
rate of backward reaction increases with time
time (s)
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Even though the forward and backward reactions are still occurring, there is no visible
change observed because the rate of the two reactions in opposite directions are equal.
Dynamic equilibrium can only be achieved in a closed system (materials cannot enter or
leave the system) like a sealed gas jar.
Position of Equilibrium
The amount of reagent and product in an equilibrium reaction can vary and does not have
to be 50% reagent and 50% product.
If a reaction has more than 50% reagent, we say that the equilibrium position lies to the left
and sometimes the symbol is used.
If a reaction has more than 50% product, we say that the equilibrium position lies to the
right and sometimes the symbol is used.
 Example 2: The Haber Process (for making ammonia)
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
The equilibrium position lies to the left. In fact the %Yield (how much
product there is) is 15%. This means that there is 85% reagent.
 Example 3: The Contact Process (for making sulfuric acid)
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
The equilibrium position lies to the right. In fact the %Yield is

90%. This means there is 90% product and 10% reagent.
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Changing Equilibrium Position
The equilibrium position can be moved:
 To the left - making more reagent at dynamic equilibrium

 To the right - making more product at dynamic equilibrium
We can alter the equilibrium position by altering the:
1. Concentration of reagents or products

2. Temperature of the system
3. Pressure (if there are gases as reagents, or products)
4. Adding/removing reagent/product
5. Adding acid/alkali to a reaction with H+/OH- ions
Le Chatelier's Principle
If you increase the concentration of reagents or products, or increase the temperature, or

pressure in a sealed reaction vessel; the equilibrium position shifts in such a way as to try
to cancel what you are doing.
In other words, the equilibrium position will shift in such a way as to do the opposite of
what changes away from room temperature and pressure we do.
1. Changing Concentration
If we increase the concentration of a reagent the equilibrium position will shift to the right
as the system tries to use up the extra reagent that we added. If we reduce the
concentration of a reagent then the opposite will happen.
If we increase the concentration of a product the equilibrium position will shift to the left as
the system tries to use up the extra product that we added. If we reduce the concentration
of a product then the opposite will happen.
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What are we Equilibrium Change in Concentration Concentration

doing to the Position will Equilibrium of reagents of products
system? shift to try to: Position will will
increasing decrease
moves from
concentration concentration of decrease increase
left to right
of reagents reagents
decreasing increase
moves from
concentration concentration of increase decrease
right to left
of reagents reagents
increasing decrease
moves from
concentration concentration of increase decrease
right to left
of products products
decreasing increase
moves from
concentration concentration of decrease increase
left to right
of products products
2. Changing Temperature
Equilibrium reactions are exothermic in one direction and endothermic in the opposite
direction. Increasing the temperature will favour the endothermic reaction. Decreasing the
temperature will favour the exothermic side.
What are we doing to Equilibrium Position Moves in the exothermic/

the system? will shift to try to endothermic direction
increasing temperature decrease the temperature
endothermic direction
of system of the system
decreasing temperature increase temperature of
exothermic direction
of system the system
 Example 4: The Haber Process
N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3 H = -92kJ
The forward direction has an enthalpy change that is negative, so it is

exothermic. Thus the backward reaction will have an enthalpy change
that is positive and be endothermic.
Increasing the temperature will cause the equilibrium position to shift

to the left towards the endothermic side of the equilibrium reaction.
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Decreasing the temperature will cause the equilibrium position to

shift to the right towards the exothermic side of the equilibrium
reaction.
 Example 5: Reacting a carboxylic acid with an alcohol (esterification)
CH3COOH + C2H5OH ⇌ CH3COOC2H5 + H2O H = 0 kJ
Changing the temperature will have no effect on this reaction as there

is no change in enthalpy.
3. Changing Pressure
If there are gases in the reaction then changing the pressure will affect the equilibrium
position. Increasing the pressure will favour the side with less moles of gas. Decreasing
the pressure will favour the side with more moles of gas.
Shifts to the side with

What are we doing to Equilibrium Position
more mole of gas or
the system? shifts to try to:
less mole of gas
decrease the
increasing the pressure less mole of gas
pressure
decreasing the pressure increase the pressure more mole of gas
 Example 6: Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate
CaCO3(s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The left hand side has 0 moles of gas

The right hand side has 1 mole of gas
Increasing the pressure will shift the equilibrium position to the left.
Decreasing the pressure will shift the equilibrium position to the right.
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 Example 7: Formation of hydrogen iodide
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
The left hand side has 2 moles of gas

The right hand side has 2 moles of gas
Changing the pressure will have no effect on the equilibrium position

as the number of moles left and right are equal.
4. Adding / Removing some Reagent / Product
 Adding reagent - this will cause the equilibrium position to move to the right hand
side.
 Removing reagent - this will cause the equilibrium position to move to the left hand
side.
 Adding product - this will cause the equilibrium position to move to the left hand
side.
 Removing product - this will cause the equilibrium position to move to the right hand
side.
In each case the equilibrium position will shift to try to negate the changes we do to the
system.
Adding Acid / Alkali to a Reaction with H+ / OH- Ions
Equilibrium reactions with H+ ions:
Adding acid will increase the concentration of H+ ions and the equilibrium position will shift
to the side without H+ ions.
Adding alkali will decrease the concentration of H+ ions and the equilibrium position will
shift to the side with H+ ions.
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Equilibrium reactions with OH- ions:
Adding acid will decrease the concentration of OH- ions and the equilibrium position will
shift to the side with the OH- ions.
Adding alkali will increase the concentration of OH- ions and the equilibrium position will
shift to the side without the OH- ions.
 Example 8: Bromine reacting with water
Br2(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ Br–(aq) + 2H+(aq) + OBr–(aq)

orange colourless
Adding acid will shift the equilibrium position to the left.
Adding alkali will shift the equilibrium position to the right.
You would see the following colour changes:

intense
orange orange colourless
H+ OH–
From left to
What are we Equilibrium position Concn of Concn of
right or right to
doing? shifts to try to: reagents will products will
left?
increasing H+
decrease H+ concn right to left increase decrease
concn
decreasing
H+ concn by increase H+ concn left to right decrease increase
adding OH–
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5. Adding a Catalyst
A catalyst does not change the equilibrium position, but the equilibrium reaction will reach
dynamic equilibrium faster.
A catalyst increases the rate of both the forward and backward reaction by equal
amounts.
Different metals, or metal compounds, affect different reactions. So you need to get the
right catalyst for a specific reaction.
Some reactions are affected by more than one catalyst, and each catalyst will have a
different affect on the rate of reaction.
Enzymes are biological catalysts and affect specific reactions only. For example protease
affects the rate of decomposition of protein.
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7.4 Redox
Oxidation is loss of electrons
Reduction is gain of electrons
A redox reaction is a reaction in which one species has been oxidised and
another species has been reduced
Oxidising agent is a substance which oxidises another substance during a

redox reaction
Reducing agent is a substance which reduces another substance during a

redox reaction
Oxidation means:
 loss of electrons
 gain of oxygen
 loss of hydrogen
Reduction means:
 gain of electrons
 loss of oxygen
 gain of hydrogen
Oxidising agents Reducing agents

oxygen hydrogen
Group VII (halogens) Group VII ions (halides)
acidified potassium dichromate(VI) Group I metals
acidified potassium manganate(VII) magnesium
hydrogen peroxide carbon monoxide
methane gas
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Oxidation Number
Oxidation number is the charge on a species. It is the same as the valencies given in
Topic 4.1.
Working out the Oxidation Numbers
 An atom is neutral and will always have a charge of zero

 A molecule is neutral and will always have a charge of zero
 The charges of the atoms in a molecule, or compound will add up to zero
 The charges of the atoms in a polyatomic ion add up to the charge of the
polyatomic ion
 Oxygen has a charge of -2 in compounds,
except H2O2 where it has a charge of -1
and OF2 where it has a charge of +2
 Fluorine always has a charge of -1 in a compound
 Metal ions are always positive
 Example 1: carbon dioxide, CO2
The molecule has an overall charge of zero

Each oxide ion has a charge of -2
So C + (-2 x 2) = 0
C = +4
 Example 2: phosphorous pentachloride, P2O5
The molecule has an overall charge of zero

So 2P + (-2 x 2) = 0
2P = +10
P = +5
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 Example 3: nitrate ion, NO31-
The polyatomic ion has a charge of -1

So N + (-2 x 3) = -1
N = -1 + 6
N = +5
 Example 4: chromate(VI) ion, Cr2O72-
The polyatomic ion has a charge of -2

So 2Cr + (-2 x 7) = -2
2Cr = -2 + 14
2Cr = +12
Cr = +6
Working out the Change in Oxidation Numbers
The change in oxidation number can be worked out if the oxidation number of a
species is know at the start (as a reagent) and end (as a product) of a reaction.
 Example 5: Mg(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)  Mg(NO3)2(aq) + Cu(s)
Charges of magnesium Mg = 0
Mg in Mg(NO3)2 = +2
Change in oxidation number = +2
Magnesium has been oxidised
Cu(NO3)2 is acting as an oxidising agent
Charges of copper Cu in Cu(NO3)2 = +2

Cu = 0
Change in oxidation number = -2
Copper has been reduced
Mg is acting as a reducing agent
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Colour Changes in Redox Reactions
Acidified potassium manganate(VII) is an oxidising agent. It changes from purple

to colourless when oxidising other chemicals. The manganate(VII) ion is itself is
reduced to a Mn2+ ion.
Acidified potassium chromate(VI) is an oxidising agent. It changes from orange to

green when oxidising other chemicals. The chromate(VI) ion is itself is reduced to a
Cr3+ ion.
Strength of Reducing Agents
Very reactive metals are strong reducing agents, because they can readily lose
their valence electrons to another species. The more reactive a metal is, the
stronger a reducing agent it will be.
A more reactive metal can reduce the ions of a less reactive metal, displacing it from
a solution of its salt or compound.
 Example 6: metal displacement reaction
Symbol equation 3Mg + Fe2(SO4)3  3MgSO4 + 2Fe

Ionic equation 3Mg + 2Fe3+  3Mg2+ + 2Fe
Ionic half-equations 3Mg  3Mg2+ + 6e– oxidation reaction

2Fe3+ + 6e–  2Fe reduction reaction
So magnesium metal can reduce iron(III) cations to form iron atoms
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Strength of Oxidising Agents
Very reactive non-metals are strong oxidising agents, because they readily gain
electrons to obtain a full valence shell. The more reactive a non-metal is, the
stronger an oxidising agent it will be.
Fluorine is the most reactive halogen. F2 can oxidise any of the halide anions to
produce fluoride anions and a diatomic halogen molecule.
Chlorine can oxidise both bromide and iodide anions because chlorine is more
reactive that bromine or iodine.
Bromine can oxidise iodide anions to iodine molecules.
 Example 7: halogen displacement reaction
Symbol equation Cl2 + 2KI(aq)  2KCl(aq) + I2

Ionic equation Cl2 + 2I–  2Cl– + I2
Ionic half-equations Cl2 + 2e–  2Cl– reduction

2I–  I2 + 2e– oxidation
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Topic 8 - Acids, Bases and Salts
8.1 The characteristic properties of acids and bases
• Describe the characteristic properties of acids as reactions with metals, bases,

carbonates and effect on litmus and methyl orange
• Describe the characteristic properties of bases as reactions with acids and with
ammonium salts and effect on litmus and methyl orange
• Describe neutrality and relative acidity and alkalinity in terms of pH measured
using Universal Indicator paper
• Describe and explain the importance of controlling acidity in soil
• Define acids and bases in terms of proton transfer, limited to aqueous solutions
• Describe the meaning of weak and strong acids and bases
8.2 Types of oxides
• Classify oxides as either acidic or basic, related to metallic and non-metallic

character
• Further classify other oxides as neutral or amphoteric
8.3 Preparation of salts
• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of preparation, separation and

purification of salts as examples of some of the techniques specified in section
2.2.2 and the reactions specified in section 8.1
• Demonstrating knowledge and understanding of the preparation of insoluble salts
by precipitation
• Suggest a method of making a given salt from a suitable starting material, given
appropriate information
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8.4 Identification of ions and gases
• Describe the following tests to identify:
aqueous cations: aluminium

ammonium
calcium
chromium(III)
copper(II)
iron(II) and iron(III)
zinc
(using aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia
as appropriate)
cations: use of the flame test to identify lithium, sodium, potassium

and copper(II)
anions: carbonate (by reaction with dilute acid and then limewater)
chloride, bromide and iodide (by reaction under acidic
conditions with aqueous silver nitrate)
nitrate (by reduction with aluminium)
sulfate (by reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous
barium ions)
sulfite (by reaction with dilute acids and then aqueous
potassium manganate(VII) )
gases: ammonia (using damp red litmus paper)

carbon dioxide (using limewater)
chlorine (using damp litmus paper)
hydrogen (using lighted splint)
oxygen (using a glowing splint)
sulfur dioxide (using aqueous potassium manganate(VII) )
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8.1 The Characteristic Properties of Acids and Bases
An acid is a proton donor
A base is a proton acceptor
Acids
When an acid reacts, it gives away at least one of its hydrogen ions, H+. So all acids must
contain hydrogen (H).
Strong Acid Weak Acid

Name Formula Name Formula
sulfuric acid H2SO4 ethanoic acid CH3COOH
hydrochloric acid HCl propanoic acid C2H5COOH
nitric acid HNO3 butanoic acid C3H7COOH
Characteristic Properties of Acids
 pH = 0 - 6
 Turn blue litmus red
 Taste sour
 Corrosive
 All acids are solutions
 Strong acids completely ionise when dissolved in water
 Weak acids only partly ionise when dissolved in water
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Bases
When a base reacts, it takes in hydrogen ions, H+ to form water and a salt.
 A base is a metal oxide - base is short for basic oxide

 An alkali is a soluble base, a metal hydroxide.
Strong Alkali Weak Alkali

Name Formula Name Formula
sodium hydroxide NaOH aqueous ammonia NH4OH
potassium hydroxide KOH
Characteristic Properties of Bases
 pH = 8 - 14
 Turn red litmus blue
 Feel soapy
 Corrosive
 All alkalis are solutions
 Strong alkalis completely ionise when dissolved in water
 Weak alkalis only partly ionise when dissolved in water
Acid Reactions
Acid + Metal  Salt + Hydrogen
Acid + Base  Salt + Water
Acid + Alkali  Salt + Water
Acid + Metal Carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
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1. Acid - Metal Reactions
A metal will react with an acid provided the metal is more reactive than hydrogen.
Because the metal is more reactive than hydrogen the metal atoms lose their valence
electrons to form their positive ions and the hydrogen ions gain electrons and so are
reduced to hydrogen atoms, so the hydrogen ions are displaced forming hydrogen gas.
Copper, silver, gold, or platinum will not react with dilute acid as they are below hydrogen
in the reactivity series.
 Example 1: magnesium and sulphuric acid
balanced equation Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

ionic equation Mg(s) + 2H+(aq)  Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
Never add potassium, or sodium to acid as it is explosive.

Observations:
 metal solid decreases in size

 effervescence and bubbles of a colourless gas are evolved
 temperature of the reaction mixture increases
 In the case of magnesium an extra observation is that even though
magnesium has a higher density than acid, the Mg floats at the
surface. This is because the numerous bubbles of H2 gas forming
on the surface keep the Mg afloat.
2. Acid - Base Reactions
A base is an insoluble alkali. This reaction is slow so we heat up the acid/base mixture to
increase the rate of reaction.
 Example 2: magnesium oxide and sulphuric acid
balanced equation MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

ionic equation MgO(s) + 2H+(aq)  Mg2+(aq) + H2O(l)
Observations:
 solid decreases in size
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3. Acid - Alkali Reactions
An alkali is a soluble base. Bases dissolve in water producing OH– ions.
Base + Water  Alkali
 Example 3: sodium hydroxide and sulphuric acid
balanced equation 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

ionic equation OH–(aq) + H+(aq)  H2O(l)
Observations:
 temperature of the acid/alkali mixture increases
4. Acid - Metal Carbonate Reactions
Metal carbonates react very rapidly with acids. A metal carbonate has to be added slowly
and in small amounts to an acid otherwise the froth formed will overflow the beaker.
 Example 4: magnesium carbonate and sulphuric acid
balanced equation MgCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

ionic equation MgCO3(s) + 2H+(aq)  Mg2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Observations:
 solid rapidly decreases in size

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Test for acids
1 Dip a pH meter into the suspected acid sample. If the solution is acidic then the pH
meter gives a reading less than pH 7.
2 Add Universal or blue litmus indicator paper or solution to the suspected sample
and note the colour change.
Dry Universal indicator paper changes from yellow to red/orange
Blue litmus paper changes from blue to red
3 Add a small spatula of solid sodium carbonate to the suspected acid sample. If
an acid is present then:
 the solid decreases in size

 there is effervescence and bubbles of a colourless gas are evolved
which turns limewater from colourless to milky.
4 Add a piece of magnesium ribbon to the suspected acid sample. If an acid is

present then:
 the metal decreases in size

 there is effervescence and bubbles of a colourless gas are evolved
which produces a ‘squeaky pop’ with a lighted splint.
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Base Reactions
Base + Acid  Salt + Water
Base + Ammonium Salt  Salt + Water + Ammonia
1. Base - Acid Reactions
A base is an insoluble alkali. This reaction is slow so we heat up the acid/base mixture to
increase the rate of reaction.
 Example 5: calcium oxide and sulphuric acid
balanced equation CaO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

ionic equation CaO(s) + 2H+(aq)  Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l)
Observations:
 solid decreases in size
This is the same reaction as the Acid - Base reaction above.
2. Base - Ammonium Salt Reactions
The mixture has to be warmed gently in order to produce ammonia gas. This reaction is
used to test for the ammonium cation (NH4+) which is part of the analysis topic.
 Example 6: sodium hydroxide and ammonium chloride
balanced equation NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)

ionic equation OH–(aq) + NH4+(aq)  H2O(l) + NH3(g)
Observations:
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Concentration of Acids / Alkalis
Concentration of an acid is the number of moles of acid molecules per unit volume. The
higher the number of moles of acid molecules per unit volume, the higher the
concentration. A 1 mol/dm3 solution of HCl(aq) contains 1 mole of HCl in 1dm3 (see Topic
4.2).
Concentration of an alkali is the number of moles of alkali molecules per unit volume.
The higher the number of moles of alkali molecules per unit volume, the higher the
concentration. A 1 mol/dm3 solution of NaOH(aq) contains 1 mole of NaOH in 1dm3.
Strength of Acids
Acidity is caused by the presence of H+ ions (hydrogen ions) in a solution. Strength is a

measure of the degree of ionisation of the acid molecules. The stronger the acid, the
greater the degree of ionisation, producing a higher concentration of H+ ions and the lower
the pH number.
Strong Acids
Strong acids completely ionise in water forming H+ ions.
Hydrochloric acid is formed by dissolving hydrogen chloride gas in water. All the HCl
molecules fully ionise forming the ions H+(aq) and Cl–(aq).
HCl(g) + H2O(l)  H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
Weak Acids
Weak acids only partially ionise in water forming H+ ions.
A weak acid forms fewer H+(aq) ions in comparison to a strong acid of the same
concentration. Ethanoic acid is an example of a weak acid. This is an example of a
reversible process.
CH3COOH ⇌ H+ + CH3COO–
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Concentration and pH
A strong acid and a weak acid of the same concentration can have different
concentrations of H+ ions and therefore a different pH. This is because a strong acid fully
ionised in water producing more H+ ions per unit volume compared to a weak acid, which
only partially ionises in water producing fewer H+ ions per unit volume.
This means a strong acid is a better electrical conductor than a weak acid due to a
higher concentration of ions.
Strong and Weak Alkalis
Alkalinity is caused by the presence of OH– ions (hydroxide ions) in a solution. When
sodium hydroxide is dissolved in water all the NaOH molecules ionise forming the ions
OH–(aq) and Na+(aq), which will have a high pH number (12-14).
NaOH(s) + H2O(l)  Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
When ammonia dissolves, it only partly ionises, forming less OH - ions. The pH will be
lower than that of a strong alkali, from 8-11.
NH3(g) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
Monoprotic and Diprotic Acids
Monoprotic acids (eg HCl) produce 1 hydrogen ion per acid molecule, whereas diprotic
acids (eg H2SO4) produce two hydrogen ions per acid molecule.
HCl(g) + H2O(l)  H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)  2H+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
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pH Scale
pH is a measure of the concentration of H+ ions per dm3.
This is a scale, which indicates the strength of an acid, or alkali and ranges from 0 to 14.
Acidic Neutral Alkaline

strong acid weak acid neutral weak alkali strong alkali
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Indicators
Most indicators simply show us whether a substance is acidic or alkali, but not the
strength.
Indicator Colour in acidic solution Colour in alkaline solution

phenolphthalein colourless pink
methyl orange red yellow
methyl red red yellow
red litmus red blue
blue litmus red blue
Universal Indicator
Universal Indicator paper or solution is the only indicator which can be used to give an
indication of strength of an acid or alkali. The indicator paper when dry is yellow. If it is
dipped in water the colour will be green. Universal indicator cannot be used for titration
experiments.
red orange yellow green blue purple

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
strong acid weak acid neutral weak alkali strong alkali
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8.2 Types of Oxides
Metal oxides and non-metal oxides are made by burning the elements in oxygen.
Metal oxides are solids so they do not change the colour of dry universal indicator paper.
Damp universal indicator paper, or solution is used so the material can dissolve in water.
Metal Oxides
Metal oxides are usually basic, which means that they will react with acids. Some metal
oxides are amphoteric, which means that they will react with both acids and bases.
Amphoteric oxides are found near the metal / non-metal border on the Periodic Table.
Non-Metal Oxides
Non-metal oxides are usually acidic, which means that they will react with bases. Some
non-metal oxides are neutral, which means that they will not react with acids, or bases.
 Examples:
Basic Oxides Acidic Oxides Neutral Oxides Amphoteric Oxides

iron(III) oxide sulfur dioxide water aluminium oxide
copper(II) oxide carbon dioxide carbon monoxide lead(II) oxide
calcium oxide zinc oxide
magnesium oxide
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Reactions of Amphoteric Oxides
Amphoteric oxides can react with acids and bases.
 Example 1: Aluminium oxide reacting with an acid
Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq)  2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
In this reaction, Al2O3 is reacting as a basic oxide.
 Example 2: Aluminium oxide reacting with an alkali
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l)  2NaAl(OH)4(aq)

(sodium aluminate)
In this reaction, Al2O3 is reacting as an acidic oxide.
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8.3 Preparation of Salts
A salt is a substance formed when all the replaceable hydrogen ions of an acid are
completely replaced by metal ions, or the ammonium ion (NH4+)
A precipitate is an insoluble salt formed when two salt solutions are mixed
Salts can be either soluble, or insoluble.
Soluble Compounds Insoluble Compounds

all sodium, potassium and ammonium salts
all nitrates
all halides (Cl–, Br–, I–) except silver and lead
all sulfates except barium, lead and calcium
sodium carbonate
potassium carbonate all other carbonates
ammonium carbonate
most oxides and hydroxides of Group I + II most other metal oxides and hydroxides
 Example 1: sodium carbonate is soluble

 Example 2: lead chloride is insoluble
 Example 3: barium sulphate is insoluble
 Example 4: calcium bromide is soluble
Making Soluble Salts
Titration - using an acid (solution) and an alkali (solution)
Method 1: acid + alkali  soluble salt + water
Excess solid - using a metal, or a base with an acid
Method 2: acid + metal  soluble salt + hydrogen
Method 3: acid + base  soluble salt + water
Method 4: acid + metal carbonate  soluble salt + water + carbon

dioxide
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Naming Salts
The name of the salt will depend on the metal/metal compound and the acid used. The
metal remains unchanged and is the first part of the name. The acid used gives the
second part of the salt's name:
Acid used Salt made

sulfuric acid sulfate
nitric acid nitrate
hydrochloric acid chloride
ethanoic acid ethanoate
 Example 5: Using calcium oxide and nitric acid will make the salt calcium nitrate,
as well as water.
Making Insoluble Salts
Precipitation - using 2 soluble salts
Method 5: soluble salt + soluble salt  insoluble salt + soluble salt
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Method 1 - Titration
Titration is used to make soluble salts. The reaction is done the first time with an
indicator (but not universal indicator) to get the volumes required of acid and alkali for
exact neutralisation. Then the experiment is repeated using these volumes, but without
the indicator, which would be an impurity in the salt made.
 Example 6: Preparation of the soluble salt sodium chloride by titration using

hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.
clamp  Pipette 25.0 cm3 of HCl(aq) into a

conical flask
 Add 3 drops of phenolphthalein
pipette burette indicator
containing
 Add NaOH(aq) drop-wise from the
NaOH(aq)
burette until the colour just
changes from colourless to pink
 Record the volume of NaOH(aq) added
and repeat the experiment using the
same volumes but without the
indicator
HCl(aq)
salt
solution salt
crystals  Evaporate the salt solution on a
steam bath until the point of
crystallisation
steam  Cool to crystallise then filter to obtain
bath
the crystals
 Wash the crystals with minimal
amounts of cold distilled water
HEAT  Dry the crystals in a desiccator
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Method 2 - Excess Solid (metal)
Excess solid method is used to make soluble salts. The solid is added to the acid until no
more will react. This excess solid has to be removed by filtration. The filtrate is used to
make the salt by evaporation.
 Example 7: Preparation of the soluble salt magnesium sulphate by excess solid

method using sulphuric acid and magnesium.
 Use a measuring cylinder to measure out about 25 cm3 of

H2(g)
sulfuric acid into a beaker
 Add magnesium ribbon to the sulfuric acid
 Add the magnesium ribbon until the metal stops decreasing
in size, excess magnesium remains and there is no more
magnesium effervescence
metal
 Filter to remove the excess magnesium ribbon
excess
magnesium
ribbon
magnesium
sulfate
solution
salt
solution  Evaporate the filtrate on a steam bath until the
point of crystallisation
steam  Cool to crystallise
bath  Filter to remove any crystals formed
 Wash the crystals with minimal amounts of cold
distilled water.
 Dry the crystals in a desiccator
HEAT
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Method 3 - Excess Solid (insoluble metal oxide)
more will react. This reaction is slow and has to be heated. The excess solid has to be
removed by filtration. The filtrate is used to make the salt by evaporation.
 Example 8: Preparation of the soluble salt copper (II) sulphate by excess solid
method using sulphuric acid and copper (II) oxide.
glass
stirring
rod
 Use a measuring cylinder to measure out about 25 cm3
of sulfuric acid into a beaker and heat
H2SO4(aq)
 Add black copper(II) oxide one spatula at a time to the
acid and stir
CuO(s)  Add CuO until the black solid stops decreasing in size
and excess CuO remains
HEAT
 Filter to remove the excess CuO

excess
CuO(s)
CuSO4(aq)
salt
solution
 Evaporate the filtrate on a steam bath until the point of
crystallisation
bath  Filter to remove any crystals formed
distilled water
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Method 4 - Excess Solid (insoluble metal carbonate)
more will react. This excess solid has to be removed by filtration. The filtrate is used to
make the salt by evaporation.
 Example 9: Preparation of the soluble salt copper (II) sulphate by excess solid
method using sulphuric acid and copper (II) carbonate.
glass  Use a measuring cylinder to measure out about 25

stirring
rod cm3 of sulfuric acid into a beaker.
 Add green copper(II) carbonate one spatula at a time
to the acid.
H2SO4(aq)
 Stir the mixture until the effervescence stops and
CuCO3(S)
excess CuCO3 remains
 Filter to remove the excess CuCO3

excess
CuCO3(s)
CuSO4(aq)
salt
solution  Evaporate the filtrate on a steam bath until the point
of crystallisation
bath
 Filter to remove any crystals formed
distilled water.
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Method 5 - Precipitation
Precipitation is used to make an insoluble salt. No acid is used, just soluble salts.
 Example 10: Preparation of the insoluble salt lead (II) iodide using soluble
potassium iodide and lead (II) nitrate.
distilled
water
 Pour a slight excess of water into

each beaker containing the soluble
solids lead(II) nitrate and potassium
potassium iodide.
iodide solid
 Stir to dissolve the soluble solid salts

to obtain two solutions
lead(II) iodide  Mix the two solutions and stir to obtain

precipitate
the precipitate lead(II) iodide
solid lead(II) nitrate
distilled
water
wash
 Filter the mixture to separate the precipitate from the solution

 Wash the precipitate with distilled water
 Dry the precipitate in a desiccator
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Summary of Salt Preparation
Type of Heating Soluble or

Method Reagents
reaction required insoluble salt
1.Titration neutralisation acid + soluble base (alkali)  soluble
2.Excess
solid
redox acid + metal  soluble
3.Excess
solid
neutralisation acid + insoluble base  soluble
4.Excess acid + insoluble metal

solid
neutralisation
carbonate
 soluble
double
5.Precipitation
decomposition
two soluble salt solution  insoluble
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8.4 Identification of Ions and Gases
Test for Gases
Gas Test Result

The paper changes from red
ammonia (NH3) Damp red litmus
to blue
The limewater will turn from
carbon dioxide Bubble the gas through
colourless to white
(CO2) limewater
precipitate
Paper will be bleached (turn
chlorine (Cl2) Damp red, or blue litmus paper
white)
hydrogen gas (H2) Lighted splint ‘squeaky pop’
oxygen (O2) Glowing splint relight
Acidified potassium manganate Paper changes from purple to
sulfur dioxide (SO2)
(VII) paper colourless.
Note - Ammonia is the only basic gas.
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Tests for Aqueous Cations
Effect of Aqueous Sodium

Cation Effect of Aqueous Ammonia
Hydroxide
white precipitate forms, which is
3+ white precipitate forms, which is
aluminium (Al ) soluble in excess giving a
insoluble in excess
colourless solution
white precipitate forms, which is white precipitate forms, which is
2+
zinc (Zn ) soluble in excess giving a soluble in excess giving a
colourless solution colourless solution
no precipitate or very slight white
white precipitate forms, which is
calcium (Ca2+) precipitate. If a slight precipitate
insoluble in excess
forms it is insoluble in excess
green precipitate forms, which is grey-green precipitate forms,
chromium (Cr3+)
insoluble in excess which is insoluble in excess
light blue precipitate forms,
light blue precipitate forms,
copper (Cu2+) which is soluble in excess giving
which is insoluble in excess
a dark blue solution
green precipitate forms, which is green precipitate forms, which is
insoluble in excess. On standing insoluble in excess. On standing
iron(II) (Fe2+)
for 5 minutes the surface turns for 5 minutes the surface turns
red-brown red-brown as Fe3+ is formed
red-brown precipitate forms, red-brown precipitate forms,
iron(III) (Fe3+)
which is insoluble in excess which is insoluble in excess
ammonia gas produced on
ammonium (NH4+) warming which turns damp red
litmus blue
Metal Ion Flame Tests
Metal Ion Flame Colour

Lithium Red
Sodium Yellow
Potassium Lilac
Copper (II) Blue-green
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Tests for Anions
Anion Test Result

Bubble the gas evolved through
limewater. The limewater
carbonate (CO32–) add dilute nitric acid (gas
changes from colourless to
[solid, or solution] produced)
white precipitate (carbon
dioxide)
chloride (Cl–) White precipitate forms
[in solution] (silver(I) chloride)
acidify with dilute nitric acid,
bromide (Br–) Cream precipitate forms
then add aqueous silver nitrate
[in solution] (silver(I) bromide)
iodide (I–) Yellow precipitate forms
[in solution] (silver(I) iodide)
add aqueous sodium hydroxide
nitrate (NO3–) Gas produced which turns damp
then aluminium foil; warm
[in solution] red litmus paper blue (ammonia)
carefully (gas produced)
acidify with dilute nitric acid,
sulfate (SO42–) White precipitate forms
then add aqueous barium nitrate
[in solution] (barium sulfate)
or aqueous barium chloride
Gas produced which will turn
Add dilute hydrochloric acid, acidified potassium manganate
sulfite (SO32-)
warm gently (gas produced) (VII) from purple to colourless
(sulfur dioxide)
Analysis of Halide Ions using Silver and Lead Cations
Metal Cation Added Chloride Bromide Iodide

white precipitate of cream precipitate of yellow precipitate of
silver(I) ions
silver(I) chloride silver(I) bromide silver(I) iodide
bright yellow
white precipitate of white precipitate of
lead(II) ions precipitate of lead(II)
lead(II) chloride lead(II) bromide
iodide
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Other Notes on Analysis
 Transition metal compounds are colourful. Most other chemicals are white as
solids and colourless as solutions.
 Metal oxides are usually basic and will form aqueous salts when reacted with
acids.
 Aluminium oxide, zinc oxide and lead (II) oxide are amphoteric and will react
with both acids and bases.
 Hydrated compounds contain water of crystallisation which will evaporate as
steam when the solid chemical is heated. This steam will condense at the top of the
test tube as water. The solid, anhydrous powder remaining is often a different
colour to the hydrated compound.
 Hydrogen peroxide (colourless liquid) is an oxidising agent (can turn Fe2+ to Fe3+)
 Hydrogen peroxide decomposes slowly to give off oxygen gas. This can be made
decompose faster by adding a catalyst, such as Fe2+.
 Ammonium chloride (white solid) decomposes when heated to ammonia gas
(basic) and hydrogen chloride gas (acidic)
 Organic compounds (not carboxylic acids) are flammable.
 Carboxylic acids have a smell like vinegar
 Esters have fruity smells
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Topic 9 - The Periodic Table
9.1 The Periodic Table
 Describe the Periodic Table as a method of classifying elements and its use
to predict properties of elements
9.2 Periodic trends
 Describe the change from metallic to non-metallic character across a period

 Describe and explain the relationship between Group number, number of
outer shell electrons and metallic/nonmetallic character
9.3 Group properties
 Describe lithium, sodium and potassium in Group I as a collection of

relatively soft metals showing a trend in melting point, density and reaction
with water
 Predict the properties of other elements in Group I, given data, where
appropriate
 Describe the halogens, chlorine, bromine and iodine in Group VII, as a
collection of diatomic non-metals showing a trend in colour and density and
state their reaction with other halide ions
 Predict the properties of other elements in Group VII, given data where
appropriate
 Identify trends in Groups, given information about the elements concerned
9.4 Transition elements
 Describe the transition elements as a collection of metals having high

densities, high melting points and forming coloured compounds, and which,
as elements and compounds, often act as catalysts
 Know that transition elements have variable oxidation states
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9.5 Noble gases
 Describe the noble gases, in Group VIII or 0, as being unreactive, monatomic

gases and explain this in terms of electronic structure
 State the uses of the noble gases in providing an inert atmosphere, i.e. argon
in lamps, helium for filling balloons
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9.1 - The Periodic Table
The periodic table arranges elements in order of ascending proton number and can be
used to predict properties of elements. Across a period (from left to right) the atoms of the
elements have the same number of electron shells, but the number of valence electrons
increases by 1.
On the Periodic Table the metallic elements are on the left hand side, and the non-metallic
elements are on the right hand side. The properties of the different elements depends on
their position on the Periodic Table.
9.2 - Periodic Trends
The elements on the left (and in the middle) of the Periodic Table are metals and the
elements on the right of the Periodic Table are non-metals. As we move across the
Periodic Table (from left to right), the elements change in character from metallic to non-
metallic. So the most metallic metals are in Group I. There is a diagonal line that can be
drawn on the Periodic Table dividing it into metals on the left and non-metals on the right
The Periodic Table is also made up of rows called periods and columns called groups
Periods
Each period on the Periodic Table is a row of elements with the same number of electron
shells. So moving down the groups the atoms get bigger as they have more shells of
electrons.
Number Maximum Number of Number of Elements

Period
of Shells Electrons in the Valence Shell in the Period
1 1 2 2
2 2 8 8
3 3 8 8
Groups
The group number tells us the number of valence electrons in an atom. Elements in the
same group have similar chemical properties and therefore react similarly. Going down a
group, the number of shells increases by 1, but the number of valence electrons remains
constant. So all Group I metals have 1 electron in their valency shell, which is why they all
react in a similar way.
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9.3 - Group Properties
Structure of
Group Number Name of Group
Element
I Alkali metals giant metallic
II Alkaline Earth metals giant metallic
VII Halogens simple molecular
0 Noble gases monatomic
(no number) Transition metals giant metallic
hydrogen
none simple molecular
(no Group)
Group I - Alkali Metals
All the group members react with water to form strong alkaline solutions (fully
dissociated) with a pH in the range of 12-14.
The alkali metals are stored in oil to prevent them from reacting with oxygen and water
vapour.
Physical Properties of Group I Metals
 Good conductors of electricity as there are mobile valence electrons

 Are very soft and can be cut with a knife
 Li, Na and K are less dense than water and so float
Trends Down Group I Metals
 Melting point and boiling point decrease down the group

 Density increases down the group
 Softness increases down the group
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Decreasing Melting and Boiling Point Down Group I
The atomic radius increases down the group, and the valence electrons are in higher
shells. The more shells there are, the more ‘shielding’ there is of the valence electrons
from the nucleus. The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and valence
electrons decreases therefore less energy is needed to overcome the forces of attraction
resulting in a lower melting point and boiling point.
Chemical Reactions of Group I Metals with Water
Element Reaction with Water Observations

 effervescence and bubbles of a
Reacts readily colourless gas evolved
Li  floats and moves around the
2Li + 2H2O  2LiOH + H2 surface of the water
 metal decreases in size
Reacts vigorously colourless gas evolved
Na  floats and moves quickly around
2Na + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2 the surface of the water
 metal melts and decreases in size
colourless gas evolved
Reacts violently
 floats and moves very quickly
K
around the surface of the water
2K + 2H2O  2KOH + H2
 metal burns with a lilac flame
and rapidly decreases in size
In order for a metal to form its ion it must lose its 1 valence electron. Energy must be
supplied (endothermic) to do this. The stronger the electrostatic force of attraction between
the nucleus and the valence electrons, the more energy has to be supplied and so the less
reactive the metal is.
The factors that affect the strength of the electrostatic force of attraction are:
 Distance of electron from nucleus

 Shielding by other electrons in closer shells
 Number of protons in the nucleus (nuclear charge)
The reactivity increases down the group (lose their 1 valence electron more easily) and
therefore the reducing power increases down the group.
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Group VII - Halogens
Group VII elements are all diatomic molecules.
Physical Properties of the Halogens
Halogen State at Room

Colour
Formula Temperature
F2 pale yellow gas
Cl2 green gas
Br2 red brown liquid
I2 black solid
 Don’t conduct electricity as there are no mobile electrons or mobile ions

 Melting point and boiling point increase down the group
 All the members of the group are diatomic
Increasing Melting and Boiling Point Down Group VII
Going down the group the number of electrons increases and the size of the diatomic
molecules increase therefore the intermolecular van der Waals forces of attraction (force
between molecules) increase and so more energy has to be supplied to overcome these
forces resulting in the melting and boiling points increasing.
Displacement Reactions of Group VII
A halogen atom higher up Group VII will displace/oxidise a halide lower down in the group.
Halogen Displacement Reactions Relative oxidising power

displaces chlorine, bromine,
F2 oxidises Cl–, Br– and I– to form Cl2, Br2 and I2
iodine, astatine
displaces bromine, iodine,
Cl2 oxidises Br– and I– to form Br2 and I2
astatine
Br2 displaces iodine, astatine oxidises I– to form I2
I2 displaces astatine only oxidises At– to form At2
At2 Cannot displace any halide cannot oxidise any halide
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Results Table for the Displacement Reactions
Displacement Reaction Colour change

Cl2 + 2KBr  2KCl + Br2 colourless to orange brown
Cl2 + 2KI  2KCl + I2 colourless to dark brown solution
Br2 + 2KCl  No reaction orange brown solution remains

Br2 + 2KI  2KBr + I2 colourless to dark brown solution
I2 + 2KCl  No reaction dark brown solution remains

I2 + 2KBr  No reaction dark brown solution remains
Decreasing Reactivity (oxidising power) down Group VII
Non-metal atoms gain electrons in order to have a full valence shell. As we go down
Group VII the number of shells of electrons increases. As there are more shells, the
electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons decrease therefore
larger atoms are less likely to take in electrons than the smaller halogens.
 Reactivity decreases down the group

 Oxidising power decreases down the group (F2 is the strongest oxidising agent)
Uses of the Halogens
Uses of chlorine Uses of bromine Uses of iodine
 used to sterilise water  to make anti-freeze  to make antiseptics
 to make pvc (a polymer)
 to make domestic bleach
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9.4 - The Transition elements
These are described as a collection of metals having:
 high densities
physical properties of transition metals
 high melting points
 variable valences
 form coloured compounds chemical properties of transition metals
 the elements or compounds except Zn
of the transition metals act
as catalysts
Variable Valency
There are various transition metal compounds. In naming these compounds it is essential
to put the oxidation state in the name as a roman numeral in order for us to know the state
of oxidation of the transition metal cation.
For example we have to say copper(I) oxide, because there is also a compound called
copper(II) oxide. The same goes for iron. Iron(II) oxide is a green solid, whereas iron(III)
oxide is a red/brown solid.
Not all elements in the central block behave like transition metals.
 Example Zinc is volatile - It has a low boiling point.

Zinc does not have variable valency - It has one valency of 2.
Zinc hydroxide is a white precipitate, not coloured.
Uses of Copper (a typical transition metal)
 In electrical wiring as it is a good conductor of electricity and is ductile.

 Cooking utensils as it is a good conductor of heat.
 Domestic heating systems
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9.5 - Noble Gases
Group 0 elements are monatomic gases that make up about 1% of air.
Properties of Group 0
 Don’t conduct electricity

 Melting point and boiling point increase down the group
 Do not take part in chemical reactions
Increasing Melting Point and Boiling Point down Group 0
Going down Group 0, the size of the atoms increase and there are more electrons in the
atoms, so the van der Waals force of attraction between monatomic atoms increases,
therefore more energy is required to overcome the forces. Melting and boiling points
increase down Group 0.
Unreactive
The noble gases have full valence shells, and so do not lose, gain or share electrons.
This means that Group 0 elements are chemically unreactive.
Uses of the Noble Gases
 Helium is used to fill airships or weather balloons because it is less dense than air
and is unreactive. Hydrogen is also less dense than air, but is very explosive.
 Argon is used to provide an inert atmosphere in lamps, so the filament does not
burn out.
 Neon is used in lamps as it glows when an electrical current passes through it.
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Topic 10 - Metals
10.1 Properties of metals
 List the general physical properties of metals

 Describe the general chemical properties of metals e.g. reaction with
dilute acids and reaction with oxygen
 Explain in terms of their properties why alloys are used instead of pure
metals
 Identify representations of alloys from diagrams of structure
10.2 Reactivity series
 Place in order of reactivity: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium,

zinc, iron, (hydrogen) and copper, by reference to the reactions, if any,
of the metals with:
– water or steam
– dilute hydrochloric acid
and the reduction of their oxides with carbon
 Deduce an order of reactivity from a given set of
experimental results
 Describe the reactivity series as related to the tendency of a metal to
form its positive ion, illustrated by its reaction, if any, with:
– the aqueous ions
– the oxides
of the other listed metals
 Describe and explain the action of heat on the hydroxides, carbonates
and nitrates of the listed metals
 Account for the apparent unreactivity of aluminium in terms of the oxide
layer which adheres to the metal
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10.3 Extraction of metals
 Describe the ease in obtaining metals from their ores by relating the
elements to the reactivity series
 Describe and state the essential reactions in the extraction of iron from
hematite
 Describe the conversion of iron into steel using basic oxides and
oxygen
 Know that aluminium is extracted from the ore bauxite by electrolysis
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of recycling metals, limited
to iron/steel and aluminium
 Describe in outline, the extraction of zinc from zinc blende
 Describe in outline, the extraction of aluminium from bauxite including
the role of cryolite and the reactions at the electrodes
10.4 Uses of metals
 Name the uses of aluminium:

– in the manufacture of aircraft because of its strength and low
density
– in food containers because of its resistance to corrosion
 Name the uses of copper related to its properties (electrical wiring and
in cooking utensils)
 Name the uses of mild steel (car bodies and machinery) and stainless
steel (chemical plant and cutlery)
 Explain the uses of zinc for galvanising and for making brass
 Describe the idea of changing the properties of iron by the controlled
use of additives to form steel alloys
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10.1 - Properties of Metals
An alloy is a mixture of a metal and at least one other substance
Metals are elements on the left hand side of the Periodic Table.
Physical Properties Chemical Properties

Good conductor of heat and electricity Usually form basic oxides (bases)
Shiny Form positive ions
React with acid to form salt and hydrogen
Malleable
(except copper, silver, gold and platinum)
Sonorous React with non-metals forming ionic bonds
Ductile
Usually have high melting and boiling points
(except Group I)
Usually high density (except Group I)
Malleable means can be hammered and bent into shapes without breaking.
Ductile means can be pulled into thin wires.
Sonorous means makes a ringing sound when hit.
Alloys
Alloys are mixtures, not compounds. They are made molten and mixed together,
rather than react to form a compound.
Alloys have the properties of the metals used to make them. So the properties of a
metal can be modified by mixing it with other metals.
positive ions
delocalised
mobile
valence 'sea'
of electrons
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Testing for Metals (or alloys)
1. Physical Test - conducts electricity

cell
bulb Test - place in a circuit
Result - bulb will light up
place sample to be
tested across here
2. Chemical Test - reacts with acid to make hydrogen
All metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with acid. There will be
effervescence and the gas made will give a 'squeaky pop' with a lit splint.
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10.2 Reactivity Series
The reactivity of a metal is a measure of its ability to form positive ions.
A reactive metal like potassium will readily lose its valence electron to form a cation.
K  K+ + e–
A less reactive metal will slowly, if at all, to form a cation.
Cu  Cu2+ + 2e –
Reactivity Series
The reactivity series is when metals are listed in their order of reactivity. You will
notice that Group I is the most reactive, followed by Group II, Group III and then the
Transition Metals.
Metal Position on Periodic Table Reactivity

K Most reactive
Group I
Na
Ca
Group II
Mg
Al Group III
*Carbon Group IV
Zn
Transition metal
Fe
*Hydrogen No Group/Position
Cu
Ag
Transition metal
Au
Pt Least reactive
*Carbon and hydrogen are included in the list because they can also form positive
ions.
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Reactions of Metals
1. Reaction with oxygen

2. Reaction with water (or steam)
3. Reaction with acid
4. Displacement reactions with metal compounds
5. Thermal decomposition
1. Reaction with Oxygen
All metals will react with oxygen to form a metal oxide.
metal + oxygen  metal oxide
2. Reaction with Water
The more reactive metals react with cold water (from potassium to magnesium in the
reactivity series). The Group I metals are so reactive the reaction is dangerous and
can only be done by your teacher.
metal + water  metal hydroxide + hydrogen
Less reactive metals will react with steam as it is hotter, but the products of the
reaction are different.
metal + steam  metal oxide + hydrogen
Metals below hydrogen will not react with water, or steam.
3. Reaction with Acid
Group I metals are too reactive to react with acids - they will explode. Metals below
hydrogen in the reactivity series will not react with acid.
metal + acid  salt + hydrogen
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Reaction Summary
Reaction with Reaction with Water, or

Metal Reaction with Acids
Oxygen Steam
burns with a lilac reacts violently with cold violent reaction to
Potassium flame to form water producing potassium form a salt and
potassium oxide hydroxide and hydrogen hydrogen
burns with a
reacts vigorously with cold vigorous reaction to
yellow flame to
Sodium water producing sodium form a salt and
form a sodium
hydroxide and hydrogen hydrogen
oxide
burns with a red reacts with cold water reacts with dilute
Calcium flame to form a producing calcium hydroxide acids to form a salt
calcium oxide and hydrogen and hydrogen
reacts very slowly with cold
water to form magnesium
burns with a white hydroxide and hydrogen. reacts with dilute
Magnesium flame to form Magnesium is heated to react acids to form a salt
magnesium oxide it with steam to produce and hydrogen
magnesium oxide and
hydrogen
heated to react with steam reacts with dilute
forms zinc oxide
Zinc producing zinc oxide and acids to form a salt
on heating
hydrogen and hydrogen
reacts slowly reacts slowly with steam reacts with dilute
Iron forming iron(III) producing iron(III) oxide and acids to form a salt
oxide hydrogen and hydrogen
reacts very slowly
Copper forming copper(II) no reaction no reaction
oxide
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4. Displacement Reactions
A reactive metal will displace, or reduce the less reactive metal ions from a solution
of its salt.
 Example 1: zinc metal reacting with copper(II) sulphate
Zinc is a more reactive metal that copper, so it will displace the

copper(II) ions from the compound.
Symbol equation zinc + copper(II) sulfate  zinc sulfate + copper
Ionic equation Zn + CuSO4  ZnSO4 + Cu
Ionic half-equation Zn  Zn2+ + 2e-

Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu
Observations The zinc decreases in size

A pink brown solid forms
The reaction is exothermic
The blue colour of the solution fades to colourless
The bigger the difference in reactivity between the two metals the faster and more
exothermic the reaction is.
 Example 2: silver reacting with calcium chloride
No reaction happens because silver is less reactive than

calcium, so silver cannot displace the calcium ions from the
compound.
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5. Thermal Decomposition
Thermal decomposition reactions are when one compound breaks down into two, or
more, smaller chemicals when heated.
Group Nitrates Hydroxides Carbonates

decompose do not decompose do not decompose
Group I  a metal nitrite

(except lithium)  oxygen gas
2NaNO3  2NaNO2 + O2
decompose decompose decompose
Group II, lithium
 a metal oxide  metal oxide  metal oxide
and the
transition  NO2 gas  water  CO2
metals  oxygen gas
2Mg(NO3)2  2MgO + 4NO2 + O2 2LiOH  Li2O + H2O MgCO3  MgO + CO2
Thermal stability is the resistance of a chemical to decompose when heated. More

thermally stable compounds required a higher temperature to react.
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10.3 Extraction of Metals
Metals are found either as metals, or in compounds in rocks in the ground.
Metals found native, or uncombined, are metals found as elements; rather than in
compounds. Silver, gold and platinum are usually found native and do not need to be
processed. They are just dug out of the ground and used directly.
An ore is a rock which contains a compound from which a metal can be extracted.
Ore Compound Processed by

haematite iron (III) oxide carbon reduction
zinc blende zinc sulfide carbon reduction
bauxite aluminium oxide electrolysis
The ores must be processed in order to get the metals out of them. There are two
different methods of extracting metals from ores, based on the metal's reactivity
1. Metals less reactive than carbon can be extracted in a blast furnace using
carbon reduction.
2. Metals more reactive than carbon are extracted using electrolysis.
A blast furnace is like a very large, hot oven. Hot air is blown in at the sides to
increase the temperature.
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1. Carbon Reduction
For metals less reactive than carbon (zinc to platinum), carbon reduction is used to
extract the metal. Carbon, or carbon monoxide is a reducing agent, which reduces
the metal ions in the compound to metal atoms.
a. Iron
iron ore (hematite)

limestone
coke
CO2(g)
+
N2(g)
700 oC
1100 oC
hot air in 1900 oC

hot air in
molten calcium
silicate (slag) out molten pig
iron out
Haematite is a mixture of iron(III) oxide and impurities, mainly sand (SiO2).

Coke is a pure form of coal - it contains mainly carbon
Limestone is a rock from the ground - it contains mainly calcium carbonate
Haematite, coke and limestone enter at the top of the furnace.

Carbon dioxide gas and nitrogen gas leave the furnace as waste gases.
Carbon monoxide is the reducing agent and reduces iron(III) oxide to iron in the
reaction, and therefore will be oxidised to carbon dioxide gas.
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Reactions in the Blast Furnace
Coke (combustion to produce heat and carbon monoxide)
 C + O2  CO2
 CO2 + C  2CO
Limestone (thermal decomposition to form calcium oxide)
 CaCO3  CaO + CO2
Haematite (reduction of iron(III) oxide)
 Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3CO2

 2Fe2O3 + 3C  4Fe + 3CO2
Silicon(IV) oxide, an acidic impurity is removed by basic calcium oxide forming slag,
calcium silicate.
 CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3
Slag is used to make roads and cement; as well as electronic chips.
The iron that is produced (called cast iron) contains about 4% carbon impurities.
Cast iron is quite brittle and is usually processed again to make steel.
Steel is more malleable and stronger than cast iron, making it a more useful material.
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b. Steel
oxygen gas in
CO(g)
+
CO2(g) SO2(g)
C S
Fe
Si SiO2
In the Basic Oxygen Furnace, oxygen is blown into the furnace to oxidise the
impurities (the iron is not oxidised as it is the least reactive element present).
Calcium oxide is also added to remove acidic impurities. The carbon content in steel
is less than 1% making it more malleable than cast iron with 4% carbon.
Reactions in the Basic Oxygen Furnace
Carbon
 C + O2  CO2
Sulfur
 S + O2  SO2
These gases leave the top of the furnace.
Silicon
 Si + O2  SiO2
 CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3
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c. Zinc
Zinc blende is roasted in air first as zinc sulfide cannot be reduced by carbon, but
zinc oxide can be reduced by carbon.
 2ZnS + 3O2  2ZnO + 2SO2
The sulfur dioxide is used to make sulfuric acid in the Contact Process (Topic 12).
The zinc oxide is then reduced in the blast furnace to zinc gas (zinc has quite a low
boiling point). The zinc gas is then collected in side arms and condensed to liquid
zinc.
zinc oxide +
coke
Zn(g)
liquified zinc
impurities
hot air in hot air in
Reactions in the Blast Furnace
Coke (combustion to produce heat and carbon monoxide)
 C + O2  CO2
 CO2 + C  2CO
Zinc blende
 ZnO + C  Zn(g) + CO
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10.4 Uses of Metals
Composition of alloys:
Alloy Composition
Steel Iron and Carbon
Stainless steel Iron, Carbon, Chromium and Nickel
Brass Copper and Zinc
Bronze Copper and Tin
Alloys are always stronger than the metals they are made from. They are also less
malleable. This is because of the different sized ions in the lattice that make it harder
for the layers to slide over each other.
Uses of metals and alloys:
Metal, or Alloy Property Uses

low density / strong aircraft manufacture
Aluminium
corrosion resistance food containers
electrical conductor electrical wiring
thermal conductor /
Copper
corrosion resistant / cooking utensils
malleable
strong / ductile making brass
Zinc
reactive metal galvanising
Mild Steel strong car bodies
Stainless Steel resists corrosion chemical plants / cutlery
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Topic 11 - Air and Water
11.1 Water
 Describe chemical tests for water using cobalt(II) chloride and copper(II)
sulfate
 Describe, in outline, the treatment of the water supply in terms of
filtration and chlorination
 Name some of the uses of water in industry and in the home
 Discuss the implications of an inadequate supply of water, limited to
safe water for drinking and water for irrigating crops
11.2 Air
 State the composition of clean, dry air as being approximately 78%

nitrogen, 21% oxygen and the remainder as being a mixture of noble
gases and carbon dioxide
 Name the common pollutants in the air as being carbon monoxide,
sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and lead compounds
 State the source of each of these pollutants:
– carbon monoxide from the incomplete combustion of carbon-
containing substances
– sulfur dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels which contain
sulfur compounds (leading to ‘acid rain’)
– oxides of nitrogen from car engines
– lead compounds from leaded petrol
 State the adverse effect of these common pollutants on buildings and
on health and discuss why these pollutants are of global concern
 State the conditions required for the rusting of iron
 Describe and explain methods of rust prevention, specifically paint and
other coatings to exclude oxygen
 Describe the separation of oxygen and nitrogen from liquid air by
fractional distillation
 Describe and explain the presence of oxides of nitrogen in car engines
and their catalytic removal
 Describe and explain sacrificial protection in terms of the reactivity
series of metals and galvanising as a method of rust prevention
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11.3 Nitrogen and fertilisers
 Describe the need for nitrogen-, phosphorus- and potassium- containing

fertilisers
 Describe the displacement of ammonia from its salts
 Describe and explain the essential conditions for the manufacture of
ammonia by the Haber process including the sources of the hydrogen
and nitrogen, i.e. hydrocarbons or steam and air
11.4 Carbon dioxide and methane
 State that carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases and
explain how they may contribute to climate change
 State the formation of carbon dioxide:
– as a product of complete combustion of carbon containing
substances
– as a product of respiration
– as a product of the reaction between an acid and a carbonate
– from the thermal decomposition of a carbonate
 State the sources of methane, including decomposition of vegetation
and waste gases from digestion in animals
 Describe the carbon cycle, in simple terms, to include the processes of
combustion, respiration and photosynthesis
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11.1 Water
Tests for Water
Physical
Test or Result
Chemical
anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride paper chemical paper turns from blue to pink
anhydrous copper(II) sulfate paper chemical from white powder to blue crystals
test the melting point of the solid melting point of the solid is fixed at 0oC
physical
and boiling point of the liquid boiling point is fixed at 100oC
Purification of Water
Water used in our homes comes from rivers, lakes, underground water supplies and
in Kuwait it comes from the sea. Before we use it, the water must be purified.
Stage 1: The water is filtered to remove insoluble solids

Stage 2: Chlorine is added to kill bacteria
A limited supply of clean water is the main cause of disease and crop failure.
Uses of Water
In Industry In the Home

making drinks, eg Pepsi washing clothes
cooling powerstations flushing toilets
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11.2 Air
Composition of Clean Air
Clean air has no pollutants in it and is made up of a mixture of different gases.
Gases in Clean Air %

Nitrogen 78
Oxygen 21
Carbon Dioxide 0.03
Noble Gases about 1%
Water Vapour varies depending on humidity
Properties of Oxygen and Nitrogen
Oxygen Nitrogen
Atomic symbol O Atomic symbol N
Molecular formula O2 Molecular formula N2
Boiling point -183oC Boiling point -196oC
colourless, odourless gas colourless, odourless gas
slightly soluble in water less soluble than oxygen
solution is neutral solution is neutral
does not burn, but other substances react only burns at high temperature and
with oxygen when they burn pressure - eg car engine
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Uses of the Gases in Air
Gas Use
oxygen tents and breathing apparatus in hospitals
combusted with acetylene (a hydrocarbon) to produce a very high
Oxygen temperature flame which is used to weld metals together
to convert cast iron to steel
mountaineers and deep sea divers use oxygen
for making ammonia, which is then used to make mainly fertilisers

and nitric acid
Nitrogen
as a refrigerant
food packaging e.g. crisps
added to make fizzy drinks e.g. Pepsi

Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers. The heavy gas smothers the fire, preventing it
obtaining oxygen
Helium is less dense than air and so is used to fill

airships and weather balloons
Noble Gases Argon is used to provide an inert atmosphere in lamps to prevent the
filament burning
Neon is used in advertising lights because it glows when an electric
current is passed through it.
Separating the Different Gases in Air
Air is a mixture of gases and the gases have different boiling points and
densities. There are two ways of separating the gases in air.
 Method 1: Fractional distillation - clean air is liquefied using a low

temperature and high pressure and then the different
components are separated by fractional distillation.
 Method 2: Diffusion - air is passed through a porous tube. The gas

with the lowest density diffuses into the porous tube at a
faster rate.
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Air Pollution
Apart from the gases normally found in the air, other gases such as carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen and can be present; as well as
solid lead compounds. Carbon dioxide is not considered a pollutant as it is already in
air.
Pollution is the release of harmful substances into the environment as a result of

human activity.
Pollutant Source of Pollutant Problems Caused by the Pollutant

poisonous because carbon monoxide
Carbon incomplete combustion of carbon
combines more readily than oxygen
Monoxide containing fuels
with red blood cells
Sulfur Dioxide:
 sore throats
 asthma attacks
Sulfur combustion of fossil fuels which

Sulfuric Acid (acid rain):
Dioxide contain sulfur as an impurity
 corrodes exposed metal work
 damages trees and plants
 erodes limestone buildings and
statues
Nitric acid (acid rain):
 corrodes exposed metal work
Oxides of formed in car engines (high
 damages trees and plants
Nitrogen temperature and high pressure)
 erodes limestone buildings and
statues
Lead lead causes damage to the brain and
leaded petrol
Compounds nerve cells in young children.
Catalytic converters
In car engines, there is always some carbon monoxide made from incomplete
combustion and oxides of nitrogen from the nitrogen in air burning as well.
These pollutant gases can be removed from the exhaust gases using a catalytic
converter. The reactions that take place can be summarised as:
2CO(g) + 2NOx(g)  2CO2(g) + N2(g)
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The carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide and the oxides of nitrogen are
reduced to nitrogen. Any soot (unburnt fuel - CxHy) is also oxidised to carbon dioxide
and water. The catalyst is a mixture of platinum and rhodium.
catalytic converter
gases from engine gases into the
environment
CO CO2
NOX N2
CXHY H2O
The catalyst has an optimum working temperature of about 200oC. The catalyst is
not effective at removing the polluting gases until the engine has warmed up, which
takes about 10 minutes.
Unleaded petrol has to be used otherwise the lead poisons the platinum catalyst
and stops it from working.
Corrosion and Rusting
Corrosion is the name given to the process that takes place when metals and alloys
react with oxygen, water or any other substance found in their immediate
environment.
Rusting is the corrosion of iron and steel to form hydrated iron(III) oxide
(Fe2O3.xH2O). Rust crumbles easily and the iron, or steel will lose its strength.
Two substances, which are both necessary for rusting, are:
 water, or the water in air

 oxygen, or the oxygen in air
4Fe + 2xH2O + 3O2  2Fe2O3.xH2O
Rusting will happen faster if salt water is used because it contains ions which can
transfer electrons and speed up the reaction.
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Rust Prevention
Metal Object Method Note

Car bodies if the paint is scratched, the
Paint iron beneath it starts to
Bridges rust.
Moving parts of
machinery prevents water getting to
Oil or Grease
the iron
Bicycle chain
Steel girders
long lasting and easy to
used in bridges Galvanising
apply
and buildings
Coating with plastic
Freezers PVC is used to coat steel preventing it lasts a long time

from being in contact with oxygen and
water.
tin does not easily corrode
Tin plating and is not poisonous. Zinc
Food can cannot be used for food
steel is coated with a layer of tin. cans because zinc and its
compounds are poisonous.
allowing a more reactive

Ships Sacrificial protection
metal to corrode instead
using a power source to get

Oil rigs Cathodic protection another metal to corrode
instead
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Galvanising
Galvanising is the process where iron is coated with a surface layer of zinc
zinc
Zinc is used to protect iron or steel from rusting. The zinc layer is
impermeable to oxygen and water, preventing them coming in
contact with the iron. This is an example of a physical barrier. iron
Also, if the zinc layer gets scratched the iron will still not rust as the
zinc is more reactive and act as sacrificial protection.
Sacrificial Protection
If the zinc gets scratched revealing iron, the iron still

zinc layer scratched
does not rust. This is because the zinc, being more
exposing the iron O2 + H2O
reactive than iron, reacts with water and oxygen to O2 + H2O
forming its positive ions in preference to the iron. The
electrons produced go to the iron preventing corrosion
in a process called ‘sacrificial protection’. Therefore the iron
zinc reacts and the iron remains intact. This is an
example of a chemical barrier.
oxidation Zn  Zn2+ + 2e–
Sacrificial protection is used to protect ships and oilrigs from rusting using
magnesium, or zinc as the more reactive metal.
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Cathodic Protection
power steel oil rig

+ –
which is the
cathode
titanium
anode
sea water which
contains:
Na+(aq), H+(aq),
OH–(aq), Cl–(aq)
At the anode OH–(aq) ions and Cl–(aq) ions are oxidised and lose electrons to the
anode and so oxygen gas and chlorine gas are formed at the anode. These
electrons are pumped round the external circuit by the power supply to the cathode,
the oil rig. The steel oil rig cannot not rust because it receives a supply of electrons
which are produced at the anode and so the iron cannot be oxidised.
How does Sacrificial Protection Differ from Cathodic Protection?
 Sacrificial protection needs a more reactive metal as the anode in contact

with the iron or steel but cathodic protection needs an inert metal as the
anode in contact with the iron or steel.
 Sacrificial protection does not need electricity, but cathodic protection

requires electricity.
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11.3 Nitrogen and Fertilisers
Nitrogen, from air, is used to make ammonia, nitric acid and nitrogen fertilisers.
The Haber Process
This is a process where ammonia is made on a large scale for profit.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) H = - 92kJ
The forward reaction is exothermic (H = - 92kJ) and the backward reaction is
endothermic (H = + 92kJ)
Raw Materials Used Conditions for Haber Process
Natural Gas Temperature of 450oC
Steam Pressure of 200 atmospheres
Nitrogen from Air Finely divided iron catalyst
Making the Raw Materials for the Haber Process
1. Manufacture of hydrogen gas for the reaction
This comes from methane gas (CH4) by reacting it with steam at a

temperature of 750oC and using a nickel based catalyst.
CH4(g) + H2O(g) ⇌ CO(g) + 3H2(g)
The carbon monoxide then reacts with more steam to form more hydrogen
and carbon dioxide gas.
CO(g) + H2O(g) ⇌ H2(g) + CO2(g)
2. Manufacture of nitrogen gas for the reaction
Nitrogen gas is produced by the fractional distillation of clean liquid air.
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Optimum Conditions for the Haber Process
Temperature
Lowering the temperature decreases the rate of reaction but increases the yield of
ammonia as equilibrium position moves in the exothermic direction.
Increasing the temperature increases the rate of reaction but decreases the yield
of ammonia equilibrium position moves in the endothermic direction.
The 450oC temperature used is high enough to give a good rate of reaction but low
enough to give a good yield.
Pressure
Decreasing the pressure decreases the rate of reaction and decreases the yield
of ammonia as equilibrium position moves to the side with more gas mole.
Increasing the pressure increases the rate of reaction and increases the yield of
ammonia as equilibrium position moves to the side with less gas mole, but the cost
of the process increases.
The 200 atmosphere pressure used is a compromise between obtaining a

reasonable yield with a reasonable rate of reaction at a reasonable cost.
Recycling the Unused Hydrogen and Nitrogen
The hot gases are cooled to liquefy the ammonia. Ammonia has a higher boiling
point than nitrogen or hydrogen and so condenses to form a liquid. The unreacted
nitrogen and hydrogen gas are recycled by passing over the catalyst again. The
yield of ammonia is about 15% of the total gas provided. The liquid ammonia is run
off from the reaction vessel.
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NPK Fertilisers
Plants require three essential elements for healthy plant growth. They are:
1. Nitrogen (N)
2. Phosphorus (P)
3. Potassium (K)
All plants need nitrogen to make proteins, in the form of nitrates, which are all
soluble in water and so can be taken up by the plants' roots. This is how plants get
nitrogen. They cannot take in nitrogen gas because they have not evolved a way of
absorbing it from air and converting it into nitrates. Nitrogen promotes plant growth
and higher crop yields.
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11.4 Carbon Dioxide and Methane
Respiration is the production of energy from food by living organisms.
Both carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases, which may contribute to
climate change. If the amount of CO2 and CH4 builds up in the atmosphere, the
average temperature of the Earth may rise. The effect is known as the greenhouse
effect.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere by:
1. Complete combustion
2. Respiration
3. Acid - carbonate reactions
4. Thermal decomposition of carbonates
These processes cause the % carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to increase.
1. Complete Combustion
Carbon dioxide is made when any carbon-containing fuel is burned. This includes all
fossil fuels (see Topic 14).
 Example 1: Combustion of methane
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
2. Respiration
Carbon dioxide is the product of aerobic respiration by living organisms.
 Example 2: Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
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3. Acid - Carbonate Reactions
Carbon dioxide is produced in the reaction between an acid and carbonate.
 Example 3: magnesium carbonate and hydrochloric acid
MgCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by:
1. Photosynthesis
This processes cause the % carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to decrease.
1. Photosynthesis
Plants take in atmospheric CO2(g) in a photochemical reaction to make

carbohydrates.
 Example 4: Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Glucose (a carbohydrate) can then be made into complex carbohydrates such as

starch and cellulose by condensation polymerisation (see Topic 14).
Carbon Cycle
Carbon dioxide is being constantly added to the atmosphere by combustion and

respiration and removed from the atmosphere by photosynthesis.
Methane
Sources of methane:
 Main component in natural gas

 Decomposition of vegetation
 Waste gases from digestion in animals
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Topic 12 - Sulfur
 Name some sources of sulfur

 Name the use of sulfur in the manufacture of sulfuric acid
 State the uses of sulfur dioxide as a bleach in the manufacture of wood
pulp for paper and as a food preservative (by killing bacteria)
 Describe the manufacture of sulfuric acid by the Contact process,
including essential conditions and reactions
 Describe the properties and uses of dilute and concentrated sulfuric
acid
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Sources of Sulfur
 As the element sulfur in underground deposits in the USA and Poland

 Zinc blende, the ore which contains zinc sulfide (ZnS)
Uses of Sulfur
 Manufacture of sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid

 Vulcanisation of rubber, to make it harder
Uses of Sulfur Dioxide
 To bleach wood pulp, to make paper

 As a food preservative, by killing bacteria
 Manufacture of sulfuric acid
Contact Process
This is the process used to make sulfuric acid from sulfur. It has four main steps:
1. Combustion of sulfur
2. Further oxidation of sulfur dioxide
3. Producing oleum
4. Producing sulfuric acid
Oleum is the name for H2S2O7
1. Combustion of sulfur
S + O2  SO2
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2. Further oxidation of sulfur dioxide
2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3 (H negative)
As this is an equilibrium reaction, the optimum % yield and rate

are obtained by the following conditions:
450oC
3atm
vanadium(V) oxide catalyst
3. Producing Oleum
SO3 + H2SO4(concentrated)  H2S2O7
Concentrated sulfuric acid cannot be made directly from sulfur

dioxide as it is a very exothermic reaction and the acid would
boil. This step was added for safety.
4. Producing sulfuric acid
H2S2O7 + H2O  2H2SO4
Some of the sulfuric acid made is used for step 3 and the rest is
sold as a chemical.
Properties of Sulfuric Acid
Dilute Sulfuric Acid Concentrated Sulfuric Acid

Acts as a regular acid (see Topic 8.1) Dehydrating agent
Drying acid, or neutral gases
Uses of Sulfuric Acid
 Make soapless detergents

 Make fertilisers
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Topic 13 - Carbonates
 Describe the manufacture of lime (calcium oxide) from calcium

carbonate (limestone) in terms of thermal decomposition
 Name some uses of lime and slaked lime such as in treating acidic soil
and neutralising acidic industrial waste products, e.g. flue gas
desulfurisation
 Name the uses of calcium carbonate in the manufacture of iron and
cement
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Limestone, Lime and Slaked Lime
Limestone (as well as chalk and marble) contains calcium carbonate as well as
other impurities.
Lime, or Quick Lime, is calcium oxide. It is make from limestone.
Slaked Lime is solid calcium hydroxide. It is made from lime.
Limewater is aqueous calcium hydroxide. It is made from slaked lime.
Limestone Cycle
Limestone Heat Lime

CaCO3 CaO
Add CO2 gas
drop wise
Add water
Lime Water Slaked Lime
Ca(OH)2 (aq) Add water to make a solution Ca(OH)2 (s)
Reactions
Limestone: CaCO3 (s)  CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Lime: CaO (s) + H2O (l)  Ca(OH)2 (s)
Slaked Lime: Ca(OH)2 (s)  Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Lime Water: Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g)  CaCO3 (s)
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Uses of Limestone, Lime and Slaked Lime
Limestone Lime Slaked Lime

Manufacture of iron and Neutralise soil acidity Neutralise soil acidity
steel
Neutralising acidic Neutralising acidic
Manufacture of cement
industrial waste products industrial waste products
Used to neutralise excess Remove acidic impurities
acidity in lakes and soil in the basic oxygen Glass manufacture
furnace
Controlling Soil Acidity
It is important to control soil acidity as plants grow better in soil which is pH 7 and
give a higher crop yield.
Calcium carbonate (insoluble in water) and calcium oxide (slightly soluble in water)
can both be used to increase the pH of acidic soil.
It is better to use calcium carbonate to neutralise acidic soil because:
 CaCO3 cannot be washed away by rain and remains longer in the soil but
CaO could be washed away as it is more soluble.
 As CaCO3 is insoluble the pH of the soil cannot rise above pH 7, but with
CaO the pH can rise above pH 7.
Adding Lime to Soil Containing Artificial Fertilisers
When lime, a basic oxide, is added to damp soil containing a nitrogenous fertiliser
such as ammonium nitrate, or ammonium sulfate then ammonia gas is released so
the concentration of ammonium ions decreases. The lime causes ammonia to be
displaced from ammonium ions.
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14 - Organic Chemistry
14.1 Names of compounds
 Name and draw the structures of methane, ethane, ethene, ethanol,

ethanoic acid and the products of the reactions stated in sections 14.4–
14.6
 State the type of compound present, given a chemical name ending in
-ane, -ene, -ol, or -oic acid or a molecular structure
 Name and draw the structures of the unbranched alkanes, alkenes (not
cistrans), alcohols and acids containing up to four carbon atoms per
molecule
 Name and draw the structural formulae of the esters which can be made
from unbranched alcohols and carboxylic acids, each containing up to
four carbon atoms
14.2 Fuels
 Name the fuels: coal, natural gas and petroleum

 Name methane as the main constituent of natural gas
 Describe petroleum as a mixture of hydrocarbons and its separation into
useful fractions by fractional distillation
 Describe the properties of molecules within a fraction
 Name the uses of the fractions as:
– refinery gas for bottled gas for heating and cooking
– gasoline fraction for fuel (petrol) in cars
– naphtha fraction for making chemicals
– kerosene/paraffin fraction for jet fuel
– diesel oil/gas oil for fuel in diesel engines
– fuel oil fraction for fuel for ships and home heating systems
– lubricating fraction for lubricants, waxes and polishes
– bitumen for making roads
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14.3 Homologous series
 Describe the concept of homologous series as a ‘family’ of similar

compounds with similar chemical properties due to the presence of the
same functional group
 Describe the general characteristics of an homologous series
 Recall that the compounds in a homologous series have the same
general formula
 Describe and identify structural isomerism
14.4 Alkanes
 Describe the properties of alkanes (exemplified by methane) as being

generally unreactive, except in terms of burning
 Describe the bonding in alkanes
 Describe substitution reactions of alkanes with chlorine
14.5 Alkenes
 Describe the manufacture of alkenes and of hydrogen by cracking

 Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons:
– from molecular structures
– by reaction with aqueous bromine
 Describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition
polymerisation of monomer units
 Describe the properties of alkenes in terms of addition reactions with
bromine, hydrogen and steam
14.6 Alcohols
 Describe the manufacture of ethanol by fermentation and by the

catalytic addition of steam to ethene
 Describe the properties of ethanol in terms of burning
 Name the uses of ethanol as a solvent and as a fuel
 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of these two methods of
manufacturing ethanol
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14.7 Carboxylic acids
 Describe the properties of aqueous ethanoic acid

 Describe the formation of ethanoic acid by the oxidation of ethanol by
fermentation and with acidified potassium manganate(VII)
 Describe ethanoic acid as a typical weak acid
 Describe the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol in the
presence of a catalyst to give an ester
14.8.1 Polymers
 Define polymers as large molecules built up from small units

(monomers)
 Understand that different polymers have different units and/or different
linkages
14.8.2 Synthetic polymers
 Name some typical uses of plastics and of man-made fibres such as

nylon and Terylene
 Describe the pollution problems caused by nonbiodegradable plastics
 Explain the differences between condensation and addition
polymerisation
 Deduce the structure of the polymer product from a given alkene and
vice versa
 Describe the formation of nylon (a polyamide) and Terylene (a polyester)
by condensation polymerisation, the structure of nylon being
represented as:
and the structure of Terylene as:
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14.8.3 Natural polymers
 Name proteins and carbohydrates as constituents of food

 Describe proteins as possessing the same (amide) linkages as nylon but
with different units
 Describe the structure of proteins as:
 Describe the hydrolysis of proteins to amino acids (Structures and

names are not required.)
 Describe complex carbohydrates in terms of a large number of sugar
units, considered a
joined together by condensation polymerisation,
e.g.
 Describe the hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates (e.g. starch), by acids

or enzymes to give simple sugars
 Describe the fermentation of simple sugars to produce ethanol (and
carbon dioxide) (Candidates will not be expected to give the molecular
formulae of sugars.)
 Describe, in outline, the usefulness of chromatography in separating
and identifying the products of hydrolysis of carbohydrates and
proteins
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14.1 Names of Compounds
Organic compounds are compounds which contain carbon from living things
Hydrocarbons are compounds made from hydrogen and carbon only
Organic carbon compounds are present in all fossil fuels.
Fossil Fuel Composition State

Coal Mostly carbon Solid
Coke Purified coal Solid
Natural gas Mostly methane Gas
Crude oil / Petroleum Mixture of hydrocarbons Liquid
Coal
Coal is a black solid that is mostly made of carbon, with sulfur as an impurity. It
burns to produce carbon dioxide (and sulfur dioxide).
Coke
Coke is a purified form of coal. It contains a higher percentage of carbon. It still has
sulfur as an impurity.
Natural Gas
Natural gas is mostly made of methane (CH4) and produces carbon dioxide and
water vapour when burned.
Crude Oil
Crude oil is a mixture of many different hydrocarbons. It is separated into useful

fractions (see Topic 14.2).
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Carbon Chain Molecules
Organic carbon molecules consist of a chain of carbon atoms bonded together. In

addition other elements can also bond to the chain, such as hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and the halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine).
Types of Formula
1. Display - where every atom and bond is drawn. This shows the greatest
level of detail.
2. Structural - each carbon atom is shown.
3. Molecular - only shows how many of each type of atom there is. No
functional group detail is shown.
1. Display Formula
These examples show all atoms and all bonds in the molecule.
 Example 1: a chain containing just carbon and hydrogen atoms
 Example 2: a chain containing carbon, hydrogen and chlorine atoms
 Example 3: a chain containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms
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 Example 4: a chain containing double bonds, carbon, hydrogen and chlorine
2. Structural Formula
Each carbon is shown with the atoms joined to it. Not all bonds are shown. Bonds
between different carbon atoms in the chain are shown.
 Example 5: a chain containing double bonds, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
3. Molecular Formula
Just the molecular formula is written, this does not show any detail of the structure of
the molecule, but it does show how many and which atoms are present.
 Example 6: a chain containing carbon and hydrogen
C3H6
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Naming Organic Molecules
The name of an organic molecule is made up of a prefix which depends on how

many carbon atoms it contains and a suffix which depends on the functional group
present.
Number of Carbon Atoms Prefix

1 meth-
2 eth-
3 prop-
4 but-
Functional Group Contains Suffix

Alkane C-C single bonds -ane
Alkene C=C double bonds -ene
Halogenoalkane R-X see example 11
Alcohol R-OH -anol
Carboxylic Acid R-COOH -anoic acid
Ester R-COO-R' see examples 12 and 13
Where: R is part of a carbon chain

R' is another carbon chain
X is a halogen
The position of the functional group also has to be given in the name.
Functional Group Where to put Number

Alkane none used
Alkene alk-x-ene
Halogenoalkane x-halogenoalkane
Alcohol alcoh-x-ol
Carboxylic Acid none used
Ester non used
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 Example 7: This is propane as there are 3 carbons in the chain (prop-) and
all the carbons are single bonded (-ane)
 Example 8: This is butanoic acid as there are 4 carbons in the chain (but-)
and there is a carboxylic acid functional group present
(-anoic acid)
 Example 9: This is but-2-ene as there are 4 carbons in the chain (but-) and
there is a double bond (-ene). The -2- is added to show on
which carbon the double bond is starts.
 Example 10: This is but-1-ene as are 4 carbons in the chain (but-) and
there is a double bond (-ene). The -2- is added to show where
the double bond starts.
CH2=CH-CH2-CH3
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 Example 11: This is 1-chloropropane as there is a chain of 3 carbons (prop-)

and all the carbons are single bonded (-ane) and also there is a
chlorine atom on the first carbon reading from right to left so
(1-chloro-) is added to the beginning of the name.
Halogen names in organic molecules are fluoro- chloro- bromo-

and iodo- and always go at the start of the molecule's name.
Also we can count from either the left, or the right end of the
molecule in order to get the lowest possible number for the
functional group.
 Example 12: This is an ester, their names are slightly different as there are
two carbon chains in the molecule. On the right side there are 2
carbons (ethyl-) and on the left side there are 3 carbons and
the double bond to the oxygen (-propanoate). So this ester is
called ethylpropanoate. All esters have the style ~yl~anoate
where the ~ is a meth, eth, prop, or but.
It can also be written as CH3CH2COOCH2CH3
 Example 13: This is also an ester. It is called methylbutanoate. The carbon

chain with the C=O bond always goes second in the name (see
Topic 14.7)
CH3CH2CH2COOCH3
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14.2 Fuels
A fuel is a substance that burns to release energy
A fraction is the distillate collected over a narrow temperature range from a

fractionating column
Coal, coke and natural gas were covered in Topic 14.1.
Crude Oil / Petroleum
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons that have to be separated into useful

fractions by fractional distillation.
Diagram of a Fractionating Column
refinery gas
gasoline
naphtha
paraffin
diesel oil
fuel oil
lubricating
petroleum/
oil
crude oil
b i t u me n
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 Petroleum is fractionally distilled in tall fractionating columns.

 The petroleum is heated until it starts to boil. It is then put into the
fractionating column at the bottom.
 The liquid fraction (bitumen) falls to the bottom. The rest of the petroleum
gases rise up the column.
 Each fraction is then collected as it condenses back to a liquid.
 The higher up the column, the cooler it gets and fractions are collected in the
order of their boiling/condensing points.
 Refinery gas is a gas at room temperature, so it is collected at the top of the
column.
Each fraction contains groups of hydrocarbons with boiling points within a specific
range. The lower the boiling point, the higher up the fraction reaches before it
condenses.
The smaller the molecule is, the lower the boiling point. This is because there are
weak intermolecular van der Waals forces of attraction and so a small amount of
energy is required to overcome these forces.
The larger the molecule is, the higher the boiling point. This is because there are
stronger intermolecular forces of attraction and so more energy is required to
overcome these forces of attraction.
Uses of Petroleum Fractions
Boiling Point Length of

Fraction Uses
/ oC Carbon Chain
for bottled gas for heating
Refinery Gas
and cooking
Petrol / Gasoline fuel (petrol) in cars
Naphtha for making chemicals
Paraffin / Kerosene for jet fuel
Diesel Oil / Gas Oil fuel in diesel engines
fuel for ships and home increases increases
Fuel Oil
heating systems
for lubricants, waxes and
Lubricating Oils
polishes
Bitumen for making roads
Lubricants are used to reduce friction between moving parts.

All fractions are mixtures of hydrocarbons with the alkane functional group.
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14.3 Homologous Series
This is a group of similar chemicals with the same general formula, the same
functional group and each consecutive member differs by a –CH2–
A functional group is the part of the molecule which participates in a reaction
Structural isomers are different compounds with the same molecular formula,
but a different structural formula
The general formula of an organic molecule is a mathematical way of expressing the

functional group. Each functional group has its own general formula.
Structural Isomerism
There are two types of isomerism
1. Side Chains
2. Position of Functional Group
1. Side Chains
An organic molecule does not have to have all of its carbon atoms in a straight chain,
there can be side chains as well. The molecule with a side chain will always have a
lower melting and boiling point as the van der Waals forces of attraction are weaker.
 Example 14: Butane has an isomers - a straight chain molecule and a

molecule with a side chain. They both have the same molecular
formula (C4H10).
H H H H H CH3H
H C C C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H H
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2. Position of Functional Group
If the functional group can be in a different position in the carbon chain, then there
are isomers.
 Example 15: Isomers of propanol
Propan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2OH
Propan-2-ol CH3CH(OH)CH3
Propan-3-ol does not exist as it is named propan-1-ol, counting

from the right end gets a lower number, propan-1-ol.
The rest of Topic 14 gives details of the individual functional groups in organic
chemistry.
234
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14.4 Alkanes
This is a homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons with the general

formula CnH2n+2
Alkanes are found in the fractions of petroleum. The carbon chain length ranges from
CH4 in refinery gas to C70H142 in bitumen.
The first 4 alkanes are gases at room temperature:
Name Methane Ethane Propane Butane

Molecular
CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10
formula
H H H H H H H H H H
Display H C H H C C H H C C C H H C C C C H
formula
H H H H H H H H H H
Structural
CH4 CH3CH3 CH3CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH2CH3
formula
Mr 16 30 44 58
Notice that each successive alkane has an increase in molecular mass by 14. This is
because the molecules get bigger by a CH2 each time.
Alkanes are described as saturated because all the bonds between carbon atoms
are single bonds. Every available space is filled (with hydrogen atoms).
Chemical Properties of Alkanes
Alkanes are quite unreactive.
Types of reaction:
1. Combustion
2. Substitution
235
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1. Combustion
Like all hydrocarbons, alkanes burn in excess oxygen to produce carbon dioxide
and water.
Type Of Reaction Combustion

General Equation alkane + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water
Conditions ignite in air / oxygen
Example 16 C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
If the supply of oxygen is limited, then incomplete combustion occurs. This results
in carbon monoxide and even carbon (black solid) being formed as well.
2. Substitution with Halogens
A substitution reaction is one where an atom or group of atoms in one molecule is

replaced by another atom or group of atoms. At the end there are two products.
An alkane can react with fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine. One hydrogen atom
leaves and one halogen atom joins. A hydrogen halide will also be made.
Type Of Reaction Substitution

General Equation alkane + halogen  halogenoalkane + hydrogen halide
Conditions UV light
Example 17 CH4 + Cl2  CH3Cl + HCl
The substitution is quite random and the chlorine can join at any position.
It is also possible for a second, third, and subsequent substitutions to happen if more
halogen is added. So in example 17 it would be possible to produce CCl4 and 4 lots
of HCl as well.
236
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14.5 Alkenes
This is a homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons with the general formula

CnH2n. They take part in addition reactions and have the functional group C=C.
Alkenes are made from alkanes by the catalytic cracking of petroleum fractions.
Manufacture of alkenes
Catalytic cracking is the decomposition of longer alkanes to form alkenes as well as

shorter alkanes and possibly hydrogen also, using a catalyst of Al2O3 and a
temperature of 500oC.
 Example 18: the catalytic cracking of decane
C10H22  C8H18 + C2H4

alkane alkene
 Example 19: the catalytic cracking of ethane
C2H6  C2H4 + H2
alkene hydrogen
Shorter chain alkanes make better fuels, alkenes can be used to make addition
polymers and hydrogen can be used as a fuel.
The first 3 alkenes are gases at room temperature:
Butene
Name Ethene Propene
But-1-ene But-2-ene
Molecular
C2H4 C3H6 C4H8 C4H8
formula
Display H H H H H H H H
formula H H H H
C C C C C H C C C C H H C C C C H
H H H H
H H H H H H
Structural
CH2=CH2 CH2=CHCH3 CH2=CHCH2CH3 CH3CH=CHCH3
formula
Mr 28 42 56 56
237
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Alkanes have at least 1 double bond between carbon atoms (C=C) so there are 2
less hydrogen atoms when compared to an alkane. Alkenes are described as
unsaturated as they have a double bond, between carbon atoms, and not every
space is filled (with hydrogen atoms).
But-1-ene and but-2-ene are structural isomers of butene. The carbon/carbon

double bond is in a different position in but-1-ene and but-2-ene.
Chemical Properties of Alkenes
Alkenes are more reactive due to the presence of the carbon-carbon double bond.
Types of reaction:
1. Combustion
2. Addition
3. Addition Polymerisation
1. Combustion
Like all hydrocarbons, alkanes burn in excess oxygen to produce carbon dioxide
and water.

General Equation alkene + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water
Example 20 C2H4 + 3O2  2CO2 + 2H2O
238
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2. Addition
An addition reaction is where 2 molecules react to form a single product
There are four addition reactions for alkenes:
a. hydrogen
b. halogen
c. hydrogen halide
d. steam
a. Hydrogen
Type Of Reaction Addition/Hydrogenation

General Equation alkene + hydrogen  alkane
Conditions 180oC and Ni catalyst
Example 21 C2H4 + H2  C2H6
b. Halogen
Type Of Reaction Addition/Halogenation

General Equation alkene + halogen  dihalogenoalkane
Conditions none
Example 22 CH3CH=CH2 + Br2  CH3CHBrCH2Br
Notice that both halogens add to the adjacent carbons that had the double bond.
This is different to the substitution reaction of alkanes.
Test for alkene / unsaturation
Test: Add bromine water

Result: orange/brown to colourless
239
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c. Hydrogen Halide
Type Of Reaction Addition

General Equation alkene + hydrogen halide  halogenoalkane
Conditions none
Example 23 CH3CH=CH2 + HBr  CH3CHBrCH3
d. Steam
Type Of Reaction Addition

General Equation alkene + steam  alcohol
phosphoric(V) acid catalyst

Conditions 300oC
60 atmospheres pressure
Example 24 CH3CH=CHCH3 + H2O  CH3CH(OH)CH2CH3
240
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A monomer is a small molecule which can be chemically bonded to other

molecules to form a long chained molecule called a polymer
A polymer is a long chained molecule made up of small repeating molecules

which have been chemically bonded together
Polymerisation is the formation of successive links between small units called

monomer molecules to form a long chained macromolecule (polymer)
There are two types of polymerisation:
2. Condensation Polymerisation (see Topic 14.8)
Addition polymerisation is the formation of successive links between small units

called monomer molecules containing a C=C double bond to form a long chained
macromolecule (polymer).
Conditions: High temperature

high pressure
Oxygen initiator
 Example 25: making polyethene from ethene
ethene  poly(ethene)
H H
n(CH2=CH2)  C C
H H n
One bond in the double bond is broken. The molecule then reacts with other
monomer (ethene in this example) forming a chain that is thousands of carbons long.
Note - the value for n is never given
241
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1. Addition Polymers
Name of
Monomer Diagram Polymer Diagram Name of the Polymer
Monomer
H H
H H
Ethene C C C C poly(ethene)
H H
H H n
H H H H
H
Propene C C C H C C poly(propene)
H
H H CH3 n
H H H H H
H
But-1-ene C C C C H C C poly(but-1-ene)
H
H H H C2H5 n
H H H H CH3
But-2-ene H C C C C H C C poly(but-2-ene)
H H H CH3H n
H H
H H poly(chloroethene)
Chloroethene
C C C C poly(vinyl chloride)
(vinyl chloride)
H Cl (P.V.C.)
H Cl n
F F F F
poly(tetrafluoroethene)
Tetrafluoroethene C C C C
(P.T.F.E.)
F F
F F n
H H
H H
Phenylethene C C C C poly(phenylethene)
H C6H5 H C6H5 n
242
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Uses of the Addition Polymers
Polymer Use
To make plastic bags, bowls, buckets and
Poly(ethene)
packaging because it is tough and durable
To make ropes and packaging because it is
Poly(propene)
tough and durable
Poly(chloroethene) Guttering and electrical insulation
To make non-stick frying pans because it
Poly(tetrafluoroethene) has a non-stick surface and it can
withstand high temperatures
Poly(phenylethene) Used in insulation and packaging
243
NES/Chemistry/IGCSE
14.6 Alcohols
These are a homologous series of organic compounds with the general formula
CnH2n+1OH and have the functional group –OH
Alcohols are made in two ways:
 The addition of steam with alkenes (see Topic 14.5)

 The fermentation of sugar
Fermentation of Sugar
This is the anaerobic respiration of yeast with sugar.
C6H12O6(aq)  2CO2(g) + 2C2H5OH(aq)
It is a slow biological process. As the alcohol made is actually toxic to the yeast
fermentation will stop when the alcohol content reaches about 20%.
A temperature of about 35oC is used. If the temperature is about 40oC the yeast will
denature and the reaction stops. If the temperature gets too low, then the rate of
reaction is too slow.
air lock
fermentation jar
glucose, water
and yeast
carbon dioxide gas
Oxygen cannot be allowed to enter the container where the reaction is happening
otherwise aerobic respiration takes place making ethanoic acid instead.
C2H5OH + O2  CH3COOH + H2O
244
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Comparison of Fermentation and Addition of Steam
Fermentation Addition of Steam to Ethene

20% alcohol maximum 100% alcohol
slow fast
better for using in alcoholic drinks better for using as a solvent
The first 4 alcohols are liquid at room temperature:
Name Formula Display formula Structural formula Mr
H
Methanol CH3OH H C O H CH3OH 32
H
H H
Ethanol C2H5OH H C C O H CH3CH2OH 46
H H
H H H
Propanol
C3H7OH H C C C O H CH3CH2CH2OH 60
(propan-1-ol)
H H H
H H H H
Butanol
C4H9OH H C C C C O H CH3CH2CH2CH2OH 74
(butan-1-ol)
H H H H
245
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Structural Isomers of Propanol
Molecular
Name Display Formula Structural Formula Mr
Formula
H H H
Propan-1-ol C3H7OH H C C C O H CH3CH2CH2OH 60

H H H
H OH H
Propan-2-ol C3H7OH H C C C H CH3CH(OH)CH3 60
H H H
Structural Isomers of Butanol
Molecular
Formula
H H H H
Butan-1-ol C4H9OH H C C C C O H CH3CH2CH2CH2OH 74
H H H H
H OH H H
Butan-2-ol C4H9OH H C C C C H CH3CH(OH)CH2CH3 74
H H H H
H CH3H
2-methylpropan-1-ol C4H9OH H C C C O H CH3CH(CH3)CH2OH 74
H H H
H CH3H
2-methylpropan-2-ol C4H9OH H C C C H CH3C(OH)(CH3)CH3 74
H OH H
246
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Chemical Properties of Alcohols
Types of reaction:
1. Combustion
2. Oxidation
3. Esterification (see Topic 14.7)
1. Combustion
Alcohols burn in excess oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. If the alcohol
is pure it will burn with a blue flame. If the alcohol is impure it will burn with a yellow
flame.

General Equation alcohol + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water
Example 26 C2H5OH + 3O2  2CO2 + 3H2O
2. Oxidation
Alcohols can react with oxygen, oxidising agents (or air slowly) to produce carboxylic
acids and water. There is no flame in this reaction.
Type Of Reaction Oxidation

General Equation alcohol + oxygen  carboxylic acid + water
Conditions none
Example 27 C2H5OH + 2[O]  CH3COOH + H2O
The [O] is used to show that the oxygen has come from an oxidising agent (including
oxygen and air).
247
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Test for alcohols
Test: oxidising agent

Result: colour change
Colour Change
Chemical Oxidising Agents
From To
Acidified (using H2SO4) potassium dichromate(VI) orange green
Acidified (using H2SO4) potassium manganate(VII) purple colourless
248
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14.7 Carboxylic Acids
This is a homologous series of organic compounds with the general formula

C(n-1)H2(n-1)+1COOH.
Carboxylic acids are made from the oxidation of alcohols.

They are all weak acids, that only partly ionise (see Topic 8.1).
All carboxylic acids have the functional group -COOH, which can also be written as
-CO2H.
O
functional group C
O H
The first 4 carboxylic acids are liquid at room temperature:
Molecular
Formula
O
Methanoic acid HCOOH H C HCOOH 46
O H
H
O
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH H C C CH3COOH 60
O H
H
H H
O
Propanoic acid C2H5COOH H C C C CH3CH2COOH 74
O H
H H
H H H
O
Butanoic acid C3H7COOH H C C C C CH3CH2CH2COOH 88
O H
H H H
249
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Chemical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
Types of reactions:
1. Esterification
1. Esterification
Type Of Reaction Esterification

General Equation carboxylic acid + alcohol  ester + water
concentrated sulfuric acid

Conditions
heat under reflux
Example 28 CH3COOH + C2H5OH  CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
Concentrated sulfuric acid is used as a dehydrating agent. It removes hydrogen

and oxygen atoms from the carboxylic acid and alcohol to form water. The ester is
made up from the fragmented carboxylic acid and alcohol.
Heat under reflux means heating the reactants with the Liebig condenser in the
vertical position. This allows the mixture of reactants to be heated together for long
periods of time without losing either through evaporation.
Display diagram of how the reaction happens:
H H H H
O O H H
H C C + H O C C H ⇌ H C C + O
O H O C C H H H
H H H H
H H
ethanoic acid ethanol ethyl ethanoate water
250
NES/Chemistry/IGCSE
Esters
These are a homologous series of organic compounds formed by the reaction of an

alcohol with a carboxylic acid in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid.
The simplest esters are colourless liquids, which are immiscible with water and have
characteristic pleasant fruity smells. Fats, vegetable oils and margarine are natural
polyesters.
Esters have the functional group -COO- in the middle of the carbon chain.
O
Functional group C
O H
Naming and Drawing Esters
Esters have two parts to the molecule:
Carboxylic acid part

Alcohol part
When naming the ester, always put the alcohol part first:
Alcohol Name in Ester

Methanol Methyl-
Ethanol Ethyl-
Propanol Propyl-
Butanol Butyl-
The carboxylic part always goes second:
Carboxylic Acid Name in Ester

Methanoic acid -methanoate
Ethanoic acid -ethanoate
Propanoic acid -propanoate
Butanoic acid -butanoate
 Example 29: butanoic acid and ethanol
The ester is called ethyl butanoate
251
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Naming an ester from a display formula:
 Example 30: H
O H H
H C C
O C C H
H
H H
carboxylic alcohol
acid part part
The ester is called ethyl ethanoate
Chemical Properties of Esters
Types of reaction:
1. Acid Hydrolysis
2. Alkaline Hydrolysis
1. Acid Hydrolysis
Type Of Reaction Hydrolysis

General Equation ester + water  carboxylic acid + alcohol
dilute, strong acid - eg HCl

Conditions
heat under reflux
Example 31 CH3CH2CH2COOCH3 + H2O  CH3CH2CH2COOH + CH3OH
2. Alkaline Hydrolysis
Type Of Reaction Hydrolysis

General Equation ester + water  soap + alcohol
dilute, strong acid - eg HCl

Conditions
heat under reflux
Example 32 CH3CH2CH2COOCH3 + H2O  CH3CH2CH2COONa + CH3OH
Note - this time there is a salt made (soap), rather than the carboxylic acid.
252
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14.8.1 Polymers
Polymers are large molecules made from smaller monomers. There are two types of
polymer:
 Addition Polymer (see Topic 14.5)

 Condensation Polymer
Condensation Polymers
The monomers used to make condensation polymers are quite complicated. They
are:
1. Diols
2. Dicarboxylic acids
3. Diamines
4. Amino Acids
5. Simple Sugars (like a diol)
6. Fatty Acids
7. Glycerol (a triol)
1. Diol
These are monomers with two alcohol functional groups.
 Example 33: butan-1,2-diol
CH2(OH)CH2CH2CH2OH
Diols can also be written as where the box represents a

carbon chain.
253
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2. Dicarboxylic Acid
These are monomers with two carboxylic acid functional groups.
 Example 34: propandioic acid
HOOCCH2COOH
Diols can also be written as where the box represents a

carbon chain.
3. Diamine
These are monomers with two amine functional groups. The amine functional group
is -NH2.
 Example 35: Ethanediamine
H2NCH2CH2NH2
4. Amino Acid
These are monomers with one carboxylic acid and one amine functional group.
 Example 36: Alanine
H2N-R-COOH
Where R is used to show a carbon chain.
5. Simple Sugar
These are monomers have two alcohol functional groups.
 Example 37: Glucose
HO-- --OH
Where the box represents the rest of the monomer's structure.
254
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6. Fatty Acids
These are carboxylic acids with a very long carbon chain. They can be saturated, or
unsaturated.
 Example 38: A fatty acid
C17H33COOH
7. Glycerol
This is a molecule with three alcohol functional groups.
 Example 39: Glycerol
C--OH
C--OH
C--OH
R'
255
NES/Chemistry/IGCSE
14.8.2 Synthetic Polymers
Condensation polymerisation is the formation of successive links between small

units called monomer molecules to form a long chained macromolecule (polymer)
and a small molecule (usually water).
There are two different types of synthetic condensation polymers:
1. Terylene - a polyester
2. Nylon - a polyamide
Concentrated sulfuric acid is used as the dehydrating agent to remove water,

breaking the monomer structures and allowing them to join together.
1. Terylene
dicarboxylic acid + diol  Terylene + water
As the monomers have functional groups at both ends, they can join together many,
many times to produce a polymer.
 Example 40: Terylene
HOOCC6H4COOH + HOCH2CH2OH  --(--OCC6H4COOCH2CH2O--)-- + H2O
Terylene
dicarboxylic acid
diol
O O
n C C nH O O H
H O O H
O O
O
C C O O n
H H
n
water
ester linkage
one repeating unit of the

synthetic polyester - Terylene
256
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2. Nylon
dicarboxylic acid + diamine  Nylon + water
As the monomers have functional groups at both ends, they can join together many,
many times to produce a polymer.
 Example 41: Nylon
HOOCC6H4COOH + HOCH2CH2OH  --(--OCC6H4COOCH2CH2O--)-- + H2O
Comparison of Nylon and Terylene
Nylon Terylene
Has an amide link Has an ester link
Polyamide Polyester
Made from dicarboxylic acid and diamine Made from dicarboxylic acid and diol
Used to make clothing Used to make clothing
How the polymers join together
amide linkage ester linkage
O O
C N C O
Repeating units of the polymers
repeating unit for nylon repeating unit for Terylene
O O
O O
C C N N
C C O O
H H n n
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14.8.3. Natural Polymers
These polymers are found as food groups:
1. Carbohydrate
2. Protein - a polyamide
3. Fat - a polyester
Concentrated sulfuric acid is used as the dehydrating agent to remove water,

breaking the monomer structures and allowing them to join together.
1. Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate polymers are made from simple sugar monomers by removing two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
simple sugar  carbohydrate + water
Diagram showing three repeating units of carbohydrate:
Acid Hydrolysis of Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate polymers can be broken down by a process called hydrolysis. Water

and acid can be added to a carbohydrate to make simple sugars.
carbohydrate + water + hydrochloric acid  simple sugar
Enzymes will also decompose carbohydrates into simple sugars. This is how
digestion works.
There are many different types of sugar and which sugars are in carbohydrates can
be identified by chromatography (see Topic 2.2.1).
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2. Protein
Protein polymers are made from amino acid monomers by removing two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom. There are 20 different amino acid monomers, which
can join together in lots of different combinations to make each protein polymer.
amino acid  protein + water
Protein can be represented as:
Protein polymers have a polyamide link, the same as the synthetic polymer, Nylon.
Acid Hydrolysis of Protein
Protein polymers can be broken down by a process called hydrolysis. Water and
acid can be added to a protein to make amino acid monomers.
protein + water + hydrochloric acid  amino acid
Enzymes will also decompose protein into amino acids. This is how digestion works.
There are 20 types of amino acid which can be identified by chromatography (see
Topic 2.2.1). As the dots produced in the chromatography of amino acids are
colourless; ninhydrin, a locating agent, is added to give colour so the dots can be
seen.
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3. Fat
Fat polymers are made from fatty acid monomers and glycerol monomers, by
removing two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
fatty acid + glycerol  fat + water
Three fatty acid monomers join with one glycerol monomer to make one fat polymer.
Three water molecules are removed for each polymer molecule made.
Fat polymers have a polyester link, the same as the synthetic polymer, Terylene.
Acid Hydrolysis of Fat
Fat polymers can be broken down by a process called hydrolysis. Water and acid
can be added to fat to make glycerol and fatty acid monomers.
fat + water + hydrochloric acid  fatty acid + glycerol
Alkaline Hydrolysis of Fat
Fat polymers can be broken down by a process called hydrolysis. Water and alkali
can be added to fat to make glycerol and soap monomers.
fat + water + hydrochloric acid  soap + glycerol
The three fatty acid monomers form their sodium salts with the aqueous sodium
hydroxide to produce soap. The type of reaction is the alkaline hydrolysis of fat and
the process is called saponification.
Soap is the sodium salt of the carboxylic acid in fat.
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Pollution Problems Caused by Polymers
Biodegradable materials can be broken down into smaller molecules by micro-

organisms
Non-biodegradable materials cannot be broken down into smaller molecules

by micro- organisms
A lot of household rubbish is plastic (polymers). There are biodegradable plastics

which decompose and cause minimal problems to the environment. There are non-
biodegradable plastics which do not decompose and do cause environmental
problems.
There are three ways of disposing of plastic waste:
1. Burning
2. Landfill
3. Recycle
1. Burning
Burning plastics produces toxic gases such as hydrogen chloride gas, HCl(g) or
hydrogen cyanide, HCN(g).
2. Landfill sites
Non-biodegradable plastics can be buried in landfill sites, but they quickly fill up and
new land for these sites is becoming more expensive and harder to find.
3. Recycling
This is a good idea because it:
 conserves resources
 conserves energy
 saves destroying habitats of animals to obtain metal ores from the ground
A disadvantage of recycling is that it is costly to separate out all the different types of
plastics before recycling can occur.
261

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Cambridge International Examinations

2016 Syllabus Update

Paper Type of Paper Duration Marks Weighting

2 Multiple Choice 45 Minutes 40 30%

4 Written Paper 1 Hour and 15 Minutes 80 50%

A Gru and minion production.

Topic 1 - The Particulate Nature of Matter

 State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases

Diffusion is the spreading of one substance through another from a region of

There are 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas

Property Solid Liquid Gas

changes to fill the

particles are still large distance

Forces of virtually non

Diffusion little diffusion slow diffusion rapid diffusion

melting boiling / evaporation

solid liquid gas

Solidifying point/freezing point is the temperature at which a pure liquid changes

Condensation point is the temperature at which vapour changes to a liquid without

Diagrams of Changing State

solid liquid gas

This is where a solid changes straight to a gas, without changing to a liquid, or a

Process Change in Heat Energy Exothermic / Endothermic

Kinetic Particle Theory

When a solid is heated, the particles vibrate faster

When the particles gain sufficient energy to

The particles in the liquid are still close to each

In the vapour formed, the particles move in a rapid

An increase in temperature will cause the particles

Diffusion in the different states of matter:

Solids diffuse so slowly that we say they do not diffuse.

 Example 5: If a crystal of purple potassium manganate(VII) is placed in a

at the start later after 24 hours

gas jar containing air

How the Mass of Gas affects Rate of Diffusion

 The rate of diffusion will increase as the temperature increases.

Long-Tube Experiment to Demonstrate Rate of Diffusion

cotton wool soaked cotton wool soaked

 ammonia gas (NH3) = 14 + (3 x 1) = 17

As ammonia gas has a lower relative molecular mass/lower density compared

Topic 2 - Experimental Techniques

 Name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, temperature,

2.2.1 Criteria of purity

 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of paper chromatography

2.2.2 Methods of purification

 Describe and explain methods of purification by the use of a suitable

Common Laboratory Apparatus

beaker separating funnel conical flask

crucible evaporating basin (graduated) pipette

burette funnel gas jar

gas syringe measuring cylinder pestle + mortar

2.2.1 - Criteria of Purity

Chromatography is used to separate and identify a mixture of substances due to

In chromatography, a piece of paper is placed in a beaker of solvent. The solvent

We identify unknown mixtures of solutes by comparing them to known

The Rf value of a sample is calculated by:

Now substitute into the equation:

 Example 1: Identifying Proteins A and B

Some Rf values for amino acids are: