Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Volume 2 Issue 8 August 2020
Volume 2 Issue 8 August 2020
E-NEWSLETTER
ISSN: 2581-8317
Volume 2 : Issue 8
August 2020
WWW.AGRIFOODMAGAZINE.CO.IN
EDITORIAL BOARD
www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in
Editors Reviewers
Dr. Tanmay Kumar Koley (ICAR-EZ) Dr. Shekhar Khade (BAU)
Dr. Manoj Kumar Mahawar(ICAR-CIPHET) Mr. Amit Ahuja (IARI)
Prof. Umesh Thapa (BCKV) Mr. Tanmoy Sarkar (BCKV)
Prof. Fatik Kr. Bauri (BCKV) Dr. Suddhasuchi Das (ATARI, Kol)
Dr. Pynbianglang Kharumnuid (IARI) Mr. Sourav Mondal (BCKV)
Dr. Amit Kumar Singh (RLBCAU) Mr. Shashikumar J.N. (MPUAT)
Dr. V.B. Rajwade (SHUATS) Mr. Ranjith Kumar (JNKVV)
Dr. Nagendra Kumar (DRPCAU) Dr. Sandeep Singh
Dr. Pradip Kumar Sarkar (ICAR - EZ) Mr. Subhrajyoti Chatterjee (BCKV)
Dr. Venkata Satish Kuchi (YSRHU) Mr. Dodla Rajashekar Reddy (YSRHU)
Ms. Sujayasree O.J. (IIHR) Mr. Abhijith M. (KAU)
Dr. Kariyanna B. (UAS Raichur) Ms. Smriti Singh (GBPUAT)
Dr. Udit Kumar (DRPCAU) Mr. Subhrajyoti Panda (OUAT)
Dr. K Prasad (DRPCAU) Mr. Atul Yadav (NDUAT)
Dr. Chandan Karak (BCKV) Mr. Bapi Das (ICAR-NEZ)
Dr. Vivek Kumar Singh (DDA - GOI) Mr. Alamuru Krishna Chaitanya
Dr. Rekha Rani (SHUATS) Mr. Sukamal Sarkar (BCKV)
Dr. Gopal Shukla (UBKV) Dr. N.S. Rode (VNMKV)
Dr. Nirmal Kumar Meena (KAU) Ms. Manali Chakraborty (CUH)
Dr. K. Rama Krishna (CUTN) Dr. Richa Khanna (ITKM)
Dr. Anil Kumar (SRI - DRPCAU) Mr. Hemendra Negi (UK)
Dr. Dickson Adom (GHANA) Mr. Kamal Ravi Sharma (BHU)
Dr. Apurba Pal (BAU - Ranchi) Mr. Samrat Adhikary (BCKV)
Dr. Amit Kumar Barman (WBUAFS) Mr. Sanjay Kumar Gupta (IARI)
Dr. Arun Kumar Tiwary (BAU, Ranchi) Er. Rubeka Idrishi (DU)
Dr. S.B Satpute (MGM NKCA, Aurangabad) Mr. Khiromani Nag (IGKV)
Dr. Prasanna Pal (NDRI) Dr. Pedda Nagi Reddy Pocha (ANGRAU)
Dr. Arunima Paliwal (UUHF) Mr. Bhagwat Saran (GBPUAT)
Dr. Raj Shravanthi Andukuri (DRPCAU) Ms. Ipsita Samal (IARI)
Dr. Monika Ray (OUAT) Dr. Vishakha Singh (AAU)
Dr. ArunimaPaliwal (UUHF) Mr. Sudhir Kumar Mishra (UP)
Dr. A. Mohanasundaram (ICAR - IINRG) Mr. Samrat Adhikary (BCKV)
Dr. Rachana Dubey (ICAR EZ) Ms. Jyothi Reddy (SKLTSAU)
Mr. Pramod Kumar (CSAUAT) Mr. Vijay Kamal Meena (IARI)
Dr. Pramod Chavan (Parbhani) Mr. Ritesh Kumar (GBPUAT)
Dr. Shakti Kumar Tayade (MPKV) Mr. Sankarganesh E (BCKV)
Dr. Jayoti Majumder (BCKV) Mr. Abhisek Tripathy (OUAT)
Dr. K. Elango (TNAU) Mr. Sandeep Kumar (Kota AU)
Dr. Nongmaithem Raju Singh (ICAR-RCER) Ms. K. Jyothi Reddy
Dr. Pramod Govind Chavan(MGM NKCA, Aurangabad) Ms. Ipsita Panigrahi (IARI)
Dr. Kaushik Kumar Panigrahi (OUAT) Dr. Koyel Dey (WB-FSO)
Dr. Kumari Shubha (ICAR-RCER) Ms. Trisha Sinha (DRPCAU)
Dr. Anirban Mukerjee (ICAR-RCER) Mr. Prashant Kalal (IIHR)
Dr. Babita Singh (ICAR - IARI) Mr. Basant Kumar Dadarwal (BHU)
Mr. Saheb Pal (IIHR) Ms. V.S.S.V. Prasanna (YSRHU)
Dr. Arkendu Ghosh (BAU - Ranchi) Mr. Sharvan Kumar (NDUAT)
Dr. Jyostnarani Pradhan (DRPCAU) Mr. Achintya Mahato (BCKV)
Dr. Ningthoujam Peetambari Devi (ICAR-NEH) Mr. Partha Mandal (AAU)
Dr. Vidyasagar Chatnallikar, Veterinary College, Karnataka Mr. Vivek Saurabh (IARI)
Dr. Ritu Jain (ICAR - IARI) Mr. Akash Pandey (SVBUAT)
Dr. Prativa Anand (ICAR-IARI) Ms. Garima Sharma (MPUAT)
Dr. Vanlalruati (IARI, New Delhi) Ms. Jagruti Jankar (MIT ADT University)
EDITORIAL BOARD
www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in
31189 Molasses: An Organic Substance for Improving Crop Yield, Soil Fertility and Plant Health 517
31190 All-in-One Roto Seed Drill for Efficient and Economic Operations in Indian Agriculture 520
31191 Emerging Technology in Fertiliser Recommendation for Horticultural Crops 532
31192 Development of Disease Resistance in Plant Using a Novel Technique CRISPR / CAS9 526
31193 Development of Disease Resistance in Plant Using a Novel Technique CRISPR / CAS9 528
31194 Use of Traps for Control Insect-Pest 530
31195 Phanerogamic Parasites Diseases 534
31196 Locusts Pose Severe Threat to Agriculture in India 540
31197 Air Blast Sprayers for Orchard and Vineyard 541
31198 Sericulture: A Profitable Business 544
31199 Extent of Land Degradation and Options for its Management 547
31200 Zero Budget Natural Farming- A Holistic Alternative Towards Sustainable Agriculture 550
31201 Push-Pull Strategy of Insect Pest Control 554
31202 Semiochemicals: Role in IPM 556
31203 Farmer’s Income Doubling through High Density Planting Technique 558
31204 Agricultural Census in India with Recent Updates 562
31205 Transcriptomics – Bridging Gap Between Genome and Gene Function 564
31206 Flood Stress in Fruit Crops 567
31207 Functions and Deficiency Symptoms of Nutrients 570
31208 Hydraulic Ram Use for Water Pumping in Hilly Areas 573
31209 Moringa: A Miracle Vegetable Tree 576
31210 Micronutrient Seed Priming: Is it Pocket Friendly than Soil and Foliar Applications? 578
31211 Food Fortification: Today’s Need 581
31212 Crop Residues Management: A Strategy for Sustainable Agriculture 584
31213 The Use of Anti Hail Nets in the Changing Climate Scenario for Quality Fruit Production 587
31214 Different Crop Modification Breeding Techniques for Desirable Food Production 590
31215 Recycling of Crop Residues for Soil Quality Improvement 593
31216 Application of Sensor-Based Techniques for Nutrient Management Strategies 596
31217 Phytoremedation of Heavy metals: A Green Technology to Clean Soil 599
31218 Role of Potassium in Soils and Plants 603
31219 Role of Conservation Agriculture in Sustaining Soil Quality 607
31220 The Use of Anti Hail Nets in the Changing Climate Scenario for Quality Fruit Production 610
31221 “Participatory Irrigation Management” A New Trend in the Present Era of Irrigation Management 613
31222 Farmer Double Income by Use of Post-Harvest Techniques 615
31223 Communication System in Nematodes 618
31224 Nanopesticides: Next Generation Precision Pesticides for Sustainable Crop Protection 620
31225 Sharing Cultural Opulence of Nadia District: A Time-Honoured Heritage in West Bengal 622
31226 Biodegradable Plastics: A Need of the Current Era 627
31227 Entomology: Seasonal Management of Honey Bee Colony 630
31228 Locusts: Behaviour and Management 632
31229 Economic Aspects of Zero Budget Natural Farming in India 634
31230 Development and Environment 637
31231 Plant Protection of Apple 640
31232 Ecosystem Services for Human Well-Being 644
31233 Weed- Farmers Enemy 647
31234 Polylactic Acid (PLA) - Synthesis and Applications 649
31235 Production Technology of Onion 652
31236 Green Manures as an Important Tool for Maintaining Soil Properties 656
31237 Beauty of Rice as a Medicinal Plant 658
INDEX
Agriculture & Food: e-Newsletter Volume 2 – Issue 8 - August 2020
www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in
31335 Biofortification in Rice: A Progress in the Quantity of Micronutrients Zinc and Iron 925
31336 Nanotechnology and Need of Nanotechnology in Development of Agricultural Sector in India 929
31337 Intelligent Packaging: A Novel Approach to Save Food Losses and Food Waste 931
31338 RNAi : A Novel Tool for Plant Disease Management 936
31339 Herbal Management of Brown Plant Hopper in Paddy 937
31340 Organic Farming: To Mitigate Agricultural Pollutants 940
31341 Quantitative Disease Resistance in Maize: Progress and Challenges 943
31342 Emerging Diseases of Wheat and their Management in India 946
31343 Farm Yard Manure 949
31344 Organic Milk 951
31345 Mango Ice-Cream: A New Product for Mango Lovers 954
31346 Management Practices for Better Ratoon Sugarcane Crop 955
31347 CRISPR-CAS: Multiplex Genome Editing 957
31348 Impact of Conservation Tillage on Carbon Sequestration 960
31349 Integrated Management of the Fall Armyworm on Maize 962
31350 Sugar Beet Seed Pelleting: An Augmentation Technique for Quality Seed Production 965
31351 The Weapon of an Airborne Hunter: Dragon Fly 967
31352 Cactus Farming for Green Fodder 970
31353 Role of Probiotics in Aquaculture 973
31354 Fangy Roots: Morphological Root Deviation in Sugar Beet 975
31355 Disease Resistance Genes in Plants: A Bird’s Eye View 977
31356 Popular Article on Different Castes in Social Insects 979
31357 Ill Effects of Environmental Pollution on Human Health 982
31358 Real-time N management 984
The articles published in this magazine are based on personal view / opinion of the authors.
Magazine does not ensure the genuinely of the facts mentioned in the articles.
Authors are solely responsible for plagiarism present in the article.
www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in
Lactobionic Acid: Health Benefits and Techno-Functional Applications in
Food Industries
Article ID: 31000
Tanmay Hazra1, Rohit G. Sindhav1, Manishkumar Pratapsinh Parmar1, Amitkumar
Prahaladbhai Patel1
1College of Dairy Science, Kamdhenu University, Gujarat-365601.
Introduction
Lactose is the unique and principal milk carbohydrate (disaccharide) that is composed of two
monosaccharide viz: glucose and galactose. Edible lactose has wide applications in food and pharma
industries. Apart from these, lactose derivatives, such as lactobionic acids, lactulose etc., are widely
applicable in food and pharm industries. The market of lactose derivatives is increasing very rapidly.
Lactobionic Acid
Lactobionic acid (4-0-β-D-galactopyranosyl-D-gluconic acid) is a unique lactose derivative with chemical
formula is C12H22O12. It is made of galactose and gluconic acid, that are linked together with an ether
types of linkage. It is highly soluble in water although less soluble or in soluble in organic solvent like
glacial acetic acid, methanol and ethanol. Molecular weight of Lactobionic acid is 358.3 dalton; with melting
point ranges almost 128-130ºC. It provides almost 2 kcal/g energy therefore it is used as a low-calorie
sweetener. Lactobionic acid and its salts are widely used in food and pharma industries as well as different
research purposes.
Global Production
1. It is reported that growth of lactobionic acid production is only 5%/year.
2. The leading lactobionic acid producing countries are USA, Japan, China, Germany and India.
3. Reliable, Biopharmaceutical and Manus Aktteva Biopharma are the companies that are dominating in
lactobionic acid global market.
Health Effects
Numerous health effect of lactobionic acid have been acknowledged in different scientific studies and these
are:
1. Anticoagulant and Antithrombotic activity
2. Antioxidant
3. Wound healing
4. Prebiotic action
5. Enhancement of mineral absorption.
Conclusion
Lactobionic acid is one the most valuable derivative of lactose. It can be synthesized from lactose by
chemical, enzymatic methods. The therapeutic effect or health benefits of Lactobionic acid have been well
acclaimed in scientific community through-out the world. However, application of lactobionic acid as an
artificial/low calorie sweetener is also attracting food researchers for developing anti-diabetic foods. The
possible application of lactobionic acid as nano/micro carrier for delivering bioactive components in food or
drugs; also opens a new horizon of targeted therapy technology.
Suggested Reading
1. Cardoso, T., Marques, C., Dagostin, J. L. A. and Masson, M. L., (2019). Lactobionic acid as a potential food ingredient: Recent
studies and applications. Journal of Food Science, 84(7), 1672-1681.
2. Minal, N., Balakrishnan, S., Chaudhary, N. N. and Jain, A. K., (2017). Lactobionic acid: significance and application in food
and pharmaceutical. International Journal of Fermented Foods, 6(1), 25-33.
Introduction
Insects have long been used as human food and animal feed in West Africa (Kenis and Hein, 2014; Riggi et
al., 2014). However, compared to Central and Southern Africa, only few species are reported as being
traditionally consumed by humans, the most common being grasshoppers and termites.
It is estimated that 1,900 species of insects are consumed by over two billion people in about 80 countries
across Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Edible species are eaten as immature (eggs, larvae, pupae, and
nymphs) and in some cases also as adults. Edible insects are obtained by three main strategies: wild
harvesting, semi-domestication of insects in the wild, and farming.
Firstly, insects are healthy and nutritious alternatives to mainstream staples such as chicken, pork, beef
and even fish because many insects contain more protein and are lower in fat than traditional meats, and
high in calcium, iron and zinc.
Entomophagy
Entomophagy defines to cover the eating of arthropods other than insects, including arachnids and
myriapods. Insects and arachnids eaten around the world include crickets, cicadas, grasshoppers, ants,
various beetle grubs (such as mealworms, the larvae of the darkling beetle), various species of caterpillar
(such as bamboo worms, mopani worms, silkworms and waxworms), scorpions and tarantulas. There are
over 1,900 known species of arthropods which are edible for humans.
Insects
Edible insects have the potential to become a major source of human nutrition, and can be produced more
efficiently than conventional livestock. They are high in fat, protein and micronutrients), and can be
produced with lower levels of GHG emissions and water consumption.
The efficiency of insects to convert feed into edible food is in part due to the higher fraction of insect
consumed (up to 100%), compared to conventional meat (e.g. 40% of live animal weight is consumed with
cattle). Insects are poikilothermic, so they do not use their metabolism to heat or cool themselves, reducing
energy usage.
They tend to have higher fecundity than conventional livestock, potentially producing thousands of
offspring. Efficiency is also increased by rapid growth rates and the ability of insects to reach maturity in
days rather than months or years.
Conclusion
Insects are sustainable source of protein for use in animal feed and for human consumption. Entomophagy
is an age-old phenomenon dating back to pre-historic era and has served man for several millennia. The
development of new policies is inevitable.
It will be necessary to listen to regulators to determine what is expected, to be sensitive to consumers who
might demand specific regulations, and to collaborate with retailers.
We need to promote the establishment of appropriate international and national standards and legal
frameworks to facilitate the use of insects as food and feed and the development and formalization of the
sector.
References
1. Adamolekun B. 1993. Anaphe venata entomophagy and seasonal ataxic syndrome in southwest Nigeria. Lancet. 341:629.
2. Bodenheimer FS. 1951. Insects as Human Food: A Chapter of the Ecology of Man. The Hague: Junk. 352 pp.
3. Kenis, M. and Hien, K. 2014. Prospects and constraints for the use of insects as human food and animal feed in West Africa.
Book of Abstracts of Conference on Insects to Feed the World, The Netherlands 14-17 May 2014.
4. Riggi LG, the World, The Netherlands 14-17 May 2014 van Huis A 2003b. Insects as food in sub- Saharan Africa. Insect Science
and its Application 23 (3): 163–185.
The depletion of soil nutrients occurs to a greater degree leading to imbalance in availability of nutrients,
loss of soil fertility and drastic reduction in crop productivity because of intensive farming system
productivity of the soils cannot be sustained with the fertilizer alone.
Therefore, organic manures should also be included in schedule to maintain the productivity of the soils.
The concept of organic waste management and its use for plant nutrient recycle is becoming more essential
for sustaining soil-health through improvement of physic-chemical properties and microbial diversity of
soil.
Making composting from weeds may be a widely applicable process of handling biodegradable organic
wastes. Composting and vermicomposting from weeds at one hand give the option to utilize the waste for
enhancing soil nutrient availability while on the other hand provide direct relieve to stakeholder from the
weeds in their farm and places vermicomposting technology is an aspect of biotechnology involving the use
of earthworms for recycling of non-toxic organic waste to the soil. Composting from the weeds also required
proper and scientific knowledge so that seeds of weeds are killed completely.
Generally, weeds compete with crops for nutrients, space, energy and sunlight etc which eventually reflects
on the performance of the crop. Crop growth and yields are influenced by biotic and abiotic factors to effect
crop yield. It removes substantial amount of nutrients from the soil depending on the density and species
of weeds. The weed species locally available in large amounts like Ipomoca carnea, I. aquatic, Chromolaena
odorata, Eichhornia crassipes, Lantana camara, Calotropis gigantean, Parthenium hysterophorus, Hyptis
suaveolense, Indigofera tintoria, Phaseolus trilobus, Croton bonplandianum, Vernonia cineraria,melilotus
sp., Cannabis sativa, Xanthium strumarium etc could be easily converted in to compost.
Weeds like Chenopodium album contain more than 8% potassium (K) on dry weight basis. Further, weeds
also accumulate high amounts on other secondary and micronutrients e.g. 2.04 to 2.07% Calcium (Ca) in
Cirsium arverse and Polygonum hydropiperoides, 585 ppm Zinc (Zn) in Setaria lutescens, 32 ppm boron (B)
in and 39 ppm manganese (Mn) in Taraxacum sp., 0.71% magneseium Mg and 373 ppm iron (Fe) in
Polygonum hydropiperoides.
Methods
Methods: Make a pit of 3 x 6 x 10 feet (depth X width X length) at a place where water dose not stagnate
during rainy season. Pit size can be increased or decreased on the availability of biomass but depth cannot
be compromised. If possible, cover the surface and side walls of the pit with stone chips. If stone cheap are
not available, make soil surface compact. Arrange about 100 kg dung, 10 kg urea or rock phosphate, soil (1
to 2 quintals) and one drum of water near pit.
Collect all the Parthenium and other uprooted weedy plants during process of weeding from the fields,
bunds, road side and nearby area. Spread about 50 to 100 kg of Parthenium on the surface of pit. Over this,
sprinkle 500 g urea or 3 kg rock phosphate. Make dung slurry by adding 5 to 10 kg dung in 25 litre water
and sprinkle over the weed biomass.
If possible, add Trichoderma viridi or Trichoderma harziana (kind of fungi cultured powder) in the amount
of 50 g/layer. All the above constituents will make one layer. Like first layer make several layers till the
pit is filled up to one fit above the ground surface. Fill the pit in dome shape. While making layers, apply
leg pressure to make weed biomass compact.
If there is no sufficient soil with weeds roots than add 10 to 12 kg of loamy soil on each layer. If pit is full
with above described layers, cover it with mixture of dung, soil and husk. After 3-4 months we can get well
decomposed compost. The 37 kg of compost can be obtained from 100 kg of raw Parthenium biomass.
In comparison to farmyard manure, NPK, Ca and Mg was found almost double in compost prepared from
Parthenium biomass, however, it was little less than the vermicompost (table).
Benefits
Weed compost including of Parthenium is a type of biofertilizer which has no harmful effects on crop,
human beings and environment. Weed compost is an eco-friendly biofertilizer that can be made by low cost
inputs and application of it in crop fields will increase the fertility of soil. During the process, the
temperature rises 60 to 70o C due to which seeds are killed.
Precautions
Pit should be in open and shady upland. If you find fresh germination of weeds near the pit where weeds
were collected to fill up the pit, destroy them otherwise they may contaminate the compost after flowering.
Check the moisture level of compost. If there is dryness in the pit, make a few holes and pour water in the
pit and close the holes. While it may take about 3 to 4 months to prepare the compost in a warm climate
but, in cold regions it can take more time.
Summary
Weeds can be utilized for making good quality compost by following scientific methods. Weeds often possess
large number of seeds, which should be killed during process of composting. Pit method is found suitable
for making compost from the weeds. Therefore, farmers are advised to use pit methods instead of NADEP
method to prepare compost from the weeds.
Introduction
Entomoremediation is defined as a type of remediation in which insects are used in order to decontaminate
a degraded soil. The candidacy of collembolans, ants, beetles and termites in entomoremediation is
advocated because of their role as ecosystem engineers.
Entomoremediation - insects are used to decontaminate a degraded soil. Insects used for
entomoremediation are called as entomoremediators.
Insects Involved
1. Hermetia illucens
2. Chrysomya megacephala
3. Tenebrio molitor
4. Plodia interpunctella.
BSFL Prospects
Wastes are fully recycled when subjected to one larval digestion cycle. Wastes that can be treated using
BSFL that includes:
1. Domestic kitchen waste.
2. Organic municipal solid waste.
3. Manure from cattle farm.
4. Night soil.
5. Wastes from fishery industries.
6. Bio leachate.
7. Persistent pollutants.
8. Coffee pulp.
9. Banana pulp.
BSFL as Feed
Black soldier fly larvae are used as feed. The harvested pupae and prepupae are eaten by poultry, fish,
pigs, lizards, turtles, and even dogs. The insect is one of the few insect species approved to be used as feed
in aquaculture in the EU.
Conclusion
1. It is fast, efficient, and no hassle.
2. Soldier Flies are found almost everywhere but mostly in warm climates.
3. You can feed them anything biodegradable.
4. Meat and fermented waste are one of their favourite foods.
References
1. Bulak, P., Polakowski, C., Nowak, K.,Waśko, A., Wiącek, D and Bieganowski, A. (2018). Hermetia illucens as a new and
promising species for use in entomoremediation. Science of the total environment, 633, 912-919.
2. Diener, S., Zurbrugg, C and Tockner, K. (2015). Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens
and effects on its life cycle. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 1(4), 261-270.
3. Yang, J., Jun, Y., Wu, W., Zhao, J and Jiang, L. (2014). Evidence of Polyethylene Biodegradation by Bacterial Strains from the
Guts of Plastic-Eating Waxworms. Environ. Sci. Technol, 48, 13776−13784.
Fortification is the addition of essential micronutrients including vitamins and minerals to foods to improve
their quality. Food assistance programmes by WFP are in place using partially pre-cooked and milled
cereals and pulses fortified with micronutrients to overcome nutritional deficiencies and provide health
benefits with nominal risk.
For food fortification with iron, ferrous sulphate, ferrous fumarate, ferric pyrophosphate, and electrolytic
iron powder compounds are commonly used. Similarly, food can be fortified with folic acid to improve levels
of folates in diets. Salt iodization (fortification with iodine) was successfully achieved to reduce the
incidence of goitre.
Plant breeding
Genetic Agronomic
engineering approaches
BIOFORTIFICATION
Agronomic Approaches
It can be achieved by applying mineral fertilizers to the plant through:
1. Foliar fertilization
2. Seed priming
3. Soil application of fertilizers
4. Seed coating
5. Soil inoculation with beneficial microorganisms.
Genetic Engineering
Biofortification through genetic engineering is an alternative approach when variation in the desired traits
is not available naturally in the available germplasm, a specific micronutrient does not naturally exist in
crops, and/or modifications cannot be achieved by conventional breeding.
Along with increasing the concentration of micronutrients, this approach can also be targeted
simultaneously for removal of antinutrients or inclusion of promoters that can enhance the bioavailability
of micronutrients.
Recently, CRISPR/Cas9 and TALENs technologies were used to generate mutant lines for genes involved
in small RNA processing of Glycine max and Medicago truncatula. Similarly, CRISPR/Cas9-mediated
genome editing technology was used in cowpeas to successfully disrupt symbiotic nitrogen fixation (SNF)
gene activation.
Plant Breeding
Biofortification through plant breeding is a cost-effective and sustainable approach that can improve the
health status of low-income people globally. This approach has been used to control deficiencies of
micronutrients including carotenoids, Fe, and Zn.
Conclusion
Micronutrients are essential for human growth and development, and their deficiency is a major concern
that affects one in three people worldwide. Among various strategies, biofortification through plant
breeding is considered the most economical and sustainable approach to tackle micronutrient deficiencies.
A greater micronutrient density and a high yield are prerequisites for effective biofortification, and these
crops must be adopted by farmers and consumed by the target population. For efficient biofortification, the
focus should be on increasing the bioavailability of micronutrients simultaneously with increase in their
concentration.
This can be achieved by increasing the concentration of promoters that stimulate the absorption of minerals
and by reducing the concentrations of antinutrients that interfere with absorption. Pulse crops are an
important source of protein and energy, so improvement in their nutritional profile will significantly
increase their consumption.
Introduction
Locust are those species of grasshoppers (Acarididae) which under certain favourable conditions, multiply,
congregate, more together in their nymphal stages as bands. They swarm to distant areas in dense. Plagues
of locusts have devastated societies since the Pharaohs led ancient Egypt, and they still wreak havoc today.
List of Locusts
S. No. Common name Scientific Name
1. The Red Locust Nomadacris septemfaciata
2. The Brown Locust Locustana pardalina
3. The South American Locust Schistocerca paranensis
4. The Australian Locust Chortoicetes termenifera
5. The Tree Locust Anacridium Spp.
6. The Desert Locust Schistocerca gregaria
7. The Bombay Locust Nomadacris succincta
8. The Migratory Locust Locusts migratoria manilensis;
Locusta migratoria migratoria-oides
9. The Italian Locust Calliptamus italicus
10. The Moroccan Locust Dociostaurus morocannus
Phase Variation
Phase refers to different forms of insects. Uvarov (1921) proposed the “Phase theory of locusts” According
to Uvarov and Zolotarvesvsky (1929) species of locusts are phase polyphonic, existing in series of forms.
Sharing the same genotype individuals may display different genotypes that incorporate variationsin
morphology, colouration, reproductive features, and significantly in behaviour. From these two extreme
forms or phases are indistinct.
They are:
1. Solitary phase or Phasis solitaria
2. Gregarious phase or Migratory phase.
Locust Plague
The attack of the desert locust used to occur earlier in a phases of plague cycles. A period of more than two
consecutive years of wide-spread breeding, swarm production and thereby damaging of crops is called a
plague period. Followed by a period of 1-8 years called as the recession period again to be followed by
another spell of plague.
Locust Diet
Locusts consume leaves and the tender tissues of plants. They are strong fliers as adults and tenacious
hoppers as nymphs. Large swarms of locusts can completely strip the foliage and stems of plants such as
forbs and grasses. Some species consume a variety of plants, while others have a more specific diet. They
often eat dry plant matter on the ground and will forage for weak or dead grasshoppers when plant food is
scarce. As nymphs have a large appetite, they cause more damage than adults.
Conclusion
At present the primary method of controlling Desert Locust swarms and hopper bands is with mainly
organophosphate chemicals applied in small concentrated doses (referred to as ultra-low volume (ULV)
formulation) by vehicle-mounted and aerial sprayers and to a lesser extent by knapsack and hand-held
sprayers.
Mechanical methods – digging trenches, beating and burning, Baiting – scattering locust food impregnated
with insecticide, Dusting-applying, a fine dust impregnated with insecticide Spraying liquid insecticides.
References
1. Roffey, J., & Popov, G. (1968). Environmental and behavioural processes in a desert locust outbreak. Nature, 219(5153), 446-
450.
2. Farrow, R. A. (1977). Origin and decline of the 1973 plague locust outbreak in central western New South Wales. Australian
Journal of Zoology, 25(3), 455-489.
3. Fashing, P. J., Nguyen, N., & Fashing, N. J. (2010). Behavior of geladas and other endemic wildlife during a desert locust
outbreak at Guassa, Ethiopia: ecological and conservation implications. Primates, 51(3), 193-197.
Phytopathogens are the most significant reason for the losses in global food production. Many strategies
have been used in the plant disease management, but all of them have some drawbacks. Biological control
has come up as a very popular and attractive way to manage the plant diseases because of its eco-friendly
nature.
Endophytes living inside the plant tissues without causing any visible harm to the host. The antagonistic
effects shown by endophytic microorganisms make them strong candidate for the plant disease
management as bio control agents. Plants benefited by endophytes in many ways viz; by stimulating growth
of plant, inducing resistance to multiple stress, protection from various pests, etc.
Endophytes, colonize the tissues of healthy plants for their whole life or at least a part of their life cycle,
are able to protect plants against pathogens either directly by hyper parasitism, production of antibiotics,
lytic enzymes production, competition for space and nutrients, or indirectly by inducing resistance, and
promoting plant growth.
Introduction
To safeguard the crop plants from pests and thereby sustainable food production for human consumption
is an ever-growing demand. The extensive use of pesticides has created various problems like; fungicide
resistance, insecticide resistance, health hazard for humans and animals, negative impact on environment,
etc.
To confront with these problems there is a need to develop and promote the ecologically safe and sound as
well as economically viable techniques for pest management. Biological control gained popularity in recent
years and become a very important tool for Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The antagonistic effects
shown by endophytic microorganisms make them strong candidate for the plant disease management as
bio control agents.
All plants are infested with microbes, either these micrbes are beneficial / not causing any visual harm to
plants; like endophytes, epiphytes, rhizobacterias, mycorrhizas, etc, or they are disease causing; like plant
pathogens.
All organisms reside in plant parts as whole or at least a part of their life cycle can colonize internal plant
tissues without causing any visible harm to their host, called as Endophytes. (Petrini, 1991).
Endophyte-Plant Relationship
The endophytes can establish various relationships with their host plant, ranging from symbiotic to slightly
pathogenic (Strobel and Daisy, 2003). In symbiotic/mutualistic relationship the endophytes and the plant
both are benefited, as the endophytes obtain nutrients and get protection within the plant while the plant
in return get various benefits via:
1. Availability of nitrogen by N2 fixation
2. Solubilization of immobilized nutrients
3. Phytohormones production
4. Sequestration of iron by siderophores
5. Oxidation of sulphur.
The plants also benefited indirectly by endophytes through various mechanisms, include
1. Induced systemic resistance (ISR).
2. Growth promotion of plants.
3. Anti-microbial activity.
Indirect Effects
In this case plants get benefited and protected by plant pathogens indirectly as endophytes enhancing plant
resistance and promote the plant growth.
1. By enhancing plant resistance: Some endophytes induce resistance in plants thus indirectly protect
them from pathogens. Induced systemic resistance (ISR) and Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) are two
forms of induced resistances. Non-pathogenic rhizobacteria induce the ISR, jasmonic acid or ethylene acts
as the signalling molecules. SAR, induced by the pathogenic infection, associated with the accumulation of
pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins and signalling molecule is the salicylic acid (Vallad and Goodman, 2004;
Conclusion
Endophytes have great potential as biocontrol agent for plant protection, due to the antagonistic properties
they have. They are showing positive results in lab as well as in field conditions by inhibiting growth of
pathogen and by reducing disease severity, respectively. Although we already have eco-friendly biocontrol
agents but still endophytes have more potential to manage the plant diseases. The immense potential of
endophytic microorganisms to work as biocontrol agents against plant pathogens needs more research for
its use in future plant protection strategies.
References
1. Atmosukarto I., Castillo U., Hess W., Sears J. and Strobel G., (2005). Isolation and characterization of Muscodor albus I-41.3s,
a volatile antibiotic producing fungus. Plant Science. 169: 854-861.
2. Giménez C., Cabrera R., Reina M. and Coloma, A., (2007). González Fungal endophytes and their role in plant protection.
Current Organic Chemistry.11: 707-720.
3. Gunatilaka A. A. L., (2006). Natural products from plant-associated microorganisms: distribution, structural diversity,
bioactivity, and implications of their occurrence. Journal of Natural Products. 69: 509-526.
4. Lu H., Zou W. X., Meng J. C., Hu J. and Tan R. X., (2000). New bioactive metabolites produced by Colletotrichum sp., an
endophytic fungus in Artemisia annua. Plant Science. 151: 67-73.
5. M’Piga P, Belanger RR, Paulitz TC, Benhamou N (1997). Increased resistance to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-
lycopersici in tomato plants treated with the endophytic bacterium Pseudomonas fl uorescens strain 63–28. Physiol Mol
Plant Pathol 50:301–332.
6. M’Piga P, Belanger RR, Paulitz TC, Benhamou N (1997). Increased resistance to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-
lycopersici in tomato plants treated with the endophytic bacterium Pseudomonas fl uorescens strain 63–28. Physiol Mol
Plant Pathol 50:301–332.
7. M’Piga P., Belanger R. R., Paulitz T. C., Benhamou N., (1997). Increased resistance to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-
lycopersici in tomato plants treated with the endophytic bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens strain 63–28. Physiological
and Molecular Plant Pathology. 50: 301–332.
8. Petrini O., 1991. Fungal endophytes of tree leaves. In: Andrews J. H., Hirano S. S. (eds) Microbial ecology of leaves. Springer,
New York. 179-197.
9. Silva G. H., Teles H. L., Zanardi L. M., Marx Young M. C., Eberlin M. N. and Hadad R., (2006). Cadinane sesquiterpenoids of
Phomopsis cassiae, an endophytic fungus associated with Cassia spectabilis (Leguminosae). Phytochemistry. 67: 1964-1969.
10. Strobel G., Stierle A. and Van Kuijk F. J. G. M., (1992). Factors influencing the in vitro production of radiolabeled taxol by
Pacific yew, Taxus brevifolia. Plant Science. 84: 65-74.
11. Tripathi S., Kamal S., Sheramati I., Oelmuller R. and Varma A., (2008). Mycorrhizal fungi and other root endophytes as
biocontrol agents against root pathogens. Mycorrhiza. 3:281-306.
12. Vallad G. E. and Goodman, R. M., (2004). Systemic acquired resistance and induced systemic resistance in conventional
agriculture. Crop Science. 44: 1920-1934.
13. Wicklow D. T., Roth S., Deyrup S. T. and Gloer J. B., (2005). A protective endophyte of maize: Acremonium zeae antibiotics
inhibitory to Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides. Mycological Research. 109(5): 610-618.
14. You F., Han T., Wu J. Z., Huang B. K. and Qin L. P., (2009). Antifungal secondary metabolites from endophytic Verticillium
sp. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 37: 162-165.
Conclusion
Conservation Agriculture offers a new paradigm for agriculture research and development. The adoption
of Conservation Agriculture can be facilitated by locally identified and specially trained group leaders or
by promoters. There is also a need to strengthen the knowledge and information sharing mechanisms. So,
to get a sustainable agriculture production system maintaining good soil health by performing Corbon
sequestration, minimising the effect of global warming by curbing CO2 emission from soils, obtaining
profitable yield in cost-effective way, Conservation Agriculture is the only option in the present scenario.
Introduction
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) also called Indian millet, great millet, milo, durra, orshallu is a
C4 cereal grass and belongs to the family Gramineae. The crop is hypothesised to have originated in Africa
some 3000–5000 years ago. Sorghum is the fifth most produced grain globally in the world after maize, rice,
wheat and barley with world sorghum production at 63 million tons in the 2016/17 season.
In India, sorghum is grown during the rainy kharif (June–October) and post-rainy rabi (September–
January) seasons with over 90% of production purely rain-fed. Kharif sorghum, a yellow grain, is grown on
over 53% of the production area and it accounts for 63% of production. Sorghum cultivation is challenged
by several diseases caused by plant pathogens including fungi, bacteria and viruses.
In response to the climate change there are dramatic shift in diseased severity and pathogen behavior;
minor pathogen emergence as destructive one (Garrett et al., 2006). In particular Pokkah boeng (Fusarium
moniliforme var subglutinans), and bacterial stalk rot (Erwinia chrysanthemi) have emerged as potential
risk in certain sorghum growing areas during last few years.
Pokkah boeng is more or less regular in Maharashtara and northern Karnataka, while bacterial stalk rot
is restricted to terai regions in India. The bacterial stalk rot of sorghum caused by Erwinia chrysanthemi
Burkholder, McFadden, and Dimock is one of the most destructive diseases of sorghum crop. Saxena et al.
(1991), reported this bacterium causing stalk and top rot of sorghum under natural conditions in India
during 1987-88 crop season in sorghum field at Pantnagar, Uttarakhand.
The disease was wide spread affecting 60-80% of plants in different sorghum genotypes. Recently, Kharayat
and Singh (2013) have also recorded the occurrence of disease incidence ranging from 7.50 to 46.85 % in
Tarai region of Uttarakhand.
History
Dickeya dadantii (syn. Erwinia chrysanthemi, Pectobacterium chrysanthemi) (Samson et al., 2005) is a
plant pathogenic enterobacterium responsible for soft rot diseases in a wide range of plant species.
However, variable pathogenic and phenotypic properties were notice from strains of different host plants
have.
The genus Erwinia is named after Erwin Frank Smith and was established by Winslow et al. (1917) to
include in plant pathogenic entereobacteria. Erwinia are motile by peritrichous flagella, usually 8-11
flagellate (Dickey, 1981), gram-negative, non-spore forming, straight rod with rounded ends, and occurs
singly or in pairs. Size of Erwinia ranges from 0.8-3.2 × 0.5-0.8 μm (average 1.8 × 0.6 μm) depending on
carbon source present in the medium and growth conditions (Grula, 1970).
In India, Erwinia chrysanthemi causing stalk and top rot of sorghum under natural conditions was reported
during 1987-88 crop season in sorghum field at Pantnagar, Uttarakhand ( Saxena et al., 1991).
Symptomatology
The initial symptom is discoloration of the leaf sheath and stalk at a node. As the disease progresses, lesions
develop on the leaves and sheath. Disease then develops in the stalk and rapidly spreads up the stalk and
into the leaves. Lower leaves and leaf sheaths covering the internodes are chlorotic, and the rind is pale-
straw instead of green in color.
The disease mainly affects sorghum stem showing water-soaked symptoms that later turn reddish dark
brown colour. The infected stem pith is disintegrated and show slimy soft-rot symptoms with foul-smell
Disease Management
Early and accurate diagnoses of plant disease are necessary to predict outbreaks and allow time for
development and application of mitigation strategies. Clean cultural practices can be adopted to avoid the
spread of disease from infected plant to healthy plant.
Studies on antagonists found Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescens effective in inhibiting
the mycelial growth of Erwinia chrysanthemi causing bacterial stalk rot of sorghum (Kharayat, 2013).
Moreover, biocontrol agents colonized vermicompost has shown considerable potential not only in
improving plant growth and suppression of stalk rot severity but also in increasing earthworm population
in soil when used as pre plant soil amendment.
T. harzianum isolate Th-2 colonized vermicompost reduced the disease severity of bacterial stalk rot and
increase of biomass yield of sorghum (Kharayat and Singh, 2016). Pre-plant soil application with antibiotic
oxytetracycline and pre-plant soil application with two foliar sprays of P. fluorescens strain Psf-173 was
found to reduce disease severity (Singh et al., 2018).
Conclusion
Bacterial stalk rot caused by Erwinia chrysanthemi is emerging as a serious disease of sorghum in Tarai
region of Uttarakhand. Due to the climate change there are dramatic shift in diseased severity and
References
1. Dickey, R.S. 1981. Erwinia chrysanthemi: reaction of eight plant species to strains from several hosts and to strains of other
Erwinia species. Phytopathol., 71: 23-29.
2. Garrett, K.A., Dendy, S.P., Frank, E.E., Rouse, M.N. and Travers, S.E. 2006. Climate change effects on plant disease: Genomes
to ecosystems. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol., 44: 489–509.
3. Grula, M.M. 1970. Cell size of Erwinia sp. as influenced by composition of medium. Canadian J. Microbiol., 16(12): 1363-1365.
4. Hseu, S.H., Kuo, K.C., Lin, H.F. and Lin, C.Y. 2008. Bacterial stalk rot of sorghum occurred in Kimmen area caused by Erwinia
chrysanthemi. Plant Pathol. Bull., 17: 257- 262.
5. Kharayat, B.S. 2013. Studies on characterization, genomic fingerprinting and management of Erwinia chrysanthemi causing
stalk rot of sorghum. PhD thesis, G.B.P.U.A& T, Pantnagar. India.
6. Kharayat, B.S. and Singh, Y. 2013. Unusual occurrence of erwinia stalk rot of sorghum in tarai region of Uttarakhand. Int. J.
Agri. Sci., 9(2): 809-813.
7. Kharayat, B.S. and Singh.Y. 2016. Studies on interactions among bioagents colonized vermicompost, rhizospheric earthworms
and stalk rot disease of sorghum caused by Erwinia chrysanthemi. American J.Agric.Res. 1(5): 15-29.
8. Pande, S. and Karunakaz, R.I. 1992. Stalk rots. Sorghum and millets diseases: a second world review. pp. 219-234.
9. Samson, R., J. B. Legendre, R. Christen, M. Fischer-Le Saux, W. Achouak, and L. Gardan. 2005. Transfer of Pectobacterium
chrysanthemi (Burkholder et al. 1953) Brenner et al. 1973 and Brenneria paradisiaca to the genus Dickeya gen. nov. as
Dickeya chrysanthemi comb. nov. and Dickeya paradisiaca comb. nov., and delineation of four novel species, Dickeya dadantii
sp. nov., Dickeya dianthicola sp. nov., Dickeya dieffenbachiae sp. nov., and Dickeya zeae sp. nov. Int. J. Syst. Evol.
Microbiol.55:1415-1427.
10. Saxena, S.C., Mughogho, L.K. and Pande, S. 1991. Stalk rot and top rot of sorghum caused by Erwinia chrysanthemi. Indian
Journal of Microbiology, 31 (4): 435-441.
11. Singh, P., Singh, Y., Purohit, J., and Maharshi, A. 2018. A comparative evaluation of bioagents and chemicals for the control
of stalk rot of Sorghum caused by Dickeya dadantii. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 10(3), 1053-1058.
Introduction
Pithecellobium dulce is a main member of the family Fabaceae and native to Mexico, South America, and
Central America. It is introduced in Indonesia and Philippines by Portuguese and Spaniards, respectively.
It is common in India, Malaysia and Thailand. In India, it is distributed throughout the country, however
the plantations have been made in northern states as forest species and in Andaman Island as food tree.
The plant growing naturally on the waste land or being planted at community lands are main source of
edible fruits. It is mainly grown as a hardy roadside tree or hedge plant. Its potential as a fruit has not
been utilized. Leaves are browsed by horses, cattle, goats and sheep. The plants are multipurpose and are
often planted as live fence or thorny hedge which is eventually thick and impenetrable. Plants when attain
full size, branches become potential source of lac cultivation.
It is a very hardy and thorny tree and is small to medium sized semi evergreen tree which can be grown
up to 20 m height. The crown is spreading but irregular and trunk is short (about 1 m height) with crooked
branches and somewhat shiny branchlets. Bark is grey and smooth in young trees, turning to slightly rough
and furrowed in old trees.
Bark exudes reddish brown gum when injured. Leaves are bipinnately compound with a pair of pinnate,
each with two leaflets that are kidney shaped and dark green in colour. Spines are present in pairs at the
base of the leaf. New leaf growth and shedding of old leaves occur almost simultaneously, giving the tree
an evergreen appearance. It is an acrid organic fruit with a novel taste and has a broad spectrum of health
benefits.
Health Benefits
1. Manages toothaches, sore gums and mouth ulcers.
2. Works as an antiseptic
3. The abundance of vitamin C in Manila tamarinds, boost the immune system immune system and reduces
phlegm.
4. The bark extract is used to cure dysentery and chronic diarrhoea.
5. Its high thiamine content, promote the body convert sugars into energy, which impacts the mood and
helps stabilize stress levels.
6. According to a study published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Manila tamarind fruit exhibited
strong anti-ulcer activity comparable to the standard drug, omeprazole.
7. A study published in the Evidence Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine found that fruit
extracts protected the liver from oxidative.
8. Treats oily scalp and prevents hair loss.
9. Slow down the ageing - lightens the skin, removes dark spots, and cures acne.
Propagation
1. Propagation by seed: It is commonly propagated by seed. Seed are sown in polythene bag containing
FYM, sand and Clay in equal proportion. Seed do not require scarification or other treatments for
germination. Freshly harvested seed germinate easily in 1 to 2 days after sowing while dried seeds take
30-35 days for germination. Seed remain viable in storage for approximately 6 months. Seedlings raised on
nursery are used for replanting after 4-6 months. Seedlings may be pricked out from the germination beds
to transplant beds or polythene bags after 6 months and young plants need the shelter from dry and hot
winds.
2. Propagation by vegetative method: It can be propagated through hardwood cuttings. The best time
for taking cutting is in July-August and treatment with 1000 ppm IBA improves rooting. Budding, grafting
and layering are also successful at limited scale.
Variety
PKM (MT) 1 (2008): It is an open pollinated seedling selection from Soolakkarai at Virudhunagar district.
The best season is June – September and can tolerate sewage water stagnation and grows well in sandy,
saline and alkaline soils. It is a regular bearer. The spirally twisted fruits with clear constrictions, pale
yellow pods, and white attractive aril are found in clusters (2-3). The skin of fruits turns yellow at maturity
and seeds turn black. It yields about 79 kg/tree/year which is 30.0% increase over local type. The highest
yield obtained from this variety is 125 kg / tree / year. It can be cultivated throughout Tamil Nadu especially
in the rainfed tracts of Southern districts.
Planting
It is multipurpose tree species. Its method of planting and after care differs with use. For hedge, seed are
sown in 2-3 rows at 15 cm distance which develops an impenetrable fence after regular training and
pruning. To develop a shelter belt, seedlings are transplanted at 3-4 m spacing around the orchard. For
fruit production seedlings of Inga are planted in square system at 8 x 8 m spacing. Vegetative multiplied
plants are planted at 6 x 6 m spacing. July - August is the best time for planting when the saplings are
planted in the well prepared and filled pits of 60 x 60 x 60 cm. In problematic soil, pits size can be enhanced
as per need.
Irrigation
It is hardy tree and grows very well even without irrigation. At initial stage, irrigation is required to
establish the young plant. Once established, irrigation is not mandatory to produce fruits. Irrigation during
summer improves fruit size and yield.
Orchard Management
Intercultural operation can be introduced at initial stage to control weeds and for better soil management.
One or two weeding can be done as per needs.
Mulching
Manila tamarind is hardy and drought tolerant plants, however, paddy straw, dry banana leaf etc. can be
used as mulch beneath the tree canopy. Black polythene mulch is very effective to conserve soil moisture.
Mineral Nutrition
The systemic information on nutritional requirement of manila tamarind is not available since the existing
plantations are mainly in shelter belts and road side plantations where nutrients are generally not applied.
However, application of 50 kg FYM during monsoon improves fruit set, fruit size and yield in a bearing
tree. Application of 40-50 kg FYM and 500 g phosphatic fertilizer per tree has been found beneficial.
Fertilizers should be applied during February-March and July-August and light irrigation should be given
after application of fertilizers.
Insect Pests
1. Shoot hole borer cause damage by making holes in the trunk which can be controlled by plugging cotton
swabs soaked in petrol/kerosene.
2. It is favourite host for thorn bug.
3. It has also been reported to be a host for lac insects.
Diseases
Plants are severely affected by leaf spot diseases. Fungi such as Fusarium semitechim var. majus,
Rhizoctonia spp., Colletrotrichum spp., have been found on the manila tamarind. These can be managed
by spray of fungicides. Trees are also affected by mosaic virus witches’ broom.
Introduction
The genus citrus is one of the most important groups of fruit crops worldwide, belongs to the family
Rutaceae comprising 140 genera and 1300 species distributed throughout the world. Citrus occupies an
important place in the horticulture wealth and economy of India as the third largest fruit industry after
banana and mango. India ranks sixth in the production of citrus fruit in the world.
Citrus fruits originated in the tropical and subtropical regions of south East Asia particularly in India and
China. In 2015-16, total area under citrus in India was 923 thousand ha and production were 11,742
thousand metric tonnes respectively. In Maharashtra, total area was 108 thousand ha, with a production
of 904 thousand metric tonnes (Anonymous, 2016).
Gummosis
Phytophthora parasitica, P. palmivora,P. citrophthora
Pathogen: Aseptate, intercellular & intracellular hypha. Sporangia are ovoid or ellipsoid. Sporangium
attached with the sporangium at the right angles’ sporangia germinate to release zoospore.
Favourable conditions: Prolonged contact of trunk with water as in flood irrigation; water logged areas
and heavy soils.
Mode of Spread and Survival: Soil inhabitants, Sporangia spread by splashing rain water, irrigation
water and wind.
Management: Preventive measures like selection of proper site with adequate drainage, use of resistant
rootstocks and avoiding contact of water with the tree trunk by adopting ring method of irrigation are
effective. Alternatively, the disease portions are scraped-out with a sharp knife and the cut surface is
disinfected with Mercuric chloride (0.1%) or Potassium permanganate solution (1%) using a swab of cotton.
Painting 1 m of the stem above the ground level with Bordeaux helps in controlling the disease. Also
spraying and drenching with Ridomil MZ 72@ 2.75 g/l or Aliette (2.5 g/l) is effective in controlling the
disease.
Scab / Verucosis
Elsinoe fawcetti
Canker
Xanthomonas campestris pv citri
Symptoms: Acid lime, lemon and grapefruit are affected. Rare on sweet oranges and mandarins. Affects
leaf, twig and fruits. In canker, leaves are not distorted. Lesions are typically circular with yellow halo;
appear on both sides of leaf, severe in acid lime (difference from scab) When lesions are produced on twigs,
they are girdled and die. On fruits, canker lesions reduce market value.
Pathogen: It is Gram negative, non-spore forming, aerobic bacteria. It is rod shaped, forms chains and
capsules and is motile by one polar flagellum.
Favourable conditions: Free moisture for 20 minutes, 20-30°C. Mode of survival and spread Wind and
rain splashes. Survives in infected leaves for 6 months. Injury caused by leaf miner helps the entry of the
bacterium.
Management: Streptomycin sulphate 500-1000 ppm; or Phytomycin 2500 ppm or Copper oxychloride 0.2%
at fortnight intervals. Control leaf miner when young flush is produced. Prune badly infected twigs before
the onset of monsoon.
Greening
Liberobactor asiaticum (Phloem limited bacteria)
Symptoms: This disease affects almost all citrus varieties irrespective of root stock. Stunting of leaf, sparse
foliation, twig die back, poor crop of predominantly greened, worthless fruits. Sometimes only a portion of
tree is affected. A diversity of foliar chlorosis. A type of mottling resembling zinc deficiency often
predominates. Young leaves appear normal but soon assume on outright position, become leathery and
develop prominent veins and dull olive-green colour. Green circular dots on leaves. Many twigs become
Literature Cited
1. Anonymous. (2016). Indian Horticulture Database. http//www.nhb.
2. Mekonen M., A. Ayalew, K. Weldetsadik and A. Seid, (2015). Assessing and Measuring of Citrus gummosis (Phytophthora
spp.) in Major Citrus Growing Areas of Ethiopia. J Horticulture 2: 154. doi:10.4172/2376-0354.1000154.
3. Mounde, L.G.; E.M Ateka, A.W Kihurani, L. Wasilwa and E.G Thuranira, (2009). Occurrence and distribution of citrus
gummosis Phytophthora spp. in Kenya Afr. J. Hort. Sci. (2009) 2:56-68.
4. Timmer, L. W. And J. A. Menge (1988). Induced diseases in compendium of citrus diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN, P. 22-
24.
Introduction
Wheat is the chief staple food crop in several parts of the world in terms of the area cultivated as well as a
food source. The farming of wheat is geographically distributed in such a plentiful manner that the crop is
being reaped in one or another country all around the whole year.
It is a C3, self-pollinated crop belonging to the tribe Triticeae, under the family "Poaceae" of the plant
kingdom. In the year 2017, about 771 million tons of wheat was harvested worldwide. In India, over 98
million tons of production was recorded in 2017. About 40% of the global population is fed by wheat. The
Synthetic wheat is created by artificially hybridizing Durum wheat (T. turgidum ssp. durum; 2n=4x=28,
AABB) with accessions of Ae. tauschii (syn Ae. squarrosa, T.tauschii; 2n=2x=14, DD).
It offers new resources for the yield potential, tolerance to drought, resistance of diseases, and nutrient-use
efficiency. McFadden and Sears, in the year 1944, first reported about the artificial synthesis of hexaploid
wheat.
Table 2. Some Released Synthetic Wheat and Derived Cultivars for Breeding Along with
Country and Year.
Variety name Country Year
Shumai 830 China 2017
Conclusion
We can conclude that synthetic wheat is another light in the science of plant breeding with an immense
range of potential from exploring novel genes to develop introgression lines (ILs). It offers new resources
for the yield potential, tolerance to drought, resistance of diseases, and nutrient-use efficiency. Further
studies are recommended to dig up more potentiality of this approach.
Introduction
Maize is known as the queen of cereals. In India, this is the third most important crop grown after rice and
wheat. Maize is primarily grown throughout the year, especially 85% of maize is grown in kharif season.
It is hampered by a numerous borers and sucking pests. Recently, there is an introduction of a lepidopteran
borer into our country which is a devastating pest native to America, which is causing severe Economic
damage. In India it is first observed in Shimogga, Karnataka.
Fall army worm: Spodoptera frugiperda (Noctuidae, Lepidoptera).
It is a polyphagous pest. Adult moth is a strong flier, can fly over 100 km in search of host plants.
Newly borne larvae in groups disperse from hatching site and reach to feed on epidermal layers of lower
surfaces of young leaves. Larvae has 6 instars and then undergo pupation. Pupa is reddish brown in colour
and takes 7-8 days to emerge into adult moth. Adult moth can survive 3-6 days.
The total life cycle takes 30-34 days. FAW larvae appears in shades of green, olive, tan and grey colour with
four black spots in each abdomen segment. The head has a prominent white, Y inverted shape suture
between the eyes.
Composting is a process of allowing organic materials to decompose more or less controlled conditions to
produce stabilized product that can be used as a manure or soil amendment. Composting is basically a
microbial process, which change the property of the organic material or mixtures.
Vermi-Composting
Vermicomposting is a process of degradation of organic wastes by earthworms. The species like Eisenia
foetida and Eudrilus eugeniae are effective in converting the agricultural wastes into compost. The various
steps involved in making vermicompost are as follows.
Methods followed:
1. Heap method.
2. Pit method – aboveground and belowground.
3. Belowground method pit size : 10 X 1 X 0.3 m.
4. Each layer : 6-7cm thick.
5. Sprinkle water once in 8-10 days.
6. Release : 2-2.5 kg worms / pit.
Steps: Collect the predigested wastes and mix cattle dung @ 30 %. Place it in the pit/container layer by
layer. Moist the residues at 60 % moisture Allow the verms in to the feed material / residues @ 1 kg/ tonne
of residue Protect the pit or container from ants and rats (which are the enemies of verms). The residue
will be composted in 30 to 40 days Remove the composted materials layer by layer at a weekly interval so
as to avoid any damage /disturbance to the feeding verms.
Coirpith Composting
Coirpith is an agricultural waste produced from the coir industry. Approximately 180 grams of coirpith is
obtained from the husk of one coconut.
Coirpith contains Carbon: Nitrogen in the ratio of 112:1 and contains 75 per cent lignin which does not
permit natural composting as in other agricultural wastes. Mushroom Pleurotus has the capacity to
degrade part of the lignin present in coirpith by production of enzymes like cellulases and lactases. The
carbon: nitrogen ratio of coirpith is reduced from 112:1 to 24:1 as a result of composting.
Introduction
Kodaikanal hills located on a plateau above the southern escarpment of the upper Palani Hills at 2,133
metre, between the Parappar and Gundar Valleys. This region farmers were cultivating temperate fruits
and this region was consider as one of the highest productions of warm temperate fruit crops viz., Apple,
Peach, Pear, Plum, Avocado and Kiwi in Tamil Nadu. In the hills of kodaikanal, the passion fruit tree
tenders’ leaves are used for medicinal purpose.
This fruit is mainly consumed as a juice rather than fresh table fruit. Unfortunately, there are so many
hurdles like biotic and a biotic factor for the farmers which who are all cultivating passion fruits. Among
biotic factors, insect pests pose a challenge to the efficient horticultural fruit production especially in
temperate region. Recently, the coleopteran pest stem weevil, Philonis spp. causing damage to the passion
fruits and farmers facing hardship due this pest.
Passion Fruit
The passion fruit is one of the oldest fruits grown since centuries and this fruit belongs to the family of
"Passifloraceae". The passion fruit is native to Brazil and in India, it is grown in the parts of Western Ghats
(Coorg, Nilgiris, Kodaikanal, Malabar, Wynad and Shevroys). This fruit is commercially cultivated in
Kodaikanal hills.
Due to its aroma and flavouring property, this fruit is used to produce a quality squash along with excellent
nutritious juice. The passion fruit juice is used in preparation of ice creams, cakes and pies. The passion
fruits are nearly round to oval shape and this tree vines are perennial, shallow rooted, woody and climbing
by means of tendrils
Stem Weevil
The stem weevil, (Philonis spp.) is included in the Curculionidae family. They are nocturnal. Adults of P.
passiflorae are about 7 mm in length, brown with whitish elytra with two brown stripes. Adults of P.
crucifer are 4 mm in length, brown with black markings.
Damage Symptoms
1. Grub of Philonis spp. feed within the stems, opening longitudinal galleries inside stems that prevent
plant development.
2. The attacked stems are easily identified by the presence of excrement and sawdust (Santos and Costa,
1983).
3. As the grubs develops, infested stems become weak, frail and die. Simultaneously attack of several larvae
is characteristic of weevil infestations, which causes hypertrophy in stems where the pupal cell will be
constructed.
4. Attack by the stem weevil also causes fruit drop before maturation.
Stem weevil
Healthy fruit
Management
1. Periodic inspection of the crop is essential for an early detection of weevil-infested stems.
2. Infestation symptoms are detected on the crop, affected stems should be pruned and burned from the
garden.
3. Basal application of FYM 25 t/ha and 250 kg/ha of neem cake and contact insecticide should be applied
during early afternoon hours for stem weevil control, at the time of adult emergence.
4. After 4–5 days, systemic insecticides for control of future stem infestations should be used. Direct spray
into foliage and vines with sufficient volume and pressure to wet the plant thoroughly. Do not apply sprays
3 days before harvest.
References
1. Dominguez-Gil, O.E. and McPheron, B.A. (2002) Arthropods associated with passion fruit in western Venezuela. Florida
Entomologist 75, 607–612.
2. Joy, P. and Sherin, C., 2013. Insect pests of passion fruit (Passiflora edulis): Hosts, Damage, Natural Enemies and Control.
http, pp.//kau. edu/prsvkm/Docs/InsectPestsOf PassionFruit. pdf.
3. Santos, Z.F.D.F., 1983. Pragas da cultura do maracujá no Estado da Bahia. EPABA.4; p 10.
Rural women are not only engaged in routine household work as wives and mothers but also significantly
contribute to family income through their productive family labour of looking after the dairying part of the
mixed agricultural farming enterprise round the year. They can enhance their day-to-day family income
by increasing the productivity of their milch animals through the optimum use of technical inputs and
services made available at their doorstep at a reasonable cost through their own village cooperative.
By adopting modern tools and technologies they can reduce drudgery and save time. This further enhances
the working capacity, saves a lot of energy, increases work efficiency and income of the farm women
Introduction
Woman empowerment is the process of building a woman’s capacity to be self-reliant and to develop her
sense of inner strength. Dairying in India is a female dominated enterprise. It is established beyond doubt
that women always participated in dairy and animal husbandry activities in addition to their daily
household chores.
Women spent more time than men in dairy production activities. Women spent about 294.34 min. daily in
different dairy farm activities like feeding, watering, milking, housing, breeding, animal health care and
marketing (John Christy and Thirunavukkarasu, 2002). The time spent by women was maximum in case
of collection of fodder (254.68 hr/year), because cutting and collecting activity was performed only
fortnightly and the amount of fodder required for the cattle was brought twice a week (Kishtwaria et al.,
2009).
Women spend 2.2 hours/day/household in animal care activities. Men contributed about 50 per cent of the
labour involved in grazing activity only. All other activities such as cleaning shed, milking, harvest and
transport of grass for livestock was performed exclusively by women (Johnson et al., 2013). Rural women
spent more time in most of dairy activities as compared to men.
Women Empowerment
Rural women are not only engaged in routine household work as wives and mothers but also significantly
contribute to family income through their productive family labor of looking after the dairying part of the
mixed agricultural farming enterprise round the year. They can enhance their day-to-day family income
by increasing the productivity of their milch animals through the optimum use of technical inputs and
services made available at their doorstep at a reasonable cost through their own village cooperative.
A study indicates that 71 percent households (92 percent of milk producing households), utilizes the
technical inputs provided by the cooperatives. They are also apprised of the various aspects of scientific
animal husbandry and indirectly become conscious of their own social welfare regarding family health,
nutrition, family planning etc., which leads to the technical modernization of rural society.
Milk bucket Milk funnel Milk measures Milk samplers Milk pasteurizer
Air flow cabinet Water bath Milk analyzer Milk cans Milking machine
Butter churner Lacto meter Cream separator Chaff cutter Revolving stool
Conclusion
In today’s world almost all agriculture, dairy and household equipment that are being designed and
developed are based on the end user whether the male or the female will use it. Such technologies are being
adopted that are familiar to the user, easy to adopt, reduce drudgery and are also time saving.
This further enhances the working capacity, saves lot of time and energy and increases working efficiency
of the farm women. Reduced time taken to do a particular work gives the home maker some time for leisure
and this entire time she can use to improve her mental and physical health. Farm women have to play a
dual role in agriculture and dairy along with caring of children and household chores.
She is so occupied in all these activities that she cannot afford to think of her own self. She does not have
time to do any other activity for her personal earning. But, on the contrary, women in urban areas live a
completely different life just because they use modern technologies and drudgery reducing equipment. It
can be said that if women start using modern drudgery reducing technologies in dairy sector, they can run
it as a profitable enterprise.
References
1. Badiger C, Hasalkar S, Hosamani S. Drudgery reduction of farm women through technology intervention. Karnataka Journal
of Agricultural Sciences. 2006; 19(1):182-184.
2. Ela R. Bhatt, Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) Ahmedabad- Women in Dairying in India—Indian Dairyman
February 1996 issue – p.157 to 162.
3. Vani, C.S. and Srilatha, P. (2015). A study on women employment through dairy micro-enterprise management. Asian Journal
of Dairy and Food Research. 34(3):202-204.
Biological control is defined as the reduction of inoculum density or disease producing activities of a
pathogen or parasite in its active or dormant stage by one or more organisms accomplished either naturally
or through manipulation of the host, environment, or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists
(Baker and Cook, 1983).
The fungus, Trichoderma viride is a bio control agent, mainly used for the control of root rot diseases of
pulses and oil seeds in Tamil Nadu. A mass production technology for T. viride has been developed by Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Trichoderma is a very effective biological mean for plant disease management especially the soil born. It is
a free-living fungus which is common in soil and root ecosystems. It is highly interactive in root, soil and
foliar environments. It reduces growth, survival or infections caused by pathogens by different mechanisms
like competition, antibiosis, my coparasitism, hyphal interactions and enzyme secretion.
The four main mechanisms involved in the biocontrol are:
1. Antagonist may parasite the other organism (Parasitism).
2. Antagonist may secrete metabolites (antibiotics) harmful to the pathogens (Antibiosis).
3. Antagonist may compete with the pathogens for nutrients or space (Competition).
4. Antagonist may cause death of the parasite by producing enzymes (Lysis).
Benefits of Trichoderma
1. Disease Control: Trichoderma is a potent biocontrol agent and used extensively for soil borne diseases.
It has been used successfully against pathogenic fungi belonging to various genera, viz. Fusarium,
Phytopthara, Scelerotia etc.
2. Plant Growth Promoter: Trichoderma strains solubilize phosphates and micronutrients. The
application of Trichoderma strains with plants increases the number of deep roots, thereby increasing the
plant's ability to resist drought.
3. Biochemical Elicitors of Disease: Trichoderma strains are known to induce resistance in plants.
Three classes of compounds that are produced by Trichoderma and induce resistance in plants are now
known. These compounds induce ethylene production, hypersensitive responses and other defence related
reactions in plant cultivars.
4. Transgenic Plants: Introduction of endochitinase gene from Trichoderma into plants such as tobacco
and potato plants has increased their resistance to fungal growth. Selected transgenic lines are highly
tolerant to foliar pathogens such as Alternaria alternata, A. solani, and Botrytis cirerea as well as to the
soil-borne pathogen, Rhizectonia spp.
5. Bioremediation: Trichoderma strains play an important role in the bioremediation of soil that are
contaminated with pesticides and herbicides. They have the ability to degrade a wide range of insecticides:
organochlorines, organophosphates and carbonates.
Advantages
1. Environmentally safe.
2. Economically cheaper, Easy to use.
3. No residual toxicity.
4. No development of resistant by pathogens.
5. It is multiplying in soil and protect the crops.
6. Broad spectrum of action.
7. It enhances the plant growth.
Uses
Used in Damping off caused by Pythium sp. Phytophthora sp., Root rot caused by Pellicularis filamentosa,
Seedling blight caused by Pythium, Collar rot caused by Pellicularia rolfsii, Dry rot caused
by Macrophomina phaseoli, Charcoal rot caused by Macrophomina phaseoli, Loose smut caused by
Ustilago segetum, Karnal bunt diseases, Black scurf caused by Rhizoctonia solani, Foot rots of Pepper and
betel vine and Capsule rot of several crops.
Effective against silver leaf on plum, peach & nectarine, Dutch elm disease on elm's honey fungus
(Armillaria mellea) on a range of tree species, Botrytis caused by Botrytis cinerea, Effective against rots on
a wide range of crops, caused by fusarium, Rhizoctonia, and pythium, and sclerotium forming pathogens
such as Sclerotinia & Sclerotium.
Recommended for
Trichoderma is most useful for all types of plants and vegetables such as cauliflower, cotton, tobacco,
soybean, sugarcane, sugar beet, eggplant, pulses, tomato, banana, potato, citrus, onion, groundnut, peas,
sunflower, brinjal, coffee, tea, ginger, turmeric, pepper, betel vine, cardamom etc.
Methods of Application
1. Seed Treatment: Mix seeds with talc formulation of Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg of seed.
2. Soil application: Apply the talc product of T. viride @ 2.5kg/ha mixed with 50 Kg of well decomposed
farmyard manure (FYM) or sand at 30 days.
Precautions
1. Don't use chemical fungicide after application of Trichoderma for 4-5 days.
2. Don't use Trichoderma in dry soil. Moisture is an essential factor for its growth and survivability.
3. Don't put the treated seeds in direct sun rays.
4. Don't keep the treated FYM for longer duration.
5. It should be used within four months from the date of manufacture.
Compatibility
1. Trichoderma is compatible with Organic manure Trichoderma is compatible with biofertilizers like
Rhizobium, Azospirillum, Bacillus Subtilis and Phosphobacteria.
2. Trichoderma can be applied to seeds treated with metalaxyl or thiram but not mercurials. It can be
mixed with chemical fungicides as tank mix.
Introduction
Agriculture is the basic activity by which humans live and survive on the earth. Assessing the impacts of
climate change on agriculture is a vital task. In both developed and developing countries, the influence of
climate on crops and livestock persists despite irrigation, improved plant and animal hybrids and the
growing use of chemical fertilizers.
The continued dependence of agricultural production on light, heat, water and other climatic factors, the
dependence of much of the world's population on agricultural activities, and the significant magnitude and
rapid rates of possible climate changes all combine to create the need for a comprehensive consideration of
the potential impacts of climate on global agriculture.
Conclusion
In India, pest damage varies in different agro-climatic regions across the country mainly due to differential
impacts of abiotic factors such as temperature, humidity and rainfall. This entails the intensification of
yield losses due to potential changes in crop diversity and increased incidence of insect-pests due to
changing climate. It will have serious environmental and socio-economic impacts on rural farmers whose
livelihoods depend directly on the agriculture and other climate sensitive sectors.
Dealing with the climate change is really tedious task owing to its complexity, uncertainty, unpredictability
and differential impacts over time and place. Understanding abiotic stress responses in crop plants, insect-
pests and their natural enemies is an important and challenging topic ahead in agricultural research.
Impacts of climate change on crop production mediated through changes in populations of serious insect-
pests need to be given careful attention for planning and devising adaptation and mitigation strategies for
future pest management programmes.
References
1. IPCC,1990. Climate change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change. Geneva and
Nairobi, Kenya: World Meteorological Organization and US Environment Program, 365 pp.
2. Morgan D. 1996. Temperature changes and insect pests: a simulation study. Aspect of Applied Biology, 45: 277-283.
3. Sharma HC, Srivastava CP, Durairaj C and Gowda CLL. 2010. Pest management in grain legumesand climate change. In:
Climate Change and Management of Cool Season Grain Legume Crops ( Yadav SS, McNeil DL, Redden R and Patil SA eds.).
Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Spirnger Science + Business Media, 115-140.
4. Singh AK. 2014. Impact of Climate Change on Insect Pest Infecting Pulses. In: International Conference on Changing Scenario
of Pest Problems in Agri-horti Ecosystem and their Management held on 27-29 November at Udaipur, 40-55 pp.
5. Scaven VL and Rafferty NE. 2013. Physiological effects of climate warming on flowering plants and insect pollinators and
potential consequences for their interactions. Current Zoology, 59: 418–426.
Abstract
Antibacterial foods are natural consumable, which contain natural antibiotic properties working to
stimulate the immune function, increase the resistance to infections and prevent pathogens, antibiotic-
resistant bugs from developing within the body. Antibacterial foods also help to keep our body healthy as
immune system boosters and provide valuable nutrients to our overall health.
Keywords: antibiotics, natural foods, health benefits.
Introduction
In the ancient times, it is believed that antibiotics were the chemicals released by microorganisms, causing
prompt deleterious effect on humans. However, later this notion was reversed, i.e., these compounds were
used against microbes instead of isolating from them.
Antibiotics are generally of two types, bactericidal which kill the bacterial cell and bacteriostatic which
inhibit the bacterial growth and may kill the bacteria. The first antibiotic was discovered by Alexander
Fleming in 1928 from Penicillium notatum, a soil-inhabiting fungus, and the clinical trials on humans are
conducted in 1940.
There are five generations of different classes of antibiotics, up till now, which have been discovered and
are in clinical practice. Some of the natural antibiotics are garlic, turmeric, ginger, black pepper, honey and
cabbage. Natural antibiotics help to kills gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. They are also powerful
antiviral and antifungal formula, increases blood circulation and lymph flow in all parts of the body.
Garlic
Garlic can rightfully be called one of nature’s wonderful plants with healing power. It can inhibit and kill
bacteria, fungi, lower (blood pressure, blood cholesterol and blood sugar), prevent blood clotting, and
contains anti-tumour properties. It can also boost the immune system to fight off potential disease and
maintain health (Abdullah et al., 1988).
It has the ability to stimulate the lymphatic system which expedites the removal of waste products from
the body. It is also considered an effective antioxidant to protect cells against free radical damage. It can
help to prevent some forms of cancer, heart disease, strokes and viral infections.
Garlic alone can provide us with over two hundred unusual chemicals that have the capability of protecting
the human body from a wide variety of diseases. The sulphur containing compounds found in garlic afford
the human body with protection by stimulating the production of certain beneficial enzymes.
Turmeric
Turmeric is one of the best natural antibiotic foods used in Ayurvedic and ancient Chinese medicine for
thousands of years in order to treat various ranges of infections. The anti-inflammatory and antibacterial
agents in turmeric have been proven to inhibit bacterial infections. Extensive researches have proven that
most of the turmeric activities of the turmeric are due to curcumin.
Curcumin, as a spice, exhibits great promise as a therapeutic agent. It has very low toxicity, too. It has
various useful properties with antioxidant activities and is useful in conditions such as inflammation, ulcer
and cancer. It also has antifungal, antimicrobial renal and hepatoprotective activities. Therefore, it has the
potential against various cancer, diabetes, allergies, arthritis, Alzheimer’s disease and other chronic and
hard curable diseases.
Ginger
Ginger is a potential herb used worldwide for its immense phytotherapeutic properties. In Ayurveda it is
known as Mahaaushdi which means use of this herb improves body functions and helps to eliminates toxins
from the body.
Modern scientific research has revealed that ginger possesses numerous therapeutic properties including
antibiotic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant effects, an ability to inhibit the formation of inflammatory
compounds, and direct anti-inflammatory effects. Besides this, ginger is also effective against some kinds
of cancers, stimulates blood circulation, controls blood pressure and hypertension, helps in lowering
cholesterol, and is associated with combating heart problems.
Ginger is consumed worldwide as spice, flavouring agent, garnish, medicine, and food preservative and is
used either fresh, in a fresh paste, or dry, in a dry powder. Fresh ginger can be substituted for dried ground
ginger, although the flavours of fresh and dried ginger are somewhat different.
Black Pepper
Black pepper is one of the important spice rich in aromatic and medicinal components along with
appreciable levels of several other functional components having health promoting properties. Black pepper
contains lignans, alkaloids, flavonoids, aromatic compounds and amides (Agbor et al., 2006).
It also contains essential oil up to 3.5% and this oil constitutes sabinene, pinene, phellandrene, linalool and
limonene. Pepper is described as a drug which increases digestive power, improves appetite, cures cold,
cough, diseases of the throat, intermittent fever, colic, dysentery, worms and piles. It stimulates circulatory
system.
It possesses a broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. Analgesic (alleviate pain), antipyretic (reduces fever)
and anti-inflammatory actions are described, with piperine having been shown to be one of the active
compounds in such cases. Black pepper and its volatile oil are used in food and food items to aid:
1. Digestion.
2. Relieve gas.
3. Treat food poisoning.
4. Stomach chills.
5. Cholera
6. Dysentery.
7. Vomiting caused by hypothermia.
The uses of black pepper in various fields such as food processing, pharmaceutical industry etc, is
increasing steadily due to its recognition as an important source of natural antioxidant having
anticarcinogenic activity. It also has bioavailability enhancement nature, carminative property, anti-
inflammatory action, cholesterol lowering capacity, immune enhancer ability, anti-pyretic, anti-periodic,
antimicrobial and rubefacient activity (Murlidhar and Goswami, 2012).
Honey
Over 4000 years ago, honey was used as a traditional Ayurveda medicine, where it was thought to be
effective to balance the three humors of the body. Honey has been used as medicine in many cultures for a
long time.
In recent days, honey is becoming acceptable as a reputable and effective therapeutic agent. Honey has
antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant activities, wound healing property and boosting of the
immune system. Much of the therapeutic properties of honey are due to the high sugar concentration and
the resulting osmotic effect (Allsop and Miller, 1996).
Studies have shown that honey has lower glycemic and incremental indices in type I diabetic patients
(Abdulrhman et al., 2011) compared to glucose and sucrose. Honey is a potent inhibitor of the causing agent
Cabbage
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata) is one of the most important vegetables grown worldwide. It
belongs to the family Cruciferae, which includes broccoli, cauliflower, and kale. Chemical components
analysis has shown that the main constituents of cabbage are carbohydrates, comprising nearly 90% of the
dry weight, where approximately one third is dietary fiber and two thirds are low-molecularweight
carbohydrates (LMWC).
Other characteristic components are glucosinolates. Recent scientific studies have shown that cabbage and
other vegetables in the cruciferous family include cancer-fighting compounds so that it’s good for cancer
patients. In addition, cabbage is rich in vitamin C – a natural antibiotic, so it can help boost immunity.
Cabbage juice is also recommended in treating stomach ulcers. Fresh cabbage juice, prepared either
separately or mixed with other vegetables such as carrot and celery, is often included in many commercial
weight-loss diets, diets that improve the bioavailable content of nonheme iron, as well as alternative
therapies for cancer patients.
Clinical research has shown positive effects of cabbage consumption in healing peptic ulcers, and
facilitating the reduction of serum LDL levels. Cabbage is consumed either raw or processed in different
ways, e.g., boiled or, fermented or, used in salads. Due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and
antibacterial properties, cabbage has widespread use in traditional medicine, in alleviation of symptoms
associated with gastrointestinal disorders (gastritis, peptic and duodenal ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome)
as well as in treatment of minor cuts and wounds and mastitis.
Cabbage leaves have been used for centuries to treat mastitis (breast infection), which typically occurs in
nursing mothers. Patients are instructed to apply the leaf directly to the breast as needed to fight infection.
It may be slightly stinky, but it's effective.
References
1. Abdullah, T.H., Kandil, O., Elkadi, A. and Carter, J. (1988). Garlic revisited: therapeutic for the major diseases of our times.
J Natl Med Assoc. 80:439-445.
2. Abdulrhman, M., El-Hefnawy, M., Hussein, R. and El-Goud, A.A. (2011). The glycemic and peak incremental indices of honey,
sucrose and glucose in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus: effects on C-peptide level-a pilot study. Acta Diabetol. 48: 89-94.
3. Agbor GA, Vinsonb JA, Obenc JE, Ngogangd JY. (2006) Comparative analysis of the in vitro antioxidant activity of white and
black pepper. Nutrition Research 26: 659-663.
4. Allsop, K.A. and Miller, J.B. (1996). Honey revisited: A reappraisal of honey in preindustrial diets. Br J Nutr; 75: 513-20.
5. Hamid Nasri1, Najmeh Sahinfard, Mortaza Rafieian, Samira Rafieian, Maryam Shirzad, Mahmoud Rafieian-kopaei. (2014).
Turmeric: A spice with multifunctional medicinal properties. Journal of HerbMed Pharmacology. 3(1): 5-8.
6. Murlidhar Meghwal and Goswami TK. (2012). Chemical Composition, Nutritional, Medicinal and Functional Properties of
Black Pepper: A Review. Open Access Scientific Reports. 1: 172. doi:10.4172/scientificreports.172.
Introduction
Botnical pesticides have proven to be suitable for the control of agricultural diseases and insects. Natural
products and micro-organisms have been used as biopesticides worldwide as they can be sourced from the
environment, they are generally safe to non-target organisms including humans, they have reduced
persistence in the environment, and they are potentially acceptable for use in organic agriculture.
Botanicals are extracted from various plant parts (leaves, stems, seeds, roots, bulbs, rhizomes, unripe
fruits, and flower heads etc.) of different plant species. Plant extracts are also called as Green Pesticides,
Botanical Pesticides, Plant Pesticides, Botanicals, Ecological pesticides and the method which utilizes
botanicals in insect pest management is called as Indigenous Integrated Pest Management or Ethno-
Botanical Crop Protection.
Botanical pesticides possess an array of properties including toxicity to the pest, repellent, anti-feedant,
insect growth regulatory activities against pests of agricultural importance. These have broad spectrum
activity, are less expensive and easily available because of their natural occurrence, have high specificity
to target pests, and no or little adverse effect on beneficial insects, resistance development to them is slow
or less common, poses least or no health hazards and environmental pollution, have less residual activity
and are effective against insecticide resistance species of insects, and have no adverse effect on plant growth
parameters.
More than 2500 plant species belonging to 235 families have been found to possess the characteristics
required for an ideal botanical insecticide. About 350 insecticidal compounds, more than 800 insect feeding
deterrents, and a good number of insect growth inhibitors and growth regulators have been isolated from
various plant species.
Botanical as Biopesticides
Phytochemicals are classified as either primary or secondary plant metabolites. of the estimated 3,08,800
plant species very, few have been surveyed and most remained unexploited and unutilized for pesticidal
active principles.
Till date, about 2400 plant species have been reported to possess pesticidal properties belonging to 189
families among which about 22 families contain more than 10 plant species in each family with anti-insect
properties.
Approximately, more than 350 insecticidal compounds, >800 insect feeding deterrents and quite a good
number of insect growth inhibitors and growth regulators have been isolated from various plant species
but, apparently only few have achieved the commercial status.
1. Neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extract: Materials required: Neem leaves (80kg/ha). The fresh neem
leaves were collected and soaked overnight in water. Next day, soaked leaves were taken out and ground
and the extract obtained was filtered. The filtered extract was diluted @ 2.5-3 L in 50 L water and sprayed.
2. Pyrethrum: From the flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium, two formulations of Pyrethrum i.e.
Pyrethrum 0.2% dust and Pyrethrum 1% EC are registered for use against insect pests in vegetables and
Pyrethrum is also used in combination with other insecticides as synergists for the control of household
pests.
3. Niotine Sulphate: Nicotine is the extract from tobacco. Two formulations i.e. nicotine 40% solution
and 10% DP are registered in India for export only.
4. Parthenium hysterophorous: The extract of this plant contains parthenin, pyroparthenin,
anhydroparthenin and photoparthenin.These are sesquiterpene lactones which exercise cytotoxic,
Conclusion
Overall study indicated that farmers used locally available natural resources for the management of insect
pests. There were many types of indigenous botanical sprays used by the farmers in different crops against
different insect pests like Helicoverpa armigera (fruit borer), Spodoptera litura (Leaf eating caterpillar),
Leucinodes orbonalis (Brinjal fruit and shoot borer), Amsacta albistriga (Red headed hairy caterpillar), pod
borers of pulses, tobacco caterpillar, Tea mosquito bug, Thrips, Jassids, Aphids, Termites, Spider mites,
Beetles , leafminers, defoliators , whiteflies, scales etc.
All these sprays have been used since ancestral period. The information on methods of preparation of these
botanical sprays was also collected from the farmers.
Introduction
The occurrence of different psychological disorders along with depression is on a perpetual increase. It has
been assessed that about 4.4% (322 million) of the universal population are engulfed by depression and
about 3.6% (264 million) are grieved from anxiety syndromes (WHO 2017).
The currently accessible pharmacological and psychosomatic treatments are not found to be much effective
in terms of modest short-term reimbursements, austere ill effects and age restrictions, which has put a dire
need to develop new alternatives. It is a well-established fact that the microbiota inhabits a wide variety
of niches in the human body.
However, their abundance as well as diversity is more pronounced in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The
most valuable attribute of the intestinal microbiota that has raised recent concerns is particularly in
reference to the neurological, endocrinological, and immunological viewpoint where the gut microbiota uses
ancient, evolutionarily conserved, biomolecular “languages” to interconnect with the host organism
(Oleskin and Shenderov 2019).
However, the growing recognition of the role played by the gut microbes in human health has already been
an established fact, but, the extension of this role, to encompass brain health, has come into focus in recent
years. The 1014 microbial inhabitants of human gut are known to possess unique physiological roles in
maintaining human health. These roles include immunomodulation, energy balance and activation of the
enteric nervous system (ENS).
Conclusion
Several animal studies have found that the vagus nerve mediates the relationship between psychobiotics
and their psychophysiological effects, as severing the vagus nerve (vagotomy) abolishes responses to
psychobiotic administration.
References
1. Oleskin, A. V., & Shenderov, B. A. (2019). Probiotics and psychobiotics: the role of microbial neurochemicals. Probiotics and
antimicrobial proteins, 11(4):1071-1085.
2. WHO (2017). Cancer: Key Facts [Online]. World Health Organization. Available online at:
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs297/en/
3. Dinan, T. G., Stanton, C., & Cryan, J. F. (2013). Psychobiotics: a novel class of psychotropic. Biological psychiatry, 74(10):720-
726.
4. Cheng, L. H., Liu, Y. W., Wu, C. C., Wang, S., & Tsai, Y. C. (2019). Psychobiotics in mental health, neurodegenerative and
neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of food and drug analysis, 27(3): 632-648.
Introduction
Plant Tissue Culture broadly refers to the in-vitro cultivation of plants, seeds and various parts of the
plants like organs, tissues, embryos, organs, protoplasts.
Plant Tissue Culture is a collection of techniques used to maintain or grow plant cells, tissues or organs
under sterile conditions on a nutrient culture medium of Known composition. Plant Tissue Culture is
widely used to produce clones of plants in a method Known as micro propagation.
The Basic Steps Followed in the Plant Tissue Culture Techniques are
1. Selection of explants such as shoot tip.
2. Surface sterilization of the explants by disinfectants and then washing the explants with sterile distilled
water.
3. Transfer of the explants on to the suitable nutrient media in culture vessels under sterile conditions (In
laminar flow cabinet).
4. Growing the cultures in the growth chamber or plant tissue culture room, having the appropriate
physical conditions.
6. Regeneration of plants from cultured plant tissues.
7. Transfer of plants to the greenhouse or field conditions following the acclimatization of the regenerated
plants.
Media Preparation
1. Chemicals are dissolved in distilled water. the stock solution of vitamins, micro-nutrients and growth
regulators and hormones are added and pH adjusted to 5.5-6.5 .
2. The solution is made to volume 50 to 100 ml quantities distributed in to 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask.
3. Flasks are supported with cotton plug and autoclaved at 1200C 15 min, all media are stored at 100C.
Generally nutrient consist of:
1. Inorganic salts (both micro & macro elements).
2. A carbon source (usually sucrose).
3. Vitamins ( nicotinic acid, thiamine, pyridoxine).
4. Amino acids (eg. arginine).
5. Growth regulators ( eg. Auxins).
The recent COVID-19 events and realities are unprecedented. We are truly seeing history being made
which will have an effect on the dairy industry and society as a whole. Corona virus Disease 2019 (COVID-
19) is a new type of corona virus that was first detected among citizens of Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
in December 2019.
The condition that can spread from person to person. The outbreak of corona virus that causes serious
respiratory disease and may be especially deadly for older people and those with weakened immune
systems. Individuals can fight corona virus by taking steps to prevent its transmission the spread of the
virus has raised concerns about how it may affect public health as well as dairy production.
Dairy farms are 24-hour, 7-day per week business and operations must continue. Following precautions
will minimize the risk to dairy farmers, family and service providers to be on the farm.
Introduction
Women mainly participate in all operations related to livestock management. Livestock management has
always been considered to be the sole responsibility of women. Women take responsibility for cutting fodder,
cleaning sheds, milking dairy animals, processing animal and milk products and looking after the health
of the herd. Livestock rearing is an important means of income generations in village for all categories of
farmers including small, marginal and even landless farmer in rural India.
Dairy former can follow simple steps to minimize the spread of COVID-19 and other respiratory viruses:
1. Limit access by non-essential persons
2. Wash your hands regularly with soap and water for at least 20 seconds.
3. Avoid touching your eyes, nose and mouth with unwashed hands.
4. Always wear milking gloves.
5. Shower when you get home after working in the dairy and wash your work clothes.
6. Clean and disinfect frequently touched surfaces and objects in the dairy.
7. Practice social distancing by reducing the number of close physical contacts you have with others, only
leaving your home/dairy to get necessary supplies.
It’s always a best practice to thoroughly wash your hands with warm soapy water and maintain proper
hygiene when in contact with livestock, including changes clothes and shoes prior to visiting the next farm.
This ensures any zoonotic diseases, which are diseases caused by germs that spread from animals to people,
are not transmitted.COVID-19 is known to spread through aerosol transmission and close human contact,
not through food products. There is no evidence to suggest that dairy products can transmit COVID-19 and
there is no evidence that this strain of corona virus is present in domestic livestock also heat treatment
kills corona viruses, making pasteurization an effective safeguard against this virus.
The dairy farmers in Kanpur nagar are facing losses due to the lockdown. Nationwide lockdown has been
imposed in backdrop of COVID-19 outbreak. Milk price dipped to almost half amid pandemic and farmers
are forced to sell the milk at low prices. now we have to sell it at Rs 30-35 per kg. The demand is low as
hotels and tea stalls are closed. It is becoming difficult to manage expenses. Despite strong demand for
basic foods like dairy products during the corona virus pandemic, the milk supply chain has seen a host of
disruptions that are preventing dairy farmers from getting their products to market. Mass closures of
restaurants and schools have forced a sudden shift from those wholesale food-service markets to retail
grocery stores, creating logistical and packaging nightmares for plants processing milk, butter and cheese.
The sale of dairy products has been hit during the lockdown period as the uptake by the organized industry
players has been affected due to shortage of workforce and transport issues. However, people living on
agriculture and allied activities, mostly those losing their income from informal employment at this
Conclusion
The most positive things for the dairy farmers are that COVID-19 infection is expected to have no direct
health hazard on the dairy cows and its products. So, consumption of milk might be unaffected, the farmers
can even use this as an opportunity for utilising the milk production to increase the demand. In contrast,
due to the limited movement of the people there could be short term effect on milk marketing and price
might be lowered. The production could be decreased as well if the sufficient measures are not taken in due
time. it is highly recommended that the government, main dairy processors and other input suppliers and
policymakers might take responsible actions to minimise the economic loss by the farmers due to the
current corona virus infections. Finally, the government, at this stage, has taken right decision to make all
efforts for ensuring the safety of humans first but in the long run, it needs to make judicious decisions
targeting the ways to overcome the current and anticipated future loss.
Collembola are commonly known, as springtails represent one of the most abundant and widespread group
of soil arthropod. The Collembolans or the springtails are characterized by a six segmented abdomen
bearing median appendages ventrally, i.e., ventral tube, the tenaculum, and the furcula. The furcula and
tenaculum may be reduced or absent in some families like Onychiuridae and Neanuridae. They formerly
classified as primitively wingless insects, but now widely recognized as a lineage closely related to, but
distinct from, the Insecta (Giribet and Edgecombe, 2012). The common name of the group derives from the
ability to jump quite appreciable distance when disturbed and such mechanism is facilitated by the
possession of springing organ carried on the fourth abdominal segment.
Springtails are colonizing in the soil habitats that provide enough humidity and food, such as organic
matter, pH, or microorganisms. Some researcher regarded them as key indicator soil fertility and health
but sometimes agricultural intensification tends to reduce collembo diversity. About 6500 species in 18
families have been described by different authors (Hopkin, 1997; Toldan et al. 2016). Like the oribatids,
they also are extremely abundant in soil and leaf litter, with densities typically on the order of 104–105
individuals /m−2 and, again, higher in coniferous forests (Petersen and Luxton, 1982), but are more
numerous than oribatids in many soils. Agricultural soils may be rich in Collembola. Edaphic species tend
to be parthenogenetic (Hopkin, 1997), life-history trait characteristic of animals living in stable
environments. Average fecundity typically ranges between 50 and 100 eggs per female; depending on
climate, there may be one to four generations annually.
Life spans of species living within the soil-litter system range between 2 and 12 months or more. Like soil-
dwelling oribatids, Collembola require a soil atmosphere approaching saturation. The diet of Collembola is
of considerable variation, including moss protonema, bacteria, fungal hyphae and spores, algae, protozoans,
arthropod feces, pollen, decaying plant materials and humus, other Collembola (living or dead), and stored
products. Species are divided between those that masticate their food and those that are fluid feeders.
Majority of species are fungivorous (Hopkin, 1997).
Economic Benefits
Soil biological management reduces input costs by enhancing resource use efficiency (especially
decomposition and nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation and water storage and movement). Less fertilizer
may be needed if nutrient cycling becomes more efficient and less fertilizer is leached from the rooting zone.
Fewer pesticides are needed where a diverse set of pest-control organisms is active. As soil structure
improves, the availability of water and nutrients to plants also improves. It is estimated that the value of
"ecosystem services" (e.g. organic waste disposal, soil formation, bioremediation, N2 fixation and bio
control) provided each year by soil biota in agricultural systems worldwide may exceed US$ 1,542 billion.
Environmental Protection
Soil organisms filter and detoxify chemicals and absorb the excess nutrients that would otherwise become
pollutants when they reach groundwater or surface water. The conservation and management of soil biota
help to prevent pollution and land degradation, especially through minimizing the use of agro-chemicals
and maintaining/enhancing soil structure and cation exchange capacity (CEC). Excessive reduction in soil
biodiversity, especially the loss of keystone species or species with unique functions, for example, as a result
of excess chemicals, compaction or disturbance, may have catastrophic ecological effects leading to loss of
agricultural productive capacity.
Food Security
Soil biological management can improve soil health, crop yield and quality, especially through controlling
pests and diseases and enhancing plant growth. Below-ground biodiversity determines resource use
References
1. Giribet G, Edgecombe GD (2012) Reevaluating the arthropod tree of life.Annu Rev Entomol 57:167–186.
2. Giribet G, Edgecombe GD (2012) Reevaluating the arthropod tree of life.Annu Rev Entomol 57:167–186.
3. Hopkin SP (1997) Biology of the springtails (Insecta: collembola). Oxford University Press, Oxford, p 330.
4. Toldan, T, Raghuraman, M and Santeshwari.(2015) Diversity of Collembola in Leh-Ladakh Region.Bioinfolet.12(3A): 568 –
570.
5. Toldan, T., Santeshwari, Raghuraman, M. and Kumar, D. (2016) Diversity of springtails (Collembola :Insecta in different tree
ecosystems of Varanasi, India. Indian Journal of Ecology. 43(2): 500-504 ISSN:0304-5250.
Introduction
Nursery raising is one of the highly economic enterprise and commercial venture in horticulture sector. As
the demand for high quality planting material is steadily increasing there is need of setting up plant
nurseries by small and marginal farmers as well as by gardeners and farmhouse owners. Also, there is
profound scope for starting the small nurseries, which will serve to augment the income of needy section of
rural society.
A nursery is a starting point for successful production. Nursery has emerged in this country as an important
sector for diversification of agriculture with view to improve economic condition of farming community. It
has established its credibility through increased productivity, generating employment for rural and urban
people and enhancing export to a considerable level.
The history of civilization is rich with verses pertaining to agriculture. Almost all of them candidly connote
the nature of agriculture as a food obtaining activity and nothing more, but with the advent of civilization,
agriculture has grown in length and breadth. It’s now a diversified activity. The demand of time has
transformed agriculture from a subsistence-tool to an economic activity. It has become an enterprise now.
The rapid growth of market economy has expedited the commercialization of agriculture sector which is
gradually attaining the status of an enterprise.
Nursery raising is one of the highly economic enterprise in horticulture sector. The nursery management
gained status of commercial venture as the demand for high quality planting material is steadily increasing
due to interest in vegetable gardening, fruit tree cultivation, social forestry, agro-forestry and plantation
crops.
The need of setting up plant nurseries to meet the demands of the people has been felt by small and
marginal farmers as well as by gardeners and farmhouse owners. There is wide scope for agriculture
graduates to become successful entrepreneurs in nursery business. To be a successful entrepreneur it
requires certain characteristics viz. innovativeness, achievement motivation, economic motivation, risk
taking ability, management orientation, decision making ability, market orientation and leadership ability
etc. They are mean with a will to act, to assume risk and to bring about a change through organization of
human efforts.
Now it is felt that, the economic growth and development of advanced countries is largely due to
entrepreneurship among their community rather than capital. In today’s changing scenario, skill
entrepreneurial developments have become more important. Many entrepreneurial opportunities are
emerging in various fields such as computer, electronics, medicine, agriculture, food technology etc.
Entrepreneurship development is an art and science which requires skills of communication, management
and marketing to any entrepreneur. During 1970`s entrepreneurship was recognized as a vehicle for
economic growth and industrial development and a potential solution to the problems of underemployment
and unemployment
India has immense potential for entrepreneurship development in terms of diversity of rural occupations.
Development of entrepreneurship ensures optimal utilization of resources, facilities and services. It also
helps in developing capability to cope up with the impact of globalization. There are many factors that
influence the entrepreneurial behaviour of human beings. The emergence of entrepreneurs in a society
depends upon closely interlinked social, religious, cultural, psychological and economic factors.
Understanding the role of these factors is essential for creating an environment which can facilitate the
development of entrepreneurial attributes.
Conclusion
Entrepreneurship is most needed component for the agriculture development. Considering these facts, it
felt necessary to conduct the study on entrepreneurial attributes of nursery growers with objectives to know
the entrepreneurial attributes, relationship between socio-economic characteristics with entrepreneurial
attributes and reason for practicing nursery which will help to come out with the suitable policies and
programmes for nursery production. The study will also help in developing good entrepreneurs in nursery
business.
Introduction
Agritourism has been a buzzword among the growing agripreneurs in India. The last few years have seen
the concept of agritourism gaining impetus as an allied area of income generation in agriculture.
Agritourism has branched out as an offshoot of rural tourism and has immense scope in India. Since
agriculture is the main occupation of the people in India and other developing countries, there is a need for
these countries to think of allied income generation strategies with agriculture, one of which is agritourism.
Agritourism is considered as one of the fastest growing sectors in the tourism industry. The concept has
been successfully implemented in states like Maharashtra, Kerala, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Gujarat,
Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh. It has become a new avenue for earning income for the rural
farmers. Realizing this, the government is encouraging active agritourism to augment income generating
options for the rural section (Pal, 2016).
Objectives
1. To develop and promote agricultural tourism (Agri-tourism) as a potential vehicle for diversifying and
stabilizing rural economies.
2. Creating jobs, increasing community income, providing a broader market base for local business.
3. Attracting tourists to the rural area, thereby supporting the growth of small tourism industries.
4. Through ATDC’s projects, training and support, farmers benefit from the development of tourism.
In the last 4 years more than 500 farmers are trained under ATDC’s Agritourism Training Programme and
in 2007 there were about 52 farmers from Maharashtra started Agritourism activity on their farms to
supplement the agriculture income. ATDC has published a directory of farmers in 2017 in its 1st edition
and in 2017 being its latest edition which enlist all Agritourism centres registered under it for promotion
and contact.
To guide and acquaint farmers about Agritourism, it started their first model project in Baramati
“Malegaon Sheti Farm” on 110 acres. Later, Mr.Pandurang Taware started on his own in Palshiwadi
village, 30 km away from Baramati. He has been involved in training the farmers and is pioneer in
spreading the awareness of agritourism in the country wherever he gets an opportunity. He has got various
awards from department of tourism as well as agricultural institutions for his noble work.
Conclusion
1. Institutional interventions such as policy and research backstopping must include Government
strategies and suggestions for agritourism development. Reduction of high initial investment through
introducing low cost construction materials through extensive research and case studies would bring the
Reference
1. Bhandare, S. G. (2013). Tourism and its Impact on Rural Entrepreneurship in Goa: an Empirical Study for Promoting Village
Tourism in Goa (Doctoral dissertation, Goa University).
2. Kalra, R. (2020). Studies in Tourism Geography of India: Definition, Approaches and Prospects. In Urban and Regional
Planning and Development (pp. 431-451). Springer, Cham.
3. Karjigi, K. D. (2019). Status, Impact and Prospects of Agritourism in India: A multidimensional study (Doctoral dissertation,
Division of Agricultural Extension ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi).
4. Pal, S. (2016). Agricultural Tourism-Typology study & Tourist perception with reference to Maharashtra. KIMI Hospitality
Research Journal, 1(1), 28.
5. Secretariat, L. S. (2013). Tourism Sector in India. Members Reference Service, Parliament Library and Reference, Research,
Documentation and Information Service (LARRDIS).
Introduction
Extension is a service or system which assists farm people, through educational procedures, in improving
farming methods and techniques, increasing production efficiency and income, bettering their standard of
living and lifting social and educational standards. The extension system of India has witnessed paradigm
shift from ‘production led’ to ‘farmers led’ system which in turn has transformed the researches in
extension. (Girish, 2017). Effective extension involves adequate and timely access by farmers to relevant
advice, with appropriate incentives to adopt the new technology if it suits their socioeconomic and
agroecological circumstances. Critical to adoption are the availability of improved technology, access to
modern inputs and resources, and profitability at an acceptable level of risk. Farmers get information from
many sources. Public extension is one source, but not necessarily the most efficient. Thus, although
extension can improve the productive efficiency of the agricultural sector, the virtues and limitations of
alternative mechanisms need to be considered in assessing the cost-effectiveness of delivering information.
The modern extension system includes
Decentralization
Agricultural extension systems in developing countries are struggling to prove their importance and
relevance to agricultural and rural development. In order to solve complex development problems, national
extension systems need to encourage the active participation of rural people in planning, implementing,
and monitoring extension programs, especially at the regional, district, and county level.
Decentralization is a major undertaking that requires the full understanding of all parties involved,
systematic capacity building at the lower system levels, and careful coordination to ensure successful
implementation.
Privatization
Privatization of extension services can take different forms. Of the various types of decentralization
categorized/defined by Rondinelli (1987), the most is a complete withdrawal of government from providing
extension programs to farmers.
This option is sometimes known as total privatization. It can be of a partial nature, involving such
strategies as cost-recovery, fee-based services, agricultural taxes for use in funding agricultural extension,
and contracting with outside organizations for specific services.
Public-Private Partnership
A public-private partnership is a contractual agreement between a public agency (federal, state or local)
and a private sector entity. Through this agreement, skills and assets of each sector (public and private)
are shared in delivering a service or a facility for the use of the general public. Each party shares risks and
rewards potential in the delivery of the service and/or the facility.
Client-Orientation
The old practice of delivering the same technical messages to all farmers using the same extension
methodology is gradually being replaced by client-focused approaches.
Conclusion
1. Agricultural extension is an essential part in technology transfer.
2. The trend was the birth of unique and a better, effective and support extension systems.
3. It should be dynamic, location and time specific, updated and facilitate change enabling a better
educational and social status for a rural community.
Reference
1. Girijesh, S.M., Kumar, B.,Bhardwaj, N Dash, D 2017. Trends in Extension Research in India-A Case study. Indian Journal of
Extension Education. 53(4): 25-31.
2. Kamerman, S.B and Kahn, A.J. 1989. Privatization and the welfare state. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
3. Rondinelli, D.A. 1987. Administrative decentralization of agricultural and rural development programs in Asia: a comparative
analysis.
(Agrl.Extn.), 4Assistant Professor (Agrl.Ento.), 5Assistant Professor (PBG), 6Assistant Professor (VAS),
ICAR- KVK, Tiruvallur - 602 025, Tiruvallur District, Tamil Nadu.
(Agrl.Extn.), 4Assistant Professor (Agrl.Ento.), 5Assistant Professor (PBG), 6Assistant Professor (VAS),
ICAR- KVK, Tiruvallur - 602 025, Tiruvallur District, Tamil Nadu.
Type Half – hardy annual, hardy and half- hardy perennials; half- hardy sub-
shrubs
Common name Salvia
Family LABIATAE
Flowering season Summer
Sowing date Late winter to early spring (January – February)
Mature size/ shape 15 cm- 1.5 m (6 in- 5 ft.)
Special uses Some species are used as dried flowers.
The name salvia is derived from Salvus, the Latin word for safe or well. Salvias were once thought to have
medicinal and curative properties. The half- hardy exotic salvias from the New World first appeared in
Europe in 1744, when seeds were sent from Florida and Mexico.
The familiar red Salvia splendens used for summer bedding came from Brazil in 1822. Salvia fulgens of
Mexican origin did not arrive in Britain until 1827, although it was grown on the Continent before this.
Also, from Mexico came the brilliant blue Salvia patens in 1838. Salvias are well behaved garden plants,
even though they have not been extensively bred or developed since their introduction.
Salvias are a very diverse group, comprising 700 species of hardy, half – hardy and tender annuals,
perennials and mainly evergreen sub shrubs. The most popular species are the familiar half hardy annuals,
including the fiery summer bedding plant S. splendens. The Victorians loved bedding plants and used this
species to make a splash of colour wherever they could.
S. splendens and the bright red Blaze of Fire still bring colour into the garden every summer. It is best to
treat it as a half hardy annual, starting from fresh seed each year. An attractive variation is the similar
Purple Blaze, which grows in the same habitat and produces violet purple flowers. S. patens, a perennial,
bears clear blue flowers during the summer and early autumn.
Although it is still not well known, S. horminum is becoming more popular. This true annual is a native of
Southern Europe and grows to 45 cm (18 in). During the summer, tiny pink or purple flowers appear, but
it is the brightly coloured 4 cm (1 ½ in) long bracts (flower bearing leaves) that make the most show.
Monarch Bouquet, which produces a splendid mixture of white, rose, red, blue and purple bracts, is an
excellent variety.
Introduction
RNA interference (RNAi) is a method of blocking gene characteristics through inserting short sequences of
ribonucleic acid (RNA) that match part of the target genes sequence, as a result no proteins are produced.
RNAi has the capacity to turn out to be a powerful therapeutic approach in the direction of focused and
personalized medicine.
Even more exciting is the use of RNAi in agriculture. RNAi has supplied a manner to control pests and
diseases, introduce novel plant traits and increase crop yield. Plant biologists found out that introducing
multiple copies of a gene that codes for purple petunia flowers led, not as expected to a deeper purple hue,
but rather to plants with white or variegated flowers.
Through an unknown mechanism, the delivered transgenes have been silenced in addition to the plant’s
‘crimson-flower’ gene (Novina and Sharp., 2004 and Napoli et al., 1990). Andrew Fire and Craig Mello
observed that injecting double stranded ribonucleic acids (dsRNA) into the worm Caenorhabditis elegans
caused the silencing of genes with sequences identical to that of the dsRNA. They called the phenomenon
RNA interference.
Fire and Mello had been awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for their discovery. In
addition to its roles in regulating gene expression, RNAi is used as an immune response to infection and as
a natural protection mechanism towards molecular parasites inclusive of jumping genes that affect genome
stability.
Conclusion
With RNAi, it would be viable to target more than one gene for silencing using a thoroughly-designed single
transformation construct. Moreover, RNAi can also offer broad-spectrum resistance against pathogens with
excessive degree of variability, like viruses. Recent studies have hinted feasible roles of RNAi-related
approaches in plant biotic and abiotic stress adaptation. The complexities of RNAi pathway, the molecular
machineries, and how it pertains to plant development are still to be elucidated.
References
1. Fritz, J. H., Girardin, S. E., & Philpott, D. J. (2006). Innate immune defense through RNA interference. Science Signaling,
2006(339), pe27-pe27.
2. Gupta, P. K. (2006). RNA interference–gene silencing by double-stranded RNA: The 2006 Nobel Prize for Physiology or
Medicine. Current Science, 1443-1446.
3. Mansoor, S., Amin, I., Hussain, M., Zafar, Y., & Briddon, R. W. (2006). Engineering novel traits in plants through RNA
interference. Trends in plant science, 11(11), 559-565.
4. Novina, C. D., & Sharp, P. A. (2004). The rnai revolution. Nature, 430(6996), 161-164.
5. Singh, S. K., Sahoo, J. P., & Swain, E. (2018). A review on gene stacking in crop plant. Journal of Pharmacognosy and
Phytochemistry, 7(4), 1862-1865.
6. Tang, G., Galili, G., & Zhuang, X. (2007). RNAi and microRNA: breakthrough technologies for the improvement of plant
nutritional value and metabolic engineering. Metabolomics, 3(3), 357-369.
There is a huge difference in what we produce today and what is needed to feed a projected 10 billion world
population by 2050 which is expected to increase anywhere between 59% and 98% (FAO, 2009; WRI, 2018).
Better conservation and utilization of food plant diversity have potential to address this issue effectively.
The plant genetic resources refer to the genetic diversity of actual or potential value that exists in grains,
legumes, vegetables and fruits. This PGR diversity is the chief biological basis for food security. However,
this potential can only utilize in amalgamation with plant breeding and seed systems.
The present-day advances in yield potential, quality, pest resistance and other important traits have
resulted because of breeding involving crosses from diverse genetic material. Farmers as well as breeders
who rely on yield as seed depend on crop genetic resources. The diverse PGR available from seed and
planting material of modern and traditional cultivars, landraces from farmers’ fields and wild relatives can
be utilised to identify elite donors of favourable alleles and incorporated into breeding program bringing
the alleles into practical uses to develop a novel genotype combination which is tested for stability and
worth followed by multiplication by seed production pipeline and distributed to seed growers and farmers
after identification and release.
Therefore, conservation and sustainable use of PGR is necessary as they ensure crop production meeting
environmental challenges and climate change. Their erosion is a long-term serious threat to the world’s
food security. The breeders are fully dependent on PGR, be it from farmers’ field and sometimes on
‘domesticated elsewhere’ to subsequently develop elite breeding material through prebreeding.
The process of prebreeding the initial link in the chain connecting PGR, plant breeding practices and seed
system. The crop wild relatives or collections are evaluated and identified for favourable traits deciding
further scope as they are pure wealth of alleles for several traits like stress hardiness, quality and pest
tolerance and resistance. Molecular marker techniques can be implemented to accelerate identification and
transfer of useful alleles.
The diagram depicting linkage between PGRs, plant breeding and seed system is shown in Fig. 1. The
efficiency is increased by the art of enhancement of genetic variability in the germplasm for its further use
in regular breeding program, resetting the genetic diversity of crops by reintroducing genetic variability
left behind and using genetic diversity that was not previously accessible due to genetic in-compatibilities
or non-overlapping geographic range.
However, low utilization of PGRs may be due to lack of documentation and adequate description of
collections, lack of proper evaluation and low seed availability due to inadequate seed regeneration.
Moreover, the techniques of tissue culture such as ovary culture and embryo rescue are promising in trait
transfer in cross incompatible species. Systematically developed advanced backcross populations derived
from wild Cajanus species provide valuable resource for genomic studies to identify QTLs for important
agronomic traits.
Backcross populations derived from complex interspecific crosses will help to improve levels of pest
resistance by combining different components from different species into cultivated types. Varieties
developed aiming yield and other traits are adopted by farmers as per consumer preference and market
demand.
Participatory plant breeding is a demand driven approach where the farmers are almost equally involved
as breeders in selections among variations in breeding program. This increases farmer skills to in selection
and seed production efforts through participatory varietal selection. The result is a line or a population of
genotypes ready to be adopted and suitable for farmers as per their criteria. The seed production and supply
system involve an integrated approach to sustainable use of plant genetic resources for increasing
production and achieving food security.
Fig. 1. Linkage relationship between plant genetic resources, plant breeding and seed systems
Introduction
The production and use of nanomaterials, which continue to grow, have given rise to many concerns and
debates among public, scientific and regulatory authorities regarding their fate in biological systems. Soils
contain many kinds of inorganic and organic nanoparticles, namely clay minerals, metal oxides and
hydroxides, humic substances, allophane, and imogolite (Theng, B. K., & Yuan, G. (2008).
Organic nanoparticles can also be found in natural vegetation (Xia et at., 2010). Anthropogenic
nanoparticles can be further divided into two categories: incidental, which are nanoparticles produced
unintentionally in manmade processes (e.g., carbon black, carbon nanotubes and fullerenes, platinum- and
rhodium-containing nanoparticles from combustion byproducts (Nowack B and Bucheli TD 2007) and
engineered/manufactured, which are nanoparticles that are produced intentionally due to their nano-
specific properties.
The main focus of current nanomaterial toxicity research is engineered nanoparticles, such as metals, metal
oxides, single-walled and multiwalled carbon nanotubes, C-60, polymeric nanoparticles used as drug
carriers, and quantum dots. The increase in relative surface area that occurs as particle size decreases
down to the nanoscale gives rise to novel and enhanced material properties, but it also renders them more
biologically reactive (Nel et al., 2006 and Kahru et al., 2010).
The release of nanoparticles into the environment can occur through many processes, such as spilling and
washing consumer products incorporating nanoparticles; during synthesis and production; as an accidental
release during transport or use; from industries that exploit nanotechnology, for example wastewater
treatment and drug delivery Nanoparticles have been shown to produce cytotoxic, genotoxic, inflammatory
and oxidative stress responses in different mammalian cells in vitro.
The International Organization for Standardization defines Engineered Nanomaterials, or ENMS, as
materials with external dimensions between 1 and 100 nm, the nanoscale, or having an internal surface
structure at these dimensions. (Jeevanandam et al., 2018) Nanoparticles can be both incidental and
engineered. Incidental nanoparticles include particles from dust storms, volcanic eruptions, forest fires,
and ocean water evaporation. Engineered nanoparticles (EMMs) are nanoparticles that are made for use
in cosmetics or pharmaceuticals like ZnO and TiO2. They are also found from sources such as cigarette
smoke and building demolition.
Engineered nanoparticles have become increasingly important for many applications in consumer and
industrial products, which has resulted in an increased presence in the environment. This proliferation has
instigated a growing body of research into the effects of nanoparticles in the environment. The properties
of NPs and their impact in inhibiting challenges and toxicity risks are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Summary of Five Basic Nanomaterial Properties and their Potential Risks and
Challenges
Nanomaterial properties Risk description
agglomeration or aggregation Weakly bound (agglomeration) and fused particles are significant
risk criteria as they lead to poor corrosion resistance, high solubility
and phase change of NMs. This further leads to deterioration and the
structure maintenance becomes challenging.
reactivity or charge NPs can be charged either by functionalization or spontaneous
degradative reactions. Chemical species and their charge-related
critical functional groups will be a significant factor for specific
functionality and bioavailability of NMs.
Nanomaterial Regulations
Nanomaterials possess characteristics such as high chemical bioactivity and reactivity, cellular as well as
tissue and organ penetration ability, and greater bioavailability. These unique properties of NMs make
them superior in biomedical applications. However, these merits are also avenues for potential toxicity.
Thus, regulations via legislation, laws, and rules have been implemented by several government
organizations to minimize or avoid risks associated with NMs. However, there is no specific international
regulation, no internationally agreed upon protocols or legal definitions for production, handling or
labelling, testing toxicity and evaluating the environmental impact of NPs.
Medical standards related to ethics, environmental safety, and medical governance have been modifed to
cover the introduction of NMs into the biomedical field. Currently, the USA and the European Union (EU)
have strong regulatory bodies and guideline legislation to control the potential risks of NMs. The European
Commission has developed several pieces of EU legislation and technical guidance, with specific references
to NMs.
This legislation has been employed inside EU countries to ensure conformity across legislative areas and
to guarantee that a NM in one sector will also be treated as such when it is used in another sector. According
to the European Commission the term nanomaterial means "a natural, incidental or manufactured
material containing particles, in an unbound state or as an aggregate or as an agglomerate, and where for
50% or more of the particles in the number size distribution, one or more external dimensions is in the size
range of 1 nm to 100 nm". As the specifications of the materials and products meet the substance definitions
of the European chemical agency (REACH) and the European Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
(CLP), the provisions in these regulations apply. In addition, the EU has formed the Scientific Committee
on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR), to estimate risks associated with NMs. In
2013, EU cosmetics regulation 1223/2009 was replaced by Directive 76/768/EEC.
The regulation defines the term nanomaterial as “an insoluble or bio-persistent and intentionally
manufactured material with one or more external dimensions, or an internal structure in the range of 1 to
100 nm which includes man-made fullerene, single-walled carbon nanotubes, and graphene flakes”. It can
be noted that cosmetics face regulations and moderations from USFDA’s Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic
Act (FFDCA), Personal Care Products Council (PCPC), Voluntary Cosmetic Registration Program (VCRP),
Conclusion
The toxicity profiling of NMs is a highly demanded research area worldwide in recent times. Natural NMs
have been present in the ecosystem for years, and they possess some mechanisms to cause less harmful
effects among living organisms. However, research advancements have found some acute toxic effects of
nanosized particles in living systems. NMs from anthropogenic activities and engineered NMs in consumer
products are able to cause toxic effects in living creatures. Additionally, emerging NPs, such as viral NPs
and nanozymes, should be subjected to rigorous cytotoxicity tests to establish benign mechanisms of
application and dosage levels. In order to minimize or avoid the potential hazards of engineered NMs in
consumer products, regulations and laws have been implemented in many countries. Extensive research
in the field of nanotoxicology and strict laws by government agencies are essential to identify and avoid
toxic NPs.
References
1. Jeevanandam, J., Barhoum, A., Chan, Y. S., Dufresne, A., & Danquah, M. K. (2018). Review on nanoparticles and
nanostructured materials: history, sources, toxicity and regulations. Beilstein journal of nanotechnology, 9(1), 1050-1074.
2. Kahru, A., & Savolainen, K. (2010). Potential hazard of nanoparticles: from properties to biological and environmental effects.
Toxicology, 2(269), 89-91.
3. Nel, A., Xia, T., Mädler, L., & Li, N. (2006). Toxic potential of materials at the nanolevel. science, 311(5761), 622-627.
4. Nowack, B., & Bucheli, T. D. (2007). Occurrence, behavior and effects of nanoparticles in the environment. Environmental
pollution, 150(1), 5-22.
5. Theng, B. K., & Yuan, G. (2008). Nanoparticles in the soil environment. Elements, 4(6), 395-399.
6. Thomas, T., Thomas, K., Sadrieh, N., Savage, N., Adair, P., & Bronaugh, R. (2006). Research strategies for safety evaluation
of nanomaterials, part VII: evaluating consumer exposure to nanoscale materials. Toxicological Sciences, 91(1), 14-19.
7. Xia, L., Lenaghan, S. C., Zhang, M., Zhang, Z., & Li, Q. (2010). Naturally occurring nanoparticles from English ivy: an
alternative to metal-based nanoparticles for UV protection. Journal of Nanobiotechnology, 8(1), 1-9.
Agricultural production systems are always under the confluence of biotic and abiotic stresses. In the
present scenario, the scope to increase food and agricultural production through area expansion is limited.
Conservation Agriculture been perceived by practitioners as an effective tool for Sustainable Land
Management, as it is based on augmenting yields and profits, to attain a balance of agricultural, economic
and environmental benefits. Thus, in many parts of the world, it is gaining acceptance as a potential
alternative to both conventional agriculture and organic agriculture. The principles on which conservation
agriculture is based on are rebuilding the soil, optimizing crop production inputs, including labour and
boosting profits. Although, it possesses tremendous potential for all sizes of farms and agro-ecological
systems; But, conceivably, smallholder farmers, especially those facing acute labour shortages would be
profited by its adoption unswervingly. This concept combines profitable agricultural production with
environmental concerns and sustainability that successfully works under various Agro-ecological zones and
farming systems. CA is a holistic, resource-conserving and productive approach to agriculture which can
possibly address the challenges to food security. This concept can make the most of available water while
addressing labor shortage, adapting to climate change by enhancing ecological functions, and responding
to demands for sustainable value chains and quality food products. It can satisfy the demand for food
through sustainable land management by reducing tillage and improving soil cover, moisture conservation,
carbon sequestration and microbial life on soil. By means of this distinctive concept, farming communities
turn out to be providers of more healthy living environments for the wider community through reduced use
of fossil fuels, pesticides, and other pollutants, at the same time sustaining environmental integrity and
services.
Furthermore, CA considerably reduces the cost of cultivation by saving in labour, time and farm power and
reduces pollution for environment. Farm litter which is considered harmful, if left as such, can serve as a
good source of crop nutrition, with proper utilization by adopting suitable conservation practices under
organic farming. The concept believes that collective social and economic benefits from both production and
environment protection, including reduced input and labour costs, are greater than those from production
alone.
In the present context of climate change conservation agriculture has its prominence since it improves soil
health through positive soil carbon budget with co-benefits of resource conservation and environmental
safety. In order to ensure benefits, all the three principles of CA are implemented simultaneously to
promise the yield advantage. On long term basis, Conservation Agriculture in organic farming is believed
to sustain and conserve the natural resources and sustaining the livelihood security of resources poor
farmers of mountain region. This concept deserves a serious consideration as it promises to address global
food security challenges through effective management of agro-ecosystems for improved and sustained
productivity, increased profits and food security concurrently preserving the resource base and
environment for the humanity in 21st century.
Introduction
The World Health Organization (WHO) states that in developing nations, there are three million cases of
agrochemical poisoning. The prolonged intensive and indiscriminate use of agrochemicals adversely
affected the soil biodiversity, agricultural sustainability, and food safety, bringing in long-term harmful
effects on nutritional security, human and animal health. Most of the agrochemicals negatively affect soil
microbial functions and biochemical processes.
The alteration in diversity and composition of the beneficial microbial community can be unfavourable to
plant growth and development either by reducing nutrient availability or by increasing disease incidence.
Currently, there is a need for qualitative, innovative, and demand-driven research in soil science, especially
in developing countries for facilitating of high-quality eco-friendly research by creating a conducive and
trustworthy work atmosphere, thereby rewarding productivity and merits.
Soil receives the bulk of complex agrochemical compounds, several of which are poisonous to the activity of
non-target beneficial soil micro-organisms. More than 95% of the applied herbicides and 98% of insecticides
reach non-target soil micro-organisms than their target pest, as they are sprayed proportionately across
the entire field, irrespective of the affected areas.
Hence, of the total quantity of applied pesticides, about 0.1% reaches the target organisms while the
remaining quantity pollutes the soil and environment. This indiscriminate use of pesticides not only
disturbs the soil biodiversity but also adversely affects soil microcosms comprising of soil micro-fauna in
field communities and soil ecosystem. Large quantities of pesticides reaching to the soil have a direct effect
on soil microbiota, which is a biological indicator of soil fertility influencing plant growth and development.
Similarly, several studies have reported the impact of numerous pesticides on subduing soil enzyme
activity(s) which affects the nutrient status of soil and include hydrolyzes, nitrate reductase, urease,
oxidoreductases, nitrogenase, and dehydrogenase activities.
Further, biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) and their associated biotransformation (i.e., ammonification,
nitrification, denitrification, phosphorus solubilization and S-oxidation) are also affected by pesticide
applications. In addition, reduced microbial carbon biomass (MCB) and functional diversities of many non-
target soil microbial populations are affected because of intensive applications of pesticide in contemporary
agriculture.
Elaine Ingham, American microbiologist and founder of Soil Foodweb, stated, “If we lose both bacteria and
fungi, then the soil degrades”. Microorganisms in the soil are exclusively important because they impact
soil structure, functions, and fertility. These organisms are primarily decomposers of organic matter, but
also perform many other functions such as provide nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), etc.,
through fixation and mineralization.
Thereby helping plants grow, detoxify harmful chemicals, suppress disease-causing organisms, and
produce substances that may stimulate plant growth. Soil microbes also mineralize the essential plant
nutrients in the soil to improve crop productivity, produce plant hormones that stimulate plant immune
system, encourage growth, and activate stress responses. For example, Rhizobium converts the
atmospheric elemental N into biology.
Conclusion
The mandate for agriculture development is to feed and provide adequate nutrition and surplus to the
mounting human population without compromising on ecology and environment of the biosphere.
Pesticides and their use are considered as magic bullets in developing nations. Pesticides cause serious
hazards to soil environment and human health because a lot of pesticides and their derivatives remain in
the soil system for a considerable period. Most pesticides negatively affect the biological functionaries of
microbes, their diversity, composition, and biochemical processes. Pesticides cause imbalance of soil
fertility which directly affects crop yield.
Entrepreneurship plays a vital role in the growth of any economy. Development of entrepreneurship culture
and qualitative business development services are the major requirements for industrial growth in India.
The economic development of India is sparking largely by the enterprising spirits of the people of the nation.
The characteristic of enterprising, emerges from the inter play of behaviour and activity of special segment
of the population known as entrepreneurs.
India is moving towards a flourishing entrepreneurial activity to give us the benefits of economic growth,
employment, new products, services etc. The small savings of rural areas are contributed more in
establishing the small and micro enterprises in India. In the light demise of rural artisanship,
entrepreneurship has gained more focus as an empowerment too and in this process role of women cannot
be ignored.
The women are blessed with innate power that can make them as successful entrepreneurs. Women
entrepreneurship is inherent and also natural process. 48 percent of the total population is women in India
while their share in participation in the economic activities is only 34 percent. Women entrepreneurship
has been recognized during the last decade as an untapped source of economic growth. Apart from creating
jobs for themselves and others by being different women entrepreneurs also provide the society with the
different solutions to management, organization and business problems as well as to the exploitation of
entrepreneurial opportunities.
The topic of women in entrepreneurship has not gain its importance both in society in general and in the
social sciences. In the wake of this rapid entrepreneurial development, women entrepreneurship is gaining
importance in developing economies like India but with social and stereotypical roles women are expected
to play their entrepreneurial journey is full of hurdles.
Bibliography
1. Goyal, Meenu and Parkash, Jai. (2011). Women Entrepreneurship in India-Problems and Prospects.International Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research Vol.1 No.5, 132-137.
2. Jalbert, Susanne E. (2008) Women Entrepreneurs in the Global Economy, education research.
http://research.brown.edu/pdf/1100924770.pdf.
3. Khokhar, A. S., & Singh, B. (2016). Status of women entrepreneurship in india. Aian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies.
4. OECD. (2004). Women entrepreneurship: Issues and policies. Istanbul, Turkey conference.
5. Patricia R Todd R.G.J.(2007).Internationalization of SMEs in India Fostering entrepreneurship by leveraging information
technology. International Journal of Emerging Markets. 2 (2).,166-180.
6. Singh, Surinder Pal. (2008). An Insight Into The Emergence Of Women-owned Businesses As An Economic Force In India,
presented at Special Conference of the Strategic Management Society, December 12-14, 2008, Indian School of Business,
Hyderabad.
7. Shou, A., & Nigam, A. (2018).Status of women entrepreneurs in India: the current scenario and government’s role in improving
it. International Research Journal of Management and Commerce. 5(3):402-419
8. Vinay, D., & Singh, D. (2015). Status and Scope of Women Entrepreneurship. Universal Journal of Management, 43-51.
Government of India with a vision to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge
economy and launched a major programme called “The Digital India programme” on 2nd July 2015 by
prime minister Narendra Modi .The focus is on being transformative i.e. to realize IT + IT = IT. The motive
is to transform the entire ecosystem of public services through the use of Information technology (IT). The
focus is on making technology central to enable change.
The Government of India aims to achieve growth on multiple fronts with the Digital India Programme
more specifically, the government aims to target nine Pillars of the Digital India' that they identify as
being:
1. Broadband Highways.
2. Universal access to phones.
3. Public internet access Programme: under this programme the post offices become multi service centers.
4. e-Governance reforming government through technology.
5. e-kranti electronic delivery of services.
6. Information for all.
7. Electronic manufacturing target net zero import.
8. IT for jobs (ix)Early harvest programmes.
Use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and data ecosystems to support the process of
development and delivery of timely, localized information and services to make farming profitable and
sustainable enterprise as digital agriculture. ICT as a tool in agriculture has the potential to change the
face of Indian agriculture in terms of crop productivity and profitability.
Government has, among others, initiated several measures viz.
1. e-Governance portals viz. farmer portal, kisan call centre and mkisan portal to benefit farmers to get
right information’s for efficient farming under varying agro-climatic conditions
2. Soil health card software has been standardized e-Governance program, to provide integrated nutrient
management recommendations using soil test crop response method.
3. Information on weather; soil health; seeds, nutrients, pests; irrigation; crops, good agricultural practices,
farm machinery; marketing infrastructure; farm commodity prices, arrivals, procurement points; electronic
certification for export & import; drought relief & management; livestock, fisheries management; training;
monitoring implementation and evaluation of schemes are being provided to farmers through multiple
channels including Common Service Centres, Internet Kiosks and SMSs Under National e-Governance
Plan in Agriculture.
4. eNAM: National Agriculture Market is an electronic trading portal which links all the existing APMC
markets to create unified national market for different agricultural commodities.
Food security was the prime focus of the country during the past planned development era. Farmers have
adopted Various Green Revolution technology through which India achieved a commendable position in
food production, but overtime farming itself turned non-profitable due to rising costs and uneconomical
holdings.
The strategy didn’t actually recognize the need to increase farmers income results in farmers’ distress
across the country over time has shocked the entire agrarian foundations. Unless farmers’ income increases
substantially, distress cannot be tackled (Chand, 2016). The Hon’ble Prime Minister of India in an address
to farmers in District Sheopur in Madhya Pradesh exhorted to double the incomes of farmers by 2022.
Subsequently, the announcement was formalized in the Union Budget 2016-17 stating that an important
objective of the Government is to double the income of farmers by the year 2022.
Ever since the announcement was made, several scholars expressed their views in support of the
possibilities of achieving double farmers income while some notable scholars expressed their reservations
too.
Azospirillum was isolated by Beijerinck (1922) in Brazil from the roots of Paspalum and named it as
Azotobacter paspali and later named as Spirillum lipoferum. Dobereiner and Day (1976) reported the
nitrogen fixing potential of some forage grasses due to the activity of S. lipoferum in their roots. Dobereiner
coined the term "Associative symbiosis" to denote the occurrence of N2 fixing spirillum in plants. Taxonomy
was re-examined and Tarrand et al. (1978) designated this organism as Azospirillum.
It is an aerobic or micro aerophilic, motile, gram negative bacterium. Non spore former and spiral shaped
bacterium, inhabiting the plant roots both externally and internally. Being a micro aerophilic organism, it
can be isolated on a semi solid malate medium by enrichment procedures.
Classification
Species: (7). Family – Spirillaceae
1. A. brasilense
2. A. lipoferum
3. A. amazonense
4. A. halopraeferens
5. A. irkense
6. A. dobereinerae
7. A. largimobilis
Morphology
1. Cell size Curved rods, 1 mm dia, size and shape vary
2. Accumulate PHB
3. Gram reaction Negative
4. Development of white pellicles 2-4 mm below the surface of NFB medium
Physiology
1. Nature Chemoheterotrophic, associative
2. Sole carbon source Organic acids, L-arabinose, D-gluconate, D-fructose, D-glucose, Sucrose,
Pectin
3. N source N2 through fixation, amino acids, N2, NH4+, NO3
Mechanism of Action
1. Contribution by BNF
2. Production of PGP substances by bacteria:
a. Increases root hair development, biomass.
3. Production of PGP substances by plant:
a. Morphological changes in root cells.
b. Increased activity of IAA oxidase
c. Increase in endogenous IAA
d. Increased mineral and water uptake, root development, vegetative growth and crop yield.
4. Competition in the rhizosphere with another harmful microorganism.
5. Polyamines and amino acids production.
6. Increased extrusion of protons and organic acids in plants.
Benefits
1. Promotes plant growth.
2. Increased mineral and water uptake, root development, vegetative growth and crop yield.
3. Inoculation reduced the use of chemical fertilizers (20-50%, 20-40 kg N/ha)
4. Increases cost benefit ratio.
5. Reduces pathogen damage.
6. Inhibit germination of parasitic weeds.
7. Restoration of arid zone, margine mangrove ecosystem.
8. Reduces humic acid toxicity in compost. - Recommended for rice, millets, maize, wheat, sorghum,
sugarcane and co-inoculant for legumes.
References
1. Naveen Kumar, Arora (2014). Plant Microbes Symbiosis: Applied Facets. Springer. ISBN 978-81-322-2068-8.
2. "Azospirillum". www.uniprot.org.
Summary of Article
Conventional breeding takes minimum 8 – 10 years of breeding cycles to develop a new variety. The biggest
problem of conventional breeding to achieve high yielding and more vigorous crop is it require more
generation to develop. Speed Breeding is a next generation advance technology where plants can be grown
in an artificial environment with enhanced light duration to create longer daylight condition to speed up
the breeding cycles of photo-insensitive crop. So, let’s have some basic knowledge about it.
Introduction
Generally, conventional breeding takes minimum 8 – 10 years of breeding cycles to develop a new variety.
Speed Breeding is a next generation advance technology where plants can be grown in an artificial
environment with enhanced light duration to create longer daylight condition to speed up the breeding
cycles of photo-insensitive crop.
The speed breeding experiments in wheat revealed that the quality and yield of the plants grown under
controlled climate with extended daylight were the same as those of crops grown in regular glass house
conditions (kumar et al., 2018).
Speed breeding or Shuttle breeding is inspired from extra-terrestrial experiments by NASA (USA), to grow
crop seeds in space, using an enclosed chamber and an extended photoperiod inspired the scientist in the
University of Queensland and University of Sydney in Australia to develop a speed breeding platform.
(Kumar et al., 2018). The key scientist involved in the development of speed breeding and protocol was Dr.
Lee Hicky, Brande Wuff, Amy watson and Sreya Ghosh. (Watson & Ghosh., 2018).
Limitations
1. Short day plants require the photoperiod to be less than the critical day length to flower, so speed
breeding is an odd one in case short day plants
2. The Speed Breeding procedures take place in an artificial environment. This is acceptable for many
activities, such as crossing, SSD and screening for some simple traits but selection for adaptation in the
target environment couldn’t be carried out.
3. The initial investment to build a glasshouse or purchase a growth chamber with appropriate
supplementary lighting and temperature control capabilities is high.
4. Ability to shorten generation time further through early harvest of immature seed can interfere with the
phenotyping of some seed traits.
5. Technologies, determining the optimal way to integrate Speed Breeding into a crop improvement
program needs careful consideration and may require significant redesign or restructure to the overall
program (Watson & Ghosh et al., 2018).
Shuttle Breeding
In early 20th century there was no such innovative technology was invented to increase the generation
advancement. Dr. Norman E. Borlaug, father of green revolution, who hardly worked to feed the emerging
population founded the new method called shuttle breeding in CIMMYT, Mexico, 1968. Shuttle breeding
denotes the growing of breeding population at two or more locations in alternate manner. i.e., they shuttle
between the two or more contrasting locations involving in regard to latitude, altitude and rainfall has
proven a most efficient way to introduce and select genes for photoperiod insensitivity (Kumar et al., 2011).
Shuttle breeding combines the features of pedigree and bulk methods and simply it is similar to modified
pedigree-bulk method. First shuttle breeding has been implemented by Dr. N. E. Borlaug in wheat crop at
Mexico of two different locations viz., Cd. Obregon and Toluca city.
Conclusion
Both speed breeding and shuttle breeding is a very powerful tool to accelerate the crop research and
breeding programmes. The study has clearly shown that generation time can be reduced substantially
within a speed breeding/SSD system, and hence new varieties could be developed up to two years quicker
compared to using conventional field-based pedigree breeding strategies.
The study has demonstrated that speed breeding technologies previously developed for wheat and barley
can be successfully transferred to the cultivated peanut and other crops, offers breeders a new tool to
develop improved cultivars more quickly. To meet the ongoing demand in food production and to feed a
global population of 9–10 billion by 2050, speed breeding is considered as the most innovative way of
approach, followed by shuttle breeding.
Future Thrust
To respond faster to the changing climate, evolving pathogens a breakthrough technology in genetics and
plant breeding programme should be needed and speed breeding will definitely full fill that in future.
Shuttle breeding paves the way for screening of any diseases newly emerged across the countries like Ug99.
NASA is looking at ways to provide astronauts with nutrients in a long-lasting, easily absorbed form freshly
grown fresh fruits and vegetables through speed breeding technology. As it increases the breeding
generation per year, a greater number of researches will be carried out and documented. A key question to
answer is the relationship between microgravity and plant lignin content. Lignins in plants have functions
whose closest analogy is that of bones in humans.
They give structure and rigidity to plants and the means to stand upright against gravity. We already know
that space causes bone and muscle loss in humans because the physical demands are lower in space. So
what about lignins? NASA’s idea of growing plants in space do validate most of the theories and will become
the reason for the evolution of more new theories.
Introduction
Many countries in the world are facing malnutrition by means of protein deficiency in human and animal
food. Hence, biologists have directed their attention to the use of microbial proteins in animal and human
diet.
Biomass production has played a significant role in our attempts to make good protein component of world
food shortages. It is vital to produce protein in large quantities in all available methods. Single Cell Protein
(SCP) refers to sources of mixed protein extracted from pure or mixed cultures of algae, yeasts, fungi or
bacteria that are grown from agricultural wastes.
The microbial biomass contains about 45 to 55 % protein on an average. In some bacteria, the protein
content is as high as 80%. Along with protein, the biomass also contains other essential nutrients so that
it is an ideal supplement to conventional food supply.
Production Process
SCPs are produced, when the waste materials including wood, straw, cannery and food processing wastes,
hydrocarbons, residues from alcohol production, human and animal excreta are subjected to fermentation
by microbes.
SCPs are found in very low concentrations and thus extracting SCPs from the waste remains a challenge.
Precipitation, centrifugation, floatation, coagulation and the use of semi-permeable membrane are the
alternate ways developed by the engineers to increase the SCP yield (Vrati, 1983).
Types of Fermentation
Microbial cells are produced:
1. As a source of protein for animal or human food.
2. For use as a commercial inoculum in fermentation of food, agriculture products and in waste water
treatment.
SCPs are produced generally by two types of fermentations:
1. Submerged fermentation.
2. Semisolid state fermentation.
Submerged fermentation is the one, where the substrate to be fermented is necessarily placed always in a
liquid that containing nutrients needed for the growth. The substrate is held in fermentor that is operated
continuously and simultaneously biomass product is continuously harvested.
The obtained product is further filtered/centrifuged and dried. This process has higher operating cost. In
semisolid fermentation, the substrate preparation is a simple solid waste (Ex. Cassava waste).
The basic steps involved in SCP production are:
1. Production of suitable medium containing proper carbon source.
2. Prevention of contamination of medium and fermenter.
3. Production of appropriate microorganism.
4. Separation of microbial biomass and processing.
The process of SCP production involves some engineering operations likely stirring, mixing of multiphase
system, heat transfer from liquid phase to surroundings and transport of oxygen (Fig.1).
Advantages of SCP
As compared with traditional methods of producing proteins for feed or human foods, large scale production
of the microbial biomass includes the following advantages:
1. Microorganisms have high rate of multiplication.
2. Microbes possess high protein content.
3. They can utilize large number of carbon sources.
4. Strains with high yield and good composition are produced easily.
5. Microbial biomass does not depend on seasonal and climatic variation.
References
1. Vrati, S. (1983). "Single cell protein production by photosynthetic bacteria grown on the clarified effluents of biogas plant".
Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 19(3): 199-202.
2. Anupama and Ravindra, P. (2000). Value-added food: single cell protein. Biotechnology Advances, 18: 459-479.
Microorganisms Involved
Many microorganisms can solubilize inorganic phosphates, which are largely unavailable to plants.
Microbial involvement in solubilization of inorganic phosphate was first shown by Stalstron (1903) and
Sacket et al.
(1908) gave conclusive evidence for bacterial solubilization of RP, bonemeal and TCP. Various bacteria and
fungi reported to solubilize different types of insoluble phosphates. Not only solubilizes but also mineralize
organic P compounds and release orthophosphates.
In general, PSM constitute 0.5 – 1.0% of soil microbial population with bacteria and out numbers the fungi
by 2 – 150 folds. But bacteria may lose the P solubilizing ability while sub culturing and fungi do not lose.
Among bacteria, aerobic spore forming bacteria are more effective P solubilizers.
Mycorrhizae
Mycorrhiza (fungus root) is the mutualistic association between plant roots and fungal mycelia. Frank
(1885) gave the name "mycorrhiza" to the peculiar association between tree roots and ectomycorrhizal
fungi. 95% of the plant species form mycorrhizae. It can act as a critical linkage between plant roots and
soil. This association is characterized by the movement of plant produced carbon to fungus and fungal
acquired nutrients to plants. Mycorrhizal fungi are the key components of the rhizosphere are considered
to have important roles in natural and managed ecosystems.
Types of Mycorrhiza
Mycorrhizal associations vary widely in structure and function. Two main groups of mycorrhizae are
recognized; the ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae, although the rare group with intermediate
properties, the ectendotrophic mycorrhizae.
Colonization Process
Roots do not show visual morphological changes due to AM colonization. AM fungal infection into a host
occurs by germination of spore, hyphal growth through soil to host roots, penetration of host roots and
spread of infection inter and intracellularly in the root cortex.
Colonization occurs under two phases:
1. Extra metrical phase
2. Intra radical phase.
Arbuscules
Arbuscules are the first formed structures after the hyphal entry into the cortical cells. Arbuscules are the
fine dichotomously branched hyphal filaments look like little trees. Arbuscules start to form approximately
2 days after penetration. They are considered as the major site of exchange between the fungus and host
root. They are short lived (4-13 days) and degenerate.
Mechanism of Action
The beneficial effect on plant growth and yields following inoculation with VAM is attributed to
1. Improved mineral nutrition, especially P (P, Zn, Cu, K, S, NH4).
2. Mobilization of nutrients through greater soil exploration.
3. Protection of host roots against pathogen infection.
4. Improved water relation
5. Better tolerance to stress like salinity, heavy metal pollution
6. Protection against transplantation shock.
Gadchiroli (MS)-442603.
Introduction
India ranks first in livestock population in world. Generally, cow and buffaloes breed specially use for dairy
purpose. Mastitis is considered as one of the costliest diseases affecting dairy cows. Mastitis is a complex
disease that occurs in clinical and subclinical forms in Buffaloes and Cows.
The mastitis is characterized by biochemical changes in composition of milk. These compositional changes
reflecting the degree of physical damage are well marked and can be used as a basic indicator for diagnosis
of subclinical mastitis. These changes not only alter the nutritional quality of milk but also preservation
quality.
Mastitis is characterized by physical, chemical and bacteriological changes in the milk and pathological
changes in the glandular tissue of the udder and affects the quality and quantity of milk. The bacterial
contamination of milk from the affected cows render it unfit for human consumption and provides a
mechanism of spread of diseases like tuberculosis, sore-throat, fever, brucellosis, leptospirosis etc. and has
zoonotic importance. (Sharma 2011). Many studies conducted previously to estimate the economic loss due
to mastitis in India were based on the data collected from organize dairy farms.
Conclusions
1. The prevalence of subclinical mastitis in Lakhani tahsil was 33 per cent by Modified California Mastitis
Test (MCMT) and 38 per cent by Draminski Mastitis Detector (DMD) in crossbred cows.
2. The subclinical mastitis can be well detected by Modified California Mastitis Test (MCMT) and
Draminski Mastitis Detector (DMD). But the Draminski Mastitis Detector was 5 per cent more efficient
and easier to test subclinical mastitis milk.
3. The pH in subclinical mastitis milk increased whereas fat, solids not fat, and total solids gets decreased
significantly which hampered the milk quality.
References
1. Antre G. R. (2011). Prevalence of subclinical mastitis in cows in Karanjatahsil of Wardha district. M.Sc. (Agri) Thesis (unpub).
Submitted to Dr. P.D.K.V, Akola,
2. Ali M. A, Ahmad M. D, muhamadand AK, Anjum A. (2011) Prevalance of subclinicalmastitis in dairy buffaloes of Punjab.
Pakistan J. Anim. Plant Sci.; 21(3):477480.
3. Anonymous. (1981). Handbook of food analysis in SP: 18, part XI. Bureau of Indian Standards, Manak Bhavan, New Delhi,
4. Anonymous. (1958). Determination of whole milk by Gerber method.IS 1224. Bureau of Indian Standards, Manak Bhavan,
New Delhi,
5. Boechat J. U. D, Favarin V. (1992). Chemical and physical changes in goat milk as influenced by subclinical mastitis. J.
Aurquivosda Universidad federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, 15:93-103.
6. Mohamed I. E, Osman A. O, Elowni A. O, Galaledein Mohamed E. (1998). Factors affecting composition of mastitis milk of
Friesian cattle in Sudan, 7. Rao KSR. Milk Formation Alteration in mastitis milk composition. Indian Dairyman. 1990;
42(7):314-316.
7. Schalm, Noorlandure. (1957). Experiments and observation leading to development of the California Mastitis Test. J. Anim.
Res.; 130:199-207.
8. Sharma N, Singh NK, Bhadwal MS. (2011). Relationship of somatic cell count and mastitis. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci.;
24(3):429-438.
9. Snedecor G. W, Cochran W. G. (1994). Statistical methods. 6th Ed. Oxford and IBH publishing Co., New Delhi.
10. Sonea C, Colceri D, Bacila V. , (2009). Research on sublinical mastitis effect on milk quality. Zootehnie Biotechnology;
42(2):337-340.
11. Sudhan N. A, Singh R, Singh M, SSoodan J. (2005). Studies on prevalence, etiology and diagnosis of subclinical mastitis among
crossbred cows. Indian J. of Anim. Research.; 39:127-130.
12. Supriya Saxena V, lather D. (2010). Prevalence of subclinical mastitis in an organized cow herd, Haryana.; 49:6465.
Fertilizer is one of the significant supporters of expanded harvest creation. As of late, concern has been
communicated that over-dependence on mineral composts may cause unreasonable ecological punishments
like eutrophication of surface water, nitrate (NO3-) contamination of groundwater, Heavy metal pollution
of soil, atmospheric pollution because of emission of nitrous oxide and ammonia, acid rain, etc. Despite the
fact that there are rates of these issues in a few pieces of the world, not many of such issues in India can
be connected to compost use.
Major environmental consequences related to fertilizer use.
Eutrophication
Another major problem associated with excess fertilizer use is the eutrophication of surface water causing
several diseases. Arable soils leak considerable amounts of nitrate, phosphate, potassium and other
nutrients mainly through run-off and erosion, which enrich the water body in terms of nutrients leading to
luxurious growth of algae and other organisms and resultant eutrophication problems in ponds
Ammonia Volatilization
Volatilization of NH3 is not only a major loss of N but also a cause of environmental pollution. From the
atmosphere NH3, is washed out by clouds and redeposit' on the terrestrial ecosystem in the atmosphere it
is oxidized to N2O, which acts as a greenhouse gas and is responsible for the destruction of ozone layer.
It also forms salts with acidic gases and these salt particles can be transported long distances especially in
the absence of clouds. The deposition close to the source is substantial, but hard to estimate due to
interaction with other pollutants. In northern Europe, it has been estimated that 94% of the NH3, released
from agricultural sources is redeposited into surrounding ecosystems.
Acid Rain
The effect of acid rain on ecosystems is gradually being documented, particularly in temperate region
Nitrogenous fertilizers contribute substantially towards emissions of ammonia, one of the agents causing
acid rain.
A high atmospheric concentration of ammonia can result in acidification of land and water surfaces, cause
plant damage and reduce plant bio-diversity in natural systems. Excess of ammonia deposited causes
eutrophication effect of N. Deposition of NH3 contributes to acidification of soils if nitrified.
Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are atmospheric compounds that store energy, thus influencing the climate.
Each of the GHGs has a different global warming potential that takes into account the effectiveness of each
gas in trapping heat radiation and its longevity in the atmosphere.
Methane (CH4)
Methane is a GHG. Within agriculture, CH4 is emitted mostly by ruminant digestive process and from
livestock wastes. Rice paddy fields are also a major source of CH 4 that is formed by the anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter. The addition of readily decomposable organic matter significantly
increases CH4 emissions. The impact of mineral fertilizers on CH4 emissions is not clear, but seems minor.
Introduction
Agriculture is one of the most vital sectors for India’s socio-economic stability where more than 70 per cent
Indian population depend directly or indirectly for employment than on any other sector. It holds a key in
reducing Indian’s malnutrition issue and has the potential to spur India’s overall gross domestic product
growth. 4 per cent of agricultural growth would add at least a per centage point to GDP which can boost
exports and improve India’s trade deficit.
In addition, economic transformation in developing countries is propelled by increases in agricultural
incomes underpinning industrial growth. However, in the present scenario of terrorism, religious violence
and economic competition, the risk of malicious attempt to sabotage agriculture is increasing.
Agroterrorism is a deliberate or intentional introduction of a disease/pest agent either against livestock or
plants with an aim to generate fear, create serious economic insecurity and undermine social stability.
Agroterrorism which is the subset of bioterrorism not only affects the animals, plants or plant food chain
but it has also psychological impact on the public’s trust on government to provide satisfactory quality
control over the foodstuffs. And ultimately it could cause the trade embargo of agricultural products with
the rest of the world.
Countries like India, where economy is largely dependent on agriculture, such attacks that too on major
crops, for instance one of the recent examples of outbreak of cotton leaf curl disease in Northwest India can
lead to potential threat to economic security, leading to disruption that could have catastrophic
consequences.
Conclusion
Agroterrorism is a high-impact worrisome event because even though the disease outbreak is limited, costs
of a disease outbreak can be great. Such an attack could undermine physiological, political, social and
economic importance of a country.
References
1. Abrol, S. (2016). Countering Bioterrorism Threat to India: Employing Global Best Practices and Technology as Force
Multiplier. India Quarterly 72(2): 1-7 DOI: 10.1177/0974928416637934.
2. Becker, S. (2003). Presentation to the Committee on Biological Threats to Agricultural Plants and Animals, National Academy.
3. Crutchley, T.M., Rodgers, J.B., Whiteside, H.P., Vanier, M. and Terndrup, T.E. (2007). Agroterrorism: Where Are we in the
Ongoing war on Terrorism? Journal of Food Protection 70(3): 791-804.
4. Cupp, O.S., David, E., Walker and Hillison, J. (2004). Agroterrorism in the U.S. Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense
Strategy, Practice and Science 2(2).
5. Datta, S. and Dwivedi, S. (2020). Agroterrorism in Indian Context. Journal of Defence Life Science 5 (2): 125-132
http://doi.org/10.14429/dlsj.5.15568.
6. Foxell, J.W. (2001). Current Trends in Agroterrorism and their Potential Impact on Food Security, Studies in Confict and
Terrorism 24 (2): 107-129 DOI: 10.1080/10576100151101623.
7. Gopal, S. and Pollack, J. (2000). Discussion of biology and agriculture terrorist threats. In Science and technology to counter
terrorism: Proceedings of an Indo-U.S. workshop, Washington, DC: The National Academics Press.
8. Gregre, M. (2007). The long haul: risks associated with livestock transport. Biosecurity and Bioterrorism 5(4): 301-311.
9. Harris, S.H. (2002). Factors of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare and the American cover-up. London: Routedge pp. 1932-
45.
10. Keremidis, H., Appel, B., Menrath, A., Tomuzia, K., Normark, M., Roffey, R. and Knutsson, R. (2013). Historical Perspective
on Agroterrorism: Lessons Learned From 1945 to 2012. Biosecurity and Bioterrorism 11 DOI: 10.1089/bsp.2012.0080.
11. Kohnen, A. (2000). Responding to the threat of agroterrorism: Specific recommendation for the United States Department of
Agriculture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
12. Koblentz, G.D. (2009). Living weapons: Biological Warfare and International Security, Itheca: Cornell University Press.
13. Yeh, J.Y., Seo, H.J. and Park, J.Y. (2012). Livestock agroterrorism: the deliberate introduction of a highly infectious animal
pathogens. Foodborne Pathogens and Diseases 9 (10): 869-877.
Introduction
Organic dairy farming signifies rearing dairy animals on organic feed (i.e. pastures developed with no
composts or pesticides), have access to pasture or outside, along with the limited utilization anti-toxins and
hormones. Products obtained from organic dairy farm are the organic dairy products. Organic farming is a
system of production, a set of goal-based regulations that permit farmers to deal with their own particular
situations individually, while maintaining organic integrity (Oruganti, 2011).
In this system livestock must be fed with organic feed except under very unusual situations like national,
state or local weather emergency or a fire or flood on an organic farm. Among the allowed materials are:
feeds produced through organic production practices, natural vitamin and mineral supplements, and fresh
water from non-contaminated sources.
In organic dairy farms breeding targets should not be at discrepancy with the animal’s natural behaviour
and should be directed towards good health. The organic approach to animal health care focuses on
prevention of disease through diet, shelter, breeding and husbandry practices, rather than treatment
(Harisha et al., 2014).
At the moment, India is the largest producer of milk in world supported by a surprising growth rate in
dairy sector. Dairy farming has the potential for providing added income to the farmers together with
achieving major goal of organic farming i.e. diversified production and sustaining biological cycle within
farming method (Maji et al., 2017).
Changing to organic dairy production requires commitment and awareness of what’s involved. Becoming
organic can lower cost of production for grassroot people (smallholder dairy farmers) while at the same
time raise their profits. However financial returns shall depend greatly on the demand generated. Due to
rich heritage of dairy farming traditions suitable for organic production systems with good returns, India
is in a unique position to utilize this opportunity.
However, for this purpose, several policy issues require immediate attention. Creating awareness among
farmers and their training through dairy field functionaries, capacity building through participatory
research network and incentives for interested farmers (like subsidized inputs and supply of market
information) shall be the priorities. Therefore, the following study was conducted to judge awareness of
dairy farmers about organic milk production and their concerns about transition to organic dairy farming.
Opportunities
Native breeds of livestock, which predominate in tropical countries, are less susceptible to stress and
disease, and so the need for allopathic medicines and antibiotics is much lower. Grass-based, extensive
production systems and forest-based, animal production systems that are prevalent in many areas of these
countries have considerable potential for conversion into organic animal husbandry.
Literacy is on the rise and the media are making consumers more aware of and concerned about animal
welfare issues and healthy foods. This may well boost the domestic consumption of organic foods (Hamadani
and Khan, 2015).
Conclusion
Organic dairy farming offers numerous opportunities for a developing country like India to increase the
income of farmers and earn valuable foreign exchange through quality organic products. India has some
excellent breeds of indigenous cattle and buffaloes possessing natural resistance against many diseases.
These breeds are well adapted to Indian climate and food availability situations. Most of the dairy
husbandry practices are traditional with a close resemblance to prescribed organic practices.
References
1. Annon, (2014). Health benefits of organic milk. Organic Facts, Organic Information Services Pvt. Ltd. Karnataka, India.
http://www.organicfacts.net/organic-animal-products/organic-milk/health-benefitsof-organic-milk.html
2. Benbrook C. M., Butler G., Latif M. A., Leifert C. and Davis D. R. (2013). Organic Production Enhances Milk Nutritional
Quality by Shifting Fatty Acid Composition: A United States–Wide, 18-Month Study. PLOS One 8(12): e82429.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0082429.
3. Hamadani H. and Khan A. A. (2015). Organic Dairy Farming – An Overview. J of Livestock Sci. 6:4-9.
4. Harisha M., Desaia A. R., Savanaurb M., Satyanarayan K. and Jagadeeswary V. (2014) Organic Dairy Farming for Sustainable
Livestock Production. Trends in Veterinary and Animal Sciences, 1: 5-8.
Guava is commonly called a poor man’s apple in the tropics and known for its delicious, pleasant aroma
and outstanding nutritional values throughout the world. Due to various constraints, guava production is
severely affected. Among all the known factors, insect pests are of prime importance.
The guava is subjected to attack by several kinds of pests and about 80 species of insects have been recorded
on guava, but only a few of them have been recognized as a pest of regular occurrence and causing
significant damage. Among insect pest, the fruit fly is the major limiting factor in obtaining a good quality
of fruits to cause considerable losses.
Fruit fly, Bactrocera correcta are one of the most diversified and noxious pests on a wide range of tropical
and sub-tropical fruits and vegetables. Bactrocera correcta is a species of tephritid fruit flies that is widely
distributed in Southeast Asia. It is a serious pest species with a broad host range. Crop loss varies from a
few per cent to 100 per cent depending on fruit fly population, locality, variety and season (Kumar et al.,
2011). The female fruit fly punctures the fruits by its ovipositor and lays six or more banana shaped eggs
into healthy, ripening fruits just beneath the skin.
Management
Fruit flies are very difficult to manage because they are polyphagous, multivoltine, high fecundity and
adults are high mobility. Only adults are exposed while eggs and maggots remain protected in the host
tissue. Sanitation, summer ploughing to expose pupa, poison food trap, bagging of fruits, use of hydrolysed
protein, pheromone trap, spraying of botanicals and chemical insecticides are the management of practices
for fruit fly.
Bagging or wrapping the fruits has been found more practicable in guava (Mitra et al., 2008). Bagging is a
superior option of fruit fly management over conventional practice of pesticide spray for its efficacy and
zero pesticide residues in the fruit. The use of pheromone trap (methyl eugenol) @ 25/ha stands as the most
outstanding alternative among the various alternate strategies available for the management of fruit flies.
Methyl eugenol, when used together with an insecticide impregnated into a suitable substrate, forms the
basis of male annihilation technique (MAT). Use chemical insecticides such as malathion 50 EC @ 2 ml/lit
or dimethoate 30 EC @ 1ml/lit, two rounds at fortnight interval before ripening of fruits. Field releasing of
parasitoids such as Opius compensates, Spalangia philippinensis, parasitoid wasp, Diachasmimorpha
kraussi.
References
1. Kumar, P., Abubakar, Linda, A., Ketelaar, J.W. and Shanmugam, V. (2011). Fruit fly damage and crop losses. In: Field
Exercise Guide on Fruit Flies Integrated Pest Management, Asian Fruit Fly IPM Project, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 17.
2. Mitra, S.K., Gurung, M.R. and Pathak, P.K. (2008). Sustainable guava production in West Bengal, India. Acta Horticulturae,
773:179-182.
Nutrition is a central issue in biology at a variety of levels – much of organismal and evolutionary biology
is concerned with how organisms extract nutrients from their environment, allocate nutrients to different
goals, or avoid becoming food for other organisms, ecologists study how elements move through the
landscape and food webs, and metabolism is a central process for cellular biology.
The term ‘puddling’ stems from the mud-puddling which is one of the most conspicuous behaviour seen in
insects like butterflies. Butterflies and moths regularly congregate around mud, dung and even blood,
tears or decaying flesh. As this behaviour very little known, but there are a couple of interesting
observations that may help explain the icky phenomenon.
Although this behaviour is known from temperate-zone as well as tropical habitats, it is far more common
in tropical regions. Butterflies get most of their nutrition from flower nectar. Though rich in sugar and
nectar but lacks some important nutrients that need for reproduction. For those, butterflies visit puddles.
By sipping moisture from mud puddles, butterflies take salts and minerals from the soil. This behaviour is
called puddling, and is mostly seen in male butterflies. That's because males incorporate those extra salts
and minerals into their sperm.
When butterflies mate, the nutrients are transferred to the female through the spermatophore. These extra
salts and minerals improve the viability of the female's eggs, increasing the couple's chances of passing on
their genes to another generation. In fact, it is believed that butterflies congregate on mud and other such
substances primarily for salts. The salts and amino acids absorbed during mud-puddling play various roles
in butterfly ecology, ethology and physiology. Males seem to benefit more from the sodium uptake as it aids
in reproductive success, with the precious nutrients often transferred to the female during mating. This
extra nutrition helps ensure that the eggs survive.
Mudpuddling by butterflies catches our attention because they often form large aggregations, with dozens
of brilliantly coloured butterflies gathered in one location. Puddling aggregations occur frequently among
swallowtails and pierids. A slightly strange experiment can be performed to test the 'salt theory' (it's best
performed when no one else is around). Firstly, find a sandy bank or a muddy patch situated in direct
sunlight where there are plenty of butterflies.
Next, pour a salt mixture over a wet, but butterfly-free, patch (in the less civilised version of this experiment
you can replace salt with urine – butterflies are attracted to the sodium and ammonium ions). You can
return to the spot later and observe the butterflies on your newly created “mud-puddling” spot.
References
1. Adler P (1982) Soil- and puddle-visiting habits of moths. J LepidSoc 36:161-173.
2. Ba¨nziger H (2007) Skin-piercing blood-sucking moths VI: Fruit-piercing habits in Calyptra (Noctuidae) and notes on the
feeding strategies of zoophilous and frugivorous adult Lepidoptera. Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Entomologischen
Gesellschaft 80: 271–288.
3. Ba¨nziger H, Boongird S, Sukumalanand P &Ba¨nziger S (2009) Bees (Hymenoptera:Apidae) that drink human tears. Journal
of the Kansas Entomological Society 82: 135–150.
4. Kaspari M, Yanoviak SP & Dudley R (2008) On the biogeography of salt limitation: a study of ant communities. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 105: 17848– 17851.
Introduction
Nanotechnology has become one of the fastest growing branches of science that has successfully solved
problems in medicine, industry, pharmacy and agriculture. The preparation, characterization and
applications have drawn the attention of researchers worldwide to contribute with new ideas and come up
with unique new material.
However, the same unique characteristics of engineered nanoparticles including small size, ability to cross
cell membranes, and toxicity to cancer and microbial cells are indeed the same reasons they are categorized
as hazardous pollutants when they finally reach open water systems through excretion into sewers or
mishandling and improper disposal. Examples of such pollutants are metal nanoparticles, printer ink
nanoparticles, and antineoplastic cyclophosphamides. Accumulation of mineral-based plastics, including
microplastics, is becoming a very a serious global problem. Plastics are widely used, they are produced in
millions of tons each year, studies report that only 10% of plastics are recovered and that by 2050, landfills
will be filled with an estimate of 12 billion tons of plastic waste.
The term microplastics refer to plastic particles of size less than 5 mm, they originate from incomplete
degradation of plastics, weathering of plastics in the environment as well as microbeads used for drug
delivery process and cosmetic products. Their danger lies in their runoff to marine environment
compromising aquatic life, and finding their way to algae and mussels, they get incorporated with sea salt
eventually reaching human beings through either the food chain or through direct contact. This in turn
leads to cellular toxicity.
Moreover, microplastics have been identified as carrying vectors for other pollutants in the environment.
Due to their hydrophobic nature, the particles carry chemical pollutants via sorption, and transport them
rendering toxicity assessment more complicated. Currently, the global community considers microplastics
as a marine pollutant of emerging concern. To mitigate the oceanic microplastic pollution, it is necessary
to reduce inputs from inland.
Plastics are highly versatile materials that have brought huge societal benefits. They can be manufactured
at low cost and their lightweight and adaptable nature has a myriad of applications in all aspects of
everyday life, including food packaging, consumer products, medical devices and construction. By 2050,
however, it is anticipated that an extra 33 billion tonnes of plastic will be added to the planet. Given that
most currently used plastic polymers are highly resistant to degradation, this influx of persistent, complex
materials is a risk to human and environmental health.
Continuous daily interaction with plastic items allows oral, dermal and inhalation exposure to chemical
components, leading to the widespread presence in the human body of chemicals associated with plastics.
Indiscriminate disposal places a huge burden on waste management systems, allowing plastic wastes to
infiltrate ecosystems, with the potential to contaminate the food chain.
Of particular concern has been the reported presence of microscopic plastic debris, or microplastics (debris
≤1 mm in size), in aquatic, terrestrial and marine habitats. Yet, the potential for microplastics and
nanoplastics of environmental origin to cause harm to human health remains understudied.
Conclusions
This short account has identified some of the most widely encountered plastics in everyday use and
illustrated some of the attempts that have been made to assess their potential hazards to human health.
Different routes of exposure to human populations, both of plastic additives, micro- and nanoplastics from
food items and from discarded debris are discussed in relation to the existing literature for nanomedicines
and nanocomposite packaging materials, for which an increasing body of knowledge exists.
References
1. Thompson, R. C., Olsen, Y., Mitchell, R. P., Davis, A., Rowland, S. J., John, A. W., ... & Russell, A. E. (2004). Lost at sea: where
is all the plastic?. Science(Washington), 304(5672), 838.
2. Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Halsband, C., & Galloway, T. S. (2011). Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a
review. Marine pollution bulletin, 62(12), 2588-2597.
3. Dubaish, F., & Liebezeit, G. (2013). Suspended microplastics and black carbon particles in the Jade system, southern North
Sea. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 224(2), 1352.
4. Zubris, K. A. V., & Richards, B. K. (2005). Synthetic fibers as an indicator of land application of sludge. Environmental
pollution, 138(2), 201-211.
5. Wright, S. L., Thompson, R. C., & Galloway, T. S. (2013). The physical impacts of microplastics on marine organisms: a review.
Environmental pollution, 178, 483-492.
6. Kim, B. Y., Rutka, J. T., & Chan, W. C. (2010). Nanomedicine. New England Journal of Medicine, 363(25), 2434-2443.
7. EFSA Scientific Committee. (2011). Guidance on the risk assessment of the application of nanoscience and nanotechnologies
in the food and feed chain. EFSA Journal, 9(5), 2140.
8. Lagaron, J. M., & Lopez-Rubio, A. (2011). Nanotechnology for bioplastics: opportunities, challenges and strategies. Trends in
food science & technology, 22(11), 611-617.
9. Garrett, N. L., Lalatsa, A., Uchegbu, I., Schätzlein, A., & Moger, J. (2012). Exploring uptake mechanisms of oral nanomedicines
using multimodal nonlinear optical microscopy. Journal of biophotonics, 5(5‐6), 458-468.
10. Jani, P., Nomura, T., Yamashita, F., Takakura, Y., Hashida, M., & Florence, A. (1996). Biliary excretion of polystyrene
microspheres with covalently linked FITC fluorescence after oral and parenteral administration to male Wistar rats. Journal
of drug targeting, 4(2), 87-93.
Introduction
Jamun, Syzygium cumini is a constituent member of the family of Myrtaceae. Jamun is a popular
indigenous fruit of India. It has got very valuable place in Ayurvedic medicines. It is believed to be a boon
for diabetic patients. But in India, its organised orcharding is still lacking mainly because of lack of proper
information on cultivation practices and non-availability of dwarf and high yielding varieties. In this
booklet all the information on jamun cultivation has been collected and presented in a simple and
interesting form.
It is also known as black plum, Indian black cherry, Ram jamun etc. in different parts of India. The tree is
tall and handsome, evergreen, generally grown for shade and windbreak on roads and avenues. The original
home of jamun is India or the East Indies. It is also found in Thailand, Philippines, Madagascar and some
other countries. The jamun has successfully been introduced into many other subtropical regions including
Florida, California, Algeria, Israel, etc.
In India, the maximum number of jamun trees are found scattered throughout the tropical and subtropical
regions. It also occurs in the lower range of the Himalayas up to an elevation of 1,300 meters and in the
Kumaon hills up to 1,600 meters. It is widely grown in the larger parts of India from the Indo-Gangetic
plains in the North to Tamil Nadu in the South. The data about its total acreage in India are not available.
Soil
The jamun tree can be grown on a wide range of soils. However, for high yield potential and good plant
growth, deep loam and a well-drained soil are needed. Such soils also retain sufficient soil moisture which
Climate
Jarnun prefers to grow under tropical and subtropical climate. It is also found growing in lower ranges of the
Himalayas up to an altitude of 1300 meters. The jamun requires dry weather at the time off towering and fruit
setting. In subtropical areas, early rain is considered to be beneficial for ripening of fruits and proper development
of its size, colour and taste.
Species
The genus Eugenia comprises of 1,000 species of evergreen trees and shrubs, most of them being tropical
in origin. Some of the old-world Eugenia species are now placed in the genus Syzygium. It belongs to the
family Myrtaceae. Many of these species yield edible fruits and some of these are of ornamental and
medicinal value.
A wild species S. frniticosum with small edible fruits is grown as windbreaks. The large evergreen tree has
small dark purple fruits with prominent elongated seeds. The fruit is an astringent (causing contraction of
body tissue) even when ripe. A popular fruit is the rose apple or gulab-jamun (S. jambos). It is found in
South India and West Bengal. The tree is very ornamental. The fruit is yellow in colour, generally insipid
in taste and has high pectin content.
S. zeylanica, small tree with edible fruits, is found on the Western Ghats and S. malaccensis (Malay rose
apple) found in South India. Another related fruit found in South India is Surinam cherry (S. uniflora). It
is a small tree with blight red aromatic fruits. S. javanicum (water apple) is also found in South India and
West Bengal. S.densiflora is used as rootstock in jamun (S. cumini) and is resistant to the attack of
termites.
Varieties
There are no standard varieties of this fruit under cultivation. The common variety grown under North
Indian conditions is "Ram Jamun". It produces big sized, oblong fruits, deep purple or bluish-black in colour
at full ripe stage.
The pulp of the ripe fruit is purple pink and the fruit is juicy and sweet. The stone is small in size. The
variety ripens in the month of June- July and it is very common both in rural as well as in urban. Jambo
type, Kongan Bagaduli and Seedless are popular varieties ruling the major jamun cultivable area.
Propagation
The jamun is propagated both by seed and vegetative methods. Due to existence of polyembryony, it comes
true to parent through seed. Though vegetative methods followed in most cases have attained some success,
seed propagation is still preferred. However, seed propagation is not advisable as it results in late bearing.
The seeds have no dormancy. Fresh seeds can be sown. Germination takes place in about 10 to 15 days.
Seedlings are ready for transplanting for the use as rootstock in the following spring (February to March)
or monsoon i.e. August to September.
Propagation of jamun is economical and convenient. Budding is practiced on one-year old seedling stocks,
having 10 to 14 mm thickness. The best time for budding is July to August in low rainfall areas. In the
areas where rains start easily and are heavy, budding operations are attempted early in May-June. Shield,
patch and forkert methods of budding have proved very successful. The possibility of better success has
been reported in forkert method compared to shield or 'T' budding.
Jamun is also propagated through soft wood and inarching but it is not adopted commercially. In this
method one-year old seedlings raised in pots are inarched with mother jamun trees with the help of wooden
stands during June-July. About 60% air layers are obtained with 500 ppm IBA in lanolin paste, provided
air layering is done in spring and not in the rainy season.
Better rooting through cutting is obtained in Jamun under intermittent mist. Semi-hardwood cuttings of
both S. jambos and S.javanica, 20-25 cm long, taken from the spring flush and planted in July treated with
2000 ppm IBA (Indole Butyric Acid) give better results.
Fertilizer Application
The jamun trees are generally not manured. This is not because they do not require manuring or fail to
respond to it but because they can stand a good deal of neglect. An annual dose of about 19 kg farmyard
manure during the pre-bearing period and 75 kg per tree bearing trees is considered.
Normally, seedling jamun trees start bearing at the age of 8 to 10 years while grafted or budded trees come
into bearing in 6 to 7 years. On very rich soils, the trees have a tendency to put on more vegetative growth
with the result that fruiting is delayed. When the trees show such a tendency, they should not be supplied
with any manure and fertilizer and irrigation should be given sparingly and withheld in September-October
and again in February-March.
This helps in fruit bud formation, blossoming and in fruit setting. Sometimes this may not prove effective
and even more drastic treatments such as ringing and root pruning may have to be resorted to. A fruit
grower has, therefore, to be cautious in manuring and fertilizing jamun trees and hence, has to adjust the
doses according to the growth and fruiting of trees.
Irrigation
In early stages, the jamun tree requires frequent irrigations but af1cr the trees get established, the interval
between irrigations can be greatly decreased. Young trees require 8 to 10 irrigations in a year. The mature
trees require only about half the number, which should be applied during May and June when the fruit is
ripening. During autumn and winter months, just an occasional irrigation may be applied when the soil is
dry. This will also save the trees from the ill effects of frost in winter.
Intercropping
In the initial years of planting, when a lot of interspace is available in the orchard, appropriate intercrop
especially legumes crops and vegetables can be taken dunng rainy season.
Insect Pests
Among the pests, white fly and leaf eating caterpillar cause great damage to the tree.
Other Pests
Besides the above insects, the jamun crop is seriously damaged by pests like squirrels and birds like parrots
and crows. These have to be frightened away by beating the drums or flinging stones.
Introduction
Agathi, Sesbania grandiflora L. is a constituent member of the family of Fabaceae and native to South East
Asia. Mainly used for culinary, fodder, fuel, soil improvement, fibre, gum or resin, Ornamental, boundary
or barrier or support, Health benefits and therapeutic uses. Leaves are very nutritious. 100 gram of leaves
contain protein 8.4 g, fat 1.4 g, carbohydrate 11.8 mg, Vitamin A 15.44 g, Thiamine (Vitamin B1) 0.21 mg,
riboflavin (Vitamin B2) 0.09 mg, niacin 1.2 mg (Vitamin B3), Vitamin C 169 mg, Calcium 1130 mg,
Phosphorus 80 mg and iron 3.9 mg. the flowers are also edible. Because of its Vitamin A rich nature, regular
inclusion in food helps to avoid eye defects like evening blindness.
It is a perennial tall lanky tree which can be grown as a bush also. It is a well-known small, loosely
branching, legume plant of the Tropical Asia including, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar and
Philippines. Leaves, seeds, pods and flowers of S. grandiflora are edible.
Flowers are the most widely used part, and white flowers are preferred to the red. In the Philippines,
unopened white flowers are a common vegetable, steamed or cooked in soups and stews after the stamen
and calyx have been removed. The raw flowers are eaten as salad in Thailand. Young leaves are also eaten,
usually chopped fine and steamed, cooked or fried. Tender pods are eaten like string beans. Agathi leaves
taste bitter, sour, and mildly tart.
Most cooks counteract this bitterness with coconut milk, and some swear by the addition of garlic to combat
the stomach pain arising from consuming too much agathi. The flowers are also bitter and astringent, but
the white is less so than the red.
Varieties
In agathi, no varieties have been identified till now through systematic breeding programme. But based on
the flower colour, agathi can be classified in to four distinct groups, which are as follows:
1. Sita: This group produce white colour flower.
2. Peeta: It is a yellow flowered strain.
3. Neela: This group of plant produce blue colour flower.
4. Lohita: It is a red flowered strain.
Field Preparation
Two to three times deep ploughing, 15 tonnes of FYM incorporated during last plough.
Propagation
It is propagated through seeds. After ten days seeds are started to germinate. It may also be easily
propagated by stem and branch hardwood cuttings. Sesbania species tend to seed prolifically from early
age. It is thought that Sesbania sesban is pollinated by bees, whilst the larger flowers of S. grandiflora are
pollinated by birds.
The seed can be easily harvested and can be grown without problems of dormancy. It is able to produce ripe
pods within nine months of planting. The seeds are collected from the best trees in May and sown for raising
of seedlings in nursery. Scarification may improve uniformity of establishment but is not considered
essential. The viability of seed is about six months and 1 kg seed contain about 16000 seeds.
The seeds are sown during May- June in polythene bags or in nursery beds. The seeds germinate in a week.
The seedlings become ready for transplanting after 30-45 days of sowing. The seedlings are planted in
30cm3 size pits.
Spacing
1m x1m. Usually it is used as a shade crop for chillies, and standard for betelvine.
Establishment of Plantation
Planting pits of adequate dimensions should be dug in advance of planting. For biomass production the
spacing will, be done in proper manner. Where Sesbania is being established along with another crop in
agro forestry or mixed cropping management system, then the planting design will vary with the overall
management objectives.
It is popular as an agro forestry crop with field crops such as cotton, maize and vegetable crops as it provides
green manure and useful shade and wind protection. It is also grown as an alley crop. Generally, it is much
faster to establish compared to other common tree legumes like Leucaena, Gliricidia and Calliandra.
Commonly planted as individual trees or in rows, spaced 1-2m apart along fence lines, field borders and
the bunds of rice fields.
In fertile sites, it will attain a height of 5-6m in nine months. Height increments are greatly reduced in the
second year of growth. It can be planted at high densities (up to 3,000 stems/ha) to produce pole timber, or
sparsely planted to produce dry-season forage and food. The leaf canopy is open and casts only light shade,
making it popular in gardens.
Sesbenia grandiflora cannot be coppiced or pollarded. The structure of the tree is shaped by pruning so
that the canopy remains low, within reach for convenient harvesting. Agathi is tolerant to low fertility level
of soils.
Irrigation
Irrigation requires weekly interval. Whenever necessary irrigate the field.
Manures
Twenty days after sowing apply any complex fertilizers. No need to apply urea separately.
Pest
Weevil (attack leaves and stems), Stem borer, Larvae damage tender stem.
Disease
Collar seedling blight, Fungus leaf spot, Gray leaf spot, Mosaic symptom on leaf, Root rot and wilt, Powdery
mildew and Fungus causing gall.
Harvest
Leaves are started to harvest 70 days after sowing. Next harvest is every 40 days once. We can maintain
the plant up to 10 years.
Introduction
Wolbachia is a gram-negative, obligatory bacterial endosymbiont that is extremely widespread among
arthropod organisms, and has attracted significant attention due to its potential for insect control and
vector-borne disease suppression. With the resurgence of vector-borne disease, some have been pessimistic
about the effectiveness of conventional control measures, such as long-term insecticides. In addition,
increased use of insecticides has given rise to questions about adverse environmental impacts. Therefore,
the need for innovative environmentally friendly management methods to supplement existing insect
control initiatives has been suggested.
For these reasons, there is increasing interest in the possible application of Wolbachia in biocontrol
programmes, either to increase biocontrol agent populations or to reduce pest species populations.
Wolbachia manipulate host reproduction to promote their own spread and maintenance in host’s
populations by a number of phenotypes.
Parthenogenesis Induction
Wolbachia-induced female parthenogenesis (thelytoky) is less common than CI, and has been documented
so far only in species with arhenotokous development (in which males develop from unfertilized eggs), such
as mites, hymenopterans (for example, wasps) and thrips. Instead of producing sons from unfertilized eggs,
infected females produce daughters who, unlike males, can transmit the bacteria to their offspring like CI,
Wolbachia-induced parthenogenesis is caused by cell cycle disruption during early embryonic development,
leading to the development of diploids in unfertilized eggs (thelytoky).
In both Trichogramma sp. and Leptopilina clavipes, anaphase during the first embryonic division is
abortive, resulting in one diploid nucleus instead of two haploid nuclei. The first mitotic division is complete
in the wasp Muscidifurax uniraptor, and diploid females are formed after two cell nuclei are fused.
Male Killing
Male killings induced by Wolbachia have been described in four different arthropod orders: Coleoptera,
Diptera, Pseudoscorpiones and Lepidoptera. Wolbachia killing of males occurs mainly during
embryogenesis in each of the mentioned infections, which can lead to more food for the surviving female
progeny.
Insight into the mechanism of killing males comes from Ostrinia scapulalis, the lepidopteran host. The all-
female broods found at O infected with Wolbachia. The first diagnosis of scapulalis was the result of
feminisation caused by Wolbachia. When the mothers were treated to remove Wolbachia with tetracycline,
all-male broods were produced.
Conclusion
Wolbachia infects taxa of various arthropods. Its hosts include economically important pest species and
beneficial species being studied to combat these pests. Our haphazard survey indicates that one or more
Wolbachia strains are infected with at least 46 per cent of these pest and beneficial species.
Many biocontrol research programs therefore include Wolbachia as a component although their presence
may be unsuspecting. Arthropod monitoring for infection can be done readily using PCR techniques and
specific primers of Wolbachia.
References
Robert, I., Graham, D.G., Wilfred, L.M. and Kenneth, W. (2012). Wolbachia in a major African crop pest increases susceptibility to
viral disease rather than protects. Ecology Letters.
Introduction
Huanglongbing (HLB), already citrus greening illness, is the most damaging of citrus species making
significant danger the world citrus industry. The sickness was accounted for from China in 1919 and now
known to happen in excess of 40 distinct nations of Asia. Three types of gram-negative bacterium in
particular Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus, Candidatus Liberibacter africanus and Candidatus
Liberibacter americanus are the easygoing living beings of HLB.
Citrus in India has been known to experience the ill effects of specific issue bringing about low creation,
twig dieback, slow passing and even abrupt shriveling ascribed to "dieback", a sickness that was first seen
in the eighteenth Century in focal India. Evidence for the nearness of HLB in India was in the long run
acquired at the infection Research Centre, when transmitting the HLB pathogen by the Asian psylla, D.
citri by exhibiting those trees with dieback indications perpetually demonstrated positive for HLB. From
that point, citrus developing areas of India and was viewed as chief reason for citrus dieback illness From
a few studies led alongside atomic test (constant PCR) in 16 conditions of India affirmed its appropriation
in completely examined states (with the exception of Arunachal Pradesh): Andhra Pradesh, Assam,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura and West Bengal.
Citrus greening infection or HLB Rein ruler while assessing maladies of financial plants in southern China
and utilized English term "yellow shoot" of citrus in the report, nonetheless, for an extensive stretch it
(around then the name "HLB" was not utilized) was believed to be available in India. Around then it was
accepted that the HLB was brought about by abiotic factors like Zn insufficiency/harmfulness and poor
seepage framework. it became built up that greening was uniting and creepy crawly transmissible with
end brought about by infection, mycoplasm like living beings (MLOs) were accepted to be related with plant
ailments for the most part with "yellow" side effects looking like with greening indications. On close
assessment, these life forms supposedly had bacterial cell divider notwithstanding cytoplasmic layer,
recommending that they were gram negative genuine microscopic organisms .Thus, it was inferred that
the HLB specialist was gram negative bacterium. Later on, it was affirmed by Electron Microscopy that
South African "greening", Indian "dieback".
Nutrition
The utilization of nourishing applications to control or balance the malicious impacts of HLB.
Conclusion
HLB is the most wrecking infection of citrus natural product crops. Most business citrus types of Nepal like
mandarin and sweet orange are truly defenceless to the infection while corrosive lime is somewhat lenient,
yet it is transporter of HLB bacterium filling in as concealed wellspring of inoculums. The illness is
available in India last earlier years and has spread numerous business citrus pockets of the nation
throughout the years. Research endeavours is found predominantly centred around recognized and malady
ordering leaving insufficient consideration regarding its drawn-out administration. It has come about to
enormous decrease of citrus plantations particularly situated underneath 1000 m height where populace
of vector – psyllid is plenteous. Thusly, effective HLB the executive’s techniques will be embraced in India
to spare nation's citriculture.
Bibliography
1. Capoor SP, DG Rao and SM Viswanath. 1967. Diaphorina citri Kuwary - a vector of the greening disease of citrus in India.
Ind. J. Agric. Sc. 37: 572-576.
2. Das AK, S Nerkar, S Bawage, A Kumar. 2014. Current distribution of huanglongbing (citrus greening disease) in India as
diagnosed by real-time PCR. Journal of Phytopathology. 162(6): 402-406.
3. Das AK. 2008. Citrus greening (Huanglongbing) disease in India: Present Status and Diagnostic Efforts. In: Proceedings of
the International Research Conference on Huanglongbing (TR Gottwald and JH Graham eds.), 1-5 Dec. 2008, Florida, USA.
Pp.129.
4. Regmi C and BP Yadav. 2007. Present status of Huanglongbing in western districts of Nepal. Proc. 4th Hort. Seminar, Jan
18-19, 2007, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal, Nepal Hrticulture Society. Pp 40-43.
Agriculture is a major economic sector of the country, providing employment opportunities to more than
50% of the working population of the country. It is therefore clear that agriculture has been the main driver
for the Indian remote sensing program. With the help of remote sensing and GIS, we can observe the earth
for agricultural monitoring. Various national level agricultural applications have been developed which
demonstrate the use of remote sensing data provided by sensors / satellites launched by the space agency
of the countries, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), some of which crop in Harvesting and
production are included. Assessment, crop acreage, production estimation, cropping system analysis,
agricultural water management, drought management, and monitoring, horticultural development,
precision farming, accurate formation, soil resource mapping, potential fishing area forecast, water
development, climate impact on agriculture and so on.
The main and important application in agriculture through remote sensing is crop production forecasting.
This is reliable and timely information of the area under each crop grown in the country at different
aggregate scales like tehsil, district, state and country and the potential production forecasts long before
the crop to take a policy dimension on many issues before export. Are very important -Port, MSP, storage
facilities for transportation requirements etc. Distant time intervals in the number of remote sensing data
and spectral bands provided in spatial format at different resolutions are ideally suited to make these
estimates.
Seasonal agricultural operations are also monitored with the help of remote sensing. For this, remote
sensing images obtained during the early stages of the crop sowing season are used to detect sowing
progress, although individual crop growth may not occur. The area where the transplant has taken place
can be seen differently than in the places where it is yet to begin. After a few weeks, it will be possible to
estimate the total cropped area in the country, although how low each crop is is not possible at this stage.
As crops reach maximum growth levels, such estimates are made possible by similar logic, it is possible to
monitor harvesting operations using satellite data.
Agriculture provides humanity with food, fibers, fuel, and raw materials that are paramount for human
livelihood. Today, this role must be satisfied within a context of environmental sustainability and climate
change, combined with an unprecedented and still-expanding human population size, while maintaining
the viability of agricultural activities to ensure both subsistence and livelihoods. Remote sensing has the
capacity to assist the adaptive evolution of agricultural practices in order to face this major challenge, by
providing repetitive information on crop status throughout the season at different scales and for different
actors. We start this review by making an overview of the current remote sensing techniques relevant for
the agricultural context. We present the agronomical variables and plant traits that can be estimated by
remote sensing, and we describe the empirical and deterministic approaches to retrieve them. A second
part of this review illustrates recent research developments that permit to strengthen applicative
capabilities in remote sensing according to specific requirements for different types of stakeholders. Such
Precision Agriculture
GIS-GPS-RS technologies are used in combination for precision farming and site-specific crop management.
Precision farming techniques are employed to increase yield, reduce production costs, and minimize
negative impacts to the environment. Using GIS analytical capabilities, variable parameters that can affect
agricultural production can be evaluated.
These parameters include yield variability, physical parameters of the field, soil chemical and physical
properties, crop variability (e.g., density, height, nutrient stress, water stress, chlorophyll content),
anomalous factors (e.g., weed, insect, and disease infestation, wind damage), and variations in management
practices (e.g., tillage practices, crop seeding rate, fertilizer and pesticide application, irrigation patterns
and frequency).
Finally, we provide a synthesis of the emerging opportunities that should strengthen the role of remote
sensing in providing operational, efficient and long-term services for agricultural applications.
1. Crop production forecasting: Remote sensing is used to forecast the expected crop production and
yield over a given area and determine how much of the crop will be harvested under specific conditions.
Researchers can be able to predict the quantity of crop that will be produced in a given farmland over a
given period of time.
2. Assessment of crop damage and crop progress: In the event of crop damage or crop progress, remote
sensing technology can be used to penetrate the farmland and determine exactly how much of a given crop
has been damaged and the progress of the remaining crop in the farm.
3. Horticulture, Cropping Systems Analysis: Remote sensing technology has also been instrumental
in the analysis of various crop planting systems. This technology has mainly been in use in the horticulture
industry where flower growth patterns can be analysed and a prediction made out of the analysis.
4. Crop Identification: Remote sensing has also played an important role in crop identification especially
in cases where the crop under observation is mysterious or shows some mysterious characteristics. The
data from the crop is collected and taken to the labs where various aspects of the crop including the crop
culture are studied.
5. Crop acreage estimation: Remote sensing has also played a very important role in the estimation of
the farmland on which a crop has been planted. This is usually a cumbersome procedure if it is carried out
manually because of the vast sizes of the lands being estimated.
6. Crop condition assessment and stress detection: Remote sensing technology plays an important
role in the assessment of the health condition of each crop and the extent to which the crop has withstood
stress. This data is then used to determine the quality of the crop.
7. Identification of planting and harvesting dates: Because of the predictive nature of the remote
sensing technology, farmers can now use remote sensing to observe a variety of factors including the
weather patterns and the soil types to predict the planting and harvesting seasons of each crop.
8. Crop yield modelling and estimation: Remote sensing also allows farmers and experts to predict the
expected crop yield from a given farmland by estimating the quality of the crop and the extent of the
Introduction
Plants are sessile organism which is easily exposed to various abiotic and biotic stresses, such as high or
low temperature, drought, salinity and pests and diseases (Bita and Gerats, 2013). These stresses can
hamper directly or indirectly the growth, development, and plant productivity. Plants possess numerous
adaptive, avoidance, or acclimation mechanisms in order to cope with different stress conditions.
However, this stress tolerance mainly depends upon how signals are perceived and transduced in plants.
Plants generally had four well developed sensor mechanism which trigger stress responses, when exposed
to any sort of stress.
Mechanism
The primary sensor found in plants for perception of any stress conditions can be plasma membrane,
histone sensor of nucleus, cytosol and two unfolded protein sensors present in endoplasmic reticulum of
plants (Mittler et al., 2012).
These signals are then further decoded by many secondary messengers such as reactive oxygen species
(ROS), MAP kinase, calcium ions and inositol phosphates and phytohormones which then results in
different signalling pathways (Liu et al., 2016).
1. Ca2+ signalling pathways: Plasma membrane is the most common and easily available target for any
such changes occurring in plant’s surroundings. These changes adversely affect both composition as well
as physical state of plasma membrane, influencing the membrane fluidity and further affecting the transfer
of calcium ions across the membrane (Saidi et al., 2009).
This change in inward flux of calcium acts as sensors of plants to predict the change in its surroundings
(Goraya et al., 2017). Ca2+ ions further initiate the phospho - protein cascades thereby targeting the major
stress responsive genes or transcription factors resulting in tolerance against stress situations (Sajid et al.,
2018).
2. G protein-mediated signalling: G-proteins are another very crucial secondary messenger which had
a direct role in providing stress tolerance in plants. The coupling of G-proteins leads to the release of
secondary messengers via effectors such as ion channels or enzymes (Wang et al., 2017).
G protein subunits along with phospholipases (PLCs and PLDs) results in cascade of many phospho -
protein reactions further their expression shows modifications during severe dehydration, high salt, and
during cold acclimation and ABA signalling (Tuteja, 2009).
3. Kinase signalling pathways: Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are located mainly in cytosol
and nuclear region of plants and are directly involved in the signalling of multiple environmental stresses
(Jean and Heribert, 2018).
After the detection of environmental changes at the cell surface, MAPKs causes phosphorylation and
dephosphorylation of substrates resulting in transcriptional reprogramming and post-translational
modification (PTM) which finally results in the regulation of proteins and providing tolerance against
stress.
References
1. Bita, C. E., & Gerats, T. (2013). Plant tolerance to high temperature in a changing environment: scientific fundamentals and
production of heat stress-tolerant crops. Plant Science, 4:273.
2. Goraya, G. K., Kaur, B., Asthir, B., Bala, S., Kaur, G., & Farooq, M. (2017). Rapid injuries of high temperature in plants.
Journal of Plant Biology, 60:298–305.
3. Jean, B., & Heribert, H. (2018). Nuclear signaling of plant MAPKs. Frontiers in Plant Science, 1664.
Introduction
The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-
CoV-2), which is also known as the COVID-19 virus. In January 2020, the WHO declared the outbreak a
Public Health Emergency of International Concern, and by March 2020, the WHO characterized the
outbreak as a global pandemic. The COVID-19 virus has zoonotic importance, which means it is
transmitted from animals to humans and has since spread between humans. It is primarily spread through
saliva droplets or discharge from the nose.
Clinical Features
The common clinical features are fever (not in all), cough, sore throat, headache, fatigue, myalgia and
breathlessness. Conjunctivitis has also been described. In a subset of patients, by the end of the first week
the disease can progress to pneumonia, respiratory failure and death. This progression is associated with
extreme rise in inflammatory cytokines including IL2, IL7, IL10, GCSF, IP10, MCP1, MIP1A, and TNFα.
The median time from onset of symptoms to dyspnoea was 5 d, hospitalization 7 d and acute respiratory
distress syndrome (ARDS) 8 d.
Recovery started in the 2nd or 3rd wk. The median duration of hospital stays in those who recovered was
10 d. Adverse outcomes and death are more common in the elderly and those with underlying co-morbidities
(50–75% of fatal cases). Fatality rate in hospitalized adult patients ranged from 4 to 11%.
RT-PCR
Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique combining reverse
transcription of RNA into DNA (in this context called complementary DNA or cDNA) and amplification of
Antigen Testing
It is the ‘spike protein’ present on the surface of the coronavirus that facilitates its penetrance into the
human cell. Nasal swab is collected for this test, which is then immersed in a solution that deactivates the
virus.
On a test strip, a few drops of this solution are then put on. This has to be done within an hour of the
immersion of the swab in the solution. The test strips contain artificial antibodies, which binds to
coronavirus proteins. If a person is infected with coronavirus, the test lines will appear on the paper strips
within 15 minutes. If a person tests negative through antigen testing, they still need to get an RT-PCR test
done for confirmation. If a person tests positive, however, a confirmation RT-PCR is not required. Antigen
tests are much cheaper than the RT-PCR, and cost Rs 450 each.
Antibody Tests
Antibody tests are also known as serological tests. Antibodies are naturally produced by the body’s immune
system to fight off infections. Antibody tests cannot be used to diagnose Covid-19, but can reveal whether
a person was recently exposed to the virus.
For the antibody test, a few drops of blood are placed on a cassette or cartridge that contains the SARS-
CoV-2 proteins. If the blood samples contain antibodies, they will immediately bind to the viral proteins.
The positive result is indicated in the form of lines, like a home pregnancy test. Antibody tests can be useful
to carry out surveys to check whether a population has been exposed to the virus.
Treatments
There is still no specific antiviral treatment for COVID-19 similar to MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV. Isolation
and supportive care including oxygen therapy, fluid management, and antibiotics treatment for secondary
bacterial infections is recommended . Currently, no vaccination is available for this disease.
Conclusion
The current COVID-19 pandemic is clearly an international public health problem. Due to rapid
transmission, countries around the world should increase attention into disease surveillance systems.
There is no anti corona virus vaccine to prevent or treatment, but some supporting therapy work. More
research in to this area is needed to fight with this global pandemic. Till then, social distancing and other
preventive measures are best to combat this disease.
625 104.
Introduction
Paddy (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important staple food crops, feeding more than half of the world
population. To feed present population, we need to improve the production per unit area. Even though high
yielding and input responsive varieties are available, a large yield gap exists between the farmers’ fields
and research stations in developing countries. In addition to adequate irrigation water and macro nutrients
balanced supply of micronutrients is vital for overcome this yield gap. After nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)
and potassium (K), widespread zinc (Zn) deficiency has been found responsible for yield reduction in paddy.
Globally, more than 30 per cent of soils are low in plant-available Zn. Compared with legumes; cereals are
generally more prone to Zn deficiency leading to a significant reduction in grain yield and nutritional
quality. Besides, frequency of Zn deficiency is greater in paddy than other crops. Hence, khaira disease due
to Zn deficiency is considered one of the most important nutritional stresses limiting irrigated paddy
production in Asia at present.
Zinc
Zn is one of the eight essential micronutrients. It is needed by plants in small amounts, but yet crucial to
plant development. In plants, zinc is a key constituent of many enzymes and proteins. It plays an important
role in a wide range of processes, such as chlorophyll production and membrane integrity. Thus, Zn
deficiencies affect plant colour and turgor. Zn is only slightly mobile in the plant and quite immobile in soil.
Management
1. Spread zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) fertilizer uniformly all over the nursery seedbed.
2. Drench seedlings or pre-soak seeds in 2-4% ZnSO4 suspension.
3. Apply 12.5 kg ZnSO4/ha, if green manure (6.25 t/ha) or enriched Farm yard manure.
4. Apply 25 kg of ZnSO4along with 50 kg sand as a basal before transplanting.
5. Apply 5-10 kg Zn/ha as Zn sulphate, apply 0.5 – 1.5 % ZnSO4/ha as a foliar spray at tillering (25-30
DAT), 2-3 repeated applications at intervals of 10-14 days.
6. Zn chelates (e.g., Zn-EDTA) can be used for foliar application.
Conclusion
Zn is very essential plant nutrient for paddy. It is deficient in all parts of the globe with different types of
soils. Under these conditions application of Zn fertilizer is necessary for healthy crop growth and higher
yields. Soil and foliar applications of Zn fertilizers are recommended for correcting paddy khaira disease.
Reference
Hafeez B., Khanif YM. and Saleem M., (2013) Role of Zinc in Plant Nutrition- A Review. American Journal of Experimental
Agriculture, 3(2): 374-391.
Introduction
New pathotypes develop with the presentation of new kind of assortment and mixtures to our yields. Fast
and exact recognition of new harmfulness will help plan technique for creating safe cultivars specifically
area and will likewise give a base to reproducing cultivars with sturdy obstruction or planning
methodologies for the drawn-out administration of significant ailments. Understanding the job pathogens
play in forming the hereditary structure of plant populaces and networks requires a comprehension of the
pathogens 'decent variety, their starting points, and the developmental exchange that happens among
pathogens and their hosts.
Bacterial Conjugation
Bacterial conjugation is the exchange of hereditary material between microscopic organisms through direct
cell to cell contact, or through an extension like association between the two cells. Bacterial conjugation is
frequently mistakenly viewed as what might be compared to sexual propagation or mating since it includes
some hereditary trade. So as to perform conjugation, one of the microscopic organisms, the benefactor, must
play host to a conjugative or mobilizable hereditary component, regularly a conjugative or mobilizable
plasmid or transposon (Ryan and Ray, 2004). Most conjugative plasmids have frameworks guaranteeing
that the beneficiary cell doesn't as of now contain a comparative component.
Transformation
The take-up of bare DNA atoms and their steady upkeep in microscopic organisms is called change. The
marvel was found in 1928 by Griffith. Microscopic organisms have grown profoundly concentrated
capacities that will tie DNA pieces and transport them into the cell. Skill alludes to the condition of having
the option to take up exogenous DNA from the earth. There are two distinct types of capability:
characteristic and fake. A few microorganisms (around 1% everything being equal) are normally fit for
taking up DNA under research center. Such species convey sets of qualities indicating the reason for the
hardware for bringing DNA over the phone's layer or films. Fake fitness isn't encoded in the cell's qualities.
Rather it is instigated by research facility methodology in which cells are latently made porous to DNA,
utilizing conditions that don't typically happen in nature (Kunik et al., 2001).
Transduction
Bacteriophages can move qualities starting with one bacterial cell then onto the next, a procedure known
as transduction. There are two assortments of bacteriophage-interceded quality exchange: summed up
transduction and particular transduction.
Summed up transduction happens because of the lytic cycle. During the time spent bundling bacteriophage
DNA, the head structures of certain bacteriophages will bundle irregular parts of the bacterial chromosome.
In this manner, the lysate contains two sorts of particles that contrast just in the sort of DNA they contain.
The majority of the particles contain viral DNA. When these infuse their DNA, the lytic cycle will rehash
and new bacteriophage particles will be delivered. A little division of the particles, perhaps as high as 1%,
contain sections of the bacterial chromosome instead of the bacteriophage DNA. At the point when one of
these particles infuses its DNA into the cell, the cell isn't murdered.
Reference
1. Ryan, K.J. and Ray, C.G. 2004. Sherris Medical Microbiology. 4th ed. McGraw Hill Medical. 992p.
2. Kunik, T., Tzfira, T., Kapulnik, Y., Gafni, Y., Dingwall, C. and Citovsky V. 2001. Genetic transformation of HeLa cells by
Agrobacterium. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America 98: 1871– 1876.
389001.
3PhD Scholar, Dept. of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Junagadh Agricultural University,
Junagadh-362001.
Ergonomics (also known as Human Engineering) is still a new concept in Indian agriculture. It is necessary
to create greater awareness about its contribution in improving the quality of life of workers and operators.
The development of more complex machines and the increasing awareness about occupational health and
safety aspect have made ergonomics and product safety the dominant consideration in design of tractors
and farm equipment. It is important to know how to increase the efficiency of human power application in
agricultural operation by utilizing ergonomic principles without jeopardizing the health and safety of the
workers so as to get maximum benefits.
Ergonomics is defined as the study of the design of a workplace, equipment, machine, tool, product,
environment, and system which takes into consideration human being's physical, physiological,
biomechanical, and psychological capabilities and optimizes the effectiveness and productivity of work
systems while assuring the safety, health, and wellbeing of the workers (Fernandez and Marley, 1998). In
simple way, the aim of ergonomics is to fit the job to the worker, not the worker to the job.
A large percentage of the work force in the world is associated with agriculture and related trades.
Agriculture has undergone many changes throughout the ages with rapid industrialization and increased
population. The farming system continues to utilize manual power, animal power and mechanical power
but the utilization of power operated agricultural machinery and implement increased day by day and is
capable for doing better quality of field operation. With high degree of mechanization of farm machinery, a
safe comfortable environment for the operators is important consideration for getting productivity and
customer satisfaction are to be enhanced. Farm mechanisation in India is in the initial stages, with the
mechanisation level ranging from 40–45%, which is very low compared to that in developed economies,
where mechanization has reached beyond 90% (World Bank Open Data 2019, Feder Unacoma, PwC)
analysis India’s farm equipment market is 7% of the global market, with more than 80% of the value
contribution coming from tractors. Even though the growth of mechanization has been slow, the overall
food-grain production in India grew from over 50 million tonnes in 1950–51 to 283 million tonnes in 2018–
19. The adoption rates of farm equipment have increased as indicated by the sales of tractors sale and the
rise in farm power availability (FPA) in the recent past. Domestic sales of tractors have increased from 3
lakh units in FY09 to 7.8 lakh units in FY19, registering a phenomenal CAGR of 10%.4 In addition to the
impressive domestic sales volumes, India has exported 92,095 units of tractors during FY19. Average FPA
in India has also risen from 1.1 kW/ha in 1995–96 to 2.02 kW/ha in 2017–18. India is also one of the largest
manufacturers of equipment such as tractors, harvesters and tillers (Anon, 2019).
Need of Comfort
Tractor is the main prime mower in the agriculture works. Operating a tractor imposes lots of physical and
mental stress upon the operator. The operator needs more comfort during various agricultural operations
because they have to bear more noise, dust, and vibration hazards as compare to other peoples. With
constant need to improve operator’s comfort and safety, progress have been made in subsidizing noise, dust
and the emphasis is being diverted to reduce the ride vibration levels. Farm workers functioning as the
drivers of agricultural tractors are exposed to noise, dust and whole body vibration which may be extremely
severe depending upon such factors as attached farm equipment, speed of travel, condition of fields etc.
working under such an environment results in human fatigue, which contributes driving related accidents
and others health hazards. Physical agents are forms of energy that can harm the body when exposure
Vibration
A particularly important source of danger to which a worker is exposed in machine operation is mechanical
vibration. Low frequency ride vibrations in tractor operation affect work output and operator health.
Vibration is nothing but it is an oscillation of mass about a 19 fixed point. When a body comes in contact
with mechanical sources of vibration the tissues of the body become displaced from their resting position.
Effects of vibration on health: Whole body vibration is transmitted to the body through the supporting
surfaces such as the feet, buttocks or back. There are various sources of whole-body vibration such as
standing on a vibrating platform, floor surface, driving and construction, manufacturing and transportation
vehicles. The health effect of whole-body vibration on tractor driver are abdominal pain, general feeling of
Summary
Good ergonomics would be helpful in many ways such as workers will feel good about their task,
productivity can be increased, Health and safety can be improved and they also got the job satisfaction.
Workplace without concerning ergonomics cause fatigue as well as disease common musculoskeletal
disorders. that efficiency of the same task can be improved by involving ergonomics (Agravat et al., 2019).
It means to design the worker friendly devices/machines ergonomics is the key.
Reference
1. Agravat VV, JM Makavana, P Mohnot, R Yadav and PP Gajjar. (2019). Development and Ergonomic Evaluation of a Coconut
Palm Climbing Device. Ergonomics Int J. 3(2): 000201.
2. Anonymous (2019). Farm mechanisation: Ensuring a sustainable rise in farm productivity and income. FICCI-PwC. 12p.
Available at: http://ficci.in/spdocument/23154/Online_Farm-mechanization-ficci.pdf. Accessed on 22nd June, 2020.
3. Fernandez, J. E., & Marley, R. J. (1990). Monitoring and screening tests for carpal tunnel syndrome. Contemporary
Ergonomics, 63-8.
4. Kundieve Y. and Chernyuk V.I. (1983). Planting and growing operations. Tractor driver exposure to dust during land
cultivation. Encyclopaedia of occupational healt and safety.
5. Saha P.N., data S.R., Banerjee P.K. and Narayanee G.G. (1979). An acceptable workload for Indian worker. Ergonomics, 22,
9, 1059-1071.
6. Solecki L (1998). Effects of occupational exposure to noise among tractor drivers: assessment based on noise emission level.
Medycyna-Pracy. 49(6): 535-544.
7. Taylor, W (1974). The vibration syndrome: introduction. The Vibration Syndrome, Academic Press, London. 22p.
8. Wattie J M. (1990). Health aspects of exposure to agricultural dusts. HSE-Conference-COSHH-Engineering-controls-in-
agriculture, Stoneleigh, UK, 27-September-1990. 5.
The COVID-19 pandemic has turned the world’s attention to the immune system, the body’s defence force
against disease-causing bacteria, viruses and other organisms that we touch, ingest and inhale every day.
Good nutrition is most crucial to ensure body’s immune system, as infections such as the current COVID
takes a huge toll on the body especially when coping with symptoms like high fever, cough etc. During these
conditions, the body needs extra energy and nutrients, which have to be provided by consuming a healthy
diet. It is important to note that “no foods or dietary supplements can prevent COVID-19 infection”, but
maintaining a healthy diet will ensure a strong immune system, to reduce the effect of infection on the
body.
In situations where strict lockdown and physical distancing regulations are in place, the governments have
also ensured measures towards protected access to food, and reduce disruptions in food chains and supplies.
Hence, it is still possible to purchase and consume a healthy diet during this COVID crisis. Also, the
situation is leading to consumption of more of local foods, seasonal foods and less of processed foods.
However, diets can vary greatly from place to place based on multiple factors including eating habits,
culture, availability, accessibility and affordability. Yet, when it comes to good nutrition choices, there is a
lot that everyone knows about selecting the right combination of available foods to attain healthy diet
regardless of where and how we live. Given below are few recommendations to ensure good nutrition during
COVID 2019.
1. Eat a variety of foods within each food group and across all the food groups to ensure adequate intake of
important nutrients.
2. Eat plenty of fruits and vegetables. Fresh fruits and vegetables provide lots of vitamins and minerals
like folate, vitamin A, E, K, C and B vitamins along with fibre that we need for good health.
3. Include whole cereals, millets and pulses in daily menu. Consume handful of nuts if feasible. Use healthy
fat combinations such as sesame / groundnut / coconut with sunflower / safflower / soya bean / rice bran oils
to ensure a good ratio of poly and monounsaturated fatty acids.
4. Continue to practice good food hygiene. Because of COVID-19 pandemic, food safety is of greatest
concern. COVID-19 is a respiratory virus and is not a food-borne disease. There is no real-time scientific
evidence that the disease can be spread through contact with the food purchased, though laboratory testing
under controlled conditions proved so. However, practicing food safety is of prime importance, which can
be achieved by keep the food clean; separating raw and cooked foods; cooking food thoroughly; keeping food
at safe temperatures; and using safe water and raw materials.
5. Staying well hydrated, mainly through drinking ample amounts of plain water (Approximately 6-8
glasses/day) helps our immune system. Drinking plain water instead of sugar- sweetened beverages, helps
reduce risk of consuming too many calories for maintaining a healthy weight.
6. Consume herbal decoctions made with a mix of herbs and spices like basil leaves, cinnamon, pepper,
ginger, turmeric, mint leaves and honey. Herbal steam inhalations also help in keeping the nasal and
throat cavities free from symptoms of infection.
7. Current COVID lockdown situations can lead to consumption of comfort foods high in fat, sugar, salt and
calories, that are very palatable but hazardous to health. Staying at home and overconsumption of energy
dense foods can lead to various health ailments in the long run. Hence, avoid eating too much of these
ingredients not only as comfort foods, but across everything consumed. Consumers are advised to check
food labels to practise limited purchase and consumption of these ingredients.
8. Limit consumption of alcohol. Alcohol based beverages have little nutritional value, and are high in
calories, and excess consumption is linked to numerous health problems. If alcohol is to be consumed, it
should at moderation only.
Introduction
India is the largest producer, importer and consumer of pulses in the world, being an inseparable ingredient
in the diet of the vast majority of population. Since time immemorial, pulses have been cultivated on
marginal ad sub-marginal lands, which are characterized by poor soil fertility and moisture stress, and
consequently their yield potentials have not been realized. Further, more than 90 per cent areas under
pulses are rainfed. Drought and heat stress may reduce seed yields by 50%, especially in arid and semi-
arid regions. Pulses are predominantly grown under resource poor and harsh environments frequently
prone to drought and other biotic and abiotic stresses. As a result, the productivity of the pulses in India is
quite low even less than 1 tonne per hectare compared to wheat and rice. Among the many reasons
attributed for its lower productivity, lower yield potential, cultivation in marginal lands, below average
management efforts, non-availability of quality seeds, prevalence of higher temperature during its growing
environment, susceptible to pod borers and wilt diseases are important. To increase the pulse production,
rainfed rice fallow lands offer a huge potential niche for pulses production. Farmers are often pressed to
use inadequate quantity of manures and fertilizers to rainfed pulses for economic reasons. Therefore, there
is a great scope of increasing the production in rainfed areas through efficient nutrient management.
Conclusion
BNF is important in farming systems and can be ameliorated by simple and in expensive inoculation
procedures. Extended use of biological fertilizers could reduce the cost of chemical fertilizers ensuring that
economic benefits accrue to the farmers while at the same time maintaining soil fertility and sustainability
of agro ecosystems. By following the low-cost technology, the production of pulses can be improved
effectively. Incorporation of biofertilizer encourages soil microbial population substantially, thereby
increases the soil fertility. Application of fertilisers, various biofertilizers and foliar spray of nutrients
supply essential nutrients nitrogen, phosphorous and also increases the crop yield through growth
promoting hormones, vitamins and biocontrol of pathogens. By using these, the pulse production could be
well augmented under rainfed and rice fallow situations.
Introduction
There are different types of weather/climatic hazards which affect crop productions in agricultural sector .
Generally, in different times These climatic hazards vary from one climatic zone to another. Hazard and
disaster can be ranked according to impact criteria, and the probability of a hazardous event can be placed
on a scale from zero to certainty (0 to 1) (Gobin et al., 2013). In view of climate change, it is important to
assess the impact of climate extremes on agriculture. The climatic hazards may affect crops and
agricultural productivity negatively if they are not checked. In every agricultural zone there is one
particular hazard which affect the crop productions and reduce the annual crop yield. Those climatic
hazards are flood, drought, cyclone, heavy rain fall etc.
Floods
Generally, occur in every part of the world, it occurs due to excessive rainfall, discharges, overflow of river
banks, high release from dam, from pipes and fluctuations in ground water tables. It has capability to
cover the entire farmlands with water and damage the economic crops as they are washed away by flood.
It washes away valuable soil nutrients, which leads to land degradation and affects environmental
pollutions. Due to extreme weather condition the frequency of flood hazard is expected to be higher. It also
affects world’s poor majority whom live in rural areas. Crops can be selected on their relative ability to
tolerate excessive moisture. Field crops are generally less sensitive than vegetable crops in terms of yield.
In addition to the choice of crop species, planting dates could be shifted when possible by delaying dates of
sowing or planting to avoid probable periods of flooding during the sensitive growth stages. In most
instances, crops are more sensitive at their early developmental phase than at the later stages in terms of
yield.
Drought
It is one of a disaster in slow motion covering huge areas. Due to moisture deficient, abnormal rainfall or
irregular rainfall or more water need due to high temperatures or combination of all the three factors.
Absence of rains over period affects various human activities, results in widespread crop failure, depletion
in lakes / reservoirs, etc.
Basically, droughts are categorized into four types, permanent drought, seasonal drought, contingent and
invisible drought. It increases demand of water , water stresses in crops, the crops may wilt during the
period, it causes higher evapotranspiration and leads to poor agricultural yields.
The management options to cope up with early season drought are:
1. Raising a community nursery for cereal crops and transplant the seedlings with the starting of the rainy
season.
2. Sowing of alternate crops / varieties depending upon the time of occurrence of sowing rains.
3. If there is poor germination and inadequate plant stand, it is better to resow the crop. If the dry spell
after sowing is brief, gap filling is also advocated.
Frost
It is also a climatic hazard which occur due lower environmental temperature, it forces the water to form
ice blocks which may not be easily removed. It is occurring Polar regions in the world where daily
temperature is less than 6°C. All cultivated lands are covered by frozen particles of water/ice clouds. It
affects agricultural productions by prevents early tillage operations, proper growth of the plants,
inaccessibility of farmlands to the farmers and more water which may result to flooding.
Rainfall
It leads to an increase in water requirements of crops and crops can also suffer from water stresses.
Excessive rainfall is the occurrence of many rainfall events which leads to an increase in rainfall depths.
Excessive rainfall is not beneficial to crops since plants have optimum depth of water required for their
metabolic activities. Excessive rainfall washes away the essential nutrients in the soil, flooding, poor
physical development of the growing crops and accelerates the decay of the growing crops after maturity.
Recent rain and cold conditions have brought detrimental effects to some of the early planted vegetables.
The low temperatures would have greatly inhibited absorption of water and mineral nutrients for many
warm season vegetables. If the soil is flooded, oxygen in the soil would be depleted within 24 hours. Plants
are injured in the water saturated soil. Symptoms usually include wilt; yellowing and drop of older leaves;
epinasty curvature that is most commonly seen on tomatoes. If flooding lasts for more than 48 hours, there
is little chance vegetable crops could recover. Re-planting would be the only option left. On the bright side,
the majority of vegetable fields have not been planted although fertilizers were applied and plastic was laid
in several fields in the Southwest Indiana. In this scenario, the heavy rainfall did not directly affect plants,
but we should caution that they may leach already applied fertilizers that would affect crops in the middle
or late of the season. If field were flooded or ponded with water, they may not be replanted right away even
after water recedes because of food safety concerns.
References
1. Gobin A, Tarquis AM, and Dalezios NR. Weather-related hazards and risks in agriculture. Natural Hazards and Earth System
Sciences. 2013(13), 2599–2603.
2. http://www.wamis.org/agm/gamp/GAMP_Chap07.pdf
3. https://steemit.com/stemng/@masterwriter/weather-hazards-in-agriculture
4. https://www.growingproduce.com/vegetables/how-to-deal-with-the-consequences-of-too-much-rainfall/
5. Ramakrishna YS. Director (Retd.), CRIDA, Hyderabad. AGRICULTURAL DROUGHTS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT . pp-
14-20.
6. WENJING GUAN. Effects Of The Recent Rain And Cold Condition On Vegetable Production. Vegetable Crops Hotline.
2017.issue-627.
7. Gardiner B , Berry P, Moulia B. Review : Wind Impacts On Plant Growth, Mechanics And Damage. Researchgate . 2016.
8. Rao R, Li Y. Management Of Flooding Effects On Growth Of Vegetables And Selected Vegetable Crops. HortTechnology . 13(4)-
610-616.
Introduction
India represents about 11 % of the world’s flora in spite of having only just about 2.4 % of the total landmass.
India has two biodiversity hotspots, namely, Eastern Himalaya and Western Ghat. Today 25–30 food-
yielding species supply food to human of which only three-crop types viz. rice, wheat and maize, supply 60
% of food requirements for the world human population. Underutilized crops can be defined as a class of
crop that once grown more rapidly and intensely but lagged behind the conventional major crops in terms
of cultivation and use for variety of agronomic, genetic, economic and cultural reasons. Most of the
underutilized crops are pseudocereal that is defined as fruits or seeds of non-grass species that are
consumed in very similar way as cereals. The protein contents of pseudocereals like quinoa (Supergrain),
amaranthus and buckwheat are much higher than cereals and the quality of proteins is much improved
containing higher amount of lysine which is limiting in cereals. From the angle of digestibility,
bioavailability, available lysine and net protein utilization, pseudocereal proteins are definitely better when
compared to cereals. The nutritive value of pseudocereals is very much competitive to conventional crop, in
most cases even better All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Underutilized crop (UUC) was
initiated in 1982 with a headquarter at the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New
Delhi, with 15 main centres and 10 cooperating centres in different agricultural zones of the country.
Classes of Amaranthus
Amaranthus is a widely distributed herbaceous genus of herbs comprising approximately 70 species
collectively called amaranths or pigweeds. Three species of Amaranthus are familiar for grain production
–A. hypochondriacus, A. caudatus and A. cruentus. According to one school of thought, all the grain
amaranths are of the New World origin, but other school of thoughts suggested that grain amaranths might
have been cultivated in South Asia from prehistoric period and probably have domesticated there. Seeds of
grain amaranths are very rich in crude protein with lysine and threonine. Seed oil contains squalene,
trypsin inhibitor, tocotrienols, tannins etc. The tender plant of grain species A. cruentus is also consumed
as leafy vegetable. Amaranth grain may be processed in various forms like flaked, popped, extruded and
ground into flour and can be used as a substitute in porridge, stirred into soup. Grain amaranths have
several health benefits like lowering of plasma cholesterol level, protection of heart, stimulation of immune
system, anticancer activity, control of blood sugar level, improved condition of hypertension and anaemia,
anti-allergic and antioxidant activity, etc., due to the presence of some bioactive components. Most of the
molecular techniques used yielded a common inference that all the grain amaranths have evolved from
weed progenitor A. hybridus.
Vegetable amaranths are the most popular vegetable crops in tropics especially in the tropical humid
climate of Africa and Asia. Several species are known as vegetable amaranths of which two are most
popularly grown, A. tricolor Green amaranths are rich source of lysine-rich protein, β-carotene, various
vitamins, minerals and dietary fibres. Anti-nutrients like nitrates and oxalates are present in small amount
that does not cause any nutritional problem under normal condition of consumption and another species
A. blitum. Vegetable amaranths are considered as the most popular vegetable crops grown in the tropics
for their protein, vitamin and mineral-rich leaves and stems. Vegetable amaranths are grown in the hot,
humid regions of Southeast Asia, Africa, Southern China, India and Caribbean islands. Leaves of most
Amaranthus species are edible, but few are very popular, e.g. vegetable amaranths such as A. tricolor, A.
blitum, A. dubius, A. cruentus and A. viridis.
Approximately ten Amaranthus species are recognised as weedy member. These are either monoecious or
dioecious species. Monoecious category comprises redroot pigweed (A. retroflexus), smooth pigweed (A.
hybridus), Powell amaranth (A. powellii), tumble pigweed (A. albus), prostrate pigweed (A. blitoides) and
Flower Morphology
Grain amaranthus are characterized with few salient features like apical, large to moderately large
complex inflorescence comprising aggregates of cymes, unisexual flowers with five tepals, five stamens,
circum scissile utricle, seeds with variable seed coat colour and well-defined flange. Due to variability in
morphological features, accurate identification of amaranth genetic resources is not always possible.
Flowers are small, green and unisexual and develop in numerous dense clusters. Each flower is subtended
by 1–2 spinescent bracteoles, which are responsible for the overall increases in the density of the
inflorescence. The ratio of male/female flower in inflorescence is very important in reproductive behaviour
of the species. As per estimation, the ratio of male/female flowers in the inflorescence of A. powellii was 7.6
% and 9.7 % for A. hybridus. All monoecious species of Amaranthus are self-compatible and probably self-
pollinating.
Cytogenetics Study
Three gametic numbers have been reported in the genus (n = 14, 16 and 17). Srivastava and Roy (2012)
reported the chromosome number in A. blitum (2n=28), which is similar to the new basic chromosome
number (x=14). This tribasic nature of the genus has supposed to originate from dysploidy or aneuploidy.
Two hypotheses have been proposed regarding the origin of grain amaranths from their wild weed
progenitor-monophyletic and polyphyletic. The monophyletic hypothesis based on plant and seed
morphology suggests that all three-grain amaranths have originated from a single progenitor, A. hybridus.
The polyphyletic theory based on phytogeography suggests that all the three grain amaranths have evolved
independently. A third hypothesis suggests that all the three grain amaranths have originated from
genetically differentiated population of A. hybridus through independent domestication event.
Breeding Objectives
Amaranths are characterized with remarkable germplasm diversity, adaptability to different growing
conditions and unique matting behaviour ranging from obligate outcrossing (dioecious species) to greater
outcrossing to greater self-pollination. The breeding mechanism in amaranths is variable due to variability
and versatility of inflorescence, ratio and distribution of male and pistillate flowers in inflorescence. The
major objectives in improving cultivars of grain amaranths are to raise yield, increase pest resistance and
improve harvestability. Williams and Brenner (1995) emphasized three internationally recognized
breeding objectives for grain amaranths, viz. reduced plant height and high yield, enhanced food quality
and non-shattering of seed.
Wide Hybridization
The work on the genetic improvement of grain amaranths, especially in India, has been achieved through
conventional selection methods from local collections of landraces available at different experimental
stations. Research on amaranth breeding internationally located at North Central Regional Plant
Introduction Station, Iowa State University. Murray (1940) was one of the first persons to classify
interspecific hybridization within the genus Amaranthus. Two categories of plants were recognized-type I
plants having male and female flowers intermingled with each other and type II plants having male flowers
arranged at the apical part of inflorescence. He made a few crosses between and among type I monoecious
species (e.g. A. caudatus, A. hybridus, A. retroflexus and A. powellii), type II monoecious species (A.
spinosus) and dioecious species. Crossing involving A. hybridus and A. caudatus was among the most
Molecular Breeding
A limited sequencing of the genome of A. tuberculatus has been done to understand the mechanism applied
by the species to resist three herbicides. Sunil and co-workers in year 2014 reported a draft genome of
amaranths genome (A. hypochondriacus). Out of 411 linkages, SNPs derived from homozygous region of
the grain amaranths, 355 SNPs (86 %) were reported to be present in scaffolds and 74 % of the 8.6 billion
bases of the sequenced transcriptome map to the genomic scaffold. In case of Plant Tissue culture
technique, there are not much published reports on the tissue culture of Amaranthus. On in vitro growth
and morphogenetic first time reported in grain and vegetable amaranths (Flores et al., 1982).
References
1. Flores H.E., Thier A. and Galston W., (1982). In vitro culture of grain and vegetable Amaranths (Amaranthus spp.). Am J Bot.
69(7):1049–1054.
2. Murray M.J., (1940). The genetics of sex determination in the family Amaranthaceae. Genetics. 25:409–431.
3. Srivastava R. and Roy B.K., (2012). Analysis of genetic variation among accessions of wild and cultivated species of
Amaranthus based on RAPD and SDS-PAGE markers. Int J Pharm Bio Sci. 3(4):168–178.
4. Sunil M., Hariharan A, Nayak S. et al., (2014). The draft genome and transcriptome of Amaranthus hypochondriacus: a C4
Dicot producing High-Lysine edible pseudo-cereals. DNA Res. 21(6):585–602.
5. Williams J.T. and Brenner D., (1995). Grain amaranths (Amaranthus species). In: Williams JT (ed) Cereals and pseudocereals.
Springer, London, 129–186.
Soil Health
Soil health is the capacity of soil to function within ecosystem and land use boundaries to sustain
productivity, maintain environmental quality and promote plant and animal health.
Physical Chemical Biological
Aggregation & Structure PH Macrofauna
Surface sealing Soluble salts Micro fauna
Compaction Sodium Micro organisms
Porosity Nutrient holding capacity Biological matter
Water movement Nutrient availability Organic matter
Effects on Water
1. Water become unfit for drinking.
2. The runoff of agrochemicals into streams, lakes, and other surface waters con increase the growth of
algae.
3. Eutrophication- Change in quality and composition of aquatic ecosystems by accumulation of excessive
chemicals in water bodies.
4. Polluted water leading to death of fish and other aquatic animals.
5. Excessive use of agrochemicals has led to the contamination of ground water.
Swarm Formation
Guaiacol is produced in the gut of desert locusts by the breakdown of plant material. This process is
undertaken by the gut bacterium Pantoea agglomerans. Guaiacol is one of the main components of the
pheromones that cause locust swarming. Serotonin enhances solitariness phase transition of migratory
locust. Gregarious adults migrate in the direction of wind speed and cover a distance of up to about 150/km
day. The direction and speed of wind determine the displacement of adults and swarms.
About 49,000 hectares (120,000 acres) of cotton, summer pulses and vegetable crops have been affected by
locusts across six states of Rajasthan, Gujarath, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Uttatar Pradesh and parts of
Maharastra. Swarms of desert locusts occur irregularly in North Africa, the Middle East and South Asia,
usually when drought is followed by heavy rain. Normally, with the arrival of the monsoon, locust swarms
enter the desert areas of India via Pakistan for breeding in June-July, but this year pink adult swarms
were reported as early as April 30 in Rajasthan and Punjab.
This is in part because of the uncontrolled swarms in Pakistan that breed continuously. Swarms of pink
adults fly high and travel long distances with strong winds coming from Pakistan. Most of them settle on
trees during the night and mostly fly during the day. This is the second round of locust attack in India, the
first one having occurred during December-February. In January, the biggest locust swarm to hit Gujarat
in over a quarter of a century resulted in more than 25,000 hectares of wheat, rapeseed, cumin and potatoes
being attacked, with at least a third of the crops damaged in 75% of the affected areas.
Abstract
Space farming research was started in late 1950s. With the advent of research and development in space
science, space farming also has gained its momentum. Countries like Russia, USA, Japan, China, Mexico
are now putting their focus in this area.
As the time passes, countries have started their long duration space missions and here the importance of
space farming comes to provide nutritious and fresh food to astronauts in space.
In this article I have tried to give an overview starting from brief history regarding growing plants in space,
the need of space farming, challenges faced by scientist, overall global status of space farming in a nutshell.
Introduction
Equivalent to agriculture on earth, space farming refers to growing of plants for food and other materials
on off-earth celestial objects or in space. This area of research is now becoming necessary for providing food
to astronauts in space stations and other long duration space missions.
The food which is provided to the space crews in a long duration mission must maintain its nutritional
efficacy, safety and its viability for 3-5 years period. In order to achieve stability in food system in space
crafts for maintaining heath of astronauts, the food under goes various processing for inactivating microbes.
This commercial sterility may provide a safe food system but the processing level can reduce nutritional
content of food and acceptability (Cooper et al., 2011). Much of food supplied to astronauts are freeze dried
or heat treated. A study in 2009 noted that, vitamin A, C and K along with thiamine and folic acid decreases
significantly in less than one year of storage. Therefore, a mission to Mars for as long as 5 years would
require new source of vitamins (Cooper et al., 2011).
Apart from food quality in space, the resupplying of food in long term space missions are very costly and
impractical. To overcome this back drop, the existence of growing crop plants inflight is getting incredible
importance.
The space farm would also be helpful for creating sustainable environment in space ship, as plants are able
to generate oxygen, continuous purification of air, and also for recycling waste water (White paper. The
space agriculture endeavour, 2016). The ability to grow food in space would improve the quality of
astronaut’s diet and provide fresh food with better taste and texture in a cost-effective way.
Technical Challenges
A variety of technical challenges are there in space agriculture. These includes change in pressure, reduced
gravity, high irradiation and light etc. By constructing green house may solve these problems, but their
construction is itself a technical challenge (Schubert, 2017).
Ongoing Experiments
NASA’s future mission ALINA (Luner lander mission) will also carry a small ‘biosphere’ chamber called
Luner Plant Growth Experiment (LPX), where NASA will attempt to germinate and grow several plant
types (Wadhwa, 2013). In 2019, Chang’e 4 mission of China carried the Lunar micro ecosystem, with 3 kg
sealed ‘biosphere’ cylinder with insects’ egg and seeds to test whether insects and plants could hatch and
grow together in synergistic way (Tayag et al., 2019). The Veggie greenhouse will fit into an EXPRESS rack
on the International Space Station for use with plant investigations in orbit (NASA). Lettuce plants in
Veggie next year as a test run, because lettuce is well suited for this initial testing. Lettuce is a good first
crop selection because it is a rapid growing plant, with a high edible content, and generally has a small
micro flora content (Fig-3). (https://blogs.nasa.gov/ISS_Science_Blog/tag/plants/).
Conclusion
At last, the denouement is that intense experimentation is needed for exposing fundamental plant
processes under various space programs and utilize that knowledge for the benefit of future mankind.
References
1. China Is About to Land Living Eggs on the Far Side of the Moon (2019).Archived, at the Wayback Machine. Yasmin Tayag,
Inverse.
2. Cooper, Maya; Douglas, Grace; Perchonok, Michele (2011-03-01). "Developing the NASA Food System for Long-Duration
Missions". Journal of Food Science. 76 (2): R40–R48. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01982.
3. Gazenko, O.G. 1967. Development of biology in the USSR. In: Soviet Science and Technology for 50 years. Nauka Press,
Moscow (In Russian; citation from Salisbury et al., 1997).
4. Gitelson, I.I., B.G. Kovrov, G.M. Lisovsky, Y.N. Okladikova, M.S. Rerberg, F.Y. Sidko, and I. A. Terskov. 1975. Toxic gases
emitted by Chlorella. In: Problems in Space Biology.
5. Gitelson, J.I., I.A. Terskov, B.G. Kovrov, R. Ya. Sidko, G.M. Lisovsky, Yu. N. Okladnikov, V.N. Belyanin, I.N. Trubachov, and
M.S. Rerberg. 1976. Life support system with autonomous control employing plant photosynthesis. Acta Astronautica, 3, 633-
650
6. Golueke, C. G., and Oswald, W. J. (1964). Role of plants in closed systems. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 15(1), 387-408.
7. NASA's Next Frontier: Growing Plants On The Moon (2013). Tarun Wadhwa, Forbes.
Fig-1. Orbital Technologies partnered with Kennedy Space Centre to create a plant growth
system known as Veggie, now used on the International Space Station. The system employs
LEDs, which are highly efficient and long-lasting and radiate hardly any heat. Credits:
Orbital Technologies/NASA.
Fig-2 A leaf sensor developed to increase the efficiency of farming on long-duration space
missions. Credits: AgriHouse Brands Ltd./NASA.
Introduction
Genetic improvement involves directed purposeful genetic alterations to enhance the efficacy of the natural
enemies for the biological control. Entomopathogens can be improved for climatic tolerance, sex ratio, host
finding ability, increased host range etc. Genetic improvement may be achieved by artificial selection,
hybridization to achieve heterosis effect or the use of r-DNA techniques. Genetic manipulation of bacteria,
fungi, virus or nematode through biotechnology is one of the alternative tools for chemical insecticide.
Beside this it will enhance efficacy of biocontrol agents.
Entomopathogenic Bacteria
Narrow range of insecticidal activity. Bt exhibits its toxicity more towards lepidopteran insects and even
among the lepidopteran it exhibits significant differences in sensitivity. It is affected by UV light. Low field
persistence.
Epiphytes
P. fluorescens, P. cepacia are plant associated bacteria. Mansanto using transposon Tn5, transferred a cry
gene from Bt subsp. kurstaki HD-1 to a corn root-colonizing. P. fluorescens strain. The recombinant strain
had pesticidal efficiency similar to Bt subsp. kurstaki HD-1. It was toxic to black cutworm Agrotis ipsilon
but not adequately effective against corn root worm Diabrotica sp.
Endophytes
Inserting a Bt cry gene into the chromosome of Clavibacter xyli subsp. Cynodontis. C. xyli is coryneform
bacterium that inhabits the xylem of the Bermuda grass C. xyli can be transformed to corn via seed
treatment. After germination, bacteria colonize xylem and express Bt protein. It will protect the stem from
damage by European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis.
Conclusion
Genetic improvement involves directed purposeful genetic alterations to enhance the efficacy of
entomopathogens can be improved for climatic tolerance, increased host range etc. Use of noval approaches
like r-DNA technology will ultimately enhances the efficacy of bacillus thuringiensis. Besides the
conventional insecticides for pest control genetic manipulation of entomopathogenic bacteria is useful and
more efficient for pest control.
References
1. Gawron, B., Baum, J. A., 1991. Genetic Manipulation of Bacillus Thuringiensis Insecticidal Crystal Protein Genes in Bacteria.
Review Genet Eng. 13:237-63.
2. Sarvjeet, K., (2000). Molecular approaches towards development of novel Bacillus thuringiensis biopesticides. World Journal
of Microbiology and Biotechnology volume 16, pp781–793
3. TEAGUE, T. G. 1993. Control of fall armyworm in sweet corn with Bacillus thuringiensis, 1991. Insecticide & Acaricide Tests
18: 127-128.
Introduction
Baculoviruses are the major group of arthropod viruses well known due to their potential as agents of
biological control of pests in agriculture and forestry. They are also widely used as expression vectors in
biotechnology. Baculoviruses are composed of double stranded DNA and it attack insects and arthropods.
They have species specific and narrow based insecticidal properties and are used as biological control
agents. They do not have negative effects on plants, birds etc. So, these can be used in organic farming.
Baculoviruses pesticides are ideal tools in integrated pest management programs as they are usually highly
specific to their host insects; thus, they do not affect other arthropods including pest predators and
parasitoids. They are also safe to vertebrates and plants and to the biosphere. Over 50 baculovirus products
have been used against different insect pests worldwide. Beside this some limitations are there while using
baculoviruses as tool for insect management viz, Slow speed to kill, poor persistence in the field, specificity
confers the “bv” powerless against pest complex. To overcome these problems genetic manipulation is better
tool.
Genetic Improvement
1. Gene deletion of Baculovirus from its genome.
2. The introduction of neurohormones into the NPV.
3. The introduction of enzymes into the NPV.
4. The introduction of insect-selected neurotoxins into the NPV.
Mutation
Ultra violet mutation – UV light, Chemical mutation – nitrosomethyl guanidine.
Natural Mutant
The mutant strain of AcNPV designated HOB produced a large number of OB in infected cells and had
higher virulence in insect than the parent
Chemical Mutant
The spruce budworm virus was grown in the presence of the mutagen nitrosomethyl guanidine.
The survivors were cloned the cloned cells isolated and examined. Among one isolate CfNTG 29 was more
virulent than the standard.
Deletion Mutant
Deletion of ecdysteroid UDP- glucosyl transferase (EGT) gene in NPV and also GV. It has been shown to
increase the speed of kill by interfering with metamorphosis and moulting. The EGT gene was identified
in several insect viruses including Ha and SlNPV.
Engineering NPVs
Nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPVs) are most commonly used for microbial insecticides for the control of
lepidopteran insects. Approaches to engineer NPVs as improved biological insecticide include deletion of
genes that encode products prolonging host survival, and insertion of genes that express an insecticidal
protein during viral replication.
Vertical Transmission
Selected a strain of virus with a higher rate of vertical transmission in S. exigua. When 5th instar of S.
frugiperda were fed the median lethal concentration of the selected virus. The survivors transmitted NPV
to 24% of their progeny, compared with 14% with the wild viral isolate. The selected NPV killed 58% of the
infected progeny insects compared with 39% with the wild viral isolate.in the corn plant.
References
1. Crook, N.E., James, J.D., Smith, R.L., and Winstanley, D. 1997. Comprehensive physical map of the Cydia pomonella
granulovirus genome and sequence analysis of the granulin gene region Journal of General Virology. 78, 965–974.
2. Fuxa, J.R., Weidner, E.H., and Richter, A.R. 1992. Polyhedra without virions in a vertically transmitted nuclear polyhedrosis
virus. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 60:53-58.
3. Harrison, R. L. and Bryony, C. B. 2001. Use of Proteases to Improve the Insecticidal Activity of Baculoviruses. Biological
Control 20, 199–209.
Introduction
Gene silencing (GS) is defined as a molecular and very efficient reverse genetic tool which down-regulates
the activity of specific genes (Dash et al., 2015). Broadly speaking, gene silencing is an epigenetic process
of gene regulation and is used to describe the ‘switching off’ of a gene by a mechanism other than the
modifications in the DNA sequence. The GS phenomenon is related to RNA activity within the cell.
Transcription can be recalled as a process of synthesis of RNA from DNA. Genetic information which is
carried by DNA is transferred in the form of RNA especially in the form of mRNA (messenger RNA). As
soon as the different types of RNA are formed inside the nucleus, it passes through the nuclear pore to the
cytoplasm. Becomes resistant to the different endo- and exo-nuclease activities present within cytoplasm
of the cell. Synthesis of messenger RNA, initially pre-mRNA and thereafter called as the mRNA. After the
formation of the mature mRNA, the genetic information which is present in the form of genetic code is
decoded in the form of protein through an important molecular mechanism called as translation. The
product of translation is the polypeptide chain or protein, the basic component of the enzymes or hormones
which is reflected in the form of various metabolic pathways, function and phenotype of an organism. GS
inhibits the expression of a gene thereby nullifying its harmful effect or by inhibiting the expression of a
harmful or deleterious gene or sometimes an appropriate gene construct is made that contains a gene
sequence to inhibit the function of a harmful gene and simultaneously introduce a beneficial gene also.
Through research, it has been found that the key factor which induces the mechanism of gene silencing is
the presence of double stranded RNA (dsRNA) in the cytoplasm (Fire et al., 1998). One of the most common
and widely employed mechanisms of gene silencing is RNA interference. This RNAi approach has opened
new avenues in the development of eco-friendly techniques for crop improvement as specific deleterious
genes are made to be suppressed which otherwise cause stress and expression of novel genes for disease
resistance (Younis et al.2014) and for other economical and agronomical traits as well. Gene silencing was
initially reported in plants, where it was denominated as Post Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS)
(Napoli et al., 1990; Zhu., 2013; Morris et al., 2014).
Main Component of RNAi Machinery for siRNA, miRNA and shRNA Generation
There are five components for siRNA, miRNA and shRNA generation:
1. Dicer: The dicer catalyzes the production of siRNAs from the long dsRNA and requires ATP for this
function. It is a large (~220kDa) multi-domain protein and act as an anti-parallel dimer.
2. Drosha: Drosha that catalyses the nuclear processing of pri-miRNA in to pre-miRNA, the stem loop
precursor of about 70 nucleotides which is further acted upon by dicer to generate miRNA.
3. RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC): RISC reaches at the target site, the endonuclease activity
of the protein of Argonaute family chops that sequence and thus renders the target gene unexpressed.
4. Argonaute (Ago): Argonaute proteins constitute the catalytic unit of the RISC (RNA induced silencing
complex). Argonaute proteins contain four conserved domains: The N- terminal, PAZ, mid and PIWI
domains.
Entomological aspects of RNAi: RNA interference (RNAi) allows for rapid and straightforward analysis of
gene function. This parental RNAi effect made possible efficient genomewide functional screens in
organism. Transfer across cell boundaries is an ancient feature of the RNAi pathway, and opens up new
applications in functional genomics and in the study of developmental evolution. (Bucher et al., 2002).
Conclusion
RNAi opened a new way for extending studies of functional genomics to many non-model insects. RNAi
secures genome stability by keeping mobile elements silent. RNAi unveil the function of new genes, lead to
discover the new function of old genes, and find the genes for old function. Some important factors
influencing the success of RNAi application in insect studies: concentration of dsRNA, nucleotide sequence,
length of the dsRNA fragment, persistence of the silencing effect, and life stage of the target insect. RNAi-
like mechanisms repress protein synthesis and regulate the development of organism. Systemic RNAi has
been used for studying a variety of functions related to development, reproduction, behaviour, immunology,
and other complex biological patterns. RNAi-like mechanisms keep chromatin condensed, suppress
transcription and inhibit translation. RNAi might be useful approach for sucking pests’ control in future.
References
1. Baum, J.A, Bogaert, T, Clinton W, (2007) Control of coleopteran insect pests through RNA interference. Nature Biotechnology
25, 1322–1326.
2. Bucher, G, Scholten, G and Klingler, M, 2017. Parental RNAi in Tribolium (Coleoptera). Current Biology Vol 12 No 3.
3. Dalmay, T., Hamilton, A, Rudd, S, Angell, S., Baulcombe, D.C, 2000. An RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene in Arabidopsis
is required for posttranscriptional gene silencing mediated by a transgene but not by a virus. Cell 101, 543–553.
4. Dash, S.K, Mohapatra, S.K, Malik, H.N, 2015. RNA Interference – A fine tuner of gene regulation: a Review. International
Journal of Biotechnology and Molecular Biology Research 6, 35–39.
5. Fire, A., Xu, S, Montgomery, M.K, Kostas, S.A, Driver, S.E, Mello, C.C, 1998. Potent and specific genetic interference by
double-stranded RNA in C. elegans. Nature 391, 806–811.
6. Huang, G, Allen, R, Davis, E. L, Baum, T. J. & Hussey, R. S. 2006. Engineering broad root-knot resistance in transgenic plants
by RNAi silencing of a conserved and essential root-knot nematode parasitism gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103, 14302–
14306 (2006).
7. Morris, K.V, Mattick, J.S, 2014. The rise of regulatory RNA. Nature Reviews Genetics 15, 423–437.
8. Morris, K.V, Mattick, J.S, 2014. The rise of regulatory RNA. Nature Reviews Genetics 15, 423–437.
9. Napoli, C, Lemieux, C, Jorgensen, R.,1990. Introduction of a chimeric chalcone synthase gene into petunia results in reversible
co-suppression of homologous genes in trans. Plant Cell 2, 279–89.
10. Smith, T.M.B, Anderson, J.C, Martin, G.B, Kumar, S.P.D, 2004. Applications and advantages of virus-induced gene silencing
for gene function studies in plants. The Plant Journal 39, 734–746.
Introduction
The term ‘Agro-informatics’ is a fusion of agriculture and information technology with innovative ideas,
techniques and scientific knowledge. It is an application of information technology in agriculture which
would benefit the students, researchers, organizations, entrepreneurs and also transform the livelihood of
the farmers. Thus, Information Technology (IT) led agriculture is all about how to use information, compute
and communicate agricultural information to the farming community.
Information technology which is a set of various practical tools and resources supports to communicate,
transmit, deposit and handle information. It includes computer, internet, network devices, software, and
satellites, broadcasting technologies like radio, television and telephony. Apart from this it requires
services and tasks linked with it for example email, web portals, video-conferencing, SMS, etc. The role of
information technology is to ensure that the users get the right information, in right form, in right time.
Thus, information technology is helpful to communicate the knowledge.
In developing country like India transformation in agriculture with information technology is the need of
hour as agriculture is the main source of national income. The generation and application of agricultural
knowledge is progressively important, particularly for small and marginal farmers, who require relevant
information in order to improve, sustain, and expand their farm enterprises.
Farm management
Processing
Logistics
Marketing
Thus, if IT tools are used effectively in agricultural sector, the farmers can produce quality products with
higher yield and avoid post-harvest losses. Further, it helps to overcome technology dissemination loss and
to provide direct access to farmers to improved expertise as well as products of technology. It also provides
an opportunity to different divisions as well as the centres to have resource generation through sale of their
technologies.
Introduction
Pesticides are chemical compounds that are used to control pests, including weeds. Pesticides include
herbicide, insecticide, nematicides, molluscicide, piscicide, avicide, rodenticide, bactericide, insect
repellent, animal repellent, antimicrobial, and fungicide.
Pesticides are used from a longer period. As comparing from other ways like using bio pesticides, predators,
parasites etc are very time taking and high cost while using pesticides it’s a essay and quick method to get
rid form pest in the field. But using pesticides having many drawbacks like they regard to be dangerous
for humans and animals. As seeing these drawbacks, a draft order issued by the Ministry of Agriculture
and Farmers Welfare called Banning of Insecticides order 2020. Government to ban 27 pesticides and
insecticides in India by sub section 27 read with section 28 and sub- section(1) of section 36 of the
insecticides Act, 1968.
Conclusion
Pesticides are important substances for controlling the pests in the field condition so that we can get
healthy crops and high production. By using pesticides which are highly toxic or more use of it can causes
many major problems from crops, environment including human beings. So as concerning about benefit of
all living organism and for our better eco-friendly future the government of India banned these pesticides.
As these pesticides are banned in many countries and present alternatives of pesticides are also available
in India.
References
1. https://m.economictimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/chem-/-fertilisers/government-plans-to-ban-27-
pesticides/articleshow/75839949.cms
2. http://news.agropages.com/News/NewsDetail---35291.htm
3. https://www.grainmart.in/news/government-to-ban-27-pesticides-and-insecticides-in-india/
4. Agricoop.nic.in/Banning of insecticides pdf.
Abstract
Groundwater trends are declining throughout the world due to the continuous increase of ground water
withdrawal to meet the daily needs of growing population. The groundwater in the shallow aquifers gets
replenished annually and therefore, the status of water levels and its fluctuation play a key role in the
assessment of groundwater. The pre-monsoon and post-monsoon groundwater levels indicate the degree of
saturation and extent of recharge in the hard rock aquifers. The spatial and temporal graphical analysis
for the observation sites of the unconfined aquifer indicated that there is a good hydraulic connection of
groundwater level with the rainfall. The aims of this study to evaluate the spatial and temporal changes
in the groundwater level and fluctuation during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon.
Introduction
Ground water and surface water are in a continuous dynamic interaction. They interact in a variety of
physiographic and climatic landscapes. The alteration or contamination of one commonly affects the other
(Yang and Wang 2010; Sophocleous 2002; Winter et al., 1999). For instance, pumping of ground water can
deplete the level of water in streams, lakes or wetlands; and surface water bodies also deplete the ground
water (Chang and Anderson, 1993).
As part of the water cycle, some precipitation infiltrates the ground and percolates down until it reaches a
depth where all the fractures, crevices and pore spaces are saturated with water. The upper surface of a
zone of saturation is the water table. Water from beneath the ground has been exploited for domestic use,
livestock and irrigation since the earliest times. Although the precise nature of its occurrence was not
necessarily understood, successful methods of bringing the water to the surface have been developed and
groundwater use has grown consistently ever since.
It is, however, common for the dominant role of groundwater in the freshwater part of the hydrological
cycle to be overlooked. Water is drawn from the ground for a variety of uses, principally community water
supply, farming (both livestock and irrigated cultivation) and industrial processes. Unlike surface water,
groundwater is rarely used in situ for non-consumptive purposes such as recreation and fisheries, except
occasionally where it comes to the surface as springs.
Consequently, ground-water is invariably directed towards factors which may lessen the suitability of
pumped groundwater with respect to its potability and use in agriculture and industry (Palanichamy,
2017). Groundwater resources are explored in nature with the development of Irrigation activities,
Industrialization and urbanization. The lowering of groundwater levels has resulted in reduction in
individual well yield, growth in well population, failure of bore wells, drying up of dug wells and increase
in power consumption (Imtiyaz and Rao, 2008).
Groundwater is often developed without proper understanding of its occurrence in time and space and is,
therefore, threatened by over-exploitation and contamination. For that reason, groundwater management
is the key to combat the emerging problem of water security. Knowledge of water table depth is a crucial
element in many hydrological investigations, including agricultural salinity management, landfill
characterization, chemical seepage movement, and water supply studies (Buchanan and Triantafilis, 2009).
Conclusion
The fluctuation of in the level of underground water is depend on distribution and amount of rainfall and
the quality of groundwater was much better in post-monsoon phase as compared to that of the pre-monsoon
References
1. Buchanan, S. &Triantafilis, J., (2009). Mapping water table depth using geophysical and environmental variables,
Groundwater, 47:80-96.
2. Cheng X, Anderson MP (1993) Numerical-simulation of groundwater interaction with lakes allowing for fluctuating lake levels.
Ground Water 31(6):929–933
3. Imtiyaz, M. &Rao, D.J.M., (2008). Influence of overexploitation on groundwater ecosystem in hard rock terrain, Proceedings
of International Groundwater Conference, March 19-22, Jaipur, India.88
4. Jinwal, A. and Dixit, S., (2008). Pre-and post-monsoon variation in physico-chemical characteristics in groundwater quality of
Bhopal “The City of Lakes” India. Asian Journal of Experimental Sciences, 22(3): 311-316.
5. Kannel, P.R., Lee, S. and Lee, Y.S., (2008). Assessment of spatial–temporal patterns of surface and ground water qualities and
factors influencing management strategy of groundwater system in an urban river corridor of Nepal. Journal of Environmental
Management, 86(4): 595-604.
6. ME, M.E. and Senthilkumar, V., (2018). Geo-Chemical Analysis for Groundwater Quality Using Geospatial Application.
Methods, 5(04).
7. Nema, S., Awasthi, M.K. and Nema, R.K., (2017). Spatial and temporal ground water responses to seasonal rainfall
replenishment in an alluvial aquifer. An International Peer Reviewed Open Access Journal for Rapid Publication, 431.
8. Palanichamy, A., (2017). Application of GIS in the Investigation of Groundwater Level and Fluctuation in Tiruchirappalli
District, Tamil Nadu. International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences, 7(4):343-351.
9. Pathak, Rishi, et al (2017) ''Impact of Ground Water Recharge and Withdrawal on Water Table Fluctuation in Alluvial Area.''
International Journal of Agriculture Sciences 9(36):4546-4549.
10. Pritchard, M., Mkandawire, T. and O’neill, J.G., (2008). Assessment of groundwater quality in shallow wells within the
southern districts of Malawi. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 33(8-13):812-823.
11. Rahman, A.S., Kamruzzaman, M., Jahan, C.S., Mazumder, Q.H. and Hossain, A., (2016). Evaluation of spatio-temporal
dynamics of water table in NW Bangladesh: an integrated approach of GIS and Statistics. Sustainable Water Resources
Management, 2(3):297-312.
12. Rede, H.N., (2012). A Study of Fluctuations in the Level of Underground Water in Jalna District, Maharashtra State, India.
Geoscience Research, 3(2):109.
13. Sophocleous M (2002) Interactions between groundwater and surface water: the state of the science. Hydrogeol Journal 52–67
14. Thilagavathi, N., Subramani, T., Suresh, M. and Ganapathy, C., (2014). Rainfall variation andgroundwater fluctuation in
SalemChalk Hills area, Tamil Nadu, India. International Journal of Application or innovation in Engineering & Management
(IJAIEM) Volume, 3.
15. Winter TC (1999) Relation of streams, lakes, and wetlands to groundwater flow systems. Hydrogeol Journal 7:28–45.
16. Yang YS, Wang L (2010) A review of modeling tools for implantation of the EU water framework directive in handling diffuse
water pollution. Water Resource Management 24:1819–1843.
Introduction
From times immemorial there are many conventional methods for detection of insects in stored grain in
large bulks in storage godowns where different techniques like acoustics which relies on sound produced
by insects during feeding and movement on the grain bulks were used where in equipment used in this
technique are Microphones and Piezoelectric sensors, another method is Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy
which provides information based on the reflectance properties of different substances present in a product,
based on the absorption of electromagnetic wavelengths in the range 780–2500 nm.
Detection of contamination by Tribolium confusum based on molecular biology techniques of standard and
real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was done where Sequences of internal transcribed spacer (ITS)
fragment of rDNA and subunit I of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase of T. confusum were chosen wherein
DNA samples isolated from contaminated oat flakes and uncontaminated oat flakes were selected, This
approach makes it possible to assess the presence of infestation with T. confusum quantitatively. The
Conclusion
Molecular biology techniques used for detection have proved to be rapid and reliable and allow for large-
scale analysis of multiple samples and are highly sensitive in detecting one insect per kilogram of infested
grain.
References
1. Fleurat F and Pronier V.Genetic differentiation at the inter- and intra-specific level of stored grain insects using a simple
molecular approach (RAPD). 9th International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection:446.
2. Ming Q., Wang A and Cheng C. Molecular identification of Tribolium castaneum and T. confusum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)
using PCR-RFLP analysis. Journal of Genetics. 2014;93(1):17-21.
3. Nowaczy K., Obrepalska-Steplowska A., Gawlak M., Throne E., Olejarski P and Nawrot J. 2009. Molecular Techniques for
Detection of Tribolium confusum Infestations in Stored Products. Journal of Economic Entomology, 102(4);1691–1695.
Weather forecasting is a complex science. Several models are working to predict future weather. The
accuracy of weather predictions has increased over time, but it is still not 100% accurate. Artificial
Intelligence could be employed to improve the accuracy and reliability of weather forecasting.
Introduction
Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the conditions of the atmosphere
for a given location and time. It helps people to prepare more meticulously in response to the possible
natural disaster that might occur. It can help farmers make decisions about farming, like planting,
harvesting and other agricultural operations. Weather forecasting is a complex science. It deals with
massive data sets collected from thousands of weather satellites every day. Gathering the data, identifying
patterns in the observations made, and then deducing results to get accurate weather predictions can be
quite strenuous. Besides, almost all of this needs to be done in real-time. To prevent disasters, it is
absolutely important that weather data is collected and analysed in real-time. Given the inherent
complexity involved in weather prediction, scientists are now using AI for weather forecasting to obtain
refined and accurate results, fast!
Why AI is Necessary?
Weather forecasting is something of an educated guess. We cannot control the weather; the best
meteorologists can do, is to use past and present data and patterns to attempt to predict the future. The
traditional models of weather forecasting are based on statistical measures of numeric models, and it does
not give answers in binary. As the atmosphere is constantly changing, estimates over long periods have
proved to be very difficult to model and predict. The data collected can be from deep space satellites (e.g.,
NOAA’s Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR), weather balloons, radar systems, now casting
weather warnings and environmental analytics and sometimes from IoT based sensors. The accuracy of
weather predictions has increased over time, but it is still not 100% accurate. But with ever-increasing
data set, changing atmospheric conditions, the accuracy of the predictions may fluctuate, especially for
more extended periods. But this is where AI could be employed to improve the accuracy and reliability of
weather forecasting.
Some Reviews
In 1996, IBM was one of the first companies to use computer systems to improve predictions about the
weather. Now, after purchasing The Weather Company in 2016 and its properties, including weather.com,
Weather Underground, the Weather Company Brand, and WSI, IBM plans to use Weather Company’s
extensive data set with IBM Watson’s advanced cognitive computing capabilities and Cloud platform to
transform the weather forecasting future. The result of this merger is IBM Deep Thunder. Deep thunder
offers its’ business customers hyper-local weather forecasts with a 0.2 to 1.2-mile resolution (3).
A researcher team at NOAA found that “applying AI techniques along with a physical understanding of
the environment can significantly improve the prediction skill for multiple types of high-impact weather.”
This type of weather includes events like severe thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes. Last year
another team of researchers at Penn State, AccuWeather, Inc., and the University of Almeria in Spain
designed a computer model that can detect the movement of “comma-shaped” clouds in the satellite images.
These clouds are hard to be noticed and are associated with cyclone formations. This model can forecast
results with 99 percent accuracy, at an average of 40 seconds per prediction (3).
Google’s AI forecast tool that is based on the UNET convolutional neural network (CNN) allows researchers
to generate accurate rainfall predictions six hours ahead of when the precipitation occurs. CNN is a
sequence of layers of mathematical operations arranged in an encoding phase. It takes the input satellite
imagery and then transforms them into output images. The layers iteratively decrease the resolution of the
images passing through them in an encoding phase, and the low-dimensional representations of the image
created by the encoding phase are expanded back to higher resolutions in the following decoding phase (4).
Summary
The weather forecasting features of AI are multifold, from helping in disaster management to logistics and
retail industry to agriculture. Someday we can use it for radar imagery to detect storm centres, high
precipitation in the world and pest seasons. These are some advantages and disadvantages of Artificial
Intelligence. Every new invention or breakthrough will have both, but we as humans need to take care of
that and use the positive sides of the invention to create a better world. Clearly, artificial intelligence has
massive potential advantages. The key for humans will ensure the “rise of the robots” doesn’t get out of
hand. Some people also say that Artificial intelligence can destroy human civilization if it goes into wrong
hands. But still, none of the AI application made at that scale that can destroy or enslave humanity. But
one should not forget that despite boosting the accuracy levels, weather forecasting can never be a hundred
percent specific. The idea is to overcome the current shortcoming in the prediction and analysis process,
which is where Artificial Intelligence is filling the gaps.
References
1. https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/artificial_intelligence.htm
2. https://interestingengineering.com/ai-might-be-the-future-for-weather-forecasting
3. https://www.allerin.com/blog/transforming-weather-forecast-with-ai
4. https://www.analyticsinsight.net/ai-empowering-weather-forecasting-technology/
Introduction
The Fourth Assessment Report of the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has
reconfirmed that the global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (C02), methane and nitrous oxide,
greenhouse gases (GHGs), have increased markedly as a result of human activities since 1750 and now far
exceed pre-industrial values determined from ice cores spanning many thousands of years. The IPCC has
projected that temperature increase by the end of this century is expected to be in the range of 1.8- 4.0°C
(IPCC 2007a). For Indian region (south Asia), the IPCC has projected 0.5-1.2°C rise in temperature by
2020, 0.88-3.16 °C by 2050 and 1.56-5.44°C by 2080 depending on the scenario of future development (IPCC
2007b). Globally, carbon dioxide concentration increases from 316 ppm in 1960 to 411 ppm in 2019. Such
global climatic changes will affect agriculture through their direct and indirect effects on crops, soils,
livestock and pests. Increase in temperature, depending on the current ambient temperature, on the other
hand, can reduce crop duration, increase crop respiration rates, affect the survival and distribution of pest
populations, hasten nutrient mineralization in soils, decrease fertilizer-use efficiencies and increase
evapotranspiration. Indirectly, there may be considerable impact on agricultural land-use due to snow
melt, availability of irrigation, frequency and intensity of inter- and intra-seasonal droughts and floods,
soil organic matter transformations, soil erosion, decline in arable areas (due to submergence of coastal
lands) and availability of energy.
Conclusion
Soil carbon sequestration is an important cost-effective tool in climate change mitigation program.
Conservation agriculture, organic farming, agroforestry and biochar application can easily be adopted and
these practices have positive impact on soil carbon sequestration and crop productivity. Crop diversification
Future Aspects
Long-term impacts of conservation agricultural practices on soil quality still need to be assessed.
Standardized methodologies are required for estimating above and below - ground C stocks to improve the
reliability of data Any single process cannot improve the carbon sequestration in soil. Therefore, there is
need of multidisciplinary approach with scientist, farmers, and policy-makers to come together for
mitigating this threat.
References
1. Das, T.K. 2012. Conservation agriculture for enhancing crop productivity and resource-use efficiency (Challenge Programme),
Annual Report 2011–12, Division of Agronomy. IARI, New Delhi, p 45.
2. IPCC. 2007a. Climate Change 2007. The Physical Science Basis. Summary for Policymakers. Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change.
3. IPCC. 2007b. Climate Change 2007. Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Summary for Policymakers.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
4. Lal, R. 2004. Soil carbon sequestration impact on global climate change and food security. Science 304:1623–1627.
5. Lal, R. 2007. Carbon management in agricultural soils. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 12: 303–322.
6. Pathak, H., Aggarwal, P.K., Singh, S.D. 2012. Climate change impact, adaptation and mitigation in agriculture: methodology
for assessment and applications. Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, pp 1-302.
There is a complex relationship between plant parasitic nematodes, plants and soil climate and soil
environment. Soil environment includes soil temperature, soil pH, soil texture, soil chemical composition,
soil aeration etc. the spectrum of nematode population at a given point of time is the result of interactive
ambient of abiotic and biotic factors. The principal characters in the soil environment are discussed below.
Abiotic Factors
1. Temperature
2. Moisture and Aeration
3. Texture
4. Osmotic Pressure
5. Chemicals
6. pH.
Biotic Factors
1. Host plants
2. Micro-organisms
3. Distribution.
Soil Temperature
1. Temperature plays an important role in nematode activities like hatching, reproduction, movement,
multiplication, survival, feeding etc.
2. It affects the nematode activities like hatching, reproduction, survivability, movement, development of
nematodes.
3. 5-150C – most of the nematodes remains inactive.
4. Most of the plant parasitic nematodes have optimum thermal requirements between 15-300C.
5. 30 – 400C- most nematode remains inactive.
6. But further extremes of lower and upper limits may be lethal.
7. By applying hot water at 180-degree F for 3 hrs all nematodes will die.
8. M. hapla survives well in <15⁰C for growth and development.
Ex. H. rostochiensis:
a. Invading host: 15 -160⁰ C
b. Cyst emergence: 21-250⁰ C
c. Development: 18-240⁰ C
Soil Moisture
Agriculture soils are best with wide fluctuations in soil moisture.
1. Fluctuation in soil temperature due to rainfall or irrigation influence nematode population in the soil.
2. Soil aeration is inversely related to moisture content.
3. Nematodes require a thin film of water for their biological activities.
4. In Meloidogyne incognita flooding of the soil for 2 weeks regulate the nematode population. Due to the
flooding, deficiency of oxygen and fatty acids are released.
5. Eggs of the most of the nematodes are well protected under desiccated condition. Due to the presence of
gelatinous matrix it protects the egg from desiccation.
Soil Texture
1. The relative proportion of sand, silt and clay determines the soil texture.
2. In coarse texture soil there is high percentage of sand and large pore space which drains the soil very
quickly than the fine texture soils.
3. Many of the cyst nematodes, root knot nematodes are found in coarse texture soil.
4. However sugar beet cyst nematode and some sps of lesion nematode, stunt nematode is heavy in clay
soils.
5. Certain nematodes prove more pathogenic in light textured soil.
6. Ex: Heterodera avenae on wheat and barley.
7. Rotylenchus reniformis thrive well in fine and medium textured soils.
Soil Chemicals
1. The concentration of chemical constituents of soil fluctuates drastically depending upon soil moisture
content.
2. The use of chemical fertilizer, organic manures, pesticides etc. further add to the dynamism of soil
chemistry.
Soil pH
1. pH does not affect the nematodes directly.
2. Severely affects in hatching.
3. Variation in nematode activity is mainly due to soil pH.
4. They can exist within normal pH range (4-8) of agricultural soils, provided it safe for host plant growth.
5. Reduction in pH from 6 to 4 decreases the emergence of juveniles of H. rostochinensis.
6. Pratylenchus penetrans optimum pH: 5.5-5.8.
Osmotic Pressure
1. Osmotic pressure also plays role in influencing nematode population.
2. Most of the nematodes can tolerate up to 10atm.
3. Osmotic pressure acts as stimulating agents.
4. Ex- Juveniles of Heterodera schachtii shrink in concentration of Nacl solution.
5. More number of root knot nematodes are found in high saline soils.
6. Osmotic destruction occurs in nematodes.
7. Ex- Meloidogyne Arenaria.
Organic Amendments
1. During decomposition of organic matter, microbial population of parasitic and predaceous fungi and also
bacteria, nematodes, tardigrades, collembolan their population increase. They suppress the nematodes in
soil system.
Micro Organisms
1. Soil microorganisms in the rhizosphere influences nematodes in various ways.
2. The microorganisms are mostly antagonist to plant parasitic nematodes.
3. During decomposition process lot of gasses, organic acids like oxalic acids, fumaric acids, acetic acid and
nitric acid are released.
4. These gaseous compounds are nematocidal in nature.
5. In flooded situation when anaerobic condition arises H2s gas are released to maintain the equilibrium.
6. The nature of damage by nematodes to plants may be drastically influenced by other plant pathogenic
organisms (fungi, bacteria and virus) present in rhizosphere.
7. Nematodes actively interact with these organisms resulting in disease complexes which are common
places in nature.
Distribution
1. The locomotion of nematodes per sec is very limited.
2. They can hardly move a few cm in a year by their own movement.
3. They can spread by various means.
4. Short distance spread is usually facilitated by irrigation, agricultural machinery, wind, livestock, etc.
5. Long distance occurs through plant propagating material, seedlings, saplings etc.
References
1. Griffin, G. D., Asay, K. H., and Horton, W. H. 1996. Factors affecting populations trends of plant-parasitic nematodes on
rangeland grasses. Journal of Nematology 28:107-114.
2. Wallace, H. R. 1971. Abiotic influences in the soil environment. Pages 257-280 in: Plant Parasitic Nematodes. Vol. I. B. M.
Zuckermann, W. F. Mai, and R. A. Rohde, eds. Academic Press, New York.
3. Wallace MK, Rust RH, Hawkins DM, MacDonald DH. Correlation of edaphic factors with plant-parasitic nematode population
densities in a forage-field. Journal of Nematology. 1993;25:642–653.
Introduction
In recent years the area of genetic engineering has provided an altogether new approach for circumventing
the use of chemical insecticides for controlling the insects and pests. This approach employs the techniques
of molecular biology whereby genes coding for insecticidal proteins can be identified, isolated, mobilized
and expressed in crop plants.
Such transgenic plants thus acquire the ability which is heritable to protect themselves from insect pest
attack. Genes for insecticidal proteins like delta endotoxin, protease inhibitors, α-amylase inhibitors,
lectins, cholesterol oxidases and vegetative insecticidal proteins have been identified against the insect
pests.
Proteinase Inhibitors
Insect proteinases are essential digestive enzymes that catalyse the release of amino acids from dietary
protein to provide the nutrients required for larval growth and development. Whereas serine proteinases
(trypsin-, chymotrypsin- and elastase like proteinases) are predominant in lepidopteran midgut, midguts
of coleopteran species are rich in cysteine and aspartic proteinases.
The mode of PI action on insects is still under debate, and it remains to ascertain whether PIs’ deleterious
effects stem from an anti-digestive effect through proteolysis inhibition or from a toxic effect by inducing
proteinases hyperproduction, leading to a shortage in amino acids. PIs can also affect the water balance,
moulting and enzyme regulation of the insects. Consequences are reduced growth and development of
insects but also death. PIs reduces proteolytic enzyme activity in vitro in a number of insect species.
α-Amylase Inhibitor
Protein α-amylase inhibitors are widespread and have been isolated from a variety of plant species and
microorganisms. The physiological role of α-amylase inhibitors in plants is uncertain, but there is some
evidence that they may act as protein reserve in seeds. α-amylase inhibitors function in a similar manner
as proteinase inhibitors, interfering with insect nutrient utilization.
Lectins
Lectins are a group of proteins that are found in plants and they discourage predation by being harmful to
various types of insects and animals that eat plants. The best-characterized family of plants lectins are
Fabaceae, Poaceae and Solanaceae; especially some of leguminous seeds have a remarkable amount of
lectin. Different food crops such as tomato, wheat, rice, potato, soybean and bean contain lectins.
The great majority of the plant lectins are present in seed cotyledons but a lot of them are also found in the
protein bodies such as roots, leaf, stems, rhizomes, bark, bulbs, tubers, corms, fruits, flowers, ovaries,
phloem sap, latex, nodule andNew Perspectives in Plant Protection even in nectar. Plant lectins function
as storage proteins and they have been implicated in defence mechanisms against phytophagus insects.
Cholesterol Oxidase
Screening of filtrates from microbial fermentation often reveals presence of certain proteins which attack
some insects. Transgenic leaf tissues expressing cholesterol oxidase exerted insecticidal activity against
boll weevil larvae.
Conclusion
This new technology is seen as an additional tool for the control of insect pest and could offer certain
advantages over conventional use of insecticides, such as more effective targeting on specific insects,
greater resilience to weather conditions, no question of seasonal application, operator exposure and most
importantly eco-friendly system.
References
1. Crickmore, N., Zeigler, D.R., Feitelson, J., Schnepf, E., van Rie, J., Lereclus, D., Baum, J., and Dean, D.H. 1998. Revision of
the nomenclature for the Bacillus thuringiensis pesticidal crystal proteins. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev.pp. 807–813.
2. Damme, E.J.M., Peumans, W.J., Pusztai, A. & Bardocz S., 1998. Handbook of plant lectins: properties and biomedical
applications. Bognor Regis, UK: John Wiley and Sons.
3. Lightwood, D. J., David J. E., and Paul, J. 2000. Role of Proteolysis in Determining Potency of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac
δ-Endotoxin. Applied Environmental Microbiology. 66(12): 5174–5181.
4. Richardson, M. (1980) Protein inhibitors of enzymes. Journal of Food Chemistry. 6, 235-253. Ryan, C. A. (1983) Insect induced
chemicals signals regulating natural plant protection responses. In Variable Plant and Herbivores in Natural and Managed
Systems (Edited by Deno B. and McClure M.), pp. 43-60.
Introduction
Vermicomposting is a mesophilic bio oxidative process in which detritivorous earthworm interacts with
microbes and soil invertebrates within decomposer community, strongly affecting decomposition process,
accelerating the stabilization of organic matter and inhancing its physical and biochemical properties.
Vermicompost is an odourless, stabilized, dark brown, finely divided peat-like material with a low C: N
ratio, high porosity and high water-holding capacity bio product in which most nutrients are present in
available forms for plant.
Also called vermicasts as they are expelled as casts from the earthworm gut. Vermicompost contain
nutrients such as nitrates, exchangeable phosphorus, soluble potassium, calcium, and magnesium in plant
available forms and have large particular surface area that provides many microsites for microbial activity
and for the strong retention of nutrients.
The actions of the earthworms in this process are both physical and biochemical. The physical actions
include fragmentation, turnover and aeration. Whereas biochemical actions include nitrogen enrichment,
enzymatic digestion, transport of inorganic and organic materials. Soil volume, microflora and fauna
influenced by earthworms have been termed as drilosphere.
Type of Earthworms
Ideal earthworms (Epigeic species) for vermicomposting Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae, Perionyx
excavates. E. Foetida is most widely used species in vermicomposting. Earthworms are classified into
epigeic, aneceic and endogeic species based on definite ecological and trophic functions.
Aneceic earthworms are Lumbricus terrestris, Lumbricus, Polyphemus Aporrectodea longa. Epigeics and
aneceics are harnessed largely for vermicomposting. Epigeics such as Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae,
Perionyx excavates, Eisenia anderi have been used in converting organic wastes into vermicompost.
Some others earthworms are as follows: Dendrobaena rubida, D. veneta, Eudrilus hortensis, Eudrilus.
Eugeniae, Eudrilus Andrei Amynthas diffringens, Eisenia fetida, A. morrisi, Lampito mauritii, Metaphire
anomala, M. birmanica, Perionyx excavates, P. sansibaricus, Megascolex megascolex, Pontoscolex
corethrurus, Octochaetona serrata, O. surensis, Pheritima elongata, P. posthuman, Bimastos parvus. The
quality of the end product differs with the species and ecological groups of earthworms.
Microbial Diversity
Earthworm have the potential to increase plant nutrient availability by the activity of earthworm gut
microflora. Vermicompost harbours so many microbes including bacteria, fungus, actinomycetes etc.
Fungus species: Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, penicillium; yeast: Saprophyte, Cladosporium etc.
Nutrient Content
Vermicomposts are rich source of available nutrients such as organic carbon 9.15-17.98%, total nitrogen
0.5-1.5%, available phosphorus 0.1-0.3%, available potassium 0.15%, calcium and magnesium 22.70 -70
mg/100 g, copper 2 - 9.3 ppm, zinc 5.7-11.5 ppm and available sulphur 128–548 ppm. Large particular
surface area that provides many microsites for microbial activity and for the strong retention of nutrients
(Shi-wei and Fu-zhen 1991). Earthworms lower down the pH and C: N ratio in manure.
Chemical analysis showed vermicompost had a lower pH, EC, organic carbon (OC), C: N ratio), nitrogen
and potassium and higher amounts of total phosphorous and micronutrients compared to the parent
material. Humic acid substances occur naturally in mature animal manure, sewage sludge or paper-mill
sludge, but vermicomposting drastically increases the rate of production and their amount from 40–60
percent compared to traditional composting.
Vermicomposting increased the concentration of nitrate-nitrogen to 28fold after 17 weeks, while in
conventional compost there was only 3-fold increase. The observed increase of total phosphorous in
vermicompost is probably due to mineralization and mobilization of phosphorus resulting from the
enhanced phosphatase activity by microorganisms in the gut epithelium of the earthworm.
The variability in the effects of vermicompost may depend on the cultivation system into which it is
incorporated, as well as on the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of vermicompost, which
vary widely depending on the original feedstock, the earthworm species used, the production process, and
the age of vermicompost. Vermicompost has more available nutrients per kg weight than the organic
substrate from which it is produced.
Biochemical Composition
Wormcasts contain higher activities of cellulase, amylase, invertase, protease, peroxidase, urease,
phosphatase and dehydrogenase. Mucus, excreted through the earthworm`s digestive canal, stimulates
antagonism -and competition between diverse microbial populations resulting in the production of some
antibiotics and hormone-like biochemicals, boosting plant growth. Digestive enzymes like amylase,
cellulase, protease, lipase, mannase, chitinase have also been reported from the alimentary canal of
earthworms.
The maximum enzyme activities (cellulase, amylase, invertase, protease and urease) were observed during
21–35 days in vermicomposting and on 42–49 days in conventional composting. Four species of indian
earthworms such as Octochaetona surensis, L. mauritii, D. calebi and Dichogaster balaui rich source of
protease, amylase, cellulose, invertase and urease enzymes. Higher activity of amylase, cellobiase,
endoglucanase, acid phosphatase and nitrate reductase found in the gut of E. eugniae and E. fetida.
Benefits
Influence the growth, productivity of plants, germination percent etc due to their micro and macro
elements, vitamins, enzymes and hormones. Uptake of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and
magnesium (Mg) by plant enhanced when fertilizer was applied in combination. There are so many benefits
which are as follows: Plant growth promotion, Oxalate degradation, Improved distribution of nodules on
some leguminous plant, Increased root nodulation and nitrogen fixation in legumes, Antimicrobial activity,
promote free-living N2 fixers, Plant growth promotion by nitrification, phosphate solubilisation and plant
disease suppression, Antifungal activity, Antagonistic activity.
It is used by gardeners and landscapers as a soil amendment. Improve soil structure by enhancing soil
porosity, aeration, and moisture holding capacity resulting in enhanced plant growth.
Conclusion
An ideal organic waste manure because it provides available nutrient in soil and also enhance the soil
fertility by adding beneficial microbes, biochemical substances to soils. It is an attractive approach for the
treatment of organic waste, particularly in areas where there is no functioning of organic waste
management. A cost-effective tool for environmentally sound waste management.
Weather is one of the most important factors affecting the agricultural production. Every phase of growth
and development in plant is affected by weather. Among the various weather parameters, rainfall and its
distribution fluctuate greatly as compare to the other parameters. Any variability in the rainfall during
the crop season, such as delay in onset of monsoon, excessive rains and prolong dry spells would affect the
crop growth and finally the quality and quantity of the produce. Adoption of the real time contingencies in
crop management based on weather forecasts can minimize crop losses.
GKMS Project
Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa project (GKMS), is a central govt. sponsored scheme in collaboration with
India Meteorological Department, ministry of Earth Sciences (Mo ES) is a mechanism to apply relevant
meteorological information to help the farmer make the most efficient use of natural resources.
It becomes more and more important to supply climatological information blended with seasonal climate
forecasts before the start of the start cropping season as well as crop growing period. It was implemented
in the year 2017. Farmers can register through the website of Agrimet Division (www.imdagrimet.gov.in)
to utilize these services by visiting the following link:
http://imdagrimet.gov.in/farmer/FarmerRegistrationFrontpage/welcome.php. It issues advisories every
Tuesday and Friday and under extreme weather conditions.
Benefits of GKMS
A typical Agromet Advisory Bulletin in GKMS scheme enables farmers to reap benefits of the benevolent
weather and minimize or mitigate the impacts of adverse weather are:
1. District specific weather forecast, in quantitative term, for next 5-6 days for weather parameters like
rainfall, clod, maximum/ minimum temperature, wind speed/direction and relative humidity, including fore
warning of hazardous weather events (cyclone, hailstorm, heat/cold waves, drought and flood etc.) likely
to cause stress on standing crop and suggestions to protect the crop from them.
2. Weather forecast based information on soil moisture status and guidance for application of irrigation,
fertilizer and herbicides etc.
3. Advisories on dates of sowing/planting and suitability of carrying out intercultural operations covering
the entire crop spectrum from pre-sowing to post harvest to guide farmer in his day-to-day cultural
operations.
4. Weather forecast based forewarning system for major pests and diseases of principle crops and advises
on plant protection measures.
Adapting Measures Against Climate Change Taken by the Farmers through GKMS
1. Selection of suitable crop variety.
2. Adjustment of sowing/planting window.
3. Judicious use of fertilizer, herbicide, insecticide and fungicide.
4. Diversified cropping System- Crop rotation/ intercropping/ mixed cropping etc.
References
1. https://csa.guide/csa/india-s-integrated-agro-meteorological-advisory-service-aas
2. https://www.mssrf.org/content/gramin-krishi-mausam-sewa-gkms
3. https://amssdelhi.gov.in/MET_CENTRES/MCSRINAGAR/gkms_project.pdf
Abstract
The Aloe vera plant has been known and used for centuries for its health, beauty, medicinal and skin care
properties. The aloe vera plant, its properties, uses for woman beauty and income generation in rural
woman is briefly reviewed in this article.
Introduction
Aloe vera is a plant with height of almost 60–100 cm containing very short stem or stemless long leaves,
and belongs to the family Liliacae. The Aloe vera plant has been known and used for centuries for its health,
beauty, medicinal and skin care properties. The name Aloe vera derives from the Arabic word “Alloeh”
meaning “shining bitter substance,” while “vera” in Latin means “true.” 2000 years ago, the Greek scientists
regarded Aloe vera as the universal panacea. The Egyptians called Aloe “the plant of immortality.” There
are over 550 species of aloe grown around the world (World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, Royal
Botanic Garden Kew, 2013). However, only two species are grown today commercially, with Aloe
barbadensis Miller and Aloe aborescens Miller being the most popular.
Anatomy
The plant has triangular, fleshy leaves with serrated edges, yellow tubular flowers and fruits that contain
numerous seeds (Figure 1.0). Each leaf is composed of three layers:
1. An inner clear gel that contains 99% water and rest is made of glucomannans, amino acids, lipids, sterols
and vitamins.
2. The middle layer of latex which is the bitter yellow sap and contains anthraquinones and glycosides.
3. The outer thick layer of 15–20 cells called as rind which has protective function and synthesizes
carbohydrates and proteins. Inside the rind are vascular bundles responsible for transportation of
substances such as water (xylem) and starch (phloem).
Figure 1.0
Conclusion
The article covers the about aloe vera plant, its properties, uses for woman beauty and income generation
in rural woman is briefly reviewed in this article. The Aloe vera plant has been known and used for
centuries for its health, beauty, medicinal and skin care properties. Aloe vera gel derived from the leaf pulp
of the plant has become a big industry worldwide due to its application in the food industry. It is utilized
in functional foods especially for the preparation of health drinks with no laxative effects. Aloe vera is
widely known for its beauty benefits. It works wonder for skin and hair and is often the key ingredient in
many beauty products. Moisturizing the skin and repairing damaged hair is one of the numerous benefits
of aloe vera. As every like to look and be beautiful specially women in the world. Increasing demand for
natural, herbal and ayurvedic beauty and personal care products over the years has led to heighten the
competition in this area. The surge in demand for natural and herbal products has also helped to record
rapid growth to several companies and entrepreneurs. Aloe Vera farming in India is gaining popularity as
aloe vera production profit per acre is much higher than normal agriculture and it can be done using much
less water and effort. Aloe vera business can be done by selling the plant leaves or extracting and marketing
the juice.
References
1. Anonymous (2008) Aloe vera: History, science and medicinal uses. http://www.healingaloe.com Accessed 5 October 2010
2. Anonymous: (2004). Aloe vera. The ancient plant remedy for today’s stressful life style. http:// wholeleaf.com (17.05.2005).
3. Amit Pandey and Shweta Singh (2016), Int. J. Pharm. Res. Allied Sci., 2016, 5(1):21-33
4. Shelton M. Aloe vera, its chemical and therapeutic properties. Int J Dermatol. 1991;30:679–83.
Introduction
Nanotechnology can be considered as an emerging technology that contribute to sustainable
competitiveness as well as enhancing industrial application efficiency of various tools, controlling systems
to be engaged in overall sectors that might boost economic sectors in various ways of possibilities. Due to
ultimate modifications of various instruments, higher surface area and cost effective it is trending as smart
technology.
References
1. Bhattacharyya A., Duraisamy P., Govindarajan M., Buhroo A.A., Prasad R., (2016). Nano- Biofungicides: Emerging Trend in
Insect Pest Control. In: Prasad R. (eds) Advances and Applications Through Fungal Nanobiotechnology. Fungal Biology.
Springer, Cham.
2. Anjali C.H., Sharma Y., Mukherjee A., Chandrasekaran N., (2012). Pest Management Science.68: 158—163.
Introduction
It is the science and practice directed to link soil, crop, weather, and hydrologic factors with cultural,
irrigation, and soil and water conservation practices to achieve optimal nutrient use efficiency, crop yields,
crop quality, and economic returns, while reducing off-site transport of nutrients.
It involves matching a specific field soil, climate, and crop management conditions to rate, source, timing,
and place (commonly known as the 4R nutrient stewardship) of nutrient application.
Conclusions
It is here by conclude that the nutrient management is very much crucial important factor for crop
production with higher productivity so there for proper nutrient source with good physical condition
material are applied for higher productivity in crop production and govt imitative with subsidy are
considerable factor also farmer awareness programme.
References
1. Spiller S. and Terry N. 1980. Limiting factors in photosynthesis: II. Iron stress diminishes photochemical capacity by reducing
the number of photosynthetic units. Plant Physiology, 65(1): 121-125.
2. Subbiah B.V. Asija G.L. 1956. A rapid procedure for estimation of available nitrogen in soils. Current Science, 25: 259–260.
3. Walkley A. Black I.A. 1934. An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed
modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science, 37: 29–38.
Symptoms: Symptoms of the disease first appear on a single leaf which suddenly wilts and becomes dull
green. The wilting symptoms spread up and down the runner sometimes as a recurring wilt on hot, dry
days. Soon infected runners and leaves turn brown and die. The bacteria spread through the xylem vessels
of the infected runner to the main stem, then to other runners. Eventually the entire plant shrivels and
dies. Less susceptible plants, such as certain squash varieties, may show dwarfing of growth before the
wilt symptoms become apparent. Creamy white bacterial ooze consisting of thousands of microscopic, rod-
shaped bacteria may sometimes be seen in the xylem vascular bundles of an affected stem if it is cut
crosswise near the ground and squeezed. This bacterial ooze will string out forming fine, shiny threads
(like a spider's web) if a knife blade or finger is pressed firmly against the cut surface, for cucumbers than
for muskmelons. Fruit may also show symptoms. Small water-soaked patches form on the surface. These
patches eventually turn into shiny decayed spots on the fruit.
Pathogen: It is a motile rod with 4 – 8 peritrichous flagella and capsulated. Agar colonies are small,
circular, smooth, glistening white and viscid.
Mode of Spread and Survival: The bacteria apparently overwinter in cucumber beetles and they appear
to multiply in the beetle. The bacterium is not seed borne or soil borne. Bacteria in stems can survive for
one month. Beetles prefer to feed on plants with bacterial symptoms than on healthy plants. Beetle can
remain infective for at least three weeks. Striped cucumber beetle and the 12- spotted cucumber beetle help
in the spread of the bacterium.
Management: Larger plantings must be protected by insecticides. Some carbaryl (Sevin), malathion, or
rotenone insecticides or combination products are registered to treat cucumber beetles. They will provide
control of the beetles if applied when beetles first appear in the spring. Early control, beginning as soon as
the plants emerge, is most important as a single beetle can introduce the bacteria. One to four generations
of the beetle may occur on unprotected plants and applications of these insecticides at weekly intervals
may become necessary.
Mosaic
PRSV/CMV
Symptoms: A virus distributed worldwide, affecting most cucurbits but rarely affecting watermelon. New
growth is cupped downward, and leaves are severely mottled with alternating light green and dark green
Mode of spread and survival: It is transmitted by mechanical inoculation and by insect vectors, Aphis
gossypii and Myzus persicae.
Management: The virus is readily transferred by aphids and survives on a wide variety of plants. Varietal
resistance is the primary management tool, and eliminating weeds and infected.
Fusarium Wilt
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis attacks muskmelon and Fusarium oxysporom f. sp. niveum attacks
watermelon.
Symptoms: Both fungi contribute to damping-off of seedlings, but most significant losses occur after young
plants are infected in the field. Plants infected early in the season often produce no marketable fruits.
Plants that begin to show wilt symptoms at or near maturity produce fewer and lower quality fruits. The
first symptoms of Fusarium wilt are wilting and chlorosis (yellowing) of older leaves.
The wilt is most evident during the heat of the day. Plants may appear to recover by morning, only to wilt
again in the afternoon. Stem cracks and brown streaks often appear near the crown of the plant and are
associated with a red-brown exudate. Fusarium wilt also causes vascular browning that is visible in stem
cross-sections.
Mode of spread and survival: The wilt fungus is introduced to new areas on seed. It spreads by wind,
equipment and workers. It can survive long periods in soil as chlamydospores and in association with melon
plant residue.
Management: Planting resistant cultivars is the only reliable way to keep infested fields in production.
Commercially acceptable resistant cultivars exist, but extremely high pathogen populations in the soil can
overcome their resistance. Therefore, methods to reduce Fusarium populations in the soil also should be
employed. These methods include extended rotations with crops other than cucurbits and fall plowing of
severely infested fields.
Downy Mildew
Pseudoperonospora cubensis
Symptoms: It occurs on cucumbers, squash, muskmelons, and pumpkins and less frequently on
watermelons. On cucurbits other than watermelons, small, yellowish areas occur on the upper leaf surface.
Later a more brilliant yellow colour develops with the centre of the lesion turning brown. Usually spots are
angular because they are restricted by leaf veins. When leaves are wet, a downy, white-grey-light blue
fungus growth can be seen on the underside of individual lesions. On watermelons, yellow leaf spots may
be angular to non-angular and turn brown to black. Spores produced on the lower leaf surface are readily
spread by the wind. Rainy, humid weather favours the development of downy mildew.
Pathogen: It is an obligate parasite. The mycelium is coenocytic and intercellular with small ovate or finger
likes haustoria. One to five sporangiophores arise through the stomata. Sporangia are greyish to olivaceous
purple, ovoid to ellipsoidal, thin walled with a distal papilla. Zoospores are 10 – 13-micron meter. Oospores
are not common.
Mode of spread and survival: The pathogen survives on the diseased plant debris. In warm and humid
climates, transmission from old to younger crops takes place all the year round. Where warm and dry
Symptoms: Symptoms of the disease firsts appear as small, angular, water-soaked lesions on the leaves.
When moisture is present, bacteria ooze from the spot in tear like droplets that dry and form a white residue
on the leaf surface. Water-soaked areas turn grey or tan, die, and may tear away leaving irregular holes.
Water-soaked spots may also appear on the fruit and are frequently followed by soft rot bacteria.
Pathogen: The bacterium is a rod with 1 – 5 polar flagella and forms capsule and a green fluorescent
pigment in culture. The colonies on beef – peptone agar is circular, smooth, glistening, transparent and
white.
Mode of spread and survival: Infected seeds may harbour the bacterium. They survive in soil or debris
from diseased plants for two years. They spread by irrigation water.
Management: Angular leaf spot may be controlled by planting disease-free seed. Rotating with unrelated
crops, keeping workers out of fields when foliage is wet and Spray 400ppm Streptomycin sulphate.
References
Margaret T. G. (2004). Diseases of Cucurbits and their managements, Diseases of fruits and vegetables volume, 455-510, R. S.
Singh, (2018). Plant Diseases (2018).
Introduction
As a result of continuous encounters by pathogens has led to development of defence mechanism in host
plants. The resistance against parasites/pathogen is the heritable trait of plants by virtue of which they
resist attack by parasites/pathogens or their activities. The defence mechanism(s) has ensured the survival
of plants. Structural and biochemical defences are the two modes of defence mechanisms in plants. Among
these two, biochemical defences are more effective than structural defences.
Biochemical Defences
Although structural defence mechanisms do prevent the attack of the pathogen, the defence mechanism
also includes the chemical substances produced in the plant cells before or after the infection. Hence
biochemical defences are classified into pre-existing and post-infectional defences.
Biochemical Alterations
1. It has been observed that infection of the host by the pathogen brings about biochemical changes in the
host which may prove toxic to the pathogenic microorganisms and cause resistance to the pathogen.
2. Production of certain new enzymes and other compounds are synthesized and accumulated in higher
concentration.
3. This add to the resistance of the plant by being toxic to pathogenic microorganisms.
Hypersensitivity
1. The hypersensitive response (HR) is a mechanism, used by plants, to prevent the spread of infection by
microbial pathogens.
2. The HR is characterized by the rapid death of cells in the local region surrounding an infection.
3. The HR serves to restrict the growth and spread of pathogens to other parts of the plant.
4. The HR is analogous to the innate immune system found in animals.
HR Includes:
a. Oxidative bust (production of reactive oxygen species).
b. Disruption of cell membranes.
c. Opening of ion channels.
d. Cross linking of phenolics with cell wall component.
e. Production of anti-microbial phytoalexins and PR protein.
f. Apoptosis (programmed cell death).
Conclusion
It has now been established that biochemical defence mechanisms play more important role than the
structural defence mechanisms. This has been supplemented by the fact that many pathogens entering non
host plants naturally or artificially inoculated fail to cause infections in absence of any structural barriers.
This does suggest that chemical defence mechanisms rather than structural mechanisms are responsible
for resistance in plants against certain pathogens.
References
1. Bell A. A., (1981). Biochemical mechanisms of disease resistance. Annual Review of Plant Physiology.32(1): 21-81.
2. Bailey J.A., (1982). Physiological and biochemical events associated with the expression of resistance to disease, in: “Active
Defense Mechanisms in Plants”, R.K.S. Wood, ed., pp. 39–65, Plenum Press, New York and London.
Summary
Landless community is the poorest community in the state of Bihar where vegetables are hardly taken in
their diet whereas the recommended per capita availability of vegetables in India is 300g. For nutritional
security, these landless farmers may able to grow vegetables without soil in their surrounding with locally
available used plastic bottles of mineral water/cold drinks, bamboo structure for supporting plants and
hydroponics solution as nutrient feed for plants.
Introduction
Bihar is the third most populous state in India with over 100 million inhabitants. The state’s economy is
dominated by agriculture: it constitutes 19.2 percent of state’s GDP and employs nearly 75 percent of the
labour force. 92.8 percent of the farmers in Bihar are small and marginal (small holders), which is much
higher than the all India average of 83.5 percent. Furthermore, Bihar’s agriculture productivity is one of
the lowest in India. With every sunrise fifty-five thousand new mouths opens for food in India. The ever-
increasing population pressure has reduced per capita availability of land. For producing more food more
agrichemicals are used injudiciously and as a result, there is increased incidence of several fatal diseases,
which affected the quality of human life. Vegetable grows 30-50 percent faster in a hydroponic system and
healthier. Because the water is nutrient rich, and the pH has been balanced, the plant roots don’t have to
work to find minerals from the soil, which allows them to grow quicker and produce more yield.
Landless community is the poorest community in the state of Bihar where vegetables are hardly taken in
their diet whereas the per capita availability of vegetables in India is 300g. For nutritional security, these
landless farmers may able to grow vegetables without soil in their surrounding with locally available used
plastic bottles of mineral water/cold drinks, bamboo structure for supporting plants and hydroponics
solution as nutrient feed for plants. Soil-less culture mainly refers to the techniques of Hydroponics‘. The
term Hydroponics was derived from the Greek words hydro’ means water and ponos means labour. It is a
method of growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, without soil.
Hoagland Solution
Hydroponic nutrient solution. Developed by Hoagland in 1933. The Hoagland solution provides every
nutrient necessary for plant growth and is appropriate for supporting growth of a large variety of plant
species.
Optimum Range of pH and EC Values for Hydroponic Crops (Sharma et al., 2019)
Crops EC(dSm1) pH
Bean 2.0 - 4.0 6.0
Cucumber 1.7 – 2.0 5.0 - 5.5
Lettuce 1.2-1.8 6.0-7.0
Spinach 1.8-2.3 6.0-7.0
Tomato 2.0-4.0 6.0-6.5
Conclusion
In recent years hydroponics is seen as a promising strategy for growing different crops. As it is possible to
grow short duration crop like vegetables round the year in very limited spaces with low labour, so
hydroponics can play a great contribution in areas with limitation of soil and water and for the poorer and
landless people. In India, the hydroponic industry is expected to grow exponentially in near future. In this
regards, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa has taken a lead to develop low cost
hydroponic technologies that reduce dependence on human labour and lower overall start-up and
operational costs.
References
1. Amrita Sengupta and Hirak Banerjee. (2012). Soil-less culture in modern agriculture World Journal of Science and Technology
2012, 2(7):103-108
2. Maharana, L. and Koul, D.N.(2011). The emergence of Hydroponics. Yojana (June). 55 : 39-40.
3. Sardare MD. and shraddha AV(2013). A review on plant without soil - hydroponics International Journal of Research in
Engineering and Technology, Volume: 2 Issue: 3: 299 – 304
4. Sharma, N., Acharya, S., Kumar, K., Singh, N. and Chaurasia, O. (2018). Hydroponics as an advanced technique for vegetable
production: An overview. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 17(4):364-371.
The primary goal of agriculture is to get good yields, by using sustainable methods. Nowadays, crop
protection scientists and agronomists utilize various methods to increase productivity and environmentally
friendly pest and diseases management practices to protect environment and food. Among different cultural
methods, crop rotation is one of the most important part of any sustainable agricultural system Francis
(1990).
History
Rotational cropping dates back to times immemorial. Benefits of crop rotation were noticed as early as in
6,000 BC by ancient Egyptians and were successfully used by the ancient Romans and Greeks as well. They
noticed that planting crops in a certain sequence enhanced yields and improved soils, even though there
were no chemical studies to explain this trick scientifically. One of the first evidence to teach how to
implement the crop rotation system was the Bible.
The 3-cycle crop rotation was first introduced in Ancient Rome. The scheme could be represented by three
key milestones: ‘food, feed, fallow’. ‘Food’ stood for cereals like wheat that was grown for human needs.
‘Feed’ implied forage for domestic poultry and cattle. ‘Fallow’ meant leaving the land uncultivated to give
it ‘rest’. Besides, our ancestors understood that certain crops (like sunflower) heavily drain soils, so the
fallow year was highly recommended.
Scope
Different crops have different nutritional needs and are susceptible to different pathogens and pests.
Growing the same crop in the same place every year, as is common in conventional farming is known as
Monoculture farming. This practice of a monoculture continually draws the same nutrients out of the soil
which leads to the lack of nitrogen in soils if no legumes for long periods and allow weeds and insects to
adapt and thrive. This makes them much more difficult to manage. Another minus is the soil erosion issue
because tilled (cultivated) crops are likely to cause it. In terms of diseases and pests, monoculture requires
continuous usage of the same chemicals to tackle the issue.
Benefits
Crop rotation also helps reduces fertilizer use, which often are in run-off from farms, and lead to
eutrophication. When crops use up the nutrients in the soil, instead of adding artificial ones back in, crops
like soybeans and other legumes are planted to naturally restore nitrogen and other nutrients. The practice
also works to interrupt pest and disease cycles, improve soil health by increasing biomass from different
crops’ root structures, and increase biodiversity on the farm. Life in the soil thrives on variety, and
beneficial insects and pollinators are attracted to the variety above ground.
Conclusion
In near future cropping diversity and rotations will become more important to fulfil the dreams of
sustainable agriculture. There is often a problem with continuous cropping of the same crop species in the
same peace of land, it is becoming more susceptible to pest and diseases. It will lead to increase the
utilization more chemicals to manage them, and it will not economic to farmer. Diverse crop rotations
provide multiple opportunities through the year to apply manure and compost back in production fields.
And it maximizes productivity and minimize negative impacts on the environment.
References
1. Francis CA and Clegg MD (1990) Crop rotations in sustainable production systems. In: Edwards CA, Lal R, Madden P, Miller
RH, and House G (eds) Sustainable Agricultural Systems, pp. 107–122. Ankeney, Iowa: Soil & Water Conservation Society.
2. Olson R, Francis C, and Kaffka S (eds) (1995) Exploring the Role of Diversity in Sustainable Agriculture. Madison, WI:
American Society of Agronomy.
3. Lal R and Pierce FJ (1991) Soil Management for Sustainability. Madison, WI: Soil Science Society of America.
Blossom Blight
Causal organism: Colletotricumcapsici
Spread: Found in North Indian plains and caused drastic reduction in the production of healthy seeds
(Shukla et al., 2006).
Symptoms: The disease incidence adversely affects the sarpagandha plantation because of severe infection
on inflorescence leading to premature death of the infected flowers. The blossom blight also resulted in
decapitation and prevented seed setting.
Control: Chemical control-Mancozeb was highly effective against conidial germination at lower
concentrations but not against the mycelial growth. It gave promising protection from C. capsici infections
in the field (Brijesh K.,2011).
Wilt
The wilt disease of R. serpentina was first observed in Jammu. Since, its first appearance the disease
became more and more important, because it caused considerable damage to the crop.
Symptoms : Initial symptoms of the disease consist of wilting of branches followed by wilting the entire
plant. In advance stages, collar region and the root portion below the ground level turned into dark colour.
Two-year-old plants were affected mostly. The disintegration of root cortex was more prominent in the
seedling and young plant (Janardhanan et.al., 1964).
Causal organism: Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Rauvofii (Schlecht) Janardhanan, Ganguly and Husain.
Mycelium extentive and cottony, pinkish-white in colour, both macro and micro conidia present .The
pathogen was found to produce significant number of hydrolytic enzymes in vitro. The host tissue
stimulated the production of pectolytic enzymes (Janardhanan and Husai, 1969).
Powdery Mildew
The disease was found prevalent on R. serpentine in the plantation in India (Ganguly and Pandotra, 1962).
The characteristic symptom of the disease was rolling of infected leaves enclosing the lower surface of the
leaves which is covered with whitish growth of the fungus in patches, consisting of conidia and
conidiophores.
Leaf Spots
History: The leaf spots disease of R. serpentine was first reported by Mohanty and Addy (1957) and then
by Chandra (1957).
Causal organism: Cercosporarauvolfiae Chupp and Muller ( the conidiophores of the fungus occur in
dense groups) and Macrophominaphaseolina (Tussi) Goid.
Symptom: The disease appeared as minute yellow spots which gradually increased in size and became
dark brown patches. First purple coloured blotches appeared on the ventral surface of the leaves. In about
a week’s time the infected portions became dark brown in colour. The affected leaves dried and fell off
(Mohanty and Addy, 1957).
Control: To control this Dithane M45 @ 0.2% is to be sprayed before the monsoon and repeated at monthly
intervals until November.
Target Spot
Rauvolfiaserpentina was reported to suffer heavily due to target spot disease (Mohanty and Addy , 1958,
Reddy et.al., 19571).
Symptoms: The leaves are attacked on both surfaces. The infection resulted in the appearance of small
brownish spots which gradually enlarged into circular spots,2-20 micrometre with concentric zones due to
which the disease is called as ‘target spots’. The spots were dark brown on the upper and yellowish brown
on the lower surface and are usually surrounded by a pale-yellow margin.
Control: Attempts were made to control the disease. Among the four fungicides tested in the field ,
application of 0.25% Captain at monthly intervals for six months effectively controlled the disease (Reddy
et.al., 1971).
Anthracnose
Symptoms: The symptoms consist of numerous spots and the acervulli scattered all over the leaf . Infection
is mainly confined to upper surface of the leaves. The spots enlarged into large circular patches and invaded
the surrounding tissues. Severely infected leaves dried resulting in defoliation (Varadarajan, 1964).
Causal organism: Colletotrichumgleosporioides (Penz) Sacc.
Control: The disease is reported to be controlled by removing with fermate, Dithane Z-78 and Terlateis
also recommended for the control (Varadarajan,1964).
Die-Back
Symptoms: Numerous tiny spots found on leaves and stem. Acervuli are scattered all over the surface.
Smaller lesions coalesced to form large and circular necrotic patches. Severe infection resulted in drying,
defoliation and decapitation (Lele and Ashram,1968, Varadarajan,1958).
Causal organism: Colletotrichum dematium: ( Pers) Grove.
Phyllody
History and spread: Bunchy top disease of R. serpentina was first observed by Varadarajan (1967). He
suggested the overwintering of the disease in Catharanthusroseus, Nicotianatabacum, Solanummelongena
and Capsicum annum in Gujarat (India). A disease with similar symptoms was observed in 1964 in Jammu
( Sastry,1973).
Symptoms: Characteristic symptoms of the disease were retarded growth, shortened internodes, phyllody
of flowers. The leaves became small and pale in colour; the floral parts of the infected plants are modified
to leaf like structures resulting into a cluster of small leaves in place of florescences and leading to complete
sterility.
Ring Spot
History and spread: A graft transmissible ring spot disease of R. serpentine was observed in the
experimental plantations in Jammu.
Symptoms: leaves of infected plants showed characteristic concentric yellow rings of different sizes
scattered all over the surface of the leaves. The rings gradually enlarged , coalesced and became gradually
necrotic. In later stages, the entire infected leaves become necrotic resulting in defoliation. Infection
adversely affected the quality of roots and their alkaloid contents (Sastry,973).
Root-Knot
Symptoms: The infected plants showed stunted growth, etiolation and smaller leaves. The disease was
reported to be caused to be caused by a nematode, Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) Chitwood
(Hasseb et.al.,1983).
Control: soil fumigation, adoption of proper cultural practices and development of resistant variates are
useful methods for the control of disease caused by nematodes.
Yield and economics of cultivation per hectare: yield per hectare is 3,000 kg dried roots and 30 kg
seeds. The average time for crop harvesting is 18 months (Subandi et.al.,2018).The average cost of selling
3,000kg roots @Rs140/kg is 4,20,000 and that of 30kg seeds @Rs400/kg is 12,000 resulting Rs 4,32,000 in
gross returns. Expenses in maintenance and harvesting the crop accounts Rs 1,80,000 resulting into a net
profit return of Rs 2,52,000(www.naturaldatabase.com).
References
1. BrijeshKS.Rauvolfia:cultivation and collection.Biotech Articles website.http://www.biotecharticles.com/Agriculture-
Article/Rauvofia cultivation.Published May23,2011.
2. Dey A and De J.N.Rauvolfiaserpentina(L).Benth.exKurz- A Review;AsianJ.Plant Sci;9(6):285-298(2010).
3. GopalakrishnanA,SievertM,RuohoAE.Identification of the substrate binding region of VMAT using iodoaminoflisopolol as a
novel photoprobe.Mol Pharmacol.2007;72(6):1567-1575.[Pubmed]
4. Lobay,AkbergenovaY,HuY,SchikorksiT.Synapse-to-synapse variation in mean synaptic vesicle size and its relationship with
synaptic morphology and function.J Comp Neurol.2009;514(4):343-352.[Pubmed]
5. Reserpine.International Programme of Chemical Safety Website.www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/reserpn.htm.
6. Subandi M and PandeyH.,Traditional knowledge for Agrosystem management ;Ind.J.Trad.Knowl.;5(1):122-131(2018).
Therapeutic Research Facility.Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database Website.www.naturaldatabase.com.
7. US Dept ofAgriculture.RauvolfiaL.Germplasm Resources Information Network Website.http://www.ars-grin.gov.Published
March14,2003.
8. Reserpine.International Programme of Chemical Safety Website.www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/reserpn.htm.
Rajasthan.
3Department of Horticulture, Swami Keshwanad Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner, Rajasthan.
The Govt. has set a target of doubling the farmers’ income by 2022 and constituted an Inter-Ministerial
Committee under the chairmanship of Chief Executive Officer, National Rainfed Area Authority, Dept. of
Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare to inspect problems relating to doubling of farmers’ income
and suggested a plan of action to doubling of farmers’ income in real terms by 2022. Giving a vital boost for
the farmers’ income, the Govt. has increased the Minimum Support Prices (MSPS).
Introduction
Minimum Support Price (MSP) is a type of market intervention by the Govt. of India to assure agricultural
producers against decrease in farm prices. The MSPS are declared by the Govt. of India at the starting of
the sowing season for certain crops on the basis of the recommendations of the CACP (Commission for
Agricultural Costs and Price). MSP is price declared by Govt. of India to overcome the producer - farmers -
against decrease in price during higher production years. The MSPS are a guarantee price for their product
from the Government. The vital objectives are to protect the farmers from distress sales. In case the market
price for the commodity decrease below the announced minimum price due to higher production and surplus
in the market, Govt. agencies purchase the whole quantity offered by the farmers at the announced MSPs.
Crops Covered under MSPs: Govt. announces MSPs for 22 mandated crops and FRP(Fair and
Remunerative Price) for Sugarcane. The mandated crops are 14 crops of the Kharif, 6 Rabi season crops
and two other commercial crops. In addition, the MSPs of Toria and de-husked coconut are declared on the
basis of the MSPs of Rapeseed/Mustard and Copra, respectively. The crops are as follows:
1. Cereal crops(7) - Rice, wheat, Barley, Sorghum, Pearl millet, Maize and Finger millet
2. Pulse crops (5) - Chickpea, Arhar, Moong, Urad and lentil
3. Oilseed crops(8)- Groundnut, Rapeseed/ Mustard, Toria, Soybean, Sunflower seed, Sesame, Safflower
seed and Niger seed.
4. Raw cotton crop.
5. Raw jute crop.
6. Copra crop.
7. De-husked coconut crop.
8. Sugarcane crop (FRP).
9. VFC (Virginia flu cured) Tobacco crop.
Commodities Varieties MSP for 2019-20 MSP for 2020- Increase over
(Rs per quintal) 201 (Rs per previous year
quintal) (Rs per quintal)
Kharif crops
Paddy Comman 1815 1868 53
Grade ‘A’ 1835 1888 53
Jowar Hybrid 2550 2620 70
Maldandi 2570 2640 70
Bajra 2000 2150 150
Maize 1760 1850 90
Ragi 3150 3295 145
Arhar(Tur) 5800 6000 200
Moong 7050 7196 146
Conclusion
The Government has raised the MSPs which is good initiative of the Govt. and it will give the boost to
double the farmer income by 2022.
References
1. http://www.arthapedia.in/
2. https://cacp.dacnet.nic.in/
3. https://farmer.gov.in/
4. https://pib.gov.in/
5. https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/
Abstract
This paper tries to explain the importance of South China Sea for India. Mainly secondary data has been
used for analysing this paper. The ongoing disputes in the South China Sea (SCS) have been regarded as
one of the most enduring and complicated regional conflicts in the Asia-Pacific. The disputes involve China
along with several states in the region and encompass issues such as overlapping territorial claims and
access to critical resources like energy and fisheries. Within this turbulent environment, India has been
expanding its influence through implementing its Look East Policy (LEP). This has not been taken well by
China, who has for years tried to curb New Delhi’s growing involvement in the SCS. India’s decision to
involve itself in such a complex environment, even at the risk of provoking its giant neighbour,
demonstrates the significance it places on the region and its sea lanes.
Introduction
The South China Sea is a marginal sea, which is part of the Pacific Ocean. It is surrounded by littoral states
China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Philippines and Taiwan. Strait of Malacca connects South
China Sea with Indian Ocean while Formosa Strait connects South China Sea with East China Sea.
Geographically, it connects the Indian Ocean and the East China Sea via the Malacca Straits, which is one
of the busiest sea lanes in the world. This important waterway serves as a vital economic artery for the
South Asian state. Up to 97 percent of India’s total international trade volume is sea-borne, half of which,
passes through the straits. In addition, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) constitutes
one of India’s largest trade partners, with total trade valued at $71 billion in 2016/2017.
India Must Consider the Following Factors While Calibrating its Approach
1. The South China Sea is not China’s sea but a global common.
2. It has been an important sea-lane of communication since the very beginning, and passage has been
unimpeded over the centuries.
3. Indians have sailed these waters for well over 1,500 years — there is ample historical and archaeological
proof of a continuous Indian trading presence from Kedah in Malaysia to Quanzhou in China.
4. Nearly $200 billion of our trade passes through the South China Sea and thousands of our citizens study,
work and invest in ASEAN, China, Japan and the Republic of Korea.
5. We have stakes in the peace and security of this region in common with others who reside there, and
freedom of navigation, as well as other normal activities with friendly countries, are essential for our
economic well-being. In short, the South China Sea is our business.
6. We have historical rights established by practice and tradition to traverse the South China Sea without
impediment.
Conclusion
Indian is a stakeholder in the South China Sea. What happens there have implications for us, so far, the
U.S. played a major role in the prosperity and security of the Indo-Pacific, but after the COVID-19, it may
be forced to reconsider its stand over the region. In such a scenario, India must form a partnership with
other players in the region and should attempt to make China follow international laws and global order.
References
1. Kamraju, M., & muzafar wani. (2020). AN ANALYSIS ON IMPACT OF BANNING CHINA GOODS TO INDIA. International
Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology (IJIRSET).
2. Rahmati, F., Ali, M. A., & Kamraju, M. (2020). A STUDY ON INDIA -CHINA CURRENT GEOPOLITICAL ISSUES AND
IMPLICATIONS. International Journal of Scientific Research in Engineering and Management (IJSREM).
Introduction
Chekkurmanis (Sauropus androgynus Meeril.), belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae is a native of Malaya.
It is commonly called as Multivitamin greens due its capability of having more load of vitamins. Its multiple
upright stems can reach 2.5 meters high and bear dark green oval leaves 5–6 cm long.
It is one of the most popular leafy vegetables in South Asia and Southeast Asia and is notable for high
yields and palatability.
The shoot tips have been sold as tropical asparagus. The leaves and tender shoots are mainly used as
vegetable after frying. The tender shoots and leaves are trimmed and used in the preparation of fried and
boiled items.
Nutrient Composition
It has high level of provitamin A carotenoids, especially in freshly picked leaves, as well as high levels of
vitamins B and C, protein and minerals. The more the leaves mature, the higher the nutrient content of
the leaves. The leaves are rich in protein (7.4% as compared to 3.2% in amaranthus), Vitamin A (47,500
IU/100g), Vitamin B, Vitamin C (100mg/ 100g).
Propagation
There are no distinct varieties have been identified in this crop. It is propagated by seeds and stem cuttings.
Seed propagated plants come to harvest little later than cuttings. Rooting of stem cuttings can be fastened
by dipping the cuttings in 50ppm IAA/ IBA before planting in polybag.
It takes 20-25 days for rooting. The stem (softwood and semi-hardwood) cuttings of 6-12 months old, 20-30
cm length are to be planted in May – June. These are usually grown on borders of kitchen garden; to check
the height of the plant and to get frequent harvest the tips are clipped off intermittently.
Abstract
Marketing infrastructure include apart from the Government institutions and organizations, roads,
railways, warehouses, market yards, cold stores, processing units, research and training institutions,
means of communication and transportation including air cargo, sea cargo etc. The basic rationale of any
infrastructure is the sustenance it provides to production activity, income generation and social service
supplies. It has also positive effect on income distribution because low per capita infrastructure limits the
access of small and marginal farmers to the market.
Introduction
Agricultural marketing infrastructure includes all those facilities and amenities needed for the smooth
conduct of marketing in the economy. The infrastructural facilities in development are as necessary as
foundations of a building. The existence of adequate marketing infrastructure is important not only for the
performance of various marketing functions and expansion of the size of the markets but also for the
transfer of appropriate price signals leading to improved marketing efficiency.
The availability of different infrastructures affects the choice of technology to be adopted, reduces the cost
of transportation, produces powerful impetus to production and also affects income distribution in favour
of small and marginal farmers by raising their access to the market. The agriculture sector needs heavy
investment for creation of basic infrastructures necessary for the overall economic development. In a
developing country like India, marketing infrastructures play a pivotal role in fostering and sustaining the
tempo of rural and economic development. Marketing is as critical to better performance in agriculture as
farming itself.
Though the role of infrastructure is the key element of any development programme yet their role in
distribution and marketing is the supreme. India’s growth both as agriculturally and horticultural
advanced country may get derailed if various marketing infrastructural constraints are not removed. Many
of the regions of the country still suffer from the existence of infrastructural problems that they threaten
to torpedo the region’s agricultural and horticultural development efforts.
Storage Infrastructure
Storage facilities in the country, the Agricultural Produce (Development and Warehousing) Corporation
Act was enacted in 1956. The State Governments also enacted the warehousing Acts during July 1957 to
August 1958. The scheme of Warehousing, Rural Godowns and Cold storage's have been initiated in public,
cooperative and private sectors in the country to meet the storage needs of the producers in different areas.
Processing Infrastructure
Strong and effective food-processing sector plays a significant supportive role in diversification and
commercialization of agriculture. Processing function adds value to the products and enhances the
income of the farmers in addition to generation of employment in the economy. A number of agro-
processing units for processing of different agricultural products have been established in the country in
recent past with the increasing consumer demand for processed products.
The processing capacity of the existing units has also been enhanced. Huge post - harvest losses of fruits
and vegetables is there in absence of the processing units. Presently only 2.3 per cent of total production of
fruits and vegetables is being processed in the country. Though the country offers vast potential for
establishing agro-processing units like for oilseeds, food grains and sugarcane, yet their availability in the
number of State is almost negligible.
Conclusion
From the above article it is concluded that there is a strong need for:
1. Creation of necessary infrastructural facilities in all the regulated markets of the country.
2. Regulation of all primary and secondary wholesale markets to minimize the variation in their spread.
3. Develop the periodic/rural markets with minimum necessary infrastructural facilities as these are the
main contact points for sale of agricultural produce by the small size farm operators.
On storage front also there is need for:
1. Construction of more scientific storage structures especially in rural areas for protection of produced
agricultural output.
2. Private sector involvement is necessary for creation of more storage structures and cold stores as it is
highly capital-intensive marketing infrastructure.
References
1. Government of India (2006), Report of the Working Group on Strengthening of Agricultural Infrastructure, Warehousing,
Rural Godowns, Markets etc. for XI Five Year Plan, Panning Commission, Govt. of India, New Delhi.
2. Government of India (2009) “Report on Agmark Grading Statistics” – Directorate of Marketing & Inspection, Ministry of
Agriculture, Faridabad.
3. Government of India (Undated), XI Plan Approach Paper, Planning Commission, New Delhi.
4. Government of sIndia, (2001) “Report of Expert Committee on Strengthening and Development of Agricultural Marketing”,
Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperation, New Delhi.
5. Jairath, M. S. (2000), “ Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure in Arid India”.Agricultural Situation in India, Vol No. June, PP
127-137.
6. Jairath, M. S. (2004), “ Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure in India”. Indian Journal of Agricultural Marketing, Conference
issue 2004.
Introduction
Plasticulture, which means the use of plastics in agriculture cultivation is fast becoming the most sought
out technique to augment farm yields and consequent farm income. In India, it can come handy in realizing
the overall aim of doubling of farmer’s income domestically by 2022. This is more significant, mainly since
agriculture contributes 14% of GDP of India, while more than 50% of the population is directly or indirectly
dependent on it for livelihood. Moreover, the erratic nature of climate is a cause of worry for different crop
growth parameters during kharif, rabi and zaid seasons and exposes risk of national income. Hence, it
requires mitigation measures. India supports 18% of the global population with 2.4% of land area and 4%
of water resources, thereby making judicious use of water even more paramount. Plasticulture applications
are considered as indirect and valuable agriculture input which show effect in moisture conservation,
reduction in fertilizer consumption, helps in application of precise inputs, plant protection through the use
of nets, solarisation of soil and use of innovative packaging facilitates help in increasing shelf-life during
collection, storage and transportation of fruits and vegetables.
History
While plastic itself has origins dating back to the 19th century. Agriculture plastics rose to prominence in
the 1940s when E.M. Emmert, a horticulturist at the University of Kentucky, discovered plastic film. At
first, agricultural plastic was mostly used as it was durable and a cost-effective way to replace glasses in
greenhouse and tunnel siding. This helped to develop new greenhouse designs which are more efficient to
capture more solar radiation while protecting crops from the elements. The greenhouses and poly houses
are still being equipped with farm plastics, along with several other innovative applications.
How We are Dealing with the Use of Plastics in Agriculture After their Applications?
Plastic products and packaging have become part of all aspects of modern farming. Much of it has been
buried in landfills or burned in the field, generating dioxins and other pollutants. Single use plastic used
for making silage and other purpose is the leading cause of damage and concern, as it doesn't bio degrade
and is left discarded in the outskirts of the fields by farmers which leads to numerous problems explained
below. On the other hand, polymer used in construction of greenhouse sheets are more resilient and last
longer with proper care than even glass hence, making it a very desirable product. The options to recycle
these used plastics have been neither robust nor sustainable for farmers.
What are the Damages Caused to the Soil by Using Plastics in Agriculture?
Dangerous toxins released from the polythene film can remain in the soil for centuries. Known as white
pollution, polythene residue is becoming increasingly prevalent in treated soils at levels of up to 3300,000
grams/hectare. Over time, this decreases soil porosity and air circulation, alters microbial communities and
compromises soil fertility. Polythene also releases carcinogenic phthalate acid esters into the soil which,
together with other synthetic pesticides, can be easily absorbed by the crops. This is a significant risk to
human health. What's more, the polythene films used in the coverings are low density by design, which
makes the plastic extremely difficult to biodegrade. Any waste from this process is rarely accepted by
recycling facilities and often ends up in landfills and oceans, wreaking havoc on ecosystems around the
world.
Conclusion
The sustainable use of plastics in agriculture with the help of research based on alternative options as a
paramount importance to maintain a healthy ecosystem and environment. Therefore, state and national
policies must incentivize desirable and responsible behaviour. And while research help develop more
alternatives as commercial options, the traditional resource management principles of reuse, reduce,
recycle will continue to hold.
References
1. https://www.acplasticsinc.com/informationcenter/r/history-of-agricultural-plastic
2. https://www.ncpahindia.com/plasticulture.
3. https://readingplastic.com/metal-vs-plastic.
4. https://www.plasticseurope.org/en/about-plastics/agriculture
5. https://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2018/07/beating-plastic-pollution-in-agriculture-the-need-of-the-hour/
6. Scarascia, G., Sica, C. and Russo, G. 2012. Plastic materials in European agriculture: Actual use and perspectives. Journal of
Agricultural Engineering. 42. 10.4081/jae.2011.3.15.
Introduction
Generally, Organic farming is defined as a form of agriculture which excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers
and pesticides, plant growth regulators, livestock feed. The perception of organic farming by common man
is more from consumers’ angle.
A common man always thinks that organic farming results into “PESTICIDE FREE FOOD”. Hence most
commonly accepted definition of organic farming the perception that farming should not have used any
pesticides.
Modern definition of organic farming was proposed by global organization called IFOAM (International
Federation for Promotion of Organic Agricultural Movement) as “Organic agriculture is a production
system that sustains health of soil, eco-system and people, by relying on ecological process, bio diversity
and natural cycles and adapted to local conditions than use of inputs with adverse effects”.
Conclusion
Practically, in organic farming, farmer is greatly benefitted by reduced cost of cultivation, as his net profit
will rise, although gross returns may be similar or even less in most success stories of organic farming.
Every waste on a farm is organic and recyclable. No waste is allowed to go really waste and is productively
used in organic farming. Therefore, key rule of organic farming will be WASTE IS NOT A WASTE BUT
WEALTH.
Organic farming also improves soil physical characters like water holding capacity or structure are of
greater importance in terms of sustaining natural resources. Because, such a development will not only
reduce erosion but promote better utilization of natural precipitation. Better moisture retention also helps
in improved microbial activity which is the basis of improvement of soil fertility.
References
1. https://www.acplasticsinc.com/informationcenter/r/history-of-agricultural-plastic
2. https://www.ncpahindia.com/plasticulture.
3. https://readingplastic.com/metal-vs-plastic.
4. https://www.plasticseurope.org/en/about-plastics/agriculture
5. https://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2018/07/beating-plastic-pollution-in-agriculture-the-need-of-the-hour/
6. Scarascia, G., Sica, C. and Russo, G. 2012. Plastic materials in European agriculture: Actual use and perspectives. Journal of
Agricultural Engineering. 42. 10.4081/jae.2011.3.15.
Why DSR?
Major reason:
1. Water scarcity.
2. The rising cost and scarcity of labour at peak periods.
3. Adverse effects of Puddling.
4. Rising interest in conservation agriculture.
5. Best fit in the cropping system.
Time of Sowing
This is a critical point to achieve the success in DSR crop in the main rice growing season (kharif). The
sowing of crops should be accomplished before 10-15 days of onset of monsoon.
Selection of Varieties
Table 2.Varieties suitable for direct seeding of rice in different states in the Indo-Gangetic plains:
State Varieties
West Bengal Southern region: Nilanjana, MTU 7029 (Swarna Mahsuri), and CR group Northern
region: N K3385, IET 15847
Bihar Early sowing: Pusa 2-21 and Prabhat Medium sowing: IR 36 and Rajendra Dhan 201
Late sowing: Super mahsuri, Smbha mahsuri and Swarna mahsuri
Uttar Pradesh Early sowing: Narendra 97 and Narendra 118 Medium sowing: Sarjoo 52, NDR 359,
Sugandha 3 and Sugadh 4
Late sowing: Sambha mahsuri, Swarna mahsuri, Scented: T3, Pusa Basmati 1,
Kasturi
Haryana and Scented: Pusa Basmati 1, Haryana Basmati 1, Basmati 370, Kasturi and Tarawadi
Punjab Basmati
Source: Tewari et al. (2011).
Water Management
Precise water management, particularly during crop emergence phase (first 7-15 days after sowing), is
crucial in direct seeded rice (Balasubramanian and Hill, 2002).
Sl No Phenological stages Irrigation (times)
1 Pre-sowing 1 time
2 Emergence of seedling (7-10 days) 1 time
3 Tillering (30-45 DAS) 1 time
4 Panicle initiation to grain filling 1 time
Source: (Joshi et al., 2013).
Conclusion
DSR followed with suitable conservation practices has potential to produce slightly lower or comparable
yields as that of TPR and appears to be a viable alternative to overcome the problem of labour and water
shortage. Despite some controversies comparable yield may be obtained from DSR compared with TPR if
managed properly. If not managed efficiently weeds problem arises which leads to partial or complete
failure of DSR crops.
References
1. Gupta, R.K, Ladha J.K, Singh, S, Singh, R.G, Jat, M.L, Saharawat, Y, Singh, V.P, Singh, S.S, Singh, G., Sah, G., Gathala, M.,
Gill, M.S., Alam, M., Rehman, R, Pathak, H, Chauhan. B.S, Bhattacharya, P and Malik, R.K. (2006). Production technology
for direct-seeded rice. Technical Bulletin 8, New Delhi, India: Rice-Wheat Consortium for the Indo-Gangetic Plains, pp. 16
2. Gupta, R.K., Ladha, J.K., Singh, S.R., Singh, M.L., Jat, Y., Saharawat, V.P., Singh, S.S., Singh, G., Singh, G., Gathala, M.,
Sharma, R.K. (2007). Production Technology for Direct Seeded Rice. Technical Bulletin Series 8. In “Rice-Wheat Consortium
for the Indo-Gangetic Plains, New Delhi, India,” 14pp.
3. Joshi, E., Kumar, D., Lal, B.V., Gautam, P. and Vyas, A.K. (2013). Management of direct seeded rice for enhanced resource -
use efficiency. Plant Knowledge Journal 2(3): 119-134.
4. Pathak, H., Tewari, A.N., Sankhyan, S, dubey, D.S., Mina, U., singh, V. K, Jain, N and Bhatia, A. (2011). Direct-seeded rice:
Potential, performance and problems – A review. Current Advances in Agricultural Sciences, 3(2): 77-88.
Introduction
Population, Poverty and hunger, shrinking area of agricultural land, Climate change in agriculture,
Deterioration in soil quality, New pest and disease outbreak, diminishing water resources, Inadequate
labour and inputs, Low agricultural production are the major problems faced by the farmers in India.
Genetically modified organisms (GMO’s) refer to plants and animals containing genes transferred from
other species to produce certain characters such as resistance to pest, disease and drought etc.
Genetic modification done in two major ways:
1. Introduce one or a few well-characterized genes into a plant species and
2. Introduce genes from any species into a plant.
GM Foods Consumption
Nowadays, consuming GM foods were increasing largely practice all around the world. The first GM crop
was produced by Calgene and approved for marketing by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in
1994.FlavrSavr tomato helped the United States consumers to accept genetically modified foods (Cornejo
et al, 2006).The Americans stands first in consumption of GM foods. About 70 per cent of the processed
foods ingredients in the United States have derived from GM crops (Cornell CES, 2003). An average of 87.5
Kilograms of GM foods was consumed per person per year. This 87.5 Kg accumulates 31 Kg of Sugar beet
products, 27 Kg of Maize products, 17 Kg of Soya and Oil products and 13 Kg of Sorghum products (ISAAA,
2011). There are countries do not allow the production of GM plants but they do import and allow it for
consumption. For example, Europe imported 23 million tonnes of soy meal and 12.6 million tonnes of
soybeans from South America. China imported 45 million tonnes of soybean and 2.4 million tonnes of soya
oil from South America. India also imported 1.1 million tonnes of soybean oil. Kenya imports GM maize
from South Africa (ISAAA, 2011).
References
1. Laxmikanta Nayak*, Hridyesh Pandey, Lakshamanan Ammayappan and Deb Prasad Ray, 2010 “Genetically modified crops
– A review”, Agricultural Reviews, Vol (32) p 112-119.
2. Yogesh Bhagat* and Sarita Gund, 2014 “Transgenic plants: Role in Agriculture – A Review”, Vol (35) p 233-237.
Jamun, botanically named as Syzygium cumini, belongs to family Myrtaceae. Its fruit is generally
acknowledged to be very high quality for its curative function chiefly against diabetes because of its effect
on pancreas. Jamun holds anti-hypercholesterolemic properties and helps in regulating the blood lipid
profile due to presence of bioactive component.
Studies accomplished in last twenty years have explored that jamun have got good complex of naturally
present antioxidant compounds.
Recently, studies have shown that jamun fruit and seed contain significant quantity of antioxidant
compounds such as phenolic acids, flavonoids and anthocyanins. These bioactive compounds are helpful in
preventing different metabolic syndromes .The present research was carried out to evaluate the anti-hyper
glycaemic properties of jamun fruit and seed.
A full Jamun consist of its edible part, seed coat and kernel. The edible part of whole Jamun fruit is around
75%. 83.7% moisture, 0.7% protein, 0.3% fat, 0.9% crude fibre, 14% carbohydrate and 0.4% ash were found
in edible part of Jamun (Chaudhary and Mukhopadhyay, 2012). The Jamun seed contains 6.63% protein,
0.66% lipid, carbohydrate 75.4% and insoluble dietary fibre 1.32%.
Jamun seed powder is good sources of vitamin-C and vitamin-B complex as well as dietary fibre, potassium,
iron and they are low in fat and cholesterol. It also contains some essential minerals such as potassium,
calcium, sodium, magnesium and phosphorus (Priyanka and Mishra, 2015).
The results of instant research depicted that both seed and fruit extracts reduce the blood glucose level
significantly and also regulate the insulin levels in hyperglycaemic rats. It was noted that jamun fruit
extract attenuated serum glucose levels to 5.35% and 12.29% in normal and hyperglycaemic rats,
respectively; while insulin levels were improved by 2.82% and 6.19%, correspondingly. Whereas, jamun
seed extract reduced glucose to 7.04% & 14.36% and showed 3.56% & 7.24% higher insulin levels in normal
& hyperglycaemic rats, respectively.
Jamun fruits are universally accepted to be very good for medicinal purposes especially for diabetes because
of its effect on the pancreas (Joshi, 2001). The fruit, its juice and the seed contain a biochemical called
‘Jamboline’ which is believed to check the pathological conversion Jamun seed powder supplemented cakes
600 of starch into sugar in case of increased production of glucose.
Jamun seeds are known for their medicinal characters to cure diabetes, diarrhoea, dysentery and blood
pressure (Chopra et al., 1 WF and JSP blends in the preparation of functional cookies to improve the
quantity and quality of protein, carbohydrate, and fibre content. They recommended that cookies can be
produced by incorporating JSP in WF up to 20% to get suitable colour, flavour, texture and overall
acceptability.1956).
Although wheat flour is a good source of calories and other nutrients, but the price of wheat flour is
increasing day by day due to multipurpose uses. Mixing of JSP with WF, which increases nutritional
quality, shelf life and also the excellent taste of preparing cake could be a good alternative to WF.
Only Jamun flesh is utilized but large amount of Jamun seed being discarded every year. So, it will be a
unique technique to prepare different value-added products by mixing JSP and other ingredients for cakes,
cookies, biscuits preparation. It can be used to develop nutritionally enriched bakery products.
Jamun seeds
Standardized Flow Chart for Making the Preparation of Cookies from Jamun Seed
Powder with the Help of Wheat Flour
Udaipur, Rajasthan.
3Department of Horticulture, Swami Keshwanad Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner, Rajasthan.
Introduction
A plant disease is the result of interaction between a susceptible host plant, virulent pathogen, and the
environment. Human activities (i.e., agronomic practices, fungicide treatments, movement of plant
material in the global market, etc.) and the presence of microbial antagonists to the pathogen may also
play roles in the development of a disease. Because the environment significantly, directly or indirectly,
influences plants, pathogens, and their ntagonists, changes in environmental conditions are strongly
associated with differences in the level of losses caused by a disease, and environmental changes are often
implicated in the emergence of new diseases (Anderson et al. 2004). For these reasons, the changes
associated with global warming (i.e., increased temperatures, changes in the quantity and pattern of
precipitation, increased CO2 and ozone levels, drought, etc.) may affect the incidence and severity of plant
disease and influence the further co evolution of plants and their pathogens.
Conclusion
Climate affect crop, pathogen and their interaction that have great impact on their disease occurrence,
physiology, virulence, host range and affect the management practices. So, changing climate in present
scenario is a very big and burning issue for crop, its productivity and food supply.
References
1. Agrios GN (2005). Plant Pathology. 5th Ed. Elsevier, USA. p. 922.
2. Anderson PK, Cunningham AA, Patel NG, Morales FJ, Epstein PR, Daszak P (2004) Emerging infectious diseases of plants:
pathogen pollution, climate change and agrotechnology drivers. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 19, 535–544.
3. Ghini R, Hamada E, Bettiol W (2008). Climate change and plant disease. Sci. Agric. (Piracicaba, Braz.), 65: 98-107.
4. IPCC. (2007). Climate change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Group I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment.
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Pachauri RK, Reisinger A, (Eds) IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland.
5. Peng SB, Huang JL, Sheehy JE, Laza RC, Visperas RM, Zhong XH, Centeno GS, Khush GS, Cassman KG (2004). Rice Yields
Decline with Higher Night Temperature from Global Warming. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 101: 9971-9975.
Introduction
Celery is a main member of the family Apiaceae and native to Coastal Australia and New Zealand. It has
a long fibrous stalk tapering into leaves. Depending on location and cultivar, either its stalks, leaves or
hypocotyl are eaten and used in cooking. Celery seed is also used as a spice and its extracts have been used
in herbal medicine.
Uses
It is a salad vegetable. Both leaf and stem are eaten. Dried leaves are used in native Australian spice mixes.
It tastes much the same as celery and is used to flavour soups.
Medicinal Properties
1. Celery’s young leaves and stem contain mineral vitamin and protein content (6.3%), Vitamin C(62mg/100
g), Calcium (230mg/100g), Iron(6.3 mg/100g), β-Carotene (3.99 mg/100g) and Riboflavin (0.11 mg/100g) and
also used as one of the important medicinal plants.
2. The oil is made from celery has great fragrance. This aromatic oil helps the human brain to work
effectively.
3. It is the best medicine for rheumatoid arthritis such as under rheumatoid arthritis.
Varieties
Gaint Pascal, Emperor of Jeen, Standard Bearer, Wright Grove Gaint are a few introductions found
promising.
TNAU Ooty - 1
Characteristics of celery:
1. Ooty Horticultural Research Station maintained 6 vatieties, from which this Ooty – 1 was choosen.
2. This type of celery will grow by an average of 72.3 cm height. It is a short-term crop. The 115 days of age.
It has a potential yield. The average yield of 30.5 t/ha. Grown in the Nilgiris district, 30.3 per cent more
yield than the local type of offer. The seed yield of 1.40 t/ha. Smaller seeds. Color is brown.
3. 1.71 percent of the oil present in the seeds. The seed oil is only 0.56 per cent of the local type. It has good
fragrance so it used as spices material. The longitivity of leaves is higher.
4. In mountainous areas, it can be kept upto 8 days, so it is optimized to carry to distant markets.
5. The 100g leaves contain high level of protein content (1g), carbohydrate (3 g), sodium (88 mg), calcium
(4 per cent) and iron (1 per cent). Leaves with dark green colour, excellent cooking quality.
6. From this instant soup and instant spice powder, curry, Channa Masala and Vegetable curry can be
prepared. This variety is resistant to leaf spot disease.
7. It has root nematode, white fly and aphid insects resistant. It can be cultivated throughout the year.
Nirpokam (February - April), karpokam (April – June) kadaipogam (August - October). It is cultivated all
mountainous, which has a height of 900 meters above Mean Sea Level.
Season
It can be cultivated in three seasons, i.e., Neerbogam (February - April), Karbogam (April –June) and
kadaipokam.
Propagation
It is a transplanted crop. To raise seedling to plant one hectare an area 50 m2 will be sufficient. About 1.5
-2.0 Kg of seeds are soaked in water overnight and then broadcast on the beds or sown in lines and covered
by a thin layer of top soil. Celery propagated by seeds. The seeds are very small, so mixed with ten times
more sand and be sown in the nursery bed.
Nursery
Prepare the field to get a fine tilth.
Seed Rate
The seed rate is 1.25 kg of seed per hectare. To produce seedlings per hectare required a 100-square-foot
nursery.1 m Width, 15 cm height and length required to set up the raised beds. The seeds are soaked in a
3% Panchagavya solution, dry it in a shade and sow. While preparing the field, apply for one square meter
20kg farm yard manure, 5kg vermicompost, 10 kg bio compost manure, 200g Mycorhiza root internal
fungus, 200 g Azospirillum and 200 g phosphobacteria can be applied. Take the weeds in the nursery and
should be kept clean. Watering should be done once in two days. 3 weeks after planting the seeds will
germination. After 75 days obtained good quality seedlings. Sowing is done during July – September in
plains and January – March in hills.
Land Preparation
Applied 30 t/ha of well decomposed farmyard manure. Along with farmyard manure, 5-ton bio compost
manure, 5 ton vermicompost, 10kg Metarizium, 10kg Azhospirillum, 10kg phosphobacteria, 10 kg
Mycorhiza root internal fungus, 1.25 tonnes neem cake, 2.5 kg Pseudomonas fluorescence and 2.5 kg
Trichoderma viride can be applied. Plough the land well and then, 75 g composted cow manure, 1.5 kg cow
dung herbal manure with 40 Litres of water mixed and spread as a large droplet to the ground and spray.
Planting
Planting made during the rainy season. Good quality seedlings should be planting 4-5 cm row to row and
15 cm plant spacing or 60 x15 cm are followed.
Fertilizer
Top dress application of N-140 Kg, P-55Kg and K-220 Kg/ha.
Irrigation
Proper and rapid irrigation for required for crop development. Need water once a week.
Post Treatment
The land must be maintained free from weeds. 4-5 times to remove the weeds for good growth of the crop.
Harvesting
Celery preparing harvest in 115 days. The external thick stems are used to prepare soup, and internal
stems are very young so used to prepare salad.
Crop Duration
4-5 months
Yield
Celery yield of 30.5 t/ha.
Summary
Agriculture sector of developing nations are often plagued by several natural and man -made exigencies.
To combat the same, technology enabled dissemination of Agricultural Information is required. If a farmer
gets right information at the right time to sell his/her marketable surplus, the problem of information lag
can be solved. Agricultural Information being quintessential for a farmer, the need of the hour is to make
it technology enabled. Exploitation of the application of Information Communication Technology can be a
real game changer in Agriculture Domain, especially when India is focussing on Doubling Farmer’s Income.
Table 1
Table 1 shows the percentage adoption of agricultural practices communicated to farmers in English, Hindi
and regional languages (the average of ten regional languages has been included). Thus, 62% adoption of
information communicated in regional languages shows the credibility and need for Agriculture
Information to be in farmer’s own language.
Multidimensionality of ICT
Several works conducted in the arena gave cognizance of the fact that multi-dimensionality of ICT should
be applied in Agriculture. There are a plethora of potential areas where ICT can be applied to increase the
efficacy of Agricultural production system, thereby enhancing farmers’ income. Albeit the idea of Artificial
Intelligence and Big Data analytics seem utopian, several countries have put them into agricultural use.
For instance, a researcher team developed an AI that can identify diseases in cassava plants. By a
technique known as transfer learning, this team, teach the AI to recognize crop diseases and pest damage.
They used Tensor Flow, a Google’s open source library to build a database of AI 2,756 images of cassava
leaves from plants in Tanzania. Eventually, AI was able to identify a disease with 98% accuracy. In Indian
scenario, farmers being marginal and small create intensified agricultural practices unpragmatic. But the
situation can be approached in different angle.
Information Communication Networking is one such tool that can be employed so as to put domain
knowledge in user’s language. Efficient accessing and distribution of content are two advantages of the ICN
In Indian perspective, similar efforts have to be strengthened by GOI to realize the aim of doubling farmer’s
income. Unless ICT has been rigorously been put into use, there would always be an information gap
between the scientific faculty and farmers. For farming has to be remunerative farming methods have to
be strategically planned and technologically linked.
References
1. Adhiguru, P. and Devi, S.V. ICT in Indian Agriculture: Learnings and way ahead. Int. J. of Ext. Edu.; 2012; 8:1-4
2. GOI (2001) ‘Report of Prime Minister’s Task Force on India as Knowledge Superpower’. Planning Commission, Government
of India, New Delhi.
3. Singh S, Ahlawat S, Sanwal S. Role of ICT in Agriculture: Policy Implications. Orient. J. Comp. Sci. and Technol;10(3).
http://www.computerscijournal.org.
Introduction
Environmentally friendly and sustainability were not a determining factor in our purchases until the end
of the last decade. But now we've begun to realize the devastating effects of plastic products and become
more environmentally conscious day by day. Consumption has changed in the way people think. We want
to keep the plastic contaminants away from our planet.
So, we want to make a more environmentally friendly choice over wasteful choices. Eco-friendly disposable
plates can be easily handled and disposed of after application. Although there are many environmentally
friendly goods, this article will concentrate more on the areca palm leaf plates and benefits.
Areca is a commercial crop and is cultivated primarily in the Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Assam and
Andaman & Nicobar Islands states. Areca palm sheaths Areca sheath is currently used to make
plates/cups, fuel and compost. One Areca palm tree sheds 5 to 6 leaves per year. Such leaves were
considered an agro-waste and were simply thrown away or burned.
But now the sheaths have acquired significant significance in the company of the areca leaf plates. After
the sheath is trimmed, the sheath gets into the manufacture of areca leaf plates. The leaf goes into the
composting process. You can get up to 3000 sheaths of an areca palm tree from one acre.
Waste Sheaths
The remaining portions in the areca leaf sheath after turning the sheath into plates are called agro-waste,
after turning the sheath into plates. Units producing vermicompost take and compost these leftover areca
palm sheaths into vermicompost.
References
1. Areca Leaf Plates Manufacturing Process. (2016, November 27) Retrieved from http://green.uni5.co/process.html
2. Areca Leaves sheath. (2016, November 27) Retrieved from http://14.139.158.230/web/DOC/Areca%20leaf%20sheath.pdf
3. Gowda N. K. S. (2016). Areca sheath as an alternate dry fodder for livestock. Retrieved from
http://www.feedipedia.org/content/areca-sheath-alternate-dry-fodder livestock-0
4. Kalita P., Dixit U. S., Mahanta P., Saha U. K. (2006). Effect of moisture content and temperature on Arecanut Leaf Sheath
Products, in Proc 3rd BSME-ASME Int Conf on Thermal Engineering (Dhaka, Bangladesh) 20-22 December 2006.
5. Padmaraj, N., Kini, M. V., Pai, B. R., & Shenoy, B. S. (2013). Development of Short Areca Fiber Reinforced Biodegradable
Composite Material. Procedia Engineering, 64, 966–972.
Summary
Soybean seed has to be stored without loss of viability and vigour from the day of harvest to next planting
season and also for carryover purpose. In India, seed is stored in ambient storage condition. Seed
germination is the major problem in soybean. Adverse climatic conditions especially continuous rainfall
during crop harvesting in kharif season resulted in failure of seed production programme coupled with
lower seed quality.
In rabi and summer season climatic conditions especially average temperature range is not suitable for
optimum crop growth and yield. Seed yield is low in rabi and summer seasons as compare to kharif season
but seed quality is superior in rabi and summer season. (Dandagi et al., 2012).
Introduction
Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill.] is an important oilseed crop belonging to family Leguminosae, sub
family Papilionaceae and the genus Glycine max L. Soybean contains Protein (40-42%), Carbohydrates
(26%), Oil (18-25%), Minerals (4%), Phospholipids (2%), poly unsaturated fatty acids (60 % ) with calorific
value of 452 calories per 100 g.
In recent decades area under soybean in our country is increasing year after year but productivity is not
considerably increased and has remained almost stagnant for the past several years There are several
reasons for low productivity such as low seed germination, lack of seed vigour, poor plant stand, low seed
quality and deterioration of seed quality in seed storage.(Deshmukh, S. D. 2013) Seed viability is a major
factor in crop stand establishment and subsequent productivity in many parts of the India.
As per minimum seed certification standard, minimum seed germination in soybean should be 70%. Losses
in seed quality occur during storage if they are exposed to high temperature and humidity. Further rainfall
during seed harvesting also reduce seed germination considerably. (Meena et al., 2017).
Main Body
Seed is to be stored from harvest to next sowing season. As soybean seed comes under large volume, low
price seed category it is economical not viable to stored seed under controlled conditions. Under tropical
conditions ambient storage condition and rainfall during harvest are the major causes to lower seed
germination. Seed germination capacity has been reported to drop sharply after two months of storage at
ambient conditions. (Kandil et al., 2013) and (Krittigamas et al., 2001).
In India seed is stored in ambient storage conditions where summer season temperature ranges from 40oc
to 45oc. If storage temperature goes above 40oc, moisture content in seed decreases below 08 % which
adversely affect seed germination. Thin seed coat and exposure of embryo outside is the main cause of seed
deterioration.
Therefore, increase storability period of soybean seeds without decrease in seed quality parameters and
biochemical activities viz., α-amylase and Dehydrogenase enzymes. As far as storage is concern seed is to
be stored in polyline gunny bags with six stacking bags and ample aeration (Hossein et al., 2014).
In kharif season, if rainfall occurs during harvesting and seed germination is adversely affected than off
season seed production programme is to be undertaken in rabi season and sowing is to be completed before
15 December. If sowing is delayed than increased temperature adversely affected physiological growth and
yield of crop. In kharif season seed yield was higher than rabi season. However, rabi season seed quality
was superior than kharif season. (Deshmukh et al., 2018).
References
1. Dandagi, R., Mohan, B., Lakkundi, S., Sangamesh, H., Merwade, M. N. and Vinay, S. P. (2012). Correlation studies between
mechanical damage (%) and seed quality parameters in kharif and summer sown soybean (Glycine max L.) genotype.
International Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 8(1): 41-43.
2. Deshmukh, S. D. (2013). Effect of storage material and biochemical parameters on seed quality of soybean (Glycine max (L.)
Merrill.). M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, VNMKV, Parbhani.
3. Deshmukh, H.S., Sheeler V. R. and Deshmukh, M. P. (2018). Effect of sowing dates and season on physical seed quality of
soybean. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 7(6): 881-883.
4. Hossein, S., Saman S., Hassan, G. and Leila Y. (2014). Effect of packaging materials, storage duration and conditions on seed
germination traits in laboratory and field emergence of soybean (Glycine max L.) seedling. Journal of Experimental Biology
and Agricultural Sciences, 5(1): 67-82.
5. Kandil, A. A., Sharief A. E. and Sheteiwy M. S. (2013). Effect of seed storage periods, conditions and materials on seed quality
of some soybean cultivars. International Journal of Agriculture Sciences, 5(1): 349-346.
6. Krittigamas, N., Suchada, V., Sanguanask, T. and Sangtiwa S. (2001). Investigation of pod harvest soybean seed storability
after passing the different steps of processing.Conference on “International Agricultural Research for Development.” pp : 218-
221.
7. Meena, M. K., Chetti M. B. and Nawalagatti, C. M. (2017). Influence of Different Packaging Materials and Storage Conditions
on the Seed Quality Parameters of Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), International Journal of Pure and Applied Bioscience,
5(1): 933-941.
Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) belonging to the family Gramineae is the staple food for one third world’s population
and occupies almost one fifth of the total land area covered under cereals. Rice is a high energy or high
calories food and of high biological value of the proteins. More than 100 species of insect have been recorded
to infest the paddy crop but out of these 20 insect pests are of major economic significance.
The most damaging pest is brown plant hopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stal.) suck the plant sap from the
phloem vessels through their proboscis, due to this plant starts wilting with outer most leaves drying first
and then the entire plant dries up. Under severe cases field gives a burnt appearance in concentric circles
known as “hopper burn”.
Botanical pesticides are the important alternatives to minimize or replace the use of synthetic pesticides
as they possess an array of properties including toxicity to the pest, repellency, antifeedance, insect growth
regulatory activities against pests of agricultural importance. In fact, botanical pesticides are in use in
Indian agriculture for over a century to minimize losses caused by pests and diseases. (Prakash et al., 1997
and Parmar and Devkumar,1993).
Treatments Details
Tr. No. Treatments
T1 Metarrhizium anisopliae (1x108 cfu/ml) (dose 4 gm/lit of water)
T2 5 % neem oil (dose 5ml/lit of water)
T3 5 % NSKE
T4 5 % bitter gourd (Momrdica charantia) leaf extract
T5 5 % custard apple (Annona squamosa) leaf extract
T6 5 % garadi (Cleistanthus collinus) leaf extract
T7 5 % bitter gourd leaf extract + 5 % garadi leaf extract + 5 % custard apple leaf extract
T8 Control (water spray)
Preparation of Bitter Gourd Leaf Extract, Custard Apple Leaf Extract and Garadi Leaf
Extract
Freshly collected tender leaves (50 g/litre) were washed thoroughly under tap water. The washed leaves
were rewashed with distilled water and drained out excess water and the excess moisture on leaves was
removed by using muslin cloth which further allows to shade dry. The leaves were completely dried without
any trace of moisture. These dried leaves were taken and prepared into fine powder by means of mixture
and kept for 16 hours in water. The crude extract slurry was prepared and the concentrated pure leaf
extract thus obtained through a sterilized a Whatman no.1. filter paper was used for spraying of required
dose (Fiaz et al., 2012).
Methodology
Blanket application of all treatments except M. anisopliae was undertaken at 15 DAT, subsequently all
treatments application was applied on 30, 50, 70 and 90 DAT. The knapsack sprayer was used for spraying
operations. After every treatment, sprayer nozzles, pipes were washed twice thoroughly with clean water.
In case of hoppers populations, number a hopper one day before (1DB) and 3 days after each application
(3DAA) on ten random hills were recorded.
SE (±M) - -
0.05 0.04 0.12 0.10 - 0.05 - 0.07 - 0.04
CD at 5% - -
0.14 0.13 0.37 0.30 - 0.16 - 0.21 - 0.13
CV (%) - -
18.1 8.62 19.1 9.09 - 4.37 - 5.36 - 3.93
5 0
BT- one day before treatment, AT-3days after treatment.
Sig – Significant, NS- Non-Significant,
**Figures in parentheses are corresponding values of square root (n) transformation, n= Brown plant
hoppers (no./hill).
Conclusion
5 % bitter gourd leaf extract + 5 % garadi leaf extract + 5 % custard apple leaf extract was found effective
in management of brown plant hopper
References
1. Fiaz, M., A. Hameed, M. Hasan and W. Wakil, (2012). Efficacy of plant extract on some cotton pests: Amrasca bigutulla
bigutulla Ishida and Thrips tabaci Lindeman. Pakistan J. Zool., 44(1): 277-283.
2. Parmar, B. S. and C. D. Kumar, (1993). Botanical and biopesticides. Westvill Publishing House, New Delhi, 199p.
3. Prakash A. and J. Rao,(1997). Botanical pesticides in agriculture. CRC Lewis Publs.
BocaRaton,USA.481p.Publishedonline:https://doi/org/10.1080/09670878709371115,pp.
Introduction
Locusts (Orthoptera: Acridoidea) are among the most dangerous agricultural pests. Locust invasions are
dramatic, cover large areas in a short period and almost all green in their path is destroyed. It is the
destructive which is dreaded as locusts come so suddenly in such large numbers and swarm across
international boundaries and due to this reason locust invasion attract so much public attention and cause
international concern. Locusts are invertebrate animals with highly migratory habits, marked
polymorphism and voracious feeding behaviour. They are able to take rapid advantage of the climate and
geography can survive in temperature range from 0 degree to 60 degree and can speed up or slow down
their life cycle. Desert Locust are now better controlled, since the middle of the 60’s, thanks mainly to more
efficient chemical pesticides, improved application methods, better knowledge of locust ecology and
implementation of a preventive control strategy supported by FAO, the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations.
India.
Introduction
Lepidium sativum Linn. commonly called garden cress, is a fast-growing annual herb belonging to the
Brassicaceae family that is native to Egypt and West Asia. It is also found in various parts of Europe,
including Britain, France, Italy, and Germany. In India, it is mainly cultivated in Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh. Seeds, leaves, and roots are considered important
parts of this plant which are used for treating various ailments. The seeds hold significant anti-
inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic, and coagulant activities and also useful in treating asthma, cough,
and bleeding piles. The powder made from garden cress seed along with sugar can be taken to treat
diarrhoea, indigestion, and dysentery. The seeds are also considered rubefacient and are applied as a
poultice for hurts and sprains. The leaves possess antiscorbutic, diuretic, stimulant properties and also
used as a spice, and sprouts of garden cress are important ingredients of salads and sandwiches. The roots
are considered bitter, acrid and are useful in treating secondary syphilis, tenesmus, and also used as a
condiment. In the Ayurvedic system of medicine, this plant is known to have several pharmacological
activities such as galactogogue, aphrodisiac, and have found to destroy Vata (air) and Kapha (phlegm). The
seeds as well as leaves are reported to possess diuretics, aperient, and aphrodisiac properties, and are used
against inflammation, bronchitis, rheumatism, and muscular pain in the Unani system of medicine
(Sharma and Agarwal, 2011). The seed oil of garden cress is rich in alpha linolic acid and omega-3 fatty
acid, which is effective in curing different kinds of cancers. The decoction made from seed along with a
tablespoonful of honey is given to increase the production of breast milk in animals as well as human beings
and also enhance the sexual stamina.
Agro-Technology
1. Mode of propagation: Garden cress is propagated through seed.
2. Climate: It can grow in any type of climate from tropical to temperate regions with fewer requirements.
It can also develop well in semi-shade (light woodland) or even without any shade.
3. Soil: It can grow in a wide range of soil conditions. However, it prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy),
and heavy (clay) soils. It requires moist soil and also some shade during the summer to prevent from
desiccation effect of heat reaching directly to seed.
4. Selection of seed: The seeds which are healthy, bolder, and free from any disease and pest infestation
should be selected for cultivation.
5. Field preparation: The garden cress doesn’t require much field preparation activities. The field is
ploughed 3 to 4 times and then the soil is thoroughly mixed with the required quantity of farmyard manure
Conclusion
Considering the economic importance complemented with its medicinal usage, the cultivation of this crop
is being undertaken in several parts of the country. However, there is very little information about its
genetic diversity which is a prerequisite for any crop improvement program. Therefore, more research
should be taken up focusing on exploring its genetic diversity. Being a short duration crop, economic return
can be realized within a short period of 4-5 months.
References
1. Falana, H., Nofal, W. and Nakhleh, H. (2014). A Review Article on Lepidium Sativum (Garden cress).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262914046
2. Sharma, S. and Agarwal, N. (2011). Nourishing and healing prowess of garden cress (Lepidium sativum Linn.) Indian Journal
of Natural Products and Resources, 292-297.
3. Wadhwa, S., Panwar, M.S., Agarwal. A., Saini, N. and Patidar, L.N. (2012). A review on pharmacognostical study of Lepidium
sativum. Advance Research in Pharmaceuticals and Biologicals, 2: 316-323.
Introduction
Apple scab occurs wherever apple is grown and may be a very serious disease on susceptible varieties.
Apple is the one of the most important fruit of J&K. Directly or indirectly half of population of Jammu and
Kashmir is involved in apple production and trade business in the state and provides means of employment
generation (Bhat and Lone 2017). Apples are affected by a number of diseases caused by fungi, bacteria,
viruses, viroids and phytoplasmas (Abrol, 2015). In India it was first reported from Kashmir valley on the
native cultivar Ambri in 1935.
The large scale damage and spread of apple scab created an alarming situation and the problem managed
to engage the attention of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Directorate of Plant
Protection, Quarantine and Storage (DPPQS) and the Govt. of India (GOI) and it was promptly declared as
one of the five main problems of national importance in India (Abrol, 2015). Apple scab is the major disease
affecting apples grown in temperate climates throughout the world (Sheikh, 2017). This disease can have
a significant economic impact as diseased fruit are not marketable.
The disease negatively affects fruit size and quality (due to blemishes and poor ripening). Over time,
repeated defoliation from the disease reduces tree vigour, growth and yield. This outrageous disease leads
to premature leaf/fruit fall that results in 74% yield loss and even complete loss is also possible, if steps are
not taken in the orchard to reduce infection (Ogawa and English 1991).
Symptoms
The disease may affect leaves, petioles, fruit and twigs. The early lesions of scab are defined with dark
green velvety spots, seen on lower surfaces of leaves. Leaves and fruits are highly susceptible to apple scab
when they are young and growing. Mature leaves and fruits gain resistance as they age. During the main
growth period in early spring, there is more susceptible tissue available for infection and therefore, greater
risk of disease than later in the season. Apple scab generally does not kill the trees but it can cause
defoliation, which will weaken the tree and influence its survival during winter conditions. On leaves,
young scab lesions are pale, irregular, and small. As they age, they become circular and olive-coloured with
a velvety texture. Early infections can lead to abnormal growth and fruit drop. If the fruit is infected late
in the summer or just before harvest, black, circular, very small (0.1 – 5 mm diameter) lesions called ‘pin-
point scab’ will appear during storage (MacHardy,1996).
Causal Organism
This disease caused by the fungus Venturia inaequalis, belongs to subdivision Ascomycota, class
Loculoascomycetes, order Pleosporales and family Venturiaceae and genus Venturia. Saprophytic (sexual
state Venturia inaequalis (Cke) and parasitic (asexual state Spilocaea pomi Fr) are the two states of this
fungus (Bowen, 2011).
Venturia inaequalis overwinters mostly on dead leaves, in which small microscopic flask formed black
fruiting bodies, called pseudothecia, are developed. Ascospores start maturing in early spring and when
temperature and moisture are suitable these spores are released forcibly in air. In the spring during the
rainy season, fungal spores are released from the infected leaves that remain from the previous year and
are carried by the wind to newly emerging leaves and fruits of healthy trees.
Once primary infection occurs, secondary spores (conidia) are formed, allowing a tree to continually re-
infect it or neighbouring trees as long as environmental conditions are favourable. The disease progresses
rapidly and causes severe infections if plants remain continuously wet for at least a six-hour period with
temperatures around 19 - 26°C (Holb, 2004).
Conclusion
The apple scab disease causes huge losses to apple industry throughout the world, hence there is a need to
develop an ideal system that prevents these losses and is eventually acceptable to consumers. In order to
control such menace caused by apple scab, proper prediction and forecasting systems are need of the hour
to prevent apple scab disease well in advance and also understanding the host pathogen interaction, which
can provide new insights for effective management of this disease.
References
1. Bhat TA., Lone TA., (2017). Potential and Prospects of J&K Economy. Educreation Publishing.
2. Abrol DP., (2015). Pest Problems in Fruit Crops. Pollination Biology, Springer Volume 1: 59-90.
3. Sheikh MA., (2017) Phenotypic and molecular screening for diseases resistance of apple cultivars and selections against apple
scab (Venturia inaequalis). International Journal of Chemical Studies 5(4): 1107-1113.
4. Ogawa JM., English H., (1991). Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. UCANR Publications.
5. MacHardy WE., (1996). Apple scab: biology, epidemiology, and management. APS press St. Paul.
6. Bowen JK., (2011). Venturia inaequalis: the causal agent of apple scab. Molecular Plant Pathology 12 (2): 105-122.
7. Holb I., (2004) Overwintering of conidia of Venturia inaequalis and the contribution to early epidemics of apple scab. Plant
Disease 88 (7): 751-757.
8. MacHardy WE., (2001). Parasitic and biological fitness of Venturia inaequalis: relationship to disease management strategies.
Plant Disease 85 (10): 1036-1051.
9. Ellis M., (1998). Effects of an apple scab-resistant cultivar on use patterns of inorganic and organic fungicides and economics
of disease control. Plant Disease 82(4): 428-433.
10. Poleatewich AM., (2010). Development of Biological Control Strategies for Integrated Management of Pre-and Postharvest
Diseases of Apple in Pennsylvania”.
11. Sajad Un Nabi., (2018). Apple Scab Disease-Cause, Symptoms and Management”. Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture,
Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.
References
Dutta, S., S. Rakshit and D. Chatterjee. 2020. Use of Artificial Intelligence in Indian Agriculture. Food and Scientific Reports., Vol
1 (4): 69.
Introduction
India is the seventh largest country and a total area expanse of 3.28 million sq.km. (approx.) with richest
flora and fauna in the world. The country has 15 agro-climatic zones comprising of mountains, plateaus,
river, lakes, deserts, oceans and grasslands. Apart from that 21.54 per cent of the total area is covered by
dense forests. Hence, the complex topography, diversified climate and vegetation make India the favourite
habitat to the alien species.
Furthermore, India being one of the fastest-growing economies with an export of 330.07 billion dollar to as
many as 190 countries around the world. On the other hand, the import statistics reveal an importation of
462.9 billion dollar from around 140 countries. Therefore, large scale trade among the nations has made
an opportunistic target for the entry of the invasive species. Invasion of species (IAS) are considered as a
major threat to agricultural biodiversity, human and animal health, livelihoods, forestry and biodiversity
which results in huge economic losses (Singh et. al., 2019).
Invasive insect pest is one which becomes established in natural or semi natural ecosystems or habitat,
and threatens native biological diversity (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources -IUCN). Damage by crop pests which include insects, diseases, nematodes and rodents are
recognized as the major constraints in food production. Apart from these elements the agricultural economy
is vulnerable to exotic pests/diseases which act as the bottle neck in reducing yield. Current status of
invasive insects in India are 173 species, including 54 terrestrial plants, 56 aquatic organisms, 23 insect
pests and 61 organisms having microorganisms and island ecosystem.
Climate change results in increased temperature which ultimately influence the ecology and biology of
insect pests and diseases. This in turn causes migration of insect species towards higher latitudes, while
in tropics the higher temperatures might adversely affect specific pest species. Likely impacts of any change
in climate on population of pests are manifold. In India, the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine
and Storage is responsible for implementation of Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order,
2003 to prevent entry, establishment and spread of exotic plant pests into India to safeguard agriculture,
horticulture and forest tree plants.
Mode of Invasion
Invasion of alien species can be divided into four steps viz., a). Introduction, b). Establishment, c). Spread,
d). Naturalisation (Sujay et. al., 2010).
Introduction
Non-native species are imported either intentionally or unintentionally for economic purposes in shipping
containers, wood imports, infesting fruits carried by tourists, unsuspecting travellers and hidden in soil of
imported ornamental plants. In order to get established in a new locality, beyond the natural ranges, first
the insect must have to move or get itself from its current habitat. This mode of transport is very common
and difficult to control.
For the examples, timber beetles (Cerambycidae) in Antarctica was predicted to be introduced through
transported logs. Invasive insects themselves have an inherent capacity to migrate long distances. Hence
any deviations from the favourable condition make them migrate from that place. Fall armyworm,
Spodoptera frugiperda, is one of the recent invasive insect pests in India.
Naturalisation
Naturalisation occurs when the alien species adapts itself to the new environment by overcoming the
abiotic and biotic stress and when they start their regular reproduction.
Conclusion
The impact caused by invasive pests on the environment and agricultural production is tremendous.
Increase in international agricultural trade because of globalisation, increased the movement of seeds and
planting material which ultimately enhanced the risk for introduction of invasive pest in India. Certain
reformative measures have to be improved to narrow down these losses.
To control the introduction of invasive species the steps such as identification, preliminary risk assessment,
planning for eradication programme, risk assessment review and monitoring of the status of the pest
followed should be strengthened.
References
1. Bisht K., and Giri G.S., (2019). Invasive Insect Pest Scenario in India: A threat to biodiversity. Journal of Entomological
Research. 43(2):229-234.
2. Gupta N., Verma S.C., Sharma P.L., Thakur M., Sharma P. and Devi D., (2019). Status of invasive insect pests of India and
their natural enemies. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies. 7(1):482-489.
3. Singh S., Sharma J.H., Udikeri A. and Ansari H., (2020). Invasive Insects in India. In Invasive Species-Introduction Pathways,
Economic Impact, and Possible Management Options. IntechOpen.
4. Sujay Y.H., Sattagi H.N. and Patil R.K., (2010). Invasive alien insects and their impact on agroecosystem. Karnataka Journal
of Agricultural Sciences. 23(1):26-34.
Abstract
The worst thing that human civilization could encounter after a health crisis would be a famine and it is
quite obvious that this could happen if it is not acknowledged and acted upon quickly. Each and every
aspect of our lives is going to be affected by this pandemic. Despite the more resilience seen in the
agriculture sector in a short span of time, it is also not far away from the different levels of impact due to
several factors like migration of labours, transportation industry, market shut downs to name a few.
Agriculture holds a share of about 14% in GDP of India and employees about 43% of population of India
(Statista, 2020). The substantial decline of growth in this sector may leave the biggest impact of covid-19
in this world.
Keywords: Agriculture, COVID-19, economy, GDP, government, farmers, India, transport.
Conclusions
Before the announcement of complete lockdown, over the country, economy was already facing a huge
downfall as the GDP of last quarter of 2019 was as low as 3.1% (Prachi Mishra, Chief economist,
India)[Figure-1]. Asian development bank has further projected a contract in Indian economy by 4% in this
financial year. The impact of this downfall will be more severe on the weaker sections of our society.
Agriculture has suffered huge losses due to restrictions imposed by pandemic. Farmers are now coping with
this situation by trying to sell their products direct to consumers. The reforms announced by the
government are not enough and it should be made sure that these amends don’t just stay in paper. History
teaches us a lot as after the Ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreak, agriculture suffered severe complications.
According to a report published in JRC science and policy reports, after the EVD outbreak, food availability
was less than average, households had less access to food, farmers were unable to sell their produce, labour
was short and people faced malnutrition due to imbalanced diet. Besides this, cereal grains stored in
warehouses of Food Corporation of India has been damaged in open weather due to due to dysfunctional
People have become more interested in how their food is produced. They want to meet farmers and
processors and talk with them about what goes into food production.] For many people who visit farms,
especially children, the visit marks the first time they see the source of their food, be it a dairy cow, an ear
of corn growing in a field, or an apple they can pick right off a tree. Farmers and ranchers use this interest
to develop traffic at their farm or ranch, and interest in the quality of their products, as well as awareness
of their products. While revenue and education are often primary drivers for farmers to diversify and invite
guests onto their property, safety isn't always a top priority. Accidents involving tractors, wagon rides,
trips, falls, and traffic occur at agritourism operations on a regular basis. Data and specific cases of
agrotourism-related injuries are tracked and stored by researchers and scientists. Some of this data is
available at publicly accessible sites such as AgInjuryNews.org.
Agricultural tourism has become a necessary means for many small farms’ survival. By diversifying
business operations, farm operators are able to ensure a more stable income. This is because agritourism
activities can occur during times of the year that crops may not be in season, and by providing a completely
separate stream of income. Some studies have found that agritourism operations often benefit their
surrounding communities by drawing tourists to the area. The economic boost by the increase in traffic can
be beneficial to rural areas in need of diversified streams of income. Agricultural tourism has become a
necessary means for many small farms’ survival. By diversifying business operations, farm operators are
able to ensure a more stable income. This is because agritourism activities can occur during times of the
year that crops may not be in season, and by providing a completely separate stream of income. Some
studies have found that agritourism operations often benefit their surrounding communities by drawing
tourists to the area. The economic boost by the increase in traffic can be beneficial to rural areas in need of
diversified streams of income. Agricultural tourism has become a necessary means for many small farms’
survival. By diversifying business operations, farm operators are able to ensure a more stable income. This
is because agritourism activities can occur during times of the year that crops may not be in season, and
by providing a completely separate stream of income. Some studies have found that agritourism operations
often benefit their surrounding communities by drawing tourists to the area. The economic boost by the
increase in traffic can be beneficial to rural areas in need of diversified streams of income operations often
benefit their surrounding communities by drawing tourists to the area. The economic boost by the increase
in traffic can be beneficial to rural areas in need of diversified streams of income.
As commercialism and mass production become the standards by which we live, agri tourism has given
people who work in the agricultural and horticultural sectors a chance to share their work with the masses.
Some agri-tourism experiences allow guests to buy food products grown on the farm or hand-crafted
products made by the farmers’ families; purchasing these goods helps provide farmers who rely on their
land with another source of income. Home and consumer education have given way to technology courses
in middle and high schools and many children grow up without ever really knowing what the countryside
is or what it’s like to interact with live farm animals. Agri tourism, therefore gives parents the opportunity
to introduce their children to something other than the city life.
Introduction
Bajra (Pennisetum glaucum L.) is one of the vital crops that feed poor people inhabiting in semi-arid and
arid tropics of Asia and Africa and provide basic sustainable living (Nutsugah et al., 2002). It is usually
cultivated as a food, fodder and fuel crop in regions that are too hot, too dry and / or have soil constraints
that prevent economic production of other staple food grain crops (Hash and Witcombe, 2002). Long
recognized by rural people in India for its nutritional value, the crop is now considered a “nutra-cereal”
because it contains high levels of energy and protein, a more balanced amino acid profile than maize or
sorghum, and relatively high densities of iron and zinc (Yadav et al. 2012).The green ear disease of Bajra
is a common disease and has been reported from several countries including India, Iran, Israel, China, Fiji,
Japan and the countries wherever Bajra crop is grown. The state of Rajasthan, followed by Maharashtra,
Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh, account for an estimated 90% of the acreage planted in pearl millet (Yadav et
al. 2012). However, Butler (1907) first reported this disease in India in a sporadic form. Mathur and Dalela
(1971) and Nene and Singh (1976) have estimated the loss as much as 26-33%. An outbreak of the disease
on an unprecedented scale has been evidenced in Karnataka and Maharashtra during the ‘Kharif’ season
of 1975 and a loss of almost 100% has been recorded.
Predisposing Factors
Abundant air supply heavily charged with oxygen, low percentage of moisture in soil and a temperature
range between 20 – 25°C are considered most favourable conditions for the germination of oospores in the
soil. If the soil enjoys high moisture content, the seedlings emerge before the oospores germinate and thus
escape the primary infection.
Management of Green Ear Disease
1. Cultural practices play important role. Early planting, avoidance of ratooning, rouging and gap filling,
deep ploughing, sun-exposure to ploughed soil, removal of infected crop debris, avoidance of monoculture,
crop rotation, and avoidance of water-logging reduce the incidence of the disease.
2. HB-5, NHB-10 and NHB-14 are the commonly cultivated varieties, which are resistant in Indian
conditions. Open pollinated varieties WC-C 75 and ICPT 8203 have shown durable resistance in our
country. ICMH 451 and Pusa 23 are the varieties that have remained free from the disease for seven years
hence recommended. Hybrid ICMH 88088 produced by ICRISAT shows high level of resistance to downy
mildew and yields better than all other available cultivars.
3. Since the seeds are considered to carry part of infection, their treatment with 0.1% Agrosan-GN + 0.4%
Thiram has resulted in about 50% reduction in disease incidence. Ceresan and Captafol are also
recommended for seed treatment. Seed treatment with Ridomil (8 g/kg of seed) followed by one spray of
Conclusion
Increased population necessitated increased food production. But demand growth for pearl millet is
expected to exceed projected increase in pearl millet production as the production is growing slowly in
India. Disease resistance is the only dependable source of disease management. The host resistance against
downy mildew has been exploited to a large extent and the resistant varieties are now being used by the
farmers. Metalaxyl has proved effective in controlling downy mildew when used as a seed treatment.
However, in case of ergot, the control measures are not available.
References
1. Hash CT., Witcombe JR., (2002). Gene management and breeding for downy mildew disease resistance. In: Sorghum and
millets diseases. (Ed) Leslie JF. Iowa State Press Pp. 27-36.
2. Kenneth, R. (1998). Sclerospora graminicola. (Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria). CAB International: IMI Descriptions of
Fungi and Bacteria, 46: Sheet 452.
3. Nutsugah SK., Atkpole IDK., Rao VP., (2002). Identification of resistance to downy mildew in Ghana. In sorghum and millet
disease. Ed. Lesile. Jf. Lowa state press Pp 43-47.
4. Yadav OP., Rai KN., Tajpurohit BS., Hash CT., Mahal RS., Gupta SK., Shetty HS., Bishnot HR., Rathore MS., (2012). Twenty-
Five Years of Pearl Millet Improvement in India. All India Coordinated Pearl Millet Improvement Programme, Jodhpur,
Rajasthan and Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi.
India.
Introduction
Rice is one of the most important cereal crops occupying second position in global agriculture. It is widely
grown in India due to its wider adaptability. To safeguard and sustain the food security in India, it is
necessary to enhance the productivity of rice with restricted resources, particularly land and water. As per
the principles of water foot print and virtual water 3000 to 5000 litres of water is needed to produce one kg
of rice. Being a water-intensive crop, cultivation of rice has been a big drain on water resources. The water
required for rice production is becoming scarce and costly because of the more demand for water from the
ever-growing population and industries (Choudhury et al., 2007). Bouman et al. (2007) quoted that by 2025
nearly 2 million hectares of Asia’s irrigated rice fields may suffer from water shortage because of extreme
consumption of water in lowland rice, which consumes 70 to 80 per cent of the irrigated water resources in
the major part of the rice growing regions in Asia including India. Rice is often called as a water hungry
crop and abundant consumer of water compared other cereal crops like wheat and maize (IRRI, 2009).
Rice is typically grown in bunded fields that are continuously flooded up to 7−10 days before harvest.
Continuous flooding helps ensure sufficient water and control weeds. Total seasonal water input to rice
fields varies from as little as 400 mm in heavy clay soils with shallow groundwater tables to more than
2000 mm in coarse-textured (sandy or loamy) soils with deep groundwater tables. Irrigated rice receives an
estimated 34−43 % of the total world’s irrigation water, or about 24−30 % of the entire world’s developed
fresh water resources. Worldwide, water for agriculture is becoming increasingly scarce. Due to its semi-
aquatic ancestry, rice is extremely sensitive to water shortages. Continuous flooding of water generally
provides the best growth environment for rice. After transplanting, water levels should be around 3 cm
initially, and gradually increase to 5−10 cm (with increasing plant height) and remain there until the field
is drained 7−10 days before harvest. Lowland rice is extremely sensitive to water shortage (below
saturation) at the flowering stage. Drought at flowering results in yield loss from increased spikelet
sterility, thus fewer grains.
In case of water scarcity, apply water-saving technologies such as Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) to
effectively and efficiently use water and maximize rice yields. Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) is a
water-saving technology that farmers can apply to reduce their irrigation water consumption in rice fields
without decreasing its yield. In AWD, irrigation water is applied a few days after the disappearance of the
ponded water. Hence, the field gets alternately flooded and non-flooded. The number of days of non-flooded
soil between irrigations can vary from 1 to more than 10 days depending on the number of factors such as
soil type, weather, and crop growth stage.
Principle AWD
1. Introduce periods without ponded water before re-irrigation during periods without ponded water.
2. No continuous percolation.
3. No continuous seepage.
4. Less evaporation.
Safe AWD
Moreover, time of irrigation is key factor for success of AWD. There is a specific type of AWD called ‘‘Safe
AWD’’ that has been developed to potentially reduce water inputs by about 30 per cent, which maintain
yields under flooded rice (Bouman et al., 2007). In safe AWD method, the ponded water on the field (also
called ‘‘perched water’’) is allowed to drop to 10 - 15 cm below the soil surface before irrigation is applied.
AWD can be started a few weeks (1−2 weeks) after transplanting. When many weeds are present, AWD
should be postponed for 2−3 weeks to assist suppression of the weeds by the ponded water and improve the
efficacy of herbicide. Local fertilizer recommendations as for flooded rice can be used.
Water at 15 cm below the soil surface: Time to irrigate the field again
References
1. Bouman, B.A.M., Humphrey, E., Tuong, T.P and Barker, R. 2007. Rice and water. Advances in Agronomy. 92 (4): 187-237.
2. Choudhury, B.U., Singh, A.K., Bouman, B.A.M and Prasad, J. 2007. System of Rice Intensification and Irrigated Transplanted
Rice: Effect on Crop Water Productivity. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science. 55 (4): 464-470.
3. IRRI. 2009. Annual report-Rice fact sheet: Saving water: Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD), International Rice Research
Institute, Las Banos, August 2009. 39-48.
Pollution of soil is a major environmental problem in field and day by day its increase due to over use of
fertilizer in farm land. Most conventional remediation approaches do not provide acceptable solution to
pollution problem. Eichhornia crassipes, commonly known as (common) water hyacinth, is an aquatic plant
native to the Amazon basin, and is often a highly problematic invasive species outside its native range. Day
by day growth of water hyacinth is increased in maximum amount and it is a big challenge to control it. As
per observation, it is clear that actual application of water hyacinth is useful in a number of the sector but
no one can study its adverse effect on the environment. There is no. of research was carried out on that still
it is not stated that how it will affect in the environment. The solution is water hyacinth is use as dry
organic manure and liquid fertilizers in field crop. So, avoid use of chemical.
In brief, it is the free-floating aquatic plant and grow on river, tank or any other place where water is
stagnated. It has highest growth in short time, higher percent of nitrogen content and higher percent of
protein, also contain palmitic acid and stigmasterol. It has lost of Medicinal properties.
Whenever use, its 100% natural, free from artificial chemical, nontoxic, environmentally friendly and
ecologically compatible. It does not have harmful residue and does not cause problem of pollution. Supply
macro and micro nutrients to the plant. It helps in improving soil structure like physical and chemical
condition of the soil and improves soil fertility. And one other use is Phytoremediation- to clean the
pollution in water and improve the water quality. It has been tool for treatment of the municipal waste. Its
absorb the heavy metal, its add some acid to increase decomposition process in river.
Water hyacinth is best source of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, organic carbon and other amino acid,
humic acid, falvic acid. It’s very usefully to plant growth (Nesic and Jovanovic.,1996).
Water hyacinth has been used in aquatic systems for wastewater purification for many years worldwide.
The role of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) species in polishing nitrate and phosphorus concentration
from municipal wastewater treatment plant effluent by phytoremediation method was evaluated. The
objective is to determine the removal efficiency of water hyacinth in polishing nitrate and phosphorus, as
well as chemical oxygen demand (COD) and ammonia. Water hyacinth is considered as the most efficient
aquatic plant used in removing a vast range of pollutants such as organic matters, nutrients, and heavy
metals (R. M. Kutty. et al, 2009).
Jayaweera and Kasturiarachchi (2004) Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is an aquatic biomass species
that exhibits prolific growth in many parts of the world. It has been suggested as a strong candidate for the
Conclusion
As per above discussion, it is clear that there is a number of applications of water hyacinth used for a
different area. As water hyacinth is used for water purification process and removal of heavy metals from
waste water. Sometimes it is also clear that phytoremediation techniques are reported to be cost effective
compared to other methods. Various contaminants like total suspended solids, dissolved solids, electrical
conductivity, hardness, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorous, heavy metals, and other contaminants have been minimized using water hyacinth.
References
1. Kutty, S. R. M. and S. N. I. Ngatenah, M. H. Isa, A. Malakahmad, (2009) Civil Engineering Department, University Teknologi
PETRONA, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology.
2. Jayaweera M.W and Kasturiarachchi J.C, (2004). “Removal of Nitrogen and Phosphorus from industrial wastewaters by
phytoremediation using water hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes)”. Journal of Wastewater science and technology. 50 (6):217 –
225.
3. Nesic N. and Jovanovic L. (1996). “Potential Use of Water Hyacinth (E. Crassipens) for Wastewater Treatment in Serbia”.
Journal of Wastewater treatment using the Aquatic plant.
Horticultural crops are an important gradient of our diet as they are nutritionally rich as compared to other
foods. Fruits and vegetables are rich sources of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, salts and proteins and
are now becoming an important part of average household’s daily meals. Their importance in providing
balanced diet and health security has been realized world over. Thus, need of hour is to improve nutritional
quality of fruits, vegetables and other horticultural crops.
Introduction
With a population of 1.35 billion, India is the second most populous country and by 2050 it is likely to be
the most populous country in the world. Thus, ensuring food and nutritional security is a major goal for
India and to feed the ever-increasing population, food production must increase by 70%. In order to achieve
its true potential and play the role as a global superpower, India will need to focus on eradication of
malnutrition so as to coming generations are physically fit, intellectually enriched & having higher work
potential.
Maternal and child under nutrition is of major concern for the current government and to combat such
problem government has taken extensive measures such as announcement of the National Nutrition
Mission (NNM) and its targets are to reduce the level of stunting, under nutrition, anemia and low birth
babies. On March 8, 2018; the Prime Minister launched Poshan Abhiyan-PM’s Overarching Scheme for
Holistic Nourishment. Fruits and vegetables are not only a good source of calories but also of natural
vitamins, proteins and fibres (Kulshrestha 2018). Horticultural not only uplifts the Indian economy,
improves farmer’s income but also provides raw material to many agro-based processing industries.
Many agro-industries are based on horticultural products like rubber, coir (coconut) and sago (tapioca)
industries. India is steadily making advancements in flower production particularly cut flowers, which
have a high potential for exports. Horticultural crops also provide gainful employment for small farmers
and agricultural labour throughout the year and thus it contributes to national wealth.
Biofortification
It refers to the idea of breeding crops to increase the nutritional value either by conventional breeding
approach or via genetic engineering. It has many advantages like it improves the plant or crop quality,
increases the nutritional quality in daily diets, over comes malnutrition in human beings and would benefit
farmers by increasing their income in the long term. It is seen as an upcoming strategy for dealing with
deficiencies of micronutrients in the developing world. Crop biofortification is an effective means of
delivering micronutrients in diets (Bouis and Saltzman, 2017). Its objective is to develop vegetable crops
such as biofortified sweet potato and cassava which have highly available micronutrients such as iron, zinc
and vitamin A for preventing global deficiency of these nutrients.
Grafting Technique
This technique has been already in use in various fruits crops viz. litchi, pomegranate etc. but now it is
becoming popular especially for greenhouse cultivation of vegetable crops. Apart from obtaining better yield
and quality it is especially successful in cucurbits like melons for resistance against diseases and pests. It
can also help to avoid or reduce yield losses caused by salinity stress in high yielding genotypes belonging
to Solanaceae and Cucurbitaceae families. Important examples are watermelon grafted on squash and
bottle gourd using cleft and tongue approach grafting, cucumber grafted on squash and fig leaf gourd and
tomato grafted on wild species of tomato using splice and tongue approach grafting.
Breeding Approach
To combat the problem of climate change as well as to ensure higher return to farmers, plant breeding
procedures are adopted to evolve superior cultivars having desired attributes. The methods include
conventional breeding, heterosis breeding, mutation breeding, biotechnology including genetic engineering
etc. Varieties developed by heterosis breeding have higher yield (watermelon, squash, pumpkin),
uniformity in size and maturity (onion), better resistance to drought (watermelon, sweet corn), better
disease resistance (tomato, cucumber), better fruit quality (tomato, muskmelon, watermelon) and better
adaptability to environmental conditions (sweet corn). The varieties evolved using mutation breeding
method include drought tolerant PKM-1 (Brinjal), uniformly ripening Pusa Lal Meeruti (Tomato), fruit
borer tolerant EMS-8 (Okra) and PKM-1 variety of ridge gourd having tolerance to pumpkin beetle, fruit
fly as well as leaf spot.
PGR’s Applications
Growth regulators can be used for reducing flower drop and improving fruit set in tomato, eggplant and
chilli, to regulate sex expression in cucurbits like increased number of female and hermophroditic flowers
in watermelons using TIBA (Tri-iodobenzoic acid) & gibberellic acid (GA), to retard yellowing and
abscission of cauliflower, in sprout inhibition and storage quality of carrots and onion, in enhancing shelf
life of okra, in increasing yield of cassava by using CCC, also for improving seed germination.
Value Addition
Horticulture produce can be processed to fetch higher price in market like dehydrated eggplant, pickled
cucumber, sago from cassava, French fries and chips from potato, sauce and ketchup from tomato etc.
Cucumber is the most important vegetable for commercial and home preservation for pickling and also
preserved by brining. Dipping turnips in hot melted paraffin wax gives a glossy appearance and it helps in
reducing moisture loss during handling.
Post-Harvest Management
Crop harvesting at right time and then cool chain management of horticultural produce with proper
packaging (CAP & MAP), storage (CAS & MAS) and transport conditions not only reduce damage but also
fetch higher remuneration for the produce in the market. Post-harvest treatment with fungicides can slow
rot development. Sulphur dioxide fumigation can be used as a post-harvest treatment to reduce browning.
Poor transport conditions are a major problem in Asia. Fruits are often damaged when baskets are
overfilled or dropped so padding and strapping the baskets can restrict movement during transport.
References
1. Bouis H. E., and Saltzman A. (2017). Improving nutrition through biofortification: A review of evidence from Harvest Plus,
2003 through 2016. Global Food security 12: 49-58.
2. Kulshrestha K. (2018). Horticultural crops value addition for nutritional security. International Journal of Research
Granthaalayah. 6(10): 110-120.
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has formulated a Scheme ‘Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan
Mahabhiyan (KUSUM)’. The Scheme is currently under the process of seeking approval.
Introduction
Water is an important element for life. Water is generally present in two forms on earth that is marine
water and fresh water. Marine water is containing 97% of the total water it’s found in sea or ocean and
fresh water comprises 3% of the total water on earth. Only a small percentage (0.01%) of water is available
for human use (Hinrichsen and Tacio, 2002). Normally water is never chemically pure it contains various
impurities like suspended and dissolved. Water pollution is the form of environmental degradation due to
the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater) when pollutants
are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful
compounds. There are found several classes of water pollutants. The first part of water pollutants are
disease-causing agents (bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms) that enter sewage systems and
untreated waste. A second part of water pollutants is oxygen-demanding wastes; wastes that can be
decomposed by oxygen-requiring bacteria. Regular monitoring of water quality is a key part of identifying
existing problems or issues that could be emerge in the future.
Conclusion
The current scenario has led to awareness about water preservation and efforts are being made on several
levels to transfer our water resources. Factory and industries set-ups are restricted near the water bodies
to avoid contamination. People are investing in rain water harvesting projects to collect rainwater and
preserve it in wells below ground level. Water needs to be preserved and respected today, for us to live a
tomorrow.
References
1. Hinrichsen D, Tacio H. The coming freshwater crisis is already here. The linkages between population and water. Washington,
DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars; 2002.
2. Azizullah Azizullah , Muhammad Nasir Khan Khattak , Peter Richter , Donat-Peter Häder. Water pollution in Pakistan and
its impact on public health — A review, Environment International 37 (2011) 479–497.
3. Fundamentals of Agriculture by Arun Katyayan Vol. 2.
Introduction
Wood apple (elephant apple, monkey fruit, curd fruit), Feronia limonia, of the family Rutaceae, native of
India and Sri Lanka is one of the hardy fruit trees of arid and semi-arid regions. It is slow growing erect
tree. The fruit is a hard- shelled many seeded berries with its pinkish brown aromatic sour sweet pulp
being the edible portion the seeds embedded in it. The pulp represents 36% of the whole fruit.
Nutritional Value
The pulp contains 18.1% carbohydrate, 7.1% protein, 3.7%, fat, 5.0%, fibre and 1.9% mineral matter. The
pulp is a rich source of calcium (130 mg/100g), phosphorus (110mg/100g) and iron (0.48 mg/100g). The
vitamins supplied by one hundred grams of pulp are carotene - 61 µg, riboflavin - 0.17 mg, niacin - 0.8 mg,
thiamine - 0.04 mg and vitamin C - 3 mg. The seeds contain a bland, non-bitter, oil high in unsaturated
fatty acids.
Uses
The ripe is consumed a fresh along with sugar, fruit pulp makes excellent chutney. It is used as an adjunct
in jelly preparation along with the pulp of guava due to its higher pectin content (3% to 5%). The fruit used
in Indian medicines to treat liver and cardiac problem. Unripe as an astringent means of halting diarrhoea
and dysentery and effective treatment for cough, sore throat and disease of the gums. The pulp is poultice
onto bites and stings of venomous insects, as with the powdered rind. The fruit shell is fashioned into
snuffboxes, small containers and in dry flower making. It is utilizing as a substitute for adulterant of gum
Arabic and is also used in making artists atercolors, ink, dyes and varnish. The wood is heavy, durable and
valued for construction, pattern making, agricultural implements, rollers for mills, carving, rulers and
other products. It also serves as fuel.
Propagation
The seedlings will not bear fruit until at least 15 years old. Budded plants are dwarf and precocious in
bearing. In dry regions where irrigation potential is limited, in situ budding has to be done on established
seedling.
Inter-culture
Wood apple trees are allowed to grow along a central leader. The trees require no pruning except removal
of cris-cross branches. Intercrops can be taken during rainy seasons for the first 5 years. In the post
monsoon season, the basins can be mulched with dry leaves. Every year 25 kg of FYM is to be applied for
Harvest
Budded plants come to bearing 3-4 years after planting. But to reach optimum productivity it will take
about 10 years. It flowers from February to May. In India, the fruit ripens from early October through
March. The fruit is tested for maturity by dropping onto a hard surface from a height of 1 ft (30 cm).
Immature fruits bounce, while mature fruits do not. After harvest, the fruit is kept in sun for 2 weeks to
fully ripen. A well grown tree will give 200-250 fruits/year.
“Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana” is an elaborated component of Soil Health Management (SHM) of
major project National Mission of Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA). Under PKVY Organic farming is
promoted through adoption of organic village by cluster approach and PGS certification.
Expected Outcomes
The Scheme envisages:
1. Promotion of commercial organic production through certified organic farming.
2. The produce will be pesticide residue free and will contribute to improve the health of consumer.
3. It will raise farmer's income and create potential market for traders.
4. It will motivate the farmers for natural resource mobilization for input production.
Programme Implementation
1. Groups of farmers would be motivated to take up organic farming under Paramparagat Krishi Vikas
Yojana (PKVY).
2. Fifty or more farmers will form a cluster having 50-acre land to take up the organic farming under the
scheme. In this way during three years 10,000 clusters will be formed covering 5.0 lakh acre area under
organic farming.
3. There will be no liability on the farmers for expenditure on certification.
4. Every farmer will be provided Rs. 20,000 per acre in three years for seed to harvesting of crops and to
transport produce to the market.
5. Organic farming will be promoted by using traditional resources and the organic products will be linked
with the market.
6. It will increase domestic production and certification of organic produce by involving farmers.
Introduction
Sustainable access to clean fresh water resources is a major concern to support intensification and
diversification of farming systems, improve incomes for farm families and provide a buffer against climate
aberrations. Agriculture in different agro-ecologies of Jharkhand is heavily dependent on the monsoon as
a source of water, the failure of which causes water shortage and below-average crop yields. Many of the
agro-ecologies in the state are characterised with low investment, low productivity, mono-cropping, low
productivities and marginal annual returns per unit of land. The available surface and ground water
resources in the state are estimated at 25.88 and 4.29 BCM, respectively (Fig.1). Stage of groundwater
development is 15.0% implying that about 85% of the groundwater is still unutilized and there is good scope
to increase the groundwater utilization in agriculture.
4.29
14%
25.88
86%
30 23.92
25
20
15 7.17 8.93
10 4.38 3.99
5 1.59
0
Fig. 4 Well maintained drip irrigation system in Onion and Brinjal crops
Although government of Jharkhand is extensively promoting the micro irrigation systems (MIS) through
its subsidy based micro irrigation schemes, this needs to be supported with widespread training programs
for the farming community. The responsibility of the government should not end once the system is
Fig. 5 Small scale gravity drip systems suitable for small farmers
3. Promoting Drip with polyethylene mulch: Advantages of drip irrigation system over traditional
irrigation practices have been well established. It reduces water loss and applies water with greater
uniformity and achieves irrigation efficiency up to 90-95%. Recent research has shown that the use of drip
irrigation in conjunction with bicolour polyethylene mulch is performing better in terms of crop
productivity, water productivity and economic water productivity (Jha et al., 2019). Mulch enriches and
protects the soil and it provides a better growing environment to the crop. Use of bi-colour plastic mulch
(i.e., silver-black) has shown promising results in terms of weed control, moisture conservation, soil
temperature regulation and has been found effective in reducing the labour cost.
References
1. GOJ (2020). Land use pattern of the state, Water resources Department, Government of Jharkhand. Available at
http://wrdjharkhand.nic.in/land_Pattern_State.html. Accessed on 05/06/2020.
2. Jha, B. K., Mali S. S., Naik, S. K., (2019). Effect of drip irrigation and bicolour polyethylene mulch on growth, yield and water
productivity of cole crops in eastern hill plateau region of India. International Journal of Agricultural Science and Research.
9(3):23-30.
3. Mali, S.S., Jha, B.K., Naik, S.K., Singh, A.K., Kumar, A., (2016) Effect of fertigation pattern and planting geometry on growth,
yield and water productivity of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 86 (9): 1208–13.
4. Mali, S.S., Jha, B.K., Singh, R., Singh, A.K., Meena, M., (2017). Bitter gourd response to surface and subsurface drip irrigation
under different fertigation levels. Irrigation and Drainage. DOI: 10.1002/ird.2146.
5. Mali, S.S., Naik, S.K., Bhatt, B.P. (2016). Spatial Variability in Soil Properties of Mango Orchards in Eastern Plateau and Hill
Region of India. Vegetos- An International Journal of plant Research, 29:3. DOI: 10.4172/2229-4473.1000141.
6. Mali, S.S., Naik, S.K., Jha B.K., Singh, A.K., Bhatt, B.P., (2019). Planting geometry and growth stage linked fertigation
patterns: Impact on yield, nutrient uptake and water productivity of Chilli pepper in hot and sub-humid climate. Scientia
Horticulturae, 249:289–298.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2019.02.003.
7. Naik, S. K., Das, B., Kumar, S. and Bhatt, B. P. 2015. Evaluation of major and micronutrient status of acid soils of different
mango orchards. International Journal of fruit science, 15 (1): 10-25.
8. Singh, A. K., Das, B., Mali, S. S., Bhavana, P., Shinde R., Bhatt, B. P., (2019). Intensification of rice-fallow cropping systems
in the Eastern Plateau region of India: diversifying cropping systems and climate risk mitigation. Climate and Development,
DOI:10.1080/17565529.2019.1696735.
Pests of Sapota
1. Chickoo moth or leaf webber: Leaves are webbed together in a bunch and the chlorophyll scrapped
by the larva. Cluster of dried leaves is hanging from the webbed shoots. Flower buds and tender fruits are
bored, become withered and shed. Larva is pinkish in colour with three dorso-lateral brown stripes on each
side. Adult moth is greyish with hairy brown forewings or black spots and semi hyaline hindwings.
2. Budworm: Floral buds and flowers are webbed together and shed. Larva is small, slender, pinkish
brown in colour with black head and yellowish-brown prothoracic shield. Adult is grey coloured moth with
black patch on wings.
3. Fruit fly: Semi–ripe fruit show decayed spots and fruits drop later. Maggot is yellowish. Adult fly is
light brown with transparent wings.
4. Hairy caterpillar: Larva feeds on leaves irregularly and causes defoliation. Larva is greyish brown,
stout and hairy. Adult is stout greyish brown moth. Male is with pectinate antenna and chocolate brown
patch in the middle of forewings. Female is bigger in size than male and has wavy transverse bands on
wings.
Pests of Guava
1. Fruit borer: Infected fruits are with boreholes plugged with anal segment of the larva. Severe
infestation results in fruit rotting and dropping. Larva is dirty dark brown, short and stout built covered
with short hairs. Adult is bluish brown butterfly. Female is with „V‟ shaped patch on forewing. Fruits are
with boreholes. Adult is metallic red coloured butterfly.
2. Tea mosquito bug: Corky scab formation on fruits is the symptom of damage. The infestations caused
by the nymphs and adults caused by the nymphs and adults include inflorescence blight, terminal drying
of young shoots and water-soaked lesions followed by brownish spots at the feeding sites. Nymphs and
adults are reddish brown, elongate bugs with black head, red thorax and black and white abdomen.
Pests of Pomegranate
1. Fruit borer: Infested fruits are with bore holes plugged with anal segment of the larva. Severe
infestation results in fruit rotting and dropping. Larva is dirty dark brown, short and stout built covered
with short hairs. Adult is bluish brown butterfly. Female is with „V‟ shaped patch on forewing.
2. Fruit fly: Rotting of fruit is the symptom of infestation. The maggots feed on the pulp of the fruits and
the symptoms of damage include of brown resinous fluid from fruits, distorted and malformed fruits
premature dropping of fruits and unfit for consumption. Maggot is white and apodous. Adult is with hyaline
wings or brownish with pale yellow band on 3rd tergite.
3. Shoot and fruit borer: Larvae make holes on fruits. Larva is pale greenish with pinkish tinge and fine
hairs with dark head and prothoracic shield. Adult is medium sized and pale yellowish moth with small
black spots on the wings.
4. Mealy bug: Cluster of white mealy bugs on the lower-side of the older plants cause yellowing and drying
of leaves. Adults are small, oval, soft bodied and covered with white mealy wax.
Pests of Banana
1. Borers Rhizome weevil: The grub causes death of unopened pipe and withering of outer leaves. Grubs
bore into the rhizome and cause death of the plants. Grub is apodous and yellowish white with red head.
Adult is dark coloured weevil.
References
1. www.tnau.ac.in
2. www.icar.org.in
3. www.ipm.in
4. www.insect.ecology.in
5. www.pest management.in
Pests of Mango
1. Pests of Inflorescence/Fruit:
a. Mango hoppers: Nymphs and adults cause withering and shedding of flower buds and flowers.
Presence of small drops of honeydew on lower leaves followed by development sooty mould. Clicking
sound due to movement of jassids amidst leaves is a common phenomenon.
i. I. niveosparsus - Three spots on scutellum and white band across the wing.
ii. clypealis - Two spots on scutellum and dark spots on the vertex
iii. atkinsoni - Two spots on scutellum.
b. Aphid: The infestation results in drying of inflorescence and tender shoots and appearance of
sooty mould. Aphids are brown coloured.
c. Flower webber : Larvae web the inflorescence and tunnel the stalks. Larva is greenish yellow
light brown head and prothoracic shield. Adult female moth is with grey wings and male is with
purplish pink wings.
d. Gall midges: Procystiphora mangiferae - Causes malformation of flowers and droppings of
flower. Maggot and adult are orange coloured. Dasineura amaramanjarae - Causes damage to flower
buds and dropping of bud. Erosomyia mangiferae - Results in stunting and malformation of
inflorescence. Maggot is yellowish.
e. Fruit fly: Semi-ripe fruits are with decayed spots and droppings of fruits. Maggot is yellowish.
Adult fly is light brown with transparent wings.
f. Nut weevil: The infestation results in dropping of fruits at marble stage and tunnelled
cotyledons. Ovipositional injuries and eggs are seen on marble sized fruits. Grub is fleshy, yellowish
and apodous. Adult is brownish with short snout and papillate scales.
2. Leaf Feeders:
a. Shoot webber: Larvae cause webbing of terminal leaves and defoliation. Larva is pale green
with brown head and prothoracic shield. Adult is brownish moth with wavy lines on forewings.
b. Castor slug: Larva irregularly feeds on the leaves and causes defoliation. Larva is slug like,
ventrally flat, greenish body with white lines and four rows of spiny scoli tipped red or black. Adult
is green moth with a brown band at the base of forewings.
3. Sucking Pests:
a. Whitefly: Nymphs and adults cause yellowing of leaves in patches and the presence of white flies
on the ventral side of leaves. Nymphs are greyish white, found in-groups. Adult is dull white in
colour.
b. Scale insect: Nymphs and adults cause yellowing of leaves. They are white elongate hard scale.
c. Mealy bug: Severe infestation results in drying of leaves and inflorescence. Nymphs and adults
are pinkish and undergo diapause in soil during winter.
d. Eriophyid mite: This worm like mites are found in growing tips, sucking the sap and injecting
toxic substances, kill the buds and cause resetting of shoot.
4. Borers:
a. Stem borer: The grub causes drying of terminal shoots in early stage of attack. Wilting of whole
tree damage occurs at the main stem. Grub is linear, fleshy and apodous. Adult is greyish beetle
with two pink dots and lateral spine on the thorax.
Pests of Citrus
1. Internal Feeders:
a. Orange borer: The grubs cause drying of terminal shoots in the early stages, followed by wilting
of thicker branches and main stem. Grub is creamy white with flat head. Adult is dull metallic green
to dark violet or shiny blue beetle with yellow band across the middle of the elytra.
b. Citrus leaf miner: The infestation by the larva results in leaves with serpentine mines and
distortion of the leaf lamina. Larva is minute, reddish or yellowish and apodous. Adult is minute
moth with a black spot at the tip of the forewing.
2. Leaf Feeder:
Citrus butterfly: The larva causes defoliation of tender leaves. Larva in its early stage resembles
bird dropping. Grown up larva is cylindrical, stout and green with brown lateral oblique bands.
Adult is dark brown swallow tail butterfly with numerous yellow markings.
3. Sap Feeders:
a. Fruit sucking moths: Adult moths pierce the fruit and suck the juice resulting in rotting at the
feeding site and dropping fruit. Larva is semilooper with orange blue and yellow spots on its velvety
dark speckled body, which feeds on the weed host. Adult is stout-built moth with grey and orange
coloured wings. There are 3 black spots on the forewings. Otheris fullonica - Presence of tripod black
marks in the forewing and curved marking in the hindwing. O. ancilla - Presence of white band in
the middle forewing.
b. Psyllid: Nymphs and adults infest terminal tender twigs and desap causing curling and drying
of twigs. Transmit citrus greening virus. Nymph s are orange in color; adults are brownish males
are shorter than female. Wings are memberaneous and semitransparent, wings extend beyond the
body.
c. Citrus white fly: Nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves causing curling over and fall off.
Nymph is pale yellow with purple eyes
d. Black fly: The symptoms of damage are yellowing of leaves in the early stage of attack followed
by honeydew deposition on the lower leaves and sooty mould of development. Severe infestation
leads to defoliation. Nymph is shiny black scale like and spiny with white markings at the edges.
e. Scale insects: Suck sap from branches, inject toxic substances. Females are light grey in colour;
males are smaller than females.
f. Rust mite: Feeding by adults and nymphs causes silvery, scaly of rusty to black discolouration
on the fruits. The affected fruits are smaller and the rind of injured fruits is thicker.
References
1. www.tnau.ac.in
2. www.icar.org.in
3. www.ipm.in
4. www.insect.ecology.in
5. www.pest management.in
Pests of Cashew
1. Borers:
a. Cashew tree borer: The grub by internal tunnelling causes wilting of branches and then the
tree as a whole ( Fig. 80). It also infests trunk and root. Grub is elongated, creamy white brown
head. Adult is reddish brown longicorn beetle.
b. Bark feeder: Zig-zag galleries and silk webbed masses comprising of chewed material and
excreta of larvae are seen. Larva is stout and dirty brown. Adult is pale brown with forewings having
brown spots and streaks.
c. Apple borer: Presence of bore holes on the tender cashew (or) apple. Larva is dark pink in colour.
Adult is medium sized moth with dark forewings and pale hindwings.
2. Inflorescence Feeders:
a. Shoot and blossom borer: The larva causes webbing of tender leaves and inflorescence. Larva
is reddish brown with yellow and pink lines. Adult male is dark fuscous. Female is pale and olive
green.
b. Shoot tip and inflorescence caterpillar: The infestation results in webbing of terminal leaves
and inflorescence and boring of shoot tip. Larva is yellowish brown. Adult is a dark and tiny moth.
c. Tea mosquito bug: The infestations by the nymphs and adults include inflorescence blight,
terminal drying of young shoots and water-soaked lesions followed by brownish spots at the feeding
sites.
3. Leaf Feeders:
a. Leaf miner: Mining of tender leaves in whitish blotches is the symptom of damage. Larva is
reddish brown and minute. Adult is silvery grey moth with fringes of hairs on the wing margins.
b. Wild silk moth: The larvae feed on leaves, which results in complete defoliation. The infestation
is indicated by the presence of golden coloured pupae on the trunk. Larva is stout, dark brown with
prominent warts all over the body. Adult is pale yellowish- or reddish-brown moth with three clear
moths on forewings.
c. Hairy caterpillar: Larva feeds on leaves irregularly and causes defoliation. Larva is greyish
brown, stout and hairy. Adult is stout greyish brown moth.
d. Leaf miner: Mining of tender leaves in whitish blotches is the symptom of damage. Larva is
reddish brown and minute. Adult is silvery grey moth with fringes of hairs on the wing margins.
e. Wild silk moth: The larvae feed on leaves, which results in complete defoliation. The infestation
is indicated by the presence of golden coloured pupae on the trunk. Larva is stout, dark brown with
prominent warts all over the body. Adult is pale yellowish- or reddish-brown moth with three clear
moths on forewings.
f. Hairy caterpillar: Larva feeds on leaves irregularly and causes defoliation. Larva is greyish
brown, stout and hairy. Adult is stout greyish brown moth. Male is with pectinate antenna and
chocolate brown patch in the middle of forewings. Female is bigger in size than male and has wavy
transverse bands on wings.
g. Leaf twisting weevil: The grub rolls leaf terminal, results in drying. Grub is yellowish and
apodous. Adult is reddish brown weevil.
h. Looper: The larva damages the leaf margins. It is a green looper. Adult is green with grey brown
markings.
Pests of Grapevine
1. Stem girdler: The grubs and adults cause wilting of branches and then the entire vine. Adult is medium
sized and grey coloured with a white spot in the centre of each elytron.
2. Chafer beetle: The adults cause complete defoliation of the leaves. Adults are brown coloured beetles.
3. Ground beetle: The adults cause defoliation of the leaves. Adults are brown coloured beetles.
4. Flea beetle: The adults bite small holes on tender leaves and the root is damaged by the grubs. Adult
is reddish brown, shiny beetle with six spots on elytra.
5. Leaf roller: The larva causes rolling of leaves. Larva is pale green with short hairs. Adult is brownish
moth with wavy line.
6. Thrips: Leaf thrips - Cause yellowing of leaves. Adults are with fringed wings. Fruit rust thrips - Cause
leaf yellowing and rusty growth over fruit. Adult is yellowish white. Flower thrips - Cause corky scab on
fruits and flowers.
7. Blackfly: Yellowing of leaves is the symptom of damage caused by the nymphs and adults. Nymph is
oval in shape, scale like fringes. Adult is minute, delicate insect.
8. Mealy bugs: Nymphs and adults cause crinkling and yellowing of leaves and rotting of berries.
9. Berry plume moth: Larvae cause feeding injury on berries. Larva is small, pale green or pink with
median red line. Adult is a small moth.
10. Castor semilooper: Adult causes fruit rotting and dropping. Larva in varying shades of colour. Head
is black with black and red spot on the 3rd abdominal segment and red tubercles on the anal region. Adult
is pale reddish brown with black hind wing with a median white and 3 large white spots on the outer
margin.
Pests of Coconut
1. Coconut Rhinoceros beetle: Damage is caused by adult beetles which burrow the leaf sheaths near
the crown and cut across the leaf in the folded condition. The damaged leaves show characteristic clippings
or holes in the leaflets. The infestation will result in stunting of trees and death of growing point. Adult
beetle is stout, black, about 5 cm long and has a long horn projecting dorsally from the head in male, a
short horn in female. The grubs feed on decaying vegetable matter and in manure pits at a depth of 5-30
cm. damaged leaves show characteristic clippings or holes in the leaflets. The infestation will result in
stunting of trees and death of growing point. Adult beetle is stout, black, about 5 cm long and has a long
horn projecting dorsally from the head in male, a short horn in female. The grubs feed on decaying vegetable
matter and in manure pits at a depth of 5-30 cm.
2. Red palm weevil: A few small holes with protruding chewed fibrous material and oozing out of a brown
liquid from such holes indicate early infestation. In advanced stage of attack the central shoot shows sign
of wilting and on large mass of grubs, pupae and adults are seen inside trunk. The reddish-brown weevil
has six dark spots on thorax and in the male a conspicuous long snout has a tuft of hairs.
3. Black headed caterpillar: The larvae live on the under surface of leaflets within galleries of silk and
frass material and feed by scrapping the green matter. The caterpillar is greenish brown with dark brown
head and prothorax, and reddish mesothorax.
4. White grub: The grubs feed on roots and cause stunting and delayed flowering. Adult beetles emerge
after monsoon showers.
References
1. www.tnau.ac.in
2. www.icar.org.in
3. www.ipm.in
4. www.insect.ecology.in
5. www.pest management.in
Pests of Coffee
1. Borers White borer: Presence of ridges on the stem, yellowing of leaves, wilting of branches and
occasional drying of plants are the symptoms caused by the grub. Grub is white or yellowish, anterior and
broader and tapering towards tail end. Adult is black, elongate beetle with grey pubescence on the head,
thorax and elytra and characteristics white markings on the elytra.
a. Red borer: The larvae cause wilting of branches or plant. Boreholes often are plugged with
excreta at the base of the plant. Larva is orange red and smooth, Adult is with dirty white bands
and black or steel blue spots on the wings.
b. Shot hole borer: Adult and grub make small holes on the under surface of young succulent
branches between nodes which result in withered and dead branches with shot holes. Grub is milky
–white and apodous. Adult is reddish brown to dark brown beetle with a short cylindrical body.
c. Coffee bean beetle: Infested berries are with small holes, black in colour and shrunken. Grub
is milky-white and apodous. Adult is pale grey, elongate oval and slightly flattened tapering
anteriorly. Entire body is clothed with hairs.
d. Berry borer: Infestation by the grubs and adults’ results in dropping of tender berries. There
are many small round holes in the nodal region of developed berry. Damage is often caused to
endosperm by making small galleries near the main tunnel. Female adults’ tunnel into berries. Grub
feeds on beans. Grub is white in colour. Adult is black beetle and the males are wingless.
2. Leaf Feeder:
Leaf miner: The maggots often mine the leaves. Maggot is small and apodous. Adult is very small
and brown coloured fly.
Pests of Tea
1. Leaf Feeders Looper: Larva causes defoliation of leaves. Larva is grey or dark green in colour. Adult
is straw coloured moth. Wings are grey with light brown markings and wavy lines.
a. Bunch caterpillars: The larvae cause defoliation of leaves. Larva is smooth and hairless and
grey in colour with brown patches. Adult is golden brown moth.
b. Lobster caterpillar: Defoliation of leaves is the symptom of damage by the larva. Larva is brown
with white band and elongated legs.
c. White grub: Grubs feed on roots and rootlets resulting in drying of young plants. Adults are leaf
feeders. Grub is fleshy and „C‟ shaped. Adult is a brown coloured beetle.
d. Tea tortrix: Caterpillar makes leaf nest by webbing the leaves. Adult is greenish with black
prothorax or brown coloured bell-shaped moth. Male is smaller than female. Larva is greenish with
black prothorax.
e. Tea leaf roller: Second instar larva mines the tender and reaches leaf margin. Fourth instar
larva rolls the leaves from the tip downwards. Larva is yellowish. Adult is microlepidoptera.
Antenna is longer than the body with golden iridescent patches in forewing and abdomen.
f. Flush worm: Larvae web the tender leaves enclosing the bud; feed on upper epidermis of leaves
and apical portion of the bud. Larva is brown coloured and 1 cm long; adult is less than 1 cm in size
blackish brown in colour.
g. Nettle grubs: The caterpillars are the nuisance to the workers because of their stinging hairs
besides scrapping the leaves.
References
1. www.tnau.ac.in
2. www.icar.org.in
3. www.ipm.in
4. www.insect.ecology.in
5. www.pest management.in
Preparation of Jams
Jam is a product made by boiling fruit pulp with sufficient quantity of sugar to a reasonably thick
consistency, firm enough to hold the fruit tissues in position. Apply, sapota, papaya, plums, mango, grapes,
jack, pineapple, banana, guava and pears are used for preparation of jam. It can be prepared from one kind
of fruit or from two or more kinds. In its preparation about 45% of fruit pulp should be used for every 55%
of sugar. The FPO specification of jam is 68.5% TSS, 45% of fruit pulp and 0.5-0.6% of acid (citric acid) per
100 gm of the prepared product.
1. Selection and preparation of fruit: Select good quality ripe fruits. Wash the fruits well in cold water.
Peel the fruits and remove the stones and corers present. Cut the peeled fruit into small pieces with a
stainless-steel knife. If the fruit is hard, it should be cut into very small pieces. Pulp the fruits by using
pulper.
2. Addition of sugar and acid.
3. Cooking: Cook the mixture slowly with occasional stirring. The fruit pulp should be crushed with a ladle
during cooking. Continue cooking till the temperature of the mass reaches 105.5oC.
Packaging
Fill the hot jam into clean dry sterilized jars. Allow the jam to cool and fix the sterilized lid to the jar. Store
in a cool place.
Process 1
Ripe firm fruits → Washing → Peeling →Pulping (Remove seed and core) → Addition of sugar and acid →
Boiling (with continuous stirring) → Judging of end point by further cooking up to 105oC (or) 68% TSS (or)
by sheet test → Filling hot into sterilized bottles → cooling → Sterilized bootles → cooling → Waxing →
Capping → Storage (at ambient temperature). ning fruit extract, free from pulp, after the addition of sugar
and acid. A perfect jelly should be transparent, well set but not too stiff, and should have the original
flavour of the fruit. It should be of attractive colour and keep its shape when removed from the mould. It
should be firm enough to retain a sharp edge but tender enough when it is pressed. It should not be gummy,
sticky or syrupy or have crystallized sugar. The product should be free from dullness with little (or) no
syneresis (weeping) and neither tough nor rubbery. The FPO specification for jelly is the final product
should have 65% solids, 45% fruit extract and 0.5-0.75% acid.
Guava, sour apple, plum, karonda, wood apple, papaya and jack fruit are rich in pectin and generally used
for preparation of jelly. Pineapple, strawberry grapes etc. can be used but only after addition of pectin
powder, because these fruits have low pectin content. Preparation of jelly is similar to that of jam.
Process 2
Fruit (Firm, not over ripe) → Washing → Cutting into thin slices → Boiling with water (1 ½ times the
weight of fruits for about 20-30 min) → Addition of citric acid during boiling (2 g per kg of fruit) → Straining
of extract → Pectin test (for addition of sugar) → Addition of sugar → Boiling → Judging of end point (sheet
Preparation of Marmalade
This is a fruit jelly in which slices of the fruit (or) its peel is suspended. The term is generally used for
products made from citrus fruits like oranges and lemons in which shredded peel is used as the suspended
material. Citrus marmalades are classified into:
1. Jelly marmalade.
2. Jam marmalade. The FPO specifications for marmalade are TSS- 65% and fruit juice - 45% of the
prepared product.
Ingredients
1. Pectin extract - 1 litre.
2. Sugar - 750 gm.
3. Shredded peel - 62 gm.
4. It prepared from the clarified pectin extract.
Process
Ripe fruits → Washing → Peeling outer yellow portion (Flavedo) thinly → Cutting yellow portion into fine
shreds (1.9 - 2.5 cm long and 0.8 – 0.12 cm thick) -0.45 cm Cutting of 0.3 thick slices of peeled fruit (or)
crushing into pulp in a greater → Boiling (in 2-3 times its weight of H2O for 40-60 min.) Straining the
extract t) → Addition Testing for pectin content of sugar (as required) Cooking to 103-105oC (Continuous
stirring) Addition of shreds (shredded peel boiled for 10 to 15 min. in several changes of water for softening
and removing bitterness and added @ about 62 g per kg of extract) Boiling till (continuous stirring) -88oC
Testing for end point with continuous stirring) Flavouring Storage at ambient temperature.
Jam Marmalade
The method of preparation is practically the same as that for jelly marmalade. In this case the pectin
extract of fruit is not clarified and the whole pulp is used. Sugar is added according to the weight of fruit,
generally in the proportion of 11. The pulp – sugar mixture is cooked till the TSS content reaches 65%.
References
1. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=wMfOX6FgIJoC&pg=PA74&lpg=PA74&dq=food+pac kaging&source
2. http://www.foodproductiondaily.com/
3. www.tnau.ac.in
4. www.pht.org.in
5. www.icar.org.ac.in
Preparation of Pickles
The preservation of food in common salt (or) in vinegar is known as pickling. It is one of the most ancient
methods of preserving fruits and vegetables. Pickles are good appetizers and add to the palatability of a
meal. They stimulate the flow of gastric juice and thus helps in.
Pickling Process
Pickling is done in two stages (1) By curing (or) fermentation with dry salting (or) fermentation in brine
(or) salting without fermentation (2) By finishing and packing. Pickling is the result of fermentation by
lactic acid forming bacterial which are generally present in large numbers on the surface of fresh vegetables
and fruits. Theses bacteria can grow in acid medium and in the presence of 8-10% salt solution whereas
the growth of a majority of undesirable organisms is inhibited. Lactic acid bacteria are most active at 30oC,
so this temperature must be maintained as far as possible in the early stage of pickle making. When
vegetables are placed in brine, it penetrates into the tissues of the farmers and soluble material present in
them diffuses into the brine by osmosis. The soluble material includes fermentable sugars and minerals.
References
1. http://www.foodproductiondaily.com/
2. www.tnau.ac.in
3. www.pht.org.in
4. www.icar.org.ac.in
Apple Sauce
1. Recipe: Apple – 1.0 kg, sugar – 250 g, salt – 10 g, onion (chopped) – 200 g, ginger (chopped) – 100 g,
garlic (chopped) - 50 g, red chilli powder – 10 g, cloves – 5 Nos. cinnamon, cardamom – 15 g (each), vinegar
– 50 ml, sodium benzoate – 0.7 g/kg of finished product.
2. Process: Apples → Washing → Peeling → Removal of core and seeds → Making into fine pulp →
Straining of pulp → Cooking pulp with one third quantity of sugar → Putting spice bag in pulp and
processing occasionally → Cooking to one - third of original volume of pulp → Removal of spice bag (after
squeezing in pulp) →Adding remaining sugar and salt → Cooking to one – third its original volume →
Addition of vinegar and preservative → Filling hot into bottles → Crown corking → Pasteurization at 85-
90oC for 30 min. → Cooling → Storage at ambient temperature.
Process
Tomato juice (strained) → Cooking to desired consistency (open cooker / vacuum pan) → Judging of
endpoint for puree (or) paste → Filling hot into bottles or cans (82-88o C) → Sterilization in boiling water
for 20 min. →Cooling → Storage at ambient temperature.
Preparation of Syrup
This type of fruit beverage contains 25% fruit juice (or) pulp, 65% TSS, 1.3 to 1.5% acidity and 350 ppm of
So2 or 600 ppm of KMS. It is diluted before serving, Fruits like aonla, jamun, pomegrante, grape, lemon,
orange and sometimes ginger can be used for the preparation of syrup. It is also prepared from extracts of
rose, sandal almond etc.
Synthetic Syrups
Heavy sugar syrup of 70-75 per cent strength is used as the base of all synthetic syrups and they are
flavoured and coloured with artificial essence/flavours and colours. They never contain fruit pulp/juice. A
large proportion of these syrups can, however, be replaced by real fruit juices, squashes and syrups which
are more nutritious. Large quantities of synthetic syrups (orange, lemon, pineapple, strawberry) are
manufactured and sold in various countries. These can be prepared by using 1.5 kg of sugar, 500 ml of H2O
and 15 g of citric acid. Different colours and flavours are added as required. Among colours, orange red,
lemon yellow, green, raspberry red etc. are mostly used, while artificial essence/flavours of rose, orange,
pineapple, strawberry, lemon etc. are added as flavouring substances.
References
1. http://www.foodproductiondaily.com/
2. www.tnau.ac.in
3. www.pht.org.in
4. www.icar.org.ac.in
Preparation of Preserves
A mature fruit / vegetable (or) its pieces impregnated with heavy sugar syrup till it becomes tender and
transparent is known as preserve. Aonla, apple, pear, mango, cherry, karonda, strawberry, pineapple,
papaya, carrot etc. can be used for making preserves. FPO specifications for preserve is TSS 68obx and
fruit pulp - 55%.
General Considerations
Cooking of fruit directly in syrup causes shrinking of fruit and reduces absorption of sugar. Therefore, the
fruit should be blanched first to make it soft enough to absorb water, before steeping in syrup. However,
highly juicy fruits may be cooked directly. Fruits may be cooked in syrup by three processes as given below:
1. Rapid process: Fruits are cooked in low sugar syrup. Boiling is continued with gentle heating until the
syrup becomes sufficiently thick. Soft fruits such as strawberries, grapes which require very little boiling
for softening. Unlike hard fruits like apples, pears and peaches, which require prolonged heating. Rapid
boiling should, however be avoided as it makes the fruit tough, especially when heating is done in a large
shallow pan with only a small quantity of syrup. The final concentration of sugar should not be less than
68% which corresponds to a boiling point of 106oC. This is a simple and cheap process but the flavour and
colour of the product are lost considerably during boiling.
Process
Mature fruits → Washing → Preparation of fruit for sugar treatment → Keeping fruit and sugar in
alternate layers (1.0 kg Fruit: 1 kg Sugar) (or) steeping fruit in syrup of 40% TSS for a day → Removal of
fruit → Increasing consistency of syrup to 60% TSS by boiling S teeping of fruit for a day →Repeating the
process and raising strength of syrup by 5% TSS to 70% on alternate days – Steeping in 70% TSS for a
week → Preserve – Draining – Filling in jar (or) container → Covering fruit with freshly prepared sugar
syrup of 68% TSS Sealing (airtight) – Storage.
References
1. http://www.foodproductiondaily.com/
2. www.tnau.ac.in
3. www.pht.org.in
4. www.icar.org.ac.in
Pests of Brinjal
1. Borers:
a. Shoot and fruit borer: General symptoms of damage are withered terminal shoots, bore holes
on shoots plugged with excreta, shedding of flower buds, drying of leaves due to boring on petioles
by larvae. Larva is pink in colour. Adult is medium sized moth with fore wings having black and
brown patches and dots. Hind wings are opalescent with black dots.
b. Stem borer: Stunted growth, withering and wilting of plants. Bore holes on stem and leaf axils
are covered with excreta; Infestation caused by larva. Larva is yellowish or light brown with red
head. Moth greyish brown, forewings with transverse lines and white hindwings.
c. Bud worm: Larva causes shrivelling and shedding of flower buds. It is pale whitish with pink
tinge. Adult moth is small with fringed wings.
2. Leaf feeders:
a. Spotted beetle (or) Hadda beetle: Both grubs and adults feed by scrapping chlorophyll from
epidermal layers of leaves which get skeletonized and gradually dry up. Grub is yellowish in colour
and stout with spines all over the body. Adult is spherical pale brown and mottled with black spots
(6 or 14) on each elytra.
b. Leaf roller: Leaves are folded from tip to downwards followed by withering and drying up of
leaves. Purple brown larva is ornamented with yellow spots and hairs. Adult is with brown fore
wings and an olive-green triangular patch on outer area.
c. Ash weevils: Adults cause notching of leaf margins. Grubs feed on roots resulting in wilting of
plants. Grub is small and apodous. Adults are greenish white with dark lines on elytra or brownish
weevil or brown with white spot on elytra or small and light green in colour.
3. Sap feeders or Leafhopper: Symptom of damage is yellowing of leaves followed by crinkling and
downward curling leading to bronzing and hopper burn. Nymph is light green and translucent. Adult is
green in colour.
4. Aphid: Curling and crinkling of leaves, stunted plants with honeydew secretion and sooty mould are the
symptoms of damage. Large number of aphids are seen on tender/apical shoots. Nymph is greenish brown
or yellow in colour. Adult is yellowish green to dark green in posterior side.
5.Root feeders:
Termites: Trinervitermes biformis, Microtermes spp: Nymphs and adults gnaw the roots below
the ground level, tunnel upwards through the stems and eat inner tissues. The affected plants
wither and dry especially in light soils.
Pests of Tomato
1.Borer Fruit Borer: Young larva feeds on tender foliage and from fourth instar onwards infests fruits.
They make circular holes and thrust only a part of their body inside fruit and eat inner contents.( Fig. 69)
Young larva is yellowish white but gradually becomes green. Full-grown larva is apple green in colour with
white and dark grey-brown longitudinal lines and sparse short hairs. Adult is light brown and medium
sized moth with dull black border.
Stem borer: Stunted growth, withering and wilting of plants, stem and leaf axils covered with
excreta covering boreholes are symptoms of infestation caused by the larvae. Larva is yellowish or
light brown with red head. Moth is with greyish brown fore wings having transverse lines and white
hind wings.
2. Leaf Feeder:
Pests of Bhendi
1. Borers:
a. Stem weevil: The grub causes gall like swellings on the stem near the base. Grub is white and
apodous. Adults feed on leaves, buds and tender terminal shoots. Grub is creamy yellow and
apodous. Adult is dark greyish brown with pale cross bands on elytra.
b. Shoot weevil: Grubs bore into stem and petioles causing gall like swellings. Adults feed on
leaves, buds and tender terminal shoots. Grub is creamy yellow and apodous. Adult is dark greyish
brown with pale cross bands on elytra.
c. Shoot and fruit borer: Symptom of attack is withering and drying of tender shoots in the early
stage. Larva bores into flowers and flower buds causing withering and dropping of the same. Fruits
with bore holes are seen often and sometimes deformed. Larva is stout , spindle shaped, dark brown
in colour and with white patches on the dorsum. Earias vitella: small buff coloured. Forewings with
a wedge-shaped green patch in the middle. E. insulana: entire forewing is green.
d. Stem fly: The maggot bores into tender shoots and petiole of leaves resulting in drying of leaves
and seedlings. Maggot is yellow in colour. Adult is a small black fly.
e. Fruit borer: Young larva feeds on tender foliage and from fourth instar onwards attack fruits.
They bore circular holes and thrust only a part of their body inside fruit and eat inner contents.
Freshly hatched larva is yellowish white but gradually become green. Full-grown larva is apple
green in colour with white and dark grey-brown longitudinal lines and sparse short hairs. Adult is
light brown and medium sized moth with dull black border.
2. Leaf Feeders:
a. Leaf roller: Young larvae feed on the epidermis, roll the leaves, feed within and eat away the
rolled portions. Larva is bright green with dark head and prothoracic shield. Moth is with yellowish
fore and hindwings with brown lines and distinct markings.
b. Semilooper: The caterpillar completely feeds on the leaves (defoliation). Anomis flava: Larva is
green in colour with 5 white longitudinal lines. Adult is brown and medium sized moth. Acontia
Pests of Cucurbits
1. Fruit flies: The maggots feed on the pulp of the fruits and the symptoms of damage include oozing of
resinous fluid from fruits, distorted and malformed fruits premature dropping of fruits and unit for
consumption. Maggot is white and apodous. Adult is with hyaline wings or brownish body with brown oval
spot on either side of 3rd tergite.
2. Snake gourd stem weevil: Grub bores into the stem/petiole and causes withering of leaves. Adult is
small black weevil and feeds on leaves.
3. Stem gall fly: Maggot bores inside the distal shoot and induces galls. Adult is slender and dark brown
mosquito like fly.
4. Stem borer: Larva bores into the stem of snake-gourd and produces gall. Adult is dark brown moth with
transparent wings.
5. Leaf miner: Leaves are often with serpentine mines followed by drying and dropping of leaves due to
infestation. Larva is orange yellowish and apodous. Adult is pale yellow fly.
6. Snake gourd semilooper: Larva cuts the edges of leaf lamina, folds it over the leaf and feeds from
within the leaf roll. Larva is whitish green and the body is with black warts, off-white longitudinal stripes
and a hump on its anal segment. Stout dark brown adult has shiny brown forewings.
7. Pumpkin caterpillar: The caterpillars lacerate and feed on chlorophyll of foliage; later fold and web
the leaves together and feed within. They may also damage ovaries of flowers and boring into young
developing fruits. Larva is elongate, bright green with two narrow longitudinal stripes dorsally. Adults are
medium sized; wings are white and transparent with broad brown margin. Female has tuft of orange hairs
at the anal end.
8. Pumpkin beetle: Grubs feed on the roots, stem and fruits that spread over the soil. Adults feed on leaf
and flower. Grub is creamy yellow. Adult is grey black with black or blue colour with glistening yellow red
border.
References
1. www.ipm.brinjal.com
2. www.ipm.tomato.com
3. www.cucurbits.pest.com
4. www.tnau.ac.in
5. www.icar.org.ac.in
6. www.insect.ecology.com
Pests of Crucifers
1. Leaf Feeders:
a. Diamond back moth: Young caterpillars because small yellow mines followed by scrapping of
epidermal leaf tissues producing typical whitish patches. Full-grown larvae bite holes in the leaves.
Larva is pale yellowish green in colour, pointed at both ends with fine erect black hairs scattered
over the body. Adult is small, green brown with pale whitish narrow wings. At rest a dorsal median
patch of 3 diamonds shaped yellowish white spots are clearly visible by joining both forewings.
Hindwings have a fringe of long fine hairs.
b. Cabbage borer: Larvae web the leaves and bore into the stem, stalk or leaf veins. Larva is pale
whitish brown with 4-5 purplish brown longitudinal lines. Adult is pale greyish brown with 4-5
purplish brown longitudinal lines. Adult is pale greyish brown moth with forewings having grey
wavy lines. Hindwings are pale dusty.
c. Leaf webber: Young larvae feed gregariously on leaves, later web together the leaves and feed.
Larva is with red head, brown longitudinal stripes and rows of tubercles with short hairs on its pale
violaceous body. Adult is small with brown forewings having distinct wavy spots. Hindwings are
semi-hyaline.
d. Cabbage semilooper: Damaged leaves are with holes initially and the severe damage is
represented by skeletonization. Larva is green colour with light wavy lines and broad lateral stripes
on either side. Adult is stout moth. Head and thorax are grey in colour and the abdomen is white
with basal tufts. Head and thorax are grey in colour and the abdomen is white with basal tufts. Grey
wavy forewings are with a slender „y‟ mark.
e. Cabbage butterflies: The caterpillar feeds on leafy vegetation irregularly (defoliation).
Sometimes bores into the heads of cabbage. Larva is velvety bluish green in colour with yellow dorsal
and lateral stripes are covered with black hair. Adult is with snow white forewings and black apical
spots; hind wings are pure white.
f. Tobacco caterpillar: The caterpillar damages leaves and heads of Cabbage, Cauliflower, Radish
and Larva is pale greenish brown with dark markings. Yellow and purplish spots are seen on the
sub marginal areas. Adult is stout moth with wavy white markings on the brown forewings and
white hindwings with a brown patch along its margin.
g. Mustard sawfly: Caterpillar like grubs nibble the tender margins of tender leaves and later bite
holes on the leaves. Adult is with dark head and thorax, orange coloured abdomen and smoky wings
with black veins. Female has a strong saw-like ovipositor.
2. Sap Feeders:
a. Thrips: Nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves. Nymph is pale yellow and the adult has
fringed wings.
b. Mustard aphid: Nymphs and adults suck the sap from the under surface of the leaves. Nymph
is light yellowish green and adult is darker than nymph.
c. Cabbage aphid: Nymphs and adults cause crinkling and cupping of distorted primordia. White
cast skins are present at the base of the plant. Adult is yellowish green with wavy white filament
over the body.
d. Painted bug: Nymphs and adults desap the leaves, shoots and pods. Adults are small black bugs
with red and yellow lines.
Pests of Tapioca
1. Cassava scale: Nymphs and adult desap the plant and cause stunting and death. White elongate scales
are present on stem.
2. Whitefly: Nymphs and adults cause chlorotic spots by sucking cell sap from leaves and then yellowing
and drying of leaves. Nymph is greenish and oval in outline. Adult is with yellow body covered with white
waxy bloom.
3. Thrips: Nymphs and adults cause silvery patches on leaves. Nymph is reddish in color. Adult is dark
brown or black.
Pests of Chillies
1. Chilies - Stem borer: Stunted growth, withering and wilting of plants, stem and leaf axils covered with
excreta covering bore holes are the infestation caused by the larvae. Larva is yellowish or light brown with
red head. Moth is with greyish brown forewings having transverse lines and white hindwings.
2. Chili thrips: Leaves become crinkled, curled upward and shed. Buds become brittle and drop down.
Plants get stunted and bronzed. Nymphs and adults are tiny slender, fragile and yellowish straw in color.
3. Green peach aphid: Leaves get curled and crinkled coated with honeydew and sooty mold. Plants
remain stunted. Adult is mostly yellow in color.
4. Tobacco caterpillar: Young larvae scrap the leaves on ventral side. Grown-up caterpillar completely
defoliates. Larvae also feed on young fruits. Larva is pale greenish brown with dark markings. Yellow and
purplish spots are seen on the submarginal areas. Adult is stout moth with wavy white markings on the
brown forewings and white hindwings are having a brown patch along its margin.
5. Cut worm: The greasy cut worms come out during night and curt the seedlings at ground level and eat
tender leaves.
6. Fruit borer: Young larvae feed on tender foliage and from fourth in star onwards attacks fruits. They
bore circular holes and thrust only a part of their body inside fruit and eat inner contents. Freshly hatched
References
1. www.ipm.cucurbits.com
2. www.ipm.potato.com
3. www.tnau.ac.in
4. www.icar.org.ac.in
5. www.insect.ecology.com
References
1. www.citrus.pest.com
2. www.tnau.ac.in
3. www.icar.org.ac.in
4. www.insect.ecology.com
References
1. www.ipm.mango.com
2. www.tnau.ac.in
3. www.icar.org.ac.in
4. www.insect.ecology.com
Classification of Weeds
There are at least 450 families of flowering plants and well over 350,000 different species. Only about 3,000
of them have been used by humans for food. Fewer than 300 species have been domesticated, and of these,
there are about 20 that stand between humans and starvation. There are at least 100 species of great
regional or local importance, but only a few major species dominate the human food supply. Only about 15
plants provide most of the food that humans have consumed for many generations. Twelve plant families
include 68% of the 200 species that are the most important world weeds (Holm, 1978).
These weeds share certain characteristics, including the following:
1. Long seed life in soil
2. Quick emergence
3. Ability to survive and prosper under the disturbed conditions of a cropped field
4. Rapid early growth
5. No special environmental requirements for seed germination
They are also competitive and react similarly to crop cultural practices. Weeds are usually defined
primarily by where they are and how that makes someone feel about them. The fact that they may have
shared characteristics means we may be able to define and classify them based on what their genotype
enables them to do. Some characteristics that weeds share are discussed later on in this chapter.
The Poaceae and Cyperaceae account for 27% of the world’s weed problems, and when the Asteraceae are
added, 43% of the world’s worst weeds are included. Nearly half of the world’s worst weeds are in only 3
families, and any 2 of these include over a quarter of the world’s worst weeds. The Poaceae is the family
having most weedy species and also the family that includes many of the important crops that feed humans:
wheat, rice, barley, millet, oats, rye, corn, sorghum, and sugar cane. About two-thirds of the world’s worst
weeds are single-season or annual weeds. The rest are perennials in the world’s temperate areas, but in
the tropics, they are accurately called several-season weeds. The categories annual and perennial do not
have the same meaning in tropical climates, where growth is not limited by cold weather but may be limited
by low rainfall. About two-thirds of the important weeds are broadleaved or dicotyledonous species. Most
of the rest are grasses, sedges, or ferns. The United States has about 70% of the world’s important weeds
and they may be classified in different ways.
Phylogenetic Relationships
Weeds are classified by taxonomists and weed scientists the same way as all other plants and species based
on phylogenetic (from the Greek phylo or phulon, meaning “race” or “tribe,” plus the Greek gen, meaning
“be born of” or “become”) relationships, or a plant’s ancestry. Phylogenetic keys to plant species, based on
ancestry and ancestral similarity, include division, subdivision, class, family, genus, and species. A brief
description of a plant key for weed species follows:
Division I—Pteridophyta: Description—Fernlike, mosslike, rushlike, or aquatic plants without true
flowers. Reproduce by spores. Representative families: Salviniaceae, Equisetaceae, Polypodiaceae
Division II—Spermatophyta: Description—Plants with true flowers with stamens, pistils, or both.
Reproduce by seed containing an embryo.
Subdivision I—Gymnospermae: Description—Ovules not in a closed ovary. Trees and shrubs
with needle-shaped, linear, or scalelike, usually evergreen leaves. Representative families: Pinaceae,
Taxaceae Almost no weedy species.
Subdivision II—Angiospermae: Description—Ovules borne in a closed ovary that matures into
a fruit.
References
1. Angiras NN and S.S. Rana 1998. Butachlor safener combinations for weed control in direct seeded puddle rice. International
Rice Research Newsletter 23 (2): 46.
2. Das TK. 2009. Weed Science- Principles and Application. Jain Publishers.
3. Kumar Suresh, SS Rana, NN Angiras, Pankaj Chopra and Navell Chander. 2012. Sequential applicationof 2,4- D, metsulfuron,
carfentrazone with clodinafop for control of weeds in wheat. Himachal Journal of Agricultural Research 38(1): 18-24.
4. Rameshwar, Sanjay Chadda, G.D. Sharma and S.S. Rana. 2002. Evaluation of herbicides for weed control and economics in
onion (Allium cepa L.) under cold desert region of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Weed Science 34 (1&2): 68-71.
5. Rana MC, Amar Singh, S.S. Rana and Naveen Kumar. 2007. Integrated pest management in pea (Pisum sativum) under
Lahaul valley conditions of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 77 (1):59-61.
Classification of Weeds
1. Based on soil type (Edaphic):
a. Weeds of black cotton soil: These are often closely allied to those that grow in dry condition.
Eg., Aristolochia bracteata
b. Weeds of red soils: They are like the weeds of garden lands consisting of various classes of
plants. Eg. Commelina benghalensis
c. Weeds of light, sandy or loamy soils: Weeds that occur in soils having good drainage. Eg.
Leucas aspera
d. Weeds of laterite soils: Eg. Lantana camara, Spergula arvensis.
2. Based on place of occurrence:
a. Weeds of crop lands: The majority of weeds infests the cultivated lands and cause hindrance to
the farmers for successful crop production. Eg. Phalaris minor in wheat
b. Weeds of pasture lands: Weeds found in pasture / grazing grounds. Eg. Indigofera enneaphylla
c. Weeds of waste places: Corners of fields, margins of channels etc., where weeds grow in
profusion. Eg. Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Calotropis gigantea
d. Weeds of playgrounds, road-sides: They are usually hardy, prostrate perennials, capable of
withstanding any amount of trampling. Eg. Alternanthera echinata, Tribulus terestris
3. Based on Origin:
a. Indigenous weeds: All the native weeds of the country are coming under this group and most
of the weeds are indigenous. Eg. Acalypha indica, Abutilon indicum.
b. Introduced or Exotic weeds: These are the weeds introduced from other countries. These
weeds are normally troublesome and control becomes difficult. Eg. Parthenium hysterophorus,
Phalaris minor, Acanthospermum hispidum.
4. Based on cotyledon number: Based on number of cotyledons it possesses it can be classified as dicots
and monocots.
a. Monocots Eg. Panicum flavidum, Echinochloa colona.
b. Dicots Eg. Crotalaria verucosa, Indigofera viscose.
5. Based on soil pH: Based on pH of the soil the weeds can be classified into three categories.
a. Acidophile – Acid soil weeds eg. Rumex acetosella
b. Basophile – Saline & alkaline soil weeds eg. Taraxacum sp.
c. Neutrophile – Weeds of neutral soils eg Acalypha indica.
6. Based on morphology: Based on the morphology of the plant, the weeds are also classified in to three
categories. This is the most widely used classification by the weed scientists.
a. Grasses: All the weeds come under the family Poaceae are called as grasses which are
characteristically having long narrow spiny leaves. The examples are Echinocloa colonum, Cynodon
dactylon.
b. Sedges: The weeds belonging to the family Cyperaceae come under this group. The leaves are
mostly from the base having modified stem with or without tubers. The examples are Cyperus
rotundus, Fimbrystylis miliaceae.
References
1. Angiras NN and S.S. Rana 1998. Butachlor safener combinations for weed control in direct seeded puddle rice. International
Rice Research Newsletter 23 (2): 46.
2. Das TK. 2009. Weed Science- Principles and Application. Jain Publishers.
3. Kumar Suresh, SS Rana, NN Angiras, Pankaj Chopra and Navell Chander. 2012. Sequential applicationof 2,4- D, metsulfuron,
carfentrazone with clodinafop for control of weeds in wheat. Himachal Journal of Agricultural Research 38(1): 18-24.
4. Rameshwar, Sanjay Chadda, G.D. Sharma and S.S. Rana. 2002. Evaluation of herbicides for weed control and economics in
onion (Allium cepa L.) under cold desert region of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Weed Science 34 (1&2): 68-71.
5. Rana MC, Amar Singh, S.S. Rana and Naveen Kumar. 2007. Integrated pest management in pea (Pisum sativum) under
Lahaul valley conditions of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 77 (1):59-61.
Characteristics of Weeds
Weeds are also like other plants but have special characteristics that tend to put them in the category of
unwanted plants. Knowledge about these features will help in developing suitable methods for their control
by studying their most sensitive stage in their life cycle. Knowing the characteristics of weeds will help in
studying the means of their adaptation as well as extent of loss which these weeds can render to human
beings.
1. Weeds have rapid seedling growth and the ability to reproduce when young. Redroot pigweed can flower
and produce seed when less than 8 inches tall. Crops cannot do either. Phyllanthus niruri has faster growth
in groundnut.
2. Quick maturation or only a short time in the vegetative stage. Ephemerals have lifecycle of 1 month.
Canada thistle can produce mature seed two weeks after flowering. Russian thistle seeds can germinate
very quickly between 28° and 110°F in late spring (Young, 1991). It would spread more, but the seed must
germinate in loose soil because the coiled root unwinds as it pushes into soil and is unable to do so in hard
soil.
3. Dual modes of reproduction. Most weeds are angiosperms and reproduce by seed. Many also reproduce
vegetative (e.g., Canada thistle, field bindweed, leafy spurge, quackgrass). Cyperus rotundus can propagate
through tubers.
4. Environmental plasticity. Many weeds are capable of tolerating and growing under a wide range of
climatic and edaphic conditions. Weeds have the capacity to withstand adverse conditions in the field,
because they can modify their seed production and growth according to the availability of moisture and
temperature. They can germinate under adverse soil-moisture conditions, have short period of plant growth,
generally grow faster rate and produce seed earlier than most of the crops growing in association. Rumex
spinosus can germinate in acidic soil
5. Weeds are often self-compatible, but self-pollination is not obligatory.
6. If a weed is cross-pollinated, pollination is accomplished by nonspecialized flower visitors or by wind.
7. Weeds resist detrimental environmental factors. Most crop seeds rot if they do not germinate shortly
after
planting. Weed seeds resist decay for long periods in soil and remain dormant.
8. Weed seeds exhibit several kinds of dormancy or dispersal in time to escape the rigors of the environment
and germinate when conditions are most favorable for survival. Many weeds have no special environmental
requirements for germination. Weed seeds remain viable for longer period without losing their viability,
e.g. annual meadow grass (Poa annua) and scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis) remain viable for about
8 years; creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense) for 20 years and field bind weed (Convolvulus arvensis) for about
20-50 years. Cyperus rotundus have 78% viability.
9. Weeds often produce seed that is the same size and shape as crop seed, making physical separation
difficult and facilitating spread by man. Cichorium intybus in berseem. Some weeds resemble
morphologically with the crop and are difficult to identify at weeding or hoeing.
10. Some annual weeds produce more than one seed crop per year, and seed is produced as long as growing
conditions permit.
11. Each generation is capable of producing large numbers of seed per plant, and some seed is produced
over a wide range of environmental conditions. Most of the weeds especially annuals produce enormous
quantity of seeds, e.g. wild oats (Avena fatua), produces 250 seeds per plant, whereas wild amaranth
(Amaranthus viridis) produces nearly 11 million seeds. Striga juncea produces 50 lakh seeds/plant;
Harmful Effects
Weeds have serious impacts on agricultural production. It is estimated that in general weeds cause 5% loss
in agricultural production in most of developed countries, 10% loss in less developed countries and 25% loss
in least developed countries. In India, yield losses due to weeds are more than those from pest and diseases.
Yield losses due to weeds vary with the crops. Every crop is exposed to severe competition from weeds. Most
of these weeds are self-sown and they provide competition caused by their faster rate of growth in the initial
stages of crop growth. In some crops, the yields are reduced by more than 50% due to weed infestation.
Weeds compete with crops for water soil, nutrients, light, and space, and thus reduce the crop yields. An
estimate shows that weeds can deprive the crops 47% N, 42% P, 50% K, 39% Ca and 24% Mg of their
nutrient uptake. Weeds are also act as alternate hosts that harbor insects, pests and diseases and other
micro-organisms. Alternate hosts of some of the pest and diseases.
Beneficial Effects
In spite of all the difficulties caused by weeds, they can offer some beneficial properties, particularly when
occurring at low densities. These aspects should be utilized in the farming system, although this may make
organic management more complicated than chemical based systems. Some of the potential benefits of
weeds are listed below:
1. Helping to conserve soil moisture and prevent erosion. A ground cover of weeds will reduce the amount
of bare soil exposed helping to conserve nutrients, particularly nitrogen which could otherwise be leached
away, especially on light soils.
2. Food and shelter can be provided for natural enemies of pests and even alternative food sources for crop
pests. The actual presence of weed cover may be a factor in increasing effectiveness of biological control of
pests and reducing pest damage.
3. Weeds can also be valuable indicators of growing conditions in a field, for example of water levels,
compaction and pH.
References
1. Angiras NN and S.S. Rana 1998. Butachlor safener combinations for weed control in direct seeded puddle rice. International
Rice Research Newsletter 23 (2): 46.
2. Das TK. 2009. Weed Science- Principles and Application. Jain Publishers.
3. Kumar Suresh, SS Rana, NN Angiras, Pankaj Chopra and Navell Chander. 2012. Sequential applicationof 2,4- D, metsulfuron,
carfentrazone with clodinafop for control of weeds in wheat. Himachal Journal of Agricultural Research 38(1): 18-24.
4. Rameshwar, Sanjay Chadda, G.D. Sharma and S.S. Rana. 2002. Evaluation of herbicides for weed control and economics in
onion (Allium cepa L.) under cold desert region of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Weed Science 34 (1&2): 68-71.
5. Rana MC, Amar Singh, S.S. Rana and Naveen Kumar. 2007. Integrated pest management in pea (Pisum sativum) under
Lahaul valley conditions of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 77 (1):59-61.
References
1. Angiras NN and S.S. Rana 1998. Butachlor safener combinations for weed control in direct seeded puddle rice. International
Rice Research Newsletter 23 (2): 46.
2. Das TK. 2009. Weed Science- Principles and Application. Jain Publishers.
3. Kumar Suresh, SS Rana, NN Angiras, Pankaj Chopra and Navell Chander. 2012. Sequential applicationof 2,4- D, metsulfuron,
carfentrazone with clodinafop for control of weeds in wheat. Himachal Journal of Agricultural Research 38(1): 18-24.
4. Rameshwar, Sanjay Chadda, G.D. Sharma and S.S. Rana. 2002. Evaluation of herbicides for weed control and economics in
onion (Allium cepa L.) under cold desert region of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Weed Science 34 (1&2): 68-71.
5. Rana MC, Amar Singh, S.S. Rana and Naveen Kumar. 2007. Integrated pest management in pea (Pisum sativum) under
Lahaul valley conditions of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 77 (1):59-61.
Precision agriculture refers to application of technology and principles to manage temporal and spatial
variability associated with all aspects of agricultural production for the purpose of improving crop
performance and environmental quality. Precision farming differs from traditional agriculture by its level
of management wherein instead of managing the whole fields as a single unit, management is customized
for small areas within the same field. Precision farming is suitable when the holdings are large and variable
exists in the field. In India the holdings are small even with the large farmers. Only in the states of Punjab,
Rajasthan, Haryana and Gujarat do more than 20 per cent of agricultural lands have an operational
holding size of more than four ha. Commercial as well as horticultural crops also show a wider scope for
PA in the cooperative farms.
Precision farming in the Indian context is precise application of inputs based on soil wealth and crop
requirement for maximizing productivity, profitability and quality on a sustainable basis. The basic steps
in precision farming are,
1. Assessing variability.
2. Managing variability.
3. Evaluation.
The available technologies enable us in understanding the variability. By giving site specific agronomic
recommendations we can manage the variability that make precision agriculture viable. Finally, evaluation
must be an integral part of any precision farming system.
An information and technology-based farm management system identifies, analyses and manages
variability in fields by conducting crop production practices at the right place and time and in the right
way, for optimum profitability, sustainability and protection of the land resource.
Although a considerable research effort has been expended, it is still only a portion of farmers who have
practiced any type of precision agriculture (PA) technologies system approach to re-organize the total
system of agriculture towards low-input, high-efficiency and sustainable agriculture.
Sustainable PA is this century’s most valuable innovation in farm management that is based on using
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). This is the most recent innovation technology based
on sustainable agriculture and healthy food production and it consists of profitability and increasing
production, economic efficiency and the reduction of side effects on the environment.
Challenges
Research suggest educational and economic challenges as the two most important in the application of
precision agriculture. Among the variables that contribute to educational challenges, lack of local experts,
funds, knowledgeable research and extension personnel have more of an impact compared to others. PA
and initial costs have more of an impact among the economic challenges compared to the other issues.
Introduction
India has vast livestock resources and ranks first in milk production (176.34 million tonnes) with meat
production of 7.70 million tonnes (DAHD & F 2018-19). However, the productivity of individual animal is
very low as compared to other countries. It might be due to several reasons but inadequate availability of
feed and fodder is the main reason. Feed and fodder expenses constitutes to about 65 per cent of the total
expenses on livestock rearing. Fodder trees leaves are preferred by several livestock animals such as sheep
and goats. Fodder trees can be grown alongside the farm bunds and also in and around the farm in many
parts of the world including arid and semi-arid regions. In such areas, fodder trees play vital role in
supplying nutritious fodder for animals especially during the time of fodder scarcity. Among the several
known fodder tree species, Moringa (Moringa oliefera) is gaining popularity in various parts of the world
including India. It is a multipurpose tree species having potential to reduce the dependence on expensive
conventional protein supplement or high cost concentrate feed, and thus proved to be a boon for livestock
and dairy sectors.
Characteristics of Moringa
Moringa also known as drumstick is a perennial tree species. It can be grown on marginal lands. Due to its
deep root system it is able to withstand drought and requires less water compare to other trees, and can
also tolerate high temperature. It is fast growing tree species having non-woody stem and succulent leaves
which are preferred as a fodder by the animals, and can be fed without chaffing and thus, save the energy.
It produces more flushes of leaves and requires frequent cuttings due to fast growing nature.
It is rich in protein, minerals and vitamins, and thus considered as miracle fodder tree species. Besides, it
is relished by the ruminant animals due to palatability, and is also safe for feeding.
Nutritional Value
Morinaga is rich in several nutrients, minerals and rich in proteins. Besides, it is good source of pro-vitamin
A, vitamin B, vitamin C and E, some carotenoids and amino acids like cysteine and methionine.
Reference
1. DAHD & F 2018-19 Annual Report Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and
Farmer’s Welfare, GOI
2. www.dairyknowledge.in Moringa cultivation for green fodder.
3. www.vikaspedia.in Nutritional values of Moringa.
Introduction
Now, the world is in the grips of a global pandemic, the like of which has never been seen before. The
COVID-19 that has swept through countries and continents has caused untold human suffering, social
upheaval and economic damage. But, while the spread of the current crisis is unprecedented, the new
coronavirus follows a number of diseases that have emerged in recent decades, such as Ebola, AIDS, SARS,
avian influenza and swine flu. All originated in animals and there is increasing evidence that humanity’s
over exploitation of nature is one of the factors behind the spread of new diseases (Galaverni et. al., 2020).
Human activities have significantly altered three-quarters of the land and two-thirds of the ocean,
changing the planet to such an extent as to determine the birth of a new era: the “Anthropocene”. Changes
in land uses that bring wildlife, livestock and humans into closer contact with each other and facilitate the
spread of diseases, including new strains of bacteria and viruses (Kilpatrick and Randolph, 2012 and Morse
et. al., 2012). Meanwhile, illegal and uncontrolled trade of live wild animals creates dangerous
opportunities for contact between humans and the diseases these creatures carry. It is no coincidence that
many recent outbreaks have originated in markets that sell a mix of wild and domestic mammals, birds
and reptiles, creating the conditions for the development of old and new zoonoses: infectious diseases that
can be transmitted from animals to humans (Galaverni et. al., 2020). This article illustrates the link
between humanity’s impact on ecosystem and biodiversity and the spread of diseases.
What is Biodiversity?
The term biodiversity or biological diversity refers to the variety of life on earth at all its levels, from genes
to ecosystem and can encompass the evolutionary, ecological and cultural processes that sustain life.
Biodiversity includes not only species we consider rare, threatened or endangered but also every living
thing (from humans to organisms) we know little about, such as microbes, fungi and invertebrates
(American museum of natural history, 2020).
Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is important to most aspects of our lives. We value biodiversity for many reasons, some
utilitarian and some intrinsic. This means we value biodiversity both for what it provides to humans and
for the value it has in its own right. Utilitarian values include the many basic needs humans obtain from
biodiversity such as food, fuel, shelter and medicine. Further, ecosystem provides crucial services such as
pollination, seed dispersal, climate regulation, water purification, nutrient cycling and control of
agricultural pests. Biodiversity also holds value for potential benefits not yet recognized, such as new
medicines and other possible unknown services (American museum of natural history, 2020).
Threats to Biodiversity
Biodiversity is under serious threat as a result of human activities. The main dangers worldwide are
population growth and resource consumption, climate change and global warming, habitat conversion and
urbanization, invasive alien species, over-exploitation of natural resources and environmental degradation.
Conclusion
Biodiversity loss describes the decline in the number, genetic variability and variety of species and the
biological communities in a given area. This loss in the variety of the life can lead to a breakdown in the
functioning of the ecosystem where decline has happened. Altering these ecosystems can aid the
development and spread of infectious diseases. The fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic will dominate the
global agenda for the foreseeable future. As a global community, it is crucial that we take steps to reduce
the risk of future pandemics. Some of the most important actions we can take are to crack down on illegal
wildlife trade and close unregulated wildlife markets; and to preserve intact ecosystems and restore the
health of those that have been degraded. As we survey the devastation wreaked by the coronavirus, we
must take this time to reflect and to harness the power of nature to prevent future health crises.
Introduction
Agriculture and allied sector provide livelihood to 54.6% of the population of India (census 2011) and it
contributes 14.4% to the country’s Gross Value Added (2018-19) as per Economic Survey 2019. India ranks
among the top countries in the world in production of a number of crops including rice, wheat, sugarcane,
fruits and vegetables. Farmers are, and will remain the drivers of Agricultural sector. Since the
development of Farm mechanization in India is still below the mark due to several factors like small land
holdings, equipment cost and poor credit availability, the role of farmer in agriculture holds crucial
importance and it is our imperative to ensure that farmers find Agriculture as a profitable economic activity.
In this backdrop, National Commission for Farmers was constituted in 2004, chaired by Prof. M. S.
Swaminathan, to suggest methods for faster and more inclusive growth for farmers. Then, the Government
of India in 2016 constituted an expert committee headed by Ashok Dalwai to look into the entire agriculture
ecosystem in the country to suggest ways and means to reform it so that farmers’ income can be doubled
by 2022. The Committee submitted its final report to the Government in September 2018. Now, the
government is in the process of setting up a panel to monitor the implementation of the recommendation
of the Doubling Farmers’ Income (DFI) committee.
Conclusion
The recent initiatives taken by the Government are definitely steps taken in the right direction. The
agreements signed between India and Israel further underscore the fact how water management, and
judicious usage of limited resources is vital for a thriving agricultural sector.
References
1. Chand R (2017). Doubling Farmers’ Income: Rationale, Strategy, Prospects and Action Plan, NITI Policy Paper 01/2017
National Institution for Transforming India, Government of India, New Delhi.
2. FAO (2017). Food and Agricultural Organization. Rome, Italy. www.fao.org.
3. NITI Aayog (2015). Raising agricultural productivity and making farming remunerative for farmers. Occasional Paper NITI
Aayog, Government of India, 1 – 46.
4. Newspapers.
Introduction
Pulses which are also known as poor men’s meat are regarded as the cheapest source of protein for a largely
vegetarian Indian population. According to NSSO 68TH round, cost of obtaining 1 kg protein from pulses
is found to be almost half of the cost incurred from other animal sources. Despite of India being world’s
largest producer and consumer of pulses, Indians are among most protein deficient people in world.
Declining availability of pulses due to stagnant growth in production and productivity has naturally raised
the cost of pulses leading to persistent problem of food price inflation. Total supply of pulses in India
declined while net imports rose from 0.06 MT in 2000-01 to 6.6MT in 2016-17. But in recent years, scarcity
has turned into surplus causing near-famine to near-feast like condition. In 2013-14 bumper harvest of 19
MT was followed by 2 subsequent draught years leading to markets prices touching sky high and rising
imports due to lower prices in International market.
This was followed by two years of good monsoon and increased MSP in 2016-17 and 2017-18 again
translated into a boom making India self-sufficient in pulses production for the first time ever. Bringing
misery to farmers due to slump in prices. Higher growth in yield as well as production achieved in post
2000 period reflects the increased emphasis on enhancing pulses production through several government
schemes introduced during this period. In past two years, India has successfully achieved near self-
sufficiency in pulses production but prices remained highly volatile. To minimize price volatility,
Sustaining the productivity and production in the long term is essential solution to safeguard the interest
of both farmers as well as consumers.
References
1. Kumar, P. & Joshi,P.K.,(2014)."Changing consumption pattern of pulses in India:past trends and projections".International
Food Policy Research Institute, South Asia Regional Office, New Delhi.
2. Roy, Devesh.,Joshi, P.K.,& Chandra, Raj.(2017)."Pulses for Nutrition in India :Changing patterns from farm to fork".IFPRI,
South Asia Regional Office, New Delhi
3. Subramanian, Arvind. (2016). Incentivizing Pulses Production Through Minimum Support Price (MSP) and Related
Policies.Ministry of Finance,New Delhi.
Summary
Nanotechnology has shown promising potential to promote sustainable agriculture. The prediction that in
2050 our planet will be populated by over 9 billion people is quite reliable. This will pose serious problems
with food, water and energy supply, particularly in less-developed countries. Considering that the human
pressure over natural resources has already reached critical levels, international agencies such as the
World Bank and UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) are soliciting scientific research in order to
identify innovative solutions to support the primary sector. Nanotechnology is a rapidly evolving field with
the potential to take forward the agriculture and food industry with new tools which promise to increase
food production in a sustainable manner and to protect crops from pests. Once entered in the soil system,
nanomaterials may affect the soil quality and plant growth, effects on nutrient release in target soils, soil
biota, soil organic matter and plant morphological and physiological responses. The mechanisms involved
in uptake and translocation of nanomaterials within plants and associated defense mechanisms have also
been discussed. Future research directions have been identified to promote the research into sustainable
development of nano-enabled agriculture.
Introduction
Sustainable agriculture is crucial to achieve “Zero hunger” which is amongst the 17 sustainable
development goals of the United Nations. World food production and distribution are facing huge stress
due to increasing population, climate change, environmental contamination, and higher demands of water
and energy. Recent research has shown the promising potential of nanotechnology to improve the
agriculture sector by increasing the efficiency of agricultural inputs and offering solutions to agricultural
and environment problems for improving food productivity and security. Therefore, research concerning
applications of nanotechnology for agriculture has gained significant attention during the recent years
(Parisi et al., 2015; Kah et al., 2019). The unique physicochemical properties of nanomaterials, that is,
catalytic reactivity, high surface area, size and shape, have the potential to open new paradigms and to
introduce new strategies in agriculture. The fate of nano materials is highlighted in soil-plant system with
a critical evaluation of potential threats to the soil ecosystem.
Specific agronomic applications of nanotechnology include:
1. Enabled delivery systems of release of agrochemicals allowing a controlled release of fertilizers,
pesticides and herbicides.
2. Field-sensing systems to monitor the environmental stresses and crop conditions.
3. Improvement of plant traits against environmental stress and diseases.
Conclusion
Nanotechnology has found many applications in agricultural applications such as nano fertilizers, nano
pesticides, nano biosensors or as environmental remediation agents. However, a firm understanding of
nanomaterials’ fate and environmental impacts remains a major challenge in agricultural and
environmental sciences. Collaborative research among institutes exploring different uses of nanomaterials
would be crucial to develop efficient, multifunctional, stable, cost-effective and environment-friendly
nanomaterials. This would also facilitate to complete the picture about the role, fate, behavior and
ecotoxicity assessment of NMs. Application of NMs may help improve the growth and yield of crop plants,
but response may vary as per plant species. Role of NMs should also be explored in bioremediation to
develop integrated remediation strategies.
References
1. Parisi C., Vigani M., Rodríguez-Cerezo E. (2015). Agricultural nanotechnologies: What are the current possibilities? Nano
Today. 10: 124-127.
2. Kah M., Tufenkji N., White J.C. (2019). Nano-enabled strategies to enhance crop nutrition and protection. Nat. Nanotechnol.
14: 532-540.
3. FAO. The future of food and agriculture ''Trends and Challenges'', 2017.
4. Adisa I.O., Pullagurala V.L.R., Peralta-Videa J.R., Dimkpa, C.O., Elmer, W.H., Gardea-Torresdey J.L., White, J.C. (2019).
Recent advances in nano-enabled fertilizers and pesticides: a critical review of mechanisms of action. Environ. Sci. Nano.
6:2002-2030.
5. Chhipa H. 2017. Nanofertilizers and nanopesticides for agriculture. Environ. Chem. Lett. 15: 15-22.
6. Lei C., Sun Y., Tsang D.C.W., Lin D. (2018). Environmental transformations and ecological effects of iron-based nanoparticles.
Environ. Pollut. 232: 10-30.
7. Lowry, G.V., Gregory, K.B., Apte, S.C, Lead, J.R. (2012). Transformations of nanomaterials in the environment. Environ. Sci.
Technol. 46: 6893-6899.
Sensory Plantings
Sensory plantings should be hardy, vary in height, color, texture and scent, provide year-round sensory
interest, and be planted within easy reach. Perennials, ground covers, ornamental grasses, small shrubs
and edible plants can be incorporated
Conclusion
A sensory garden is a wonderful way for children to explore their senses and learn about the environment
around them. It is also a healthy place of discovery and gets children outdoors. Children with disabilities
also greatly benefit from exposure to sensory gardens, as they provide a therapeutic and safe way for them
to explore their senses. When creating a sensory garden, use care in choosing the elements that go into the
garden, and also consider the layout in terms of the height and reach of the plants and walkways so that it
is accessible to the children and or adults for whom it is intended.
References
1. "Sensory Gardens - Gardening Solutions - University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences".
gardeningsolutions.ifas.ufl.edu. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
2. Hussein, H (December 2009). "Sensory Garden in Special Schools: The Issues, Design and Use". Journal of Design and Built
Environment. 5 (1): 77–95. ISSN 2232-1500. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
Introduction
Vegetable gardening is a practice of growing and cultivating vegetable plants as a part of Horticulture
which involves in active participation of growing vegetables. It is labor intensive and differ from farming.
It is advisable because it nurtures us mentally and physically and favors benefits in improving health,
healing and act as de-stress.
Advantages
1. It keeps us stay healthy.
2. Cheap and affordable.
3. Harvest fresh and eat fresh.
4. No hazard.
5. Year-round production.
6. More food per square foot.
General Considerations
Sunlight, growing media, water, nutrients (fertilizer), tools.
Crop Selection
Almost any type of vegetable that will grow in typical backyard gardens will also do well in a small space
you selected or in containers you select. Vegetables which are ideally suited for growing in containers
include tomatoes, peppers, brinjal, green onions, beans, peas, lettuce, squashes, radish, carrots, cabbages,
cauliflower, kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, celery, parsley, Amaranthus, cucumbers, melons, gourds like
bitter gourd, bottle gourd, sponge gourd and pumpkins but usually they require larger space because of
their vining growth habit.
Soil Preparation
The soil which is used for raising vegetables must have some common characteristics as a filling material.
The soil must have the capacity to hold water and nutrients very well. The soil must be free from weeds
and diseases. Use clay soil, or sandy loam soils which are in microscopic in nature and has a good retention
of water and nutrients. If you use raised beds in your kitchen garden of 120-150 square meter area and
height should be 15 cm. Plant accordingly in raised beds with rich soil and by regular turning out the beds
planting should be done.
Growing Media
A good growing media must have sufficient moisture retaining capacity, porous in nature, support good
drainage and must be free from other debris. The soil mixture must be in a ratio of 1:2:1 ratio of FYM, red
soil and sand. Soil less media: a) Saw dust b) Peat moss c) Perlite d) Vermiculite e) Sphagnum moss. These
are having light in weight, ideal pH, absorb high water holding capacity. They are used in a ratio of 25 %
soil +75 % compost / 25 % soil les media + 25 % soil + 50 % compost.
Fertilization
The best method of adding fertilizers to plants in growing containers is by mixing nutrient solution and
basic requirement is completed by the basal dose of nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium. There are many
other commercial fertilizers available in the market and utilize them as per the label mentioned on it. Also
use water soluble fertilizers containing iron, zinc, boron, manganese. Do not add more than the
recommended dose of fertilizers, since they may cause the plants to burn or kill the plants.
Irrigation
The plants need to watered carefully and the nutrient solution made is made available in early growth of
the plants and irrigation may vary from one crop to the other usually once a day.
Plant Care
Protect the plants from very high heat caused by sun scorching by adjusting it under a shade net
construction so that it may protect the plants from sun, a sort of rain and wind.
Harvesting
harvest the vegetables at their peak stage of maturity when vegetables are matured and full flavor or color
develops. This will yield maximum and makes excellent taste from immediate harvested fruits and tender
green beans and peas and crispy lettuce and other leafy vegetables.
Conclusion
Gardening is a great hobby for everyone from working professionals to retirees. It allows you to connect
with your environment and with nature. Instead, learn as much as you can, take in basic tips and tricks
and take baby steps. You will find that when given proper attention, a garden can soothe your soul and
gardening can calm and center you. Gardening doesn’t just help you physically, it also helps you mentally.
In addition, it allows you to contribute to environmental health and even your own table. Although
gardening yields relatively slow results, those results leave a deeper impact and are much more long-lasting.
Introduction
We often hear that India is an agricultural country. This basically means that agriculture is an important
part of our livelihood. In India, agriculture is our primary economic activity and about two-thirds of our
population is engaged in the same. Let us get acquainted with types of farming done in India. India is an
agricultural country: Kids of 1980s, 1990s and early 2000s grew up reading this one sentence in school
textbooks until LPG (liberalization, privatization and globalization) changed the complexion of Indian
economy. Services became the king of economy and industries started pulling out workers from the fields.
The outbreak of the novel coronavirus in India as part of global pandemic shut down offices of the gloating
services sector and closed factories. But crops standing in fields kept growing, and farmers continued to
tend them. Covid-19 has essentially and largely remained an urban outbreak in India till now.
Now, economy indicators show what is already known: production has contracted in factories and services
have suffered losses. The seasonally adjusted IHS Markit India Manufacturing Purchasing Managers'
Index (PMI) fell to 27.4 in April. This is the lowest reading of PMI in 15 years, that is, since it started
recording data. A PMI of below 50 indicates contraction in manufacturing. It was 51.8 in March. Cases of
the novel coronavirus started surging in India in the first week of March. States were going for lockdowns
by the third week. The national lockdown was announced from March 25. India remained locked down
through April.
Now, lockdown is in place and this coronavirus lockdown is actually an exit door. India will restart the
economic engine that was practically switched off on March 25. The manufacturing units have started
opening in green and orange zones (areas either free from coronavirus or less impacted by Covid-19, the
disease).
It is expected that PMI will rise. But how long the economy will remain in revival mode is a difficult
question to answer. The Indian economy was already in an extended slowdown before the coronavirus
outbreak applied brakes.
As the novel coronavirus shows ebbing signs in Asia, Europe and America, there is a fresh round of trade
war between the US and China. This has dampened the mood of revival. Stock exchanges including those
in India have reflected the soggy sentiments.
In a Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) survey, about 45 per cent of CEOs in India said they don't see
economic normalcy returning before a year. Another 36 per cent were more optimistic but said it would
take 6-12 months for economy to function with normalcy.
Simply put, over 80 per cent of CEOs in India think normally is not going to return before six months. This
is the beginning of May. So, before the end of October, the Indian economy of industry and services sectors
(agriculture fields don't have CEOs) is to reel under the impact of coronavirus.
The Indian economy is left with agriculture, only agriculture to depend upon. And, the good news is India
is expecting record food-grain production at almost 300 million tonnes -- 298.32 million tonnes to be precise
(149.92 MT kharif + 148.4 MT rabi).
The government now has to ensure that all food-grains that farmers want to sell in the market is picked
up. This is particularly necessary because with seemingly less significant contribution to the GDP at
around 16 per cent, agriculture provides employment to about 55 per cent of workforce in India.
Add to this tally those migrants who are returning home in Shramik Special trains and are likely to return
to their villages when lockdown is lifted and regular public transport resumes. A healthier and growing
agriculture could not have happened at a better time.
Conclusion
So, without agriculture it is very difficult during this period and it is very much essential to support the
farmers and release good variety of seeds so that more production occurs. Good news is that Government
of India has now increased its focus on nutrition (besides food)- security and raising farmers’ income (rather
than enhancing farm productivity). Changing the consumer behavior with suitable programs and
incentives is already in the agenda. For all these to happen, the existing landscape of policy incentives that
favor the two big staples of wheat and rice has to change. Designing agricultural policies, post-COVID19
scenario, must include these imperatives for a food systems transformation in India.
References
1. Newspapers.
2. News channels.
3. Google.
Introduction
In order to meet the demand of continuously growing population and at the same time protecting crops
from different type of stresses, insects, pests and disease the surge for crop improvement is increasing.
However, the conventional breeding methodologies are time consuming and labor intensive. Crop
improvement using genome editing tools appeared to be a good alternative for such situation because of it’s
of its advantages over routinely used methods. Genome editing is defined as a process in which a specific
chromosomal sequence is changed. This change can be due to an insertion, deletion and/or a substitution
of at least one nucleotide. It is considered to be precise, time saving, non-labor intensive and efficient
technique; and now even considered as a safe technique because no foreign sequences are left behind in the
final genome-edited organism (GEO).
Different type of techniques is evolved and used in editing genome for crop improvement as per the
requirements:
1. Meganucleases: Meganucleases (MNs) are basically generated from intron containing genes. They are
capable to recognize longer and unique sequences of approx 12–40 bp so that they can cleave the DNA at a
unique position. MNs are engineered to enable them to bind and cleave a specific sequence of DNA. They
are often called homing endonucleases (HEs) (Miglani, 2017).
2. Zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs): Zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs) have been widely used for target specific
mutagenesis to disrupt the normal functioning of gene and producing several gene knockouts (Bonawitz et
al., 2018). ZFNs consist of zinc finger protein domains able to bind at sequence-specific, fused with nuclease
domain for double strand DNA cleavage. It has been used for site-specific mutations in plants such as
Arabidopsis thaliana, soybean, maize, tobacco, and petunia (Curtin et al., 2013).
3. Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs): Another widely used tool for genetic
engineering is transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs). They work as a eukaryotic
transcription factors by binding to the promoter region and activating gene expression (Khan et al., 2016).
TALENs, are constructed by modifying transcription activator-like effector (TALE) domain repeats for
desirable target recognition and are then fused with the FokI nuclease producing in a TALEN (Stephens
and Barakate, 2017).
5. microRNA (miRNA): They are small 18–22 nucleotide endogenous non-coding regulatory RNAs which
regulate the expression of gene both at post transcriptional and translational level by causing mRNA
degradation or by translational repression in sequence specific manner (Ku et al., 2015).
6. Small interfering RNA (siRNA): Small interfering RNA (siRNA) are a class of double-stranded non-
coding RNA molecules of about 20-25 base pairs in length. It works by interfering in with the expression of
specific genes with complementary nucleotide sequences by degrading mRNA after transcription and
prevents translation (Khan, 2019).
7. CRISPR-Cas9: CRISPR-Cas9 emerges out as one of the powerful tools needed for precise genome editing
tool which needs a guide RNA (gRNA) of ~20 nucleotides complementary to the gene of interest and a
nuclease enzyme Cas9, which cuts 3–4 bases next to the protospacer adjacent motif. This motif is later
repaired either by error prone non-homologous end joining or by homology directed repair pathway
(Jaganathan et al., 2018). CRISPR-Cas technique can be classified into three types-based gRNA processing
and further action (Khan, 2019).
a. Type 1 CRISPR/Cas system: In this system Cas5 or Cas6 is used for pre-processing of gRNA
and Cas3 for further cleavage functions.
b. Type 2 CRISPR/Cas system: In it Cas9 is used under the guidance of gRNA to target DNA.
RNase III, Trans activating RNA (tracrRNA) and an unidentified protein factor are involved in
trimming at the 5′ end.
Conclusion
With the availability and advancement in this genome editing techniques a wider platform for crop
improvement is being created which when exploited properly can overcome many of the problems faced by
researchers and farmers.
References
1. Bonawitz, N. D., Ainley, W. M., Itaya, A., Chennareddy, S. R., Cicak, T., Effinger, K., & Pareddy, D. R. (2018). Zinc finger
nuclease-mediated targeting of multiple transgenes to an endogenous soybean genomic locus via non-homologous end joining.
Plant Biotechnology Journal, 56- 18
2. Curtin, S. J., Anderson, J. E., Mani, D., Voytas, D. F., & Stupar, R. M. (2013). Targeted mutagenesis for functional analysis of
gene duplication in legumes. Methods of Molecular Biology, 1069:25-42.
3. Jaganathan, D., Ramasamy, K., Sellamuthu, G., Jayabalan, S., & Venkataraman, G. (2018). CRISPR for crop improvement:
an update review. Fronteirs in Plant Science, 9:985.
4. Khan, S. H. 2019. Genome-Editing Technologies: Concept, Pros, and Cons of Various Genome-Editing Techniques and
Bioethical Concerns for Clinical Application. Cell, 16, 326-334.
5. Khan, Z., & Khan, S., Mubarik, Md., Sadia, B., & Ahmad, A. (2016). Use of TALEs and TALEN technology for genetic
improvement of plants. Plant Molecular Biology Reporter, 016-0997-8.
6. Ku Y. S., Wong J. W. H., Mui Z., Liu X., Hui J. H. L., Chan T. F., & Lam, H. M. (2015). Small RNAs in plant responses to
abiotic stresses: regulatory roles and study methods. International Journal of Molecular Science, 16, 24532–24554. 10.3390.
7. Miglani, G. S. 2017. Genome editing in crop improvement: Present scenario and future prospects. Journal of crop improvement,
15427528
8. Stephens, J., & Barakate, A. (2017). Gene editing technologies – ZFNs, TALENs, and CRISPR/Cas9,” in Encyclopedia of
Applied Plant Sciences. (B. Thomas, B. G. Murray, and D. J. Murphyp eds.) (2 ed., pp. 157–161). Cambridge MA: Academic
Press.
How India can build a stronger agriculture sector is still a matter of concern without further harm to the
environment or depletion of its natural resources base. It is the high time to focus on agriculture
productivity and challenges to meet demands of agriculture products by 2050 almost 50 percent more food,
feed and biofuel produce than it was in 2012. This FAO estimate takes into account recent United Nations
(UN) projections indicating that the world’s population would reach 9.73 billion in 2050. It is certainly no
doubt that, over the past six decades, India has come a long way from being a famine-prone country to
comfortably producing food for more than 1.30 billion people from finite arable land. Food security is firmly
in hand; the government is now targeting to double farmers’ incomes by 2022. In 2017, India became the
sixth largest economy in the world, beating France and closely tied with the UK. Agricultural growth in
the country has come to be associated with green paddy fields and overflowing storehouses of surplus grains.
Today, Indian agriculture stands at a crossroad that inaction is not an option. The challenges are
multifaceted viz., decrease in factor productivity, decline in soil health & water table, macro &
micronutrient deficiency, costly inputs and reduce in farm profitability, higher labour cost & shift towards
farm mechanization etc., but at the same time, smart solutions are available that have the potential to
generate triple-wins, i.e. increase productivity, enhance climate resilience, and make agriculture climate-
smart by reducing damaging emissions, increase in crop yield, soil health, nutrient use efficiency and
income, water harvesting & water use efficiency, farm mechanization & good agricultural practices,
agriculture diversification, post-harvest processing & value addition etc. This way we can move further to
make Indian agriculture as a global agricultural powerhouse. In order to implement a holistic approach
towards welfare development and nutrition security, we may link the goals for agricultural development,
health and nutrition and economic development with each other (Fig. 1).
References
1. Arslan, A., McCarthy, N., Lipper, L., Afar, S. & Catania, A. 2013. Adoption and intensity of adoption of conservation farming
practices in Zambia. ESA Working Paper No. 13–01. Rome, FAO.
2. Chand Ramesh (2017). Doubling Farmers’ Income: Rationale, Strategy, Prospects and Action Plan, NITI Policy Paper
no.1/2017, National Institution for Transforming India, New Delhi.
3. Chand Ramesh (2019). Innovative Policy Interventions for Transformation of Agriculture Sector, Agricultural Economics
Research Review, 32(1), 1-10, June.
4. Chand Ramesh and Pavithra S. (2015). Fertiliser Use and Imbalance in India Analysis of States, Economic & Political Weekly,
50 (44), 98-104, Oct. 31.
5. FAO. 2011a. Save and grow: A policymaker’s guide to the sustainable intensification of smallholder crop production. Rome.
6. FAO. 2011b. The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11. Women in agriculture: closing the gender gap for development. Rome.
7. FAO. 2013. Climate-smart agriculture sourcebook. Rome. USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). 2016.
International agricultural productivity (dataset). Accessed November 2016. URL: www.ers.usda.gov/data-
products/international-agriculturalproductivity.aspx
8. Grabowski, P.P., Kerr, J.M., Haggblade, S. & Kabwe, S. 2016. Determinants of adoption and dis-adoption of minimum tillage
by cotton farmers in eastern Zambia. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 231: 54–67.
9. IAPRI (Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute). 2016. Qualitative assessment of the key drivers to adoption, dis-
adoption and non-adoption of conservation agriculture among smallholder farmers in Zambia. Report submitted to the
European Union Delegation for Zambia and COMESA (Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa). Lusaka.
10. OECD. 2011. Food and Agriculture. OECD Green Growth Studies. Paris, OECD Publishing.
11. Singh Harbir and Ramesh Chand (2011). The Seeds Bill, 2011: Some Reflections, Economic & Political Weekly, 46 (51), 22-25,
Dec. 17.
12. Troell, M., Naylor, R.L., Metian, M., Beveridge, M., Tyedmers, P.H., Folke, C., Arrow, K.J., Barrett, S., Crépin, A.S., Ehrlich,
P.R., Gren, A., Kautsky, N., Levin, S.A., Nyborg, K., Österblom, H., Polasky, S., Scheffer, M., Walker, B.H., Xepapadeas, T. &
de Zeeuw, A. 2014. Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America, 111(37): 13257–13263.
Introduction
Over the past years, nitrogen fertilizers have played an important role in increasing crop yield which
resulted in an increase in per capita food production. In India the total N fertilizer consumption has
increased from 55000 tons in 1950-51 to 16.73 million tons in 2016-17 (Fertilizer scenario 2017 by
Department of chemical and Fertilizers). Rice is the major crop grown in India in which approximately 50
per cent of applied nitrogen is lost to the environment and the average nitrogen use efficiency is 30-35 per
cent. During the last 50 years nitrogen fertilizers application has improved crop yield, but with considerable
negative impacts on the environment. So new solutions are urgently needed to maintain environment
quality while increasing yield with maximizing nitrogen use efficiency of crops.
Studies have shown that only 50 to 60% of the applied nitrogen is taken up by the crop plants. Around 20
to 30% remains in the soil after harvest and 10 to 20% becomes unavailable to plants during the growing
season. The losses of nitrogen occur due to three processes, volatilization, leaching and denitrification.
Volatilization occurs when fertilizers containing urea undergo rapid hydrolysis in the soil under high pH
condition, which result in losses of nitrogen in the form of ammonia gas. Nitrate-nitrogen is vulnerable to
losses by leaching and denitrification. Leaching is most likely to take place in coarse-textured soils.
Denitrification of nitrate-nitrogen occurs under saturated conditions.
Fig. 2 Ammonia volatilization from surface-applied and injected manure. Source: C. Dell,
USDA-ARS.
Use of Nanoparticles
The development of new nano devices and nano materials have opened up potential applications in the
plant nutrient management. These inexpensive nanotech materials applied to increase input use efficiency
and crop productivity, will bring about major growth in agriculture. It is important to know whether
nanoparticles have any phytotoxic effects and its impact on food chain must be considered and studied. If
they are environmentally safe and economically feasible, then they can improve nitrogen management to
a longer extent.
Conclusions
More precise and diverse N management strategies are needed to maintain and increase the efficiency of
N use. For precise N management, we should adopt modern techniques such as remote sensing and GIS or
References
1. Bryant, R. B., Veith, T. L., Feyereisen, G. W., Buda, A. R., Church, C. D., Folmar, G. J., and Kleinman, P. J. A. 2011. USDA-
ARS Mahantango Creek Watershed, Pennsylvania, United States: Physiography and history. Water Resources Research, 47:
W08701.
2. Kitchen, N. R and Goulding, K. W. T. 2001. On-farm technologies and practices to improve nitrogen use efficiency. In: Follett
RF, Hatfield JL, editors. Nitrogen in the environment: sources,problems, and management. Amsterdam (The Netherlands):
Elsevier, p. 335–369
3. STARS. 2015. Spurring a Transformation for Agriculture through Remote Sensing. Retrieved from
http://www.starsproject.org/en/
4. Gill, M. S, Pal, S. S and Ahlawat, I. P. S. 2008. Approaches for sustainability of rice (Oryza sativa) wheat (Triticum aestivum)
cropping system in Indo-Gangetic plains of India – a review. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 53:81–96
5. Gupta, R. 2006. Crop canopy sensors for efficient nitrogen management in the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Progress Report (11-1-
2004 to 10-31-2006). Mexico: The Rice–Wheat Consortium, New Delhi International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center
(CIMMYT). http://www.nue.okstate.edu/GreenSeeker/GS%20-Full%20TechReport-%20%20Dec%2014-06.
Tinospora cordifolia, which is known by common names heart-leaved mooneseed, guduchi, and gilory, is
herbaceous vine of family Menispermaceae indigenous to tropical regions of the Indian subcontinent. It is
found throughout the tropical regions in India. Giloy or Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia Miers.) is a
rejuvenating herb for the body. The plant is also known as Gilo, Gulancha, Guduchi (Hindi), Amrita
(Sanskrit), Guduchi, Gulancha (Bengali), Gado, Galo (Gujarati), Gulvel (Marathi), Duyutige, Teppatige
(Telugu), Amrutha balli (Kannada), Shindila kodi (Tamil) and Heartleaf moonseed (English).
The active adaptogenic constituents are diterpene compounds including tinosporone, tinosporic acid,
cordifolisides A to E, syringen, the yellow alkaloid, berberine, Giloin, crude Giloininand, a glucosidal bitter
principle as well as polysaccharides, including arabinogalactan polysaccharide.
Giloy is drug of choice amongst all the remedies in treating gout (vatarakta). The decoction of Giloy and
sunthi is a very effective combination for the treatment of gout and rheumatic disorders. The juice of Giloy
is helpful for gout if taken for a period of two to three months. Also purified shilajit with juice of Giloy is
helpful for gout if taken twice daily.
Its benefits and uses have even been approved by the FDA (Food and Drug Administration, “Giloy can be
consumed in the form of juice, powder or capsules”. Know the benefits of giloy. Giloy is a universal herb
that helps boost immunity”. It is a powerhouse of antioxidants which fight free-radicals, keep your cells
healthy and get rid of diseases.
Different Products
Introduction
Allspice is a dioecious minor tree spice known scientifically as Pimenta dioica, belongs to the family
Myrtaceae. The spice is also called ‘Pimenta’, ‘Jamaican pepper’ and ‘Nalkenpfeffer’. Economic or edible
part of allspice is the dried immature fruit. The name ‘Allspice’ came from the fact that the spice is said to
possess the characteristic flavor and aroma of cloves, nutmeg and cinnamon all combined in this one spice.
This spice is available in whole or ground form, used as a condiment and flavoring agent in ketchups, soups,
sauces, pickles, canned meats, sausages, gravies, relishes, fish dishes, puddings, preservatives etc. Apart
from culinary uses allspice is also an important flavoring ingredient for wines and as a perfume in soap
making. Medicinal uses like it is used as a stimulant in digestive troubles, the powdered fruit is used in
flatulence, dyspepsia and diarrhea. Earlier, it was used in medicine as an adjuvant to tonics and
preservatives. Allspice is a tropical evergreen tree native to West Indies and Central America and grows
semi-wild in Jamaica, which is the major producer. In India, it is cultivated in west Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa. The cultivation is slowly increasing in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Cultivation Aspects
The plant grows in a wide range of soils including poor soils with good drainage. It is not suited to red soil
with inadequate moisture. It grows from sea level to an altitude of 1065 m above MSL; however, it also
grows well below 300 m. An annual rainfall of 100 to 200 cm or more with a mean monthly temperature up
to 270 C are ideal. The performance of allspice in the plains is poor and fruiting is not observed. At higher,
cooler and wetter areas, the incidence of rust disease is severe.
Irrigation
The plants are watered during the dry months in the early stages of growth, upto 2-3 years after planting.
Weeding
As the crop is widely spaced, weed problems are common, especially in the early stages. The base of the
plants should always be kept clean by regular weeding and mulching. Weeds are controlled chemically by
using a herbicide like Gramaxone.
Diseases
1. Leaf-spot (Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum): Grey to brownish-grey discolorations appear on the
margins of the leaves which extend inward causing leaf rot. The affected leaves drop off causing varying
degree of defoliation. The lower surface of infected leaves shows a downy growth due to the production of
abundant conidia. The disease is generally noticed during July-September.
2. Leaf rust (Puccinia psidii): It is the most serious disease in Jamaica which results in the defoliation
of the young leaves, successive rust attack results in the death of the tree. This disease can be successfully
controlled by spraying the young leaves and inflorescence with Dithane M-45.
3. Other diseases: Leaf rot and dieback.
Grades / Types
Pimento is marketed as whole or ground pimento. There are four major grades/types of pimento that are
traded. They are, Mexican, Guatemala, Honduras and Jamaican pimenta. Jamaican pimenta has the best
aroma, flavor and volatile oil content of 4-4.5 per cent. The dried berries range in size from 6.5 to 9.5 mm
in diameter and there are 13 to 14 berries per gram.
Yield
A well grown tree yields 20-25 kg of dry berries per year. The berries are light and about 14,000 berries
weigh 1kg.
Introduction
Locusts are insects that belong to the family of grasshoppers. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
describes them as the oldest migratory pests in the world, with the desert locust being the "most
devastating" of them all. In addition, swarms of these ‘deadly’ desert locusts have now made their way to
India, threatening our agricultural economy. As their population becomes abundant and dense, they change
their behavior, form swarms, and start damaging crops.
This is known as gregarisation. The change in behavior is triggered by close physical contact, following
which they then become inclined to disperse together to find food. They feed on nearly all green vegetation
- leaves, flowers, bark, stems, fruit, and seeds. The crops that it eats include millet, rice, maize, sorghum,
sugarcane, barley, cotton, fruit trees, date palm, vegetables, acacia, banana, pines, and rangeland grasses.
What Measures have been Taken by Government for Locusts Control in India?
1. Vehicles deployed to spray for Locusts Control: Government has already deployed 89 fire brigades;
47 control vehicles; 120 survey vehicles and 810 tractors to spray pesticides for effective locust control.
2. Procurement of 60 more sprayers: Union Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers welfare has approved
procurement of 60 more sprayers from the United Kingdom for spraying the chemicals to stop invasion of
locust swarms in the fields.
3. Use of Drones: The Union Ministry of Civil Aviation gave approval to DPPQS to deploy Remotely
Piloted Aircraft System (drones) for containing the locusts plague. Two companies have been roped in to
spray pesticides through the drones.
4. Locusts Control Operations in affected States: Government has undertaken locusts control
operations in affected states including Punjab (1 district), Rajasthan (21 districts), Gujarat (2 districts) and
Madhya Pradesh (18 districts).
5. Alert issued in states likely to attract locusts’ swarms: The Government has issued alert in the
states where locusts are likely to affect crops including Uttar Pradesh and Indo-Pakistan Border.
Conclusion
The world has seen numerous terrifying events in the past couple of months, 2020 that are easily the worst
in the past few decades. People are becoming evil and are performing evil deeds. Corruption, Adulteration,
Female Foeticides, Dowry, Thieving, Intoxicating, Consumption of Non-veg, and many other social evils
have emerged and have reached their heights. It is a great sin to break the constitution of God and create
a hindrance in the path of attaining God. The current events are responsible of all actions, is giving more
and more sorrows to creatures.
References
1. The Hindhu.
2. The Times of India.
3. India TV news.
Abstract
Host finding by insects comprises of following important steps including, host habitat finding, host finding,
host recognition, host acceptance and host suitability. Any obstruction or deviance from the normal
sequences can hinder the entire process. Thus, the role of olfactory and visual cues is important in
attraction of pests towards the host plants, which is the basis of behavioral pest management practices.
Thus, an eco-friendly and sustainable practice can be adopted through behavioral pest management
practices to control the menace of pests.
Keywords: Host finding, olfactory, visual, behavioral, eco-friendly.
Introduction
Semiochemicals (Gk. semeon, a signal) are chemicals that mediate interactions between organisms. Insects
use many different semiochemicals, chemicals that convey messages between organisms or mediate
interactions between organisms. Semiochemicals maybe classified into Allelochemical (interspecific
semiochemicals) and Pheromones (intraspecific semiochemicals). Allelochemicals (Inter-Specific) are
chemicals that are significant to individuals of a species different from the source species. Allomones:
Favorable to Producer, the response of the receiver is adaptively favorable to emitter, but not the receiver.
Allomones are mostly defensive chemicals, producing negative responses and reducing chances of contact
and utilization. They include repellents, oviposition and feeding deterrents, and toxicants. Kairomones are
advantageous to an insect, such as promoting host finding, oviposition, and feeding. (Feeding deterrents,
oviposition deterrents, repellents, toxicants). Kairomones: Favorable to Receiver but not the emitter.
Kairomones are advantageous to an insect, such as promoting host finding, oviposition, and feeding.
Feeding attractants, feeding arrestants, oviposition attractants, feeding stimulant, flight arrestant.
Synomones: Favorable to both Producer & Receiver The response of receiver is adaptively favorable to both
receiver & emitter. Pheromones are chemicals secreted into the external environment by an animal which
elicit a specific reaction in a receiving individual of the same species. Pheromones are volatile in nature
and they aid in communication among insects. Pheromones are exocrine in origin (i.e. secreted outside the
body). Hence, they were earlier called as ectohormones. In 1959, German chemists Karlson and Butenandt
isolated and identified the first pheromone, a sex attractant from silkworm moths.
Semiochemicals (Gk. semeon, a signal) are chemicals that mediate interactions between
organisms.
Allelochemical (interspecific semiochemicals) Pheromones (intraspecific semiochemicals)
Allelochemicals (Inter-Specific) are chemicals that Primer pheromones: They trigger off a chain of
are significant to individuals of a species different physiological changes in the recipient without any
from the source species. immediate change in the behaviour. They act
through gustatory (taste) sensilla. (eg.) Caste
determination and reproduction in social insects
like ants, bees, wasps
Allomones: Favorable to Producer, the response of Releaser pheromones: These pheromones produce
the receiver is adaptively favorable to emitter, but an immediate change in the behaviour of the
not the receiver. Allomones are mostly defensive recipient. Releaser pheromones may be further
chemicals, producing negative responses and subdivided based on their biological activity into
reducing chances of contact and utilization. They 1. Sex pheromones
include repellents, oviposition and feeding 2. Aggregation pheromones
deterrents, and toxicants. 3. Alarm pheromones
Conclusion
According to these attributes, it is not surprising that odor stimuli have predominated over contact
chemical, visual, and acoustic stimuli in behavioral management of pest arthropods. So identification of
proper pheromone or pheromone blends for managing key pests can be an effective way to mitigate the
chemical based management practices.
References
1. Bernays, E. (2000). Plant–Insect Interactions: A Synthesis. Abstract Book I: XXI International Congress of Entomology,
Brasilia, Brazil; Bjostad, published at Washington, DC, USA. pp. 8–13.
2. Finch, S. and Collier, R. H. (2000). Host–plant selection by insects – a theory based on ‘appropriate/inappropriate landings’ by
pest insects of cruciferous plants. Entomologia Experimentalis Applicata, 96, 91–102.
3. Foster, S. P. and Harris, M. O. (1997). Behavioral manipulation methods for insect pest management. Annual Review of
Entomology, 42, 123–46.
4. Kogan, M. (1994). Plant resistance in pest management. In R. L. Metcalf and W. H. Luckmann (eds.), Introduction to Insect
Pest Management. New York: Wiley & Sons. pp. 73–128.
Introduction
Serology deals with the study of antigen and antibody reactions in vitro. It includes identification and
quantification of antigen or antibody using its known counterpart. Serological techniques depend on the
ability of the chemical constituents of the bacterial cells to behave as antigens, that is to elicit the
production of antibodies in vertebrate animals. The antibodies are the humoral antibodies found in the
blood serum usually called as antiserum.
There are two types of serological studies which are useful:
1. Those based on cell surface antigens usually present on flagellum, pilli, walls, membrane and capsules
etc.
2. Those based on the use of antisera raised against purified enzymes to assess the structural similarities
between homologous proteins from different bacteria.
2. Precipitation: In this reaction, soluble forms of antigen and antibody interact with each other, resulting
in the formation of precipitation. Such kind of reaction is called as precipitation reaction. A precipitation
reaction requires antibodies more than that for agglutination because with the decrease in size of particles,
the total available surface of the antigen increases. Most precipitation reactions occur better at 37 0C to 45
0C.
5. Neutralization test: This test is also called as toxin-antitoxin interactions. In this test attachment of
antibodies to antigen neutralizes the toxic effect of the antigen, resulting in the reaction known as
neutralization.
6. Immune cytolysis: As a result of complement activation, antibodies and surface antigen of certain cells
interact, resulting in cytolysis.
7. Immune adherence: This test used to detect antigen or antibodies. Certain erythrocytes are known to
bear surface receptors for C3. Therefore, erythrocytes may adhere with C3 attached to the antigen-antibody
complexes. This is known as immune adherence.
9. Immune-electrophoresis: In this method antigens are separated from the mixture by the use of
electrophoresis and such antigens are detected by immune-diffusion technique.
10. Counter immune-electrophoresis: In this reaction, oppositely charged antigen and antibody
molecules are subjected to migrate in an agar gel under the influence of electric current. It results in quick
precipitation when both antigen and antibody molecules meet in optimum concentration. Quick
precipitation under the influence of electric current is known as counter immune electrophoresis.
11. Radio immune assay (RIA): In this reaction, assay of antigen and antibody is made in a given sample
through the utilization of radio-active labelled antigen or antibody. For the measurement of the amount of
labelled antigen attached to the antibody, separation of antigen-antibody complexes from the mixture is
essential. The separation is done by centrifugation and filtration. There after the radioactivity is measured
and percentage of labelled antigen bound to antibody is calculated. Amount of unknown antigen is
determined using reference curve.
12. Enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA): When the antigen and antibody reaction is
observed or one of the components is quantitated through enzyme labelled counterpart. And subsequent
part demonstration of fixed enzyme by its substrate is done, such reaction or the technique is known as
enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay.
Types of ELISA:
b. Indirect ELISA: In this both primary ad secondary antibody is used. But in this case, the
primary antibody is not labelled with an enzyme. Instead, the secondary antibody is labelled with
an enzyme.
c. Sandwich ELISA: In this the antibody is immobilized to the plate, and this antibody is called
capture antibody. Firstly, the antigen of interest binds to the capture antibody immobilized to the
plate. Secondly, primary detection antibody binds to the antigen. Thirdly, the secondary detection
antibody binds to the primary detection body, and then the enzyme reacts with its substrate to
produce a visible signal that can be measured.
d. Competitive ELISA: It involves the use of inhibitor antigen. This competes with the antigen of
interest for binding to the primary antibody.
13. Immuno-blotting: Antigens are first separated by poly-acrylamide gel electrophoresis and then
transferred on to nitro-cellulose paper strips. These are the used for the detection of antibodies in the
unknown samples.
Introduction
Elements play a pivotal role in the life cycle of living organisms. Among the 92 known elements on earth,
17 are considered to be essential for the plants and they are divided into macronutrients and micronutrients.
The macronutrients include C, H, O, Ca, K, Mg, N, S and P of which C, H and O make up approximately
95% of plant dry matter and others are present at >1000 mg/kg dry weight. The micronutrients include Cl,
B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni and Zn which are present at <100 mg /kg dry weight. The elements which promote
growth and act as essential element to particular taxa but are not required by all plants are known as
beneficial elements. The five beneficial elements are Al, Co, Na, Se and Si, these elements promote growth
of various plant species under certain environmental conditions, however, their function and concentration
varies for plant species.
Physical Mechanisms
An increased physical barrier produced by silicon deposition beneath leaf cuticles has long been considered
to represent a major component underlying silicon-mediated plant resistance to insect pests. Silicon
deposition contributes to increased rigidity and abrasiveness of plant tissues ,there by forming a
mechanical barrier and reducing their palatability and digestibility to both vertebrat and invertebrate
herbivores . Increased abrasiveness of leaves due to silicon deposition reduces food quality for herbivores
and may cause wear of herbivore mouthparts, which further reduces feeding efficiency and growth rates.
Conversely ,using a simple method to determine mandibular wear, it was shown that although there was
a trend for increased wear in Eldana saccharina larvae that developed on silicon-treated sugarcane, the
ability of larvae to renew their mandibles at each moult probably allows them to compensate for increased
wear. Finely ground wollastonite(CaSiO3) in artificial diets substrates of up to 3.3%silicon had no
significant effect on larval growth of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)and
Helicoverpa punctigera suggesting that silicon may not be directly deleterious to insects via ingestion and
other mechanisms may be involved in silicon-mediated plant resistance. It should be noted, however, that
by grinding the silicon ,this as likely removed potential abrasive attributes, in addition to the potential
effects of soluble-silicon-induced plant defences.
References
1. Cherif M, Asselin A, Belanger RR. 1994. Defense responses induced by soluble silicon in cucumber roots infected by Pythium
spp. Phytopathology. 84: 236-242.
2. Datnoff LE, Snyder GH, Korndorfer GH. 2001. Silicon in agriculture. Studies in Plant Science 8. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
3. Fauteux F, Remus-Borel W, Menzies JG, Bélanger RR. 2005. Silicon and plant disease resistance against pathogenic fungi.
FEMS Microbiol Lett 249:1–6.
4. Ma JF, Yamaji N. 2008. Functions and transport of silicon in plants. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 65: 3049-3057.
Introduction
In natural habitats, plants are surrounded by an enormous number of potential enemies. By their nature,
plants cannot avoid these herbivores and pathogens simply by moving away; they must protect themselves
in other ways. The cuticle (a waxy outer layer) and the periderm (secondary protective tissue), besides
retarding water loss, provide barriers to bacterial and fungal entry. Plants also produce a large, diverse
array of organic compounds that appear to have no direct function in growth and development, called
secondary metabolites.
Secondary metabolites have no generally recognized, direct roles in the processes of photosynthesis,
respiration, solute transport, translocation, protein synthesis, nutrient assimilation, differentiation, or the
formation of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. These also differ from primary metabolites in having a
restricted distribution in the plant kingdom. Secondary metabolites are often found in only one plant
species or related group of species, whereas primary metabolites are found throughout the plant kingdom.
Secondary metabolites defend plants against a variety of herbivores and pathogenic microbes.
It may serve other important functions as well, such as structural support, as in the case of lignin, or
pigments, as in the case of the anthocyanins. Plants have evolved multiple defense mechanisms against
microbial pathogens. Besides antimicrobial secondary metabolites, some of which are preformed and some
of which are induced by infection, other modes of defense include the construction of polymeric barriers to
pathogen penetration and the synthesis of enzymes that degrade pathogen cell walls.
In addition, plants employ specific recognition and signaling systems enabling the rapid detection of
pathogen invasion and initiation of a vigorous defensive response. Once infected, some plants also develop
immunity to subsequent microbial attacks. Secondary metabolites are divided into four groups given below-
There are four groups of secondary metabolites: terpenes, phenolics, and nitrogen-containing compounds.
1. Terpenes (Monoterpenes, Diterpenes, etc): Terpenes, composed of five-carbon isoprene units, are
toxins and feeding deterrents to many herbivores.
2. Phenolics (Phenolic glycosides, Bound phenolics and Lignin): Phenolics (aromatic substances),
synthesized primarily from products of the shikimic acid pathway or the Malonic Acid Pathway, have
several important roles in plants such as lignin mechanically strengthens cell walls, Flavonoid pigments
function as shields against harmful ultraviolet radiation and as attractants for pollinators and fruit
dispersers and finally serve as defenses against herbivores and pathogens.
3. N-Containing (Alkaloids and Mustard oils): Nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites/alkaloids,
are synthesized principally from common amino acids. Compounds such as alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides,
glucosinolates, non-protein amino acids, and proteinase inhibitors protect plants from a variety of
herbivorous animals.
4. Defense-related proteins: Peroxidases, Polyphenol oxidase, PAL, Condensed tannins, Hydrolysable
tannins.
Outline of Terpenes
Functions of Terpenes
1. Growth and development: Gibberellins: A Diterpene, plant hormone. Brassinosteroids: A
Triterpene, plant hormone. Abscisic acid: A Sesquiterpene, plant hormone. Sterols: A Triterpene derivative,
phospholipids. Carotenoids (red, orange, yellow): A Tetraterpenes. Dilichols: A Polyterpene alcohols,
carriers of sugars in cell wall and glycoprotein synthesis. Phytol: Terpene-derived side chain, chlorophyll.
2. As defensive compounds: Toxins and feeding deterrents to insects and mammals (Gershenzon and
Croteau, 1992). Examples-Pyrethroids, Essential oils, Resin of conifers, Phytoecdysones.
Pyrethroids (Monoterpene esters found in the leaves and flower of different plants are popular ingredient
in commercial insecticides. Ex. Pyrethrum (from chrysanthemums) can be used as “natural” insecticides in
agriculture). Essential oils (Mixture of volatile monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes caused characteristic
odour to plants foliage and has insect repellent property. Example- Peppermint (Menthol), Lemon
(Limonene), Citrus fruits (Limonoids), Basil, Pyrethrum, Azardirachtin, Sage). Resins of conifers (These
are monoterpenes, found in needle, twigs and trunk of plants, toxic to bark beetles (Trapp and Croteau,
2001)).
Phytoecdysones (These are plant steroids (terpene) first isolated from fern (Polypodium vulgare) that have
the same basic structure as insect molting hormones and thus interfere with molting. These compounds
sometimes cause death of the insect herbivore). Note: Recently Phytoecdysones found to have a defensive
function against plant-parasitic nematode (Soriano et al., 2004).
Conclusion
The study of plant secondary metabolites has many practical applications. By virtue of their biological
activities against herbivorous animals and microbes, many of these substances are employed commercially
as insecticides, fungicides, and pharmaceuticals, while others find uses as fragrances, flavorings, medicinal
drugs, and industrial materials. The breeding of increased levels of secondary metabolites into crop plants
has made it possible to reduce the need for certain costly and potentially harmful pesticides. In some cases,
however, it has been necessary to reduce the levels of naturally occurring secondary metabolites to
minimize toxicity to humans and domestic animals.
References
1. Aerts, R. J., and Mordue, A. J. (1997). Feeding deterrence and toxocity of neem triterpenoids. J. Chem. Ecol. 23: 2117–2132.
2. Lichtenthaler, H. K. (1999). The 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphatepathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis in plants. Annu. Rev.
PlantPhysiol. Plant Mol. Biol.50:47–65.
3. Soriano, I. R., Riley, I. T., Potter, M.J., and Bowers, W. S. (2004). Phytoecdysteroids: A novel difense against plant-parasitic
nematodes. J. Chem. Ecol. 101885-1889.
4. Trapp, S., and Croteau, R. (2001). Defensive resin biosynthesis inconifers. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 52: 689–
724.
5. Veitch, G. E.., Boyer, A., and Leys, S. V. (2008). The Azardirachtin story. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 47:9402-9429.
Introduction
Xeriscaping is the process of landscaping or gardening that reduces or eliminates the need for supplemental
water from irrigation. It is promoted in regions that do not have accessible, plentiful, or reliable supplies
of fresh water and is gaining acceptance in other regions as access to irrigation water is becoming limited.
Xeriscaping may be an alternative to various types of traditional gardening. In some areas, terms as water-
conserving landscapes, drought-tolerant landscaping, and smart scaping are used instead. Plants whose
natural requirements are appropriate to the local climate are emphasized and care is taken to avoid losing
water to evaporation and run-off. The specific plants used in xeriscaping depend upon the climate.
Xeriscaping is different from natural landscaping, because the emphasis in xeriscaping is on selection of
plants for water conservation, not necessarily selecting native plants.
Principles
1. Plan and design: Create a diagram, drawn to scale, that shows the major elements of the landscape,
including house, driveway, sidewalk, deck or patio, existing trees and other elements. Once a base plan of
an existing site has been determined, the creation of a conceptual plan that shows the areas for turf,
perennial beds, views, screens, slopes, etc. is undertaken. Once finished, the development of a planting plan
that reinforces the areas in the appropriate scale is done.
2. Soil amendment: Most plants will benefit from the use of compost, which will help the soil retain water.
Some desert plants prefer gravel soils instead of well-amended soils. Plants should either fit the soil or soil
should be amended to fit the plants.
3. Efficient irrigation: Xeriscape can be irrigated efficiently by hand or with an automatic sprinkler
system. Zone turf areas separately from other plants and use the irrigation method that waters the plants
in each area most efficiently. For grass, use gear-driven rotors or rotary spray nozzles that have larger
droplets and low angles to avoid wind drift. Spray, drip line or bubbler emitters are most efficient for
watering trees, shrubs, flowers and groundcovers.
If watering by hand, avoid oscillating sprinklers and other sprinklers that throw water high in the air or
release a fine mist. The most efficient sprinklers release big drops close to the ground. Water deeply and
infrequently to develop deep roots. To reduce water lost to evaporation, never water during the day. With
the use of automatic sprinkling systems, adjust the controller monthly to accommodate weather conditions.
Also, install a rain sensor to shut off the device when it rains.
4. Appropriate plant and zone selection: Different areas in a yard receive different amounts of light,
wind and moisture. To minimize water waste, group together plants with similar light and water
requirements and place them in an area that matches these requirements. Put moderate-water-use plants
in low-lying drainage areas, near downspouts, or in the shade of other plants. Turf typically requires the
most water and shrub/perennial beds will require approximately half the amount of water. Dry, sunny
areas support low-water-use plants that grow well in the specific climate. Planting a variety of plants with
different heights, color and textures creates interest and beauty.
5. Mulch: Mulch keeps plant roots cool, prevents soil from crusting, minimizes evaporation and reduces
weed growth. Organic mulches, such as bark chips, pole peelings or wood grindings, should be applied 2 to
4 inches deep. Fiber mulches create a web that is more resistant to wind and rain washout. Inorganic
mulches, such as rocks and gravel, should be applied 2 to 3 inches deep. Surrounding plants with rock
makes the area hotter; limit this practice.
Advantages
1. Lowered consumption of water: Xeriscape landscapes can reduce water use 60% or more compared to
regular lawn landscapes.
2. Makes more water available for other domestic and community uses and the environment.
3. Reduce Maintenance: Aside from occasional weeding and mulching Xeriscaping requires far less time
and effort to maintain.
4. Xeriscape plants in appropriate planting design, and soil grading and mulching, takes full advantage of
rainfall retention.
5. Less cost to maintain: Xeriscaping requires less fertilizers and equipment, particularly due to the
reduced lawn areas.
6. Reduced waste and pollution: Lawn clippings can contribute to organic waste in landfills and the use of
heavy fertilizers contributes to urban runoff pollution.
7. Reduce fertilizer use (phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium) that help grow harmful algae.
Disadvantages
Xeriscapes can be expensive to install. Though the cost will differ greatly depending on the types of rock
you want to use, and their availability in your location, in general the cost of installing a xeriscape is
significantly higher than a traditional lawn. Additionally, if you want to set up irrigation, you should do
so beforehand as installing it after your xeriscape can be a hassle. These factors make the up-front cost of
a xeriscape very high, and unaffordable for many people.
Conclusion
Xeriscaping is not a planting of cactus and yuccas in gravel beds. It is a technique of developing a landscape
that conserves water by using plants that have drought tolerance as one of their characteristics. Many of
these plants can also be grown under normal rainfall amounts and some can even tolerate wet conditions.
A well-planned xeriscape not only uses less water, it is attractive, colourful, and utilizes a variety of
landscape forms and textures. Many of our native plants fit well within a xeriscape setting.
References
1. C. Wilson; J.R. Feuch. "Xeriscaping: Creative Landscaping". Colorado State University Extension. Colorado State University.
Retrieved 19 March 2018.
2. "The Enchanted Xeriscape: A Guide to Water-wise Landscaping in New Mexico" (PDF). New Mexico Office of the State
Engineer. State of New Mexico. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
Abstract
Site specific recombination technology used in molecular biology to get a desirable genome of our interest.
One of the applications is that, to produce the marker free transgenic plants. There are many transgenic
events had evolved nevertheless limited number of transgenic crops are under commercial cultivation since
it has regulatory concerns and risk in public health and environment. Different strategies are available to
produce a normal plant with transgene alone. Here, site specific recombination system would be discussed.
Introduction
Site specific recombination is one of the strategies to obtain marker free transgenic plants by eliminating
marker from nuclear and chloroplast genome after selection. This system based on site specific
recombinases and their recognition sites in target region of the genome. It was first reported about twenty
years ago by Russell et al. (1992). So far, microbial site-specific recombinases system is widely adopted in
transgenic plants. Recombinases have the ability to cleave the DNA at specific sites which was placed in
between the direct repeat-oriented recognition sites of the recombinase enzyme. Selectable marker genes
(SMGs) such as antibiotic or herbicide resistance genes are used in every plant transformation to efficiently
distinguish transformed from non-transformed cells. It is of no use after transformation event is completed.
Hence, to produce the marker free transgenic plants, Selectable Marker Gene (SMG) and gene which code
for recombinase are placed between recombination or recognition site of the enzymes which leads to excision
of SMG and recombinase gene. This type of hit - run cassette system has been introduced into transgenic
plants during transformation of foreign gene.
Conclusion
References
1. Russell, SH., Hoopes, JL and Odell, JT. (1992). Directed excision of a transgene from the plant genome. Mol. Gen. Genet. 234:
49-5.
2. Zuo, J., Niu, QW., Moller, SG. and Chua, NH. (2001). Chemical regulated, site-specific DNA excision in transgenic plants. Nat.
Biotechnol. 19: 157–161.
3. Huang, LC., Wood, EA. and Cox, M.M. (1991). A bacterial model system for chromosomal targeting. Nucleic Acids Res. 19:
443-448.
4. Matsuzaki, H., Nakajima, R., Nishiyama, J. and Araki, H. (1990). Chromosome engineering in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by
using site-specific recombination system of a yeast plasmid. J. Bacteriol. 172: 610-618.
5. Wang, Y., Yau, YY., Perkins-Balding, D. and Thomson, JG. (2011) Recombinase technology: applications and possibilities.
Plant Cell Rep. 30: 267-285.
6. Khattri, A., Nandy, S. and Srivastava, V. (2011). Heat-inducible Cre-lox system for marker excision in transgenic rice. J. Biosci.
36: 37-42.
7. Kittiwongwattana, C., Lutz, KA., Clark, M. and Maliga, P. (2007) Plastid marker gene excision by the phiC31 phage site-
specific recombinase. Plant Mol. Biol. 64: 137-143.
Introduction
Currently, insect abundance and diversity are in decline worldwide. Various factors are contributing to this
decline. Besides biological factors, habitat destruction, climate change and one of the main drivers is
anthropogenic pollution. Pollution is essentially the wrong substance, in the wrong place, in the wrong
concentration, at the wrong time or pollution is the process of making land, water, air or other parts of the
environment dirty and not safe or suitable to use. This can be done through the introduction of a
contaminant into a natural environment, but the contaminant doesn't need to be tangible. Things as simple
as light, sound and temperature can be considered pollutants when introduced artificially into an
environment.
Toxic pollution affects more than 200 million people worldwide, according to Pure Earth, (a non-profit
environmental organization). In some of the world's worst polluted places, babies are born with birth defects,
children have lost 30 to 40 IQ points, and life expectancy may be as low as 45 years because of cancers and
other diseases. However, insects are also used to assess the effects of pollution as surrogates or
representatives of the larger assemblages of organisms in communities and ecosystems. Thus,
understanding how environmental factors such as pollution may affect insects is important.
Types of Pollution
As stated before, there are different types of pollution, which are either caused by natural events (like forest
fires) or by man-made activities (like cars, factories, nuclear wastes, etc.).
These are further classified into the following types of pollution:
1. Air pollution.
2. Water pollution.
3. Soil pollution.
4. Noise pollution.
Besides these 4 types of pollution, other types exist such as light pollution, thermal pollution and
radioactive pollution. The latter is much rarer than other types, but it is the deadliest.
Conclusion
The diversity of insects in agro ecosystems indirectly provide natural protection against pests, effective
pollination of plants or seed spread, preservation of soil structure and fertility. As we are losing species at
a rate 1,000 times greater than at any other time in recorded human history and one million species face
extinction.
There is a significant progress in providing legal protection to environment but there are several loopholes.
Though under Indian legislative environmentalism there are many enactments such as Water Act, Air Act,
References
1. Fliickiger, W. and Oertli, J.J. 1978. Observations of an aphid infestation on hawthorn in the vicinity of a motor way.
Naturwissenschaften, 65: 654-55.
2. Grubisic, M., Grunsven, V.R.H.A., Kyba, C.C.M., Manfrin, A. and Holker F., 2018: Insect declines and agroecosystems: does
light pollution matter? Annals of Applied Biology, 173(2): 180-189.
3. Resh, V.H., David, M. and Rosenberg. 2008. Water Pollution and Insects, 4158-4168https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-
6_2625
4. Schmidt, R., Morrison, A. and Kunc, H.P. 2014. Sexy voices no choices: Male song in noise fails to attract females. Animal
Behavior, 94: 135-141.
Introduction
As the world is dealing with the pandemic COVID-19, India is facing one more destructive factor that is
“the desert locust swarm, a migratory insect from Eastern Africa and Southeast Asia. These migratory
pests are millimeters in size but millions in number.
The locust swarm entered India on May 13, 2020, through the western state of Rajasthan. In India, the
locust attack was initially reported in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh which later spread throughout
the larger parts of Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh and it is predicted that the spread will
increase in the coming months.
According to the country’s Locust Warning Organization (LWO), India is facing the worst locust infestation
since 1993 and the swarms are being favored due to the present weather conditions. In India, the farmers
noticed the crop damage when the second month coronavirus lockdown was going on. This led to the double
crises threat to the India’s food security.
The locust swarms are destroying the crops in a very fast rate due to their highly voracious nature, this is
increasing fears over food security and also causing economic threat in the country already battling with
the Coronavirus pandemic.
Fig: A desert locust on a shea tree- a source of food and income for farmers
Conclusion
India is already fighting with the pandemic COVID-19 and now this locust swarm attack is causing double
economic loss to the country. It is estimated that if the locust swarm spread continue in the coming months
then it will probably cause more and more loss to the whole country especially the farming sector. Hence,
it is expected from the state government and agriculture officials that they might take some serious and
effective measures to control the spread of swarms. Proper awareness should reach to the small scale as
well as large scale farmers so that they can prepare themselves for the upcoming threat. It is the high to
use all the modern facilities with proper management and utilize agricultural knowledge, then only we can
save our crops as well as our economy.
References
1. Sharma, J. P. (2020), Locust Attack: This was just residue, worst is yet to come, say govt authorities. Outlook India Magazine.
2. Zargar, Arshad R. (May, 2020), Coronavirus- battered India is now battling a plague of locusts. CBS News.
3. Damodaran, H. (June, 2020), Explained: Why India has a desert locust problem this year; what’s the way forward. The Indian
Express.
4. M. Nobin R., Ranganathan P., (June, 2020), Locust swarms in India: millimeters in size but millions in numbers. Mongabay-
India.
5. Bhaskar Pranav, (June, 2020). Locusts are a plague of biblical scope in 2020. Goats and soda (npr newsletter).
Introduction
Carbon dioxide occurs naturally in the atmosphere and it is an essential ingredient in photosynthesis.
Levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide have increased since the industrial revolution. The global average
atmospheric carbon dioxide in 2018 was 407.4 ppm, with a range of uncertainty of ± 0.1 ppm. Carbon
dioxide accounts for less than 1 per cent of the atmospheric gases. The global growth rate of atmospheric
carbon dioxide was roughly 0.6 ± 0.1 ppm per year during 1960’s. However, over the past decade, the growth
rate has been closer to 2.3 ppm per year. The annual rate of increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide over
the past 60 years is about 100 times faster than previous natural increases.
Conclusion
Climate change is an important phenomenon that affects agricultural production. By anticipating the
future, we can prepare ourselves for problems caused by climate change, especially those related to
agricultural activities. The effects of an enriched atmospheric CO2 on crop productivity, in large measure,
are positive, leaving little doubt as the benefits for global food security and in general, the effects of elevated
CO2 concentration on plant diseases can be positive or negative, but majority of the cases disease severity
increases.
References
1. Agrios G. N., (2005). Plant Pathology. London: Elsevier., pp. 249-263.
2. Debela C. and Tola M., (2018). Effect of elevated CO2 and temperature on crop-disease interactions under rapid climate change.
International Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources. 13(1): 1-7.
3. Garrett K. A., Nita M, De Wolf E. D., Esker P. D. and Gomez-Montano L., (2015). Plant pathogens as indicators of climate
change. Climate Change., pp. 325-338.
4. Ghini R., Hamada E. and Bettiol W., (2008). Climate change and plant diseases. Scientia Agricola. 65: 98-107
5. Poorter H., (1993). Interspecific variation in the growth response to an elevated and ambient CO2 concentration. Vegetation.
5(2): 77-97.
6. Sylvan H. W., (1995). Food, Climate and Carbon Dioxide, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla.
Introduction
In present scenario, Indian agriculture is facing big challenge i.e., feeding nutrition for booming population
with limited land resources. Furthermore, food demand for 2050 is nearly 480 million tonnes where we are
far back in production. To meet this demand, increase in productivity is the need of this hour. Another big
challenge in Indian agriculture is land degradation, inappropriate application of fertilizers, low
productivity and low input use efficiency. In this context, Precision agriculture is an integration of crop
management system which enhances resource use efficiency and attempt to match the kind and amount of
inputs applied with the actual requirement of crop for small areas or grids in a farm field. Conventional
agriculture, level of management is taken whole field into single unit whereas in precision agriculture the
management zones are isolated in different grid depending upon the availability of resources which
distinguishes conventional agriculture from precision agriculture. Precision agriculture has two main
components viz., Remote sensing (Liaghat and Balasundram, 2010) and GIS. Remote sensing is the art and
science of gathering information about the objects or area of the real world at a distance without coming
into direct physical contact with the object under study. Remote sensing is a tool to monitor the earth’s
resources using space technologies in addition to ground observations for higher precision and accuracy.
The principle behind remote sensing is the use of electromagnetic spectrum (visible, infrared and
microwaves) for assessing the earth’s features. GIS is a tool that creates visual representations of data and
performs spatial analyses in order to make informed decision. GIS is a powerful set of tools for collecting,
storing and retrieving the data at will, transforming and displaying the spatial data for particular purpose.
Future Prospects
Future strategy for the adoption of PA in India should consider the problems of land fragmentation, lack
of highly sophisticated technical centres for PA, specific software for PA and poor economic condition of
general Indian farmers. Strategically proportionating back up from the public and private sectors is
essential to promote its rapid adoption. PA has created scope of transforming the traditional agriculture,
through proper resource utilization and management, to an eco-friendly sustainable agriculture.
Technological advancements and government initiatives to foster and promote precision agriculture
through aids, reliefs, tax holidays and other incentives to farmers will greatly attract investment. This
move will thus help deliberate efforts to protect the growth and sustainability of future generations yet to
come.
Conclusion
Precision farming provides a new solution using a systems approach for today's agricultural issues such as
the need to balance productivity with environmental concerns. It is based on advanced information
technology. It includes describing and modelling variation in soils and plant species, and integrating
agricultural practices to meet site-specific requirements. It aims at increased economic returns, as well as
at reducing the energy input and the environmental impact of agriculture.
References
1. Anonymous 2009. The need for precision farming in India.
2. Anonymous. Application of Remote sensing and GIS in precision agriculture.
3. Anonymous. Precision agriculture concept scope and Indian agriculture.
4. Kyle Dornich, 2017. Use of GIS in Agriculture.
5. Liaghat, S. and Balasundram, S. K. 2010. A Review: The Role of Remote Sensing in Precision Agriculture. American Journal
of Agricultural and Biological Sciences, 5 (1): 50-55.
6. Shanmugapriya, P., S. Rathika, T. Ramesh and Janaki, P. 2019. Applications of Remote Sensing in Agriculture - A Review.
International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Science 8 (1): 2270-2283.
7. Yadav, V. K., Yadav, M. R., Kumar, R., Yadav, B. and Verma, A. K. 2017. Potentials and Prospects of Precision Farming in
Indian Agriculture. Marumegh 2 (2): 47-53.
Introduction
Herbicides are applied either directly to the soil and/or to the foliage of plants. Therefore, herbicides enter
in plants via their underground and/or aerial vegetative parts. However, effectiveness of herbicides is
dependent upon certain factor like plant species involved, herbicides characteristics etc. Certain herbicides
are effective only when they are absorbed by aerial plant parts while others when absorbed by underground
plant parts.
Soil-Applied Herbicides
Soil applied herbicides are absorbed by seeds, rhizomes, bulbs and tubes. The primary entry site for soil
applied herbicides are roots and developing shoots while foliage in case of aerial plant parts.
Roots: For better effectiveness, some herbicides, must apply directly to the soil which moved in the upper
soil layer (1-4 inches) by cultivating tools or leaching. The roots of broad-leaved plants are major site for
entry for soil applied herbicide but not for all plant species.
Herbicides may penetrate through the walls of epidermal and cortical cell of roots by mass flow and the
absorption is complete when they have penetrated the plasmalemma of these cells and released in the
cytoplasm. If herbicides are failed to penetrate the plasmalemma they will be obstructed for further
movement into the plant via the apoplast pathway by a waxy barrier present in the cell walls of the
endodermis.
Herbicides which are readily absorbed by the roots of broad-leaved plants are sulfonylureas, imidazolines,
dinitroanilines and urea’s. These herbicides are translocated from the roots to the leaves of plant.
In soil applied herbicide roots are the principal site of absorption; shoot and hypocotyl are of less importance
but absorption can occur in shoot and hypocotyl when these plant parts push their way towards soil surface,
resulting in death of the seedlings.
For example- Dimethyl tetrachloroterephthalate (DCPA) is not translocated when absorbed by hypocotyl
in broad leaved seedlings following root absorption but when absorbed by hypocotyls, translocation is
primarily upward.
Grass Shoots
The coleoptilar node and crown node of emerging grass seedlings are the important site if herbicide
absorption, whereas the coleoptile, buds and leaves encased by the coleoptilar sheath epicotyl are of lesser
importance. In case of shoot absorbed herbicide, the grass species are of much importance than the root
absorbed herbicide. Example of shoot absorbed herbicides are: - DCPA, trifluralin, EPTC
In soil applied herbicides the interception takes place by the following process:
1. Mass flow: The mass flow of dissolved herbicides to plant roots results from a bulk flow of soil solution
to plant roots.
2. Interception: It refers to the relation between soil applied herbicide and the plant parts (Growing root
tip).
3. Diffusion: It is a process in which herbicide move from higher concentration region to lower
concentration.
4. From non-volatile herbicides the mass flow is the most important than interception & diffusion.
5. For volatile herbicides diffusion is more important especially in dry soil.
Foliar-Applied Herbicides
These are used to control weeds which have emerged from the soil. Sites of entry into plants are:
1. Leaves.
Leaves
When the foliar application of herbicides is performed, the upper surface of leaf is the area where the
herbicide spray gets deposited. Due to thinner cuticle and greater density of stomates, the lower leaf surface
is usually penetrated more rapidly by herbicides.
For entry of herbicides in leaves it must penetrate:
1. The waxy cuticle covering the epidermal cells.
2. The cell wall of epidermal cells.
3. The plasmalemma of leaf cells.
The penetration of foliar herbicide in cuticle and cell walls of leaves by diffusion.
Stems
Many plants which are resistant to foliar applications of herbicides are susceptible to stem applications. A
suitable oil, diesel is often used as the carrier for the herbicide when treating woody plants.
Buds
For contact type herbicides buds of the plants are of primary importance and minimal for systematic
herbicide. When contact type herbicides are applied, the bud of the plant must be in direct contact by the
herbicide otherwise the bud may continue to grow, flower and produce seeds if the stems of the plant survive
the herbicide.
Translocation
The movement in plants of herbicide ions and molecules from their sites of entry to the other locations
within plants is called translocation.
The translocation of herbicide ions and molecules in plant may be described as:
1. Intercellular Translocation: It is the movement of ions and molecules within an individual cell.
2. Extracellular Transport: It is the movement of ions and molecules in the cuticle and the apoplast.
3. Intercellular Translocation: It is the movement of ions and molecules from cells to cells via symplast.
This involves short distance transport.
References
1. Nishimoto, R.K., and G.F.Warren. 1971. Site of uptake, movement, and activity of DCPA. Weed Sci. 19:152-155.
2. Crafts, A.S and C.E. Crisp. 1971. Phloem Transport in Plants. W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, CA, USA. 481 pp.
3. DiTomaso, J.M. 1999. Barriers to foliar penetration and uptake of herbicides. Proc. Calif. Weed Sci. Soc. 51:150-155.
4. Wanamarta, G., and D. Penner. 1989. Foliar absorption of herbicides. Rev. Weed Sci. 4:215-231.
5. DiTomaso, J.M. 1999. Barriers to foliar penetration and uptake of herbicides. Proc. Calif. Weed Sci. Soc. 51:150-155.
In India, to regulate seed quality, Seeds Act, 1966 was the first milestone that provided a legal status to
seed in view of providing good quality seed to farmers timely. After that, many provisions were made by
Indian Government time to time to strengthen the Indian Seed Programme like Seeds control Order, 1983,
New Seed Policy, 1988, Plants, Fruits and Seeds Order (Regulation of Import into India order), 1989,
PPVFR Act, 2001 and National Seed Policy, 2002. All of them provided sufficient support to Indian
agriculture in maximizing production with considering the farmer’s, breeder’s and researcher’s ethic values.
It was felt that with time there is need to revise the provisions of these policies as they are not fitted in
present context to boost up the agriculture sector in India.
The quality of seed in India is regulated under the Seeds Act, 1966 by seed certification system, while
licensing for the sale of this seed is regulated by the Seeds Control Order, 1983 under the Essential
Commodities Act, 1955. The major drawback in existing system is that all the provisions for seed quality
control are applicable only on notified kind or varieties. By definition, notified kind or varieties are those
varieties which are notified under section 5 of Seeds Act, 1966. Notification of varieties is also non
mandatory in India resulted in voluntary seed certification system. Although labelling is compulsory but
not enough for legal quality control of all varieties seed which directly affects the agriculture production.
Seeds Act, 1966 was introduced at green revolution era to overcome the food scarcity problem in country
by providing good quality seed of high yielding varieties to the farmers and proven as very successful step
taken by the Government. At that time, majorly the high yielding varieties development programmes were
run by the public sector. Involvement of private sector was very less or negligible. But presently, private
sector is participating about 70% involving major contribution of vegetables, fruits, ornamentals and cotton.
Public sector contribution is limited to only about 30 % involving the food crops in majority. So, in view of
present scenario, on recommendations of Seed Policy Review Group (1998), New Seed Bill, 2004 was
prepared to replace the existing Seeds Act, 1966 for removing some deficiencies with provisions of
compulsory registration of varieties (previously voluntary), maintenance of National Register of Seeds,
more easier regulation of imports and exports of seeds, registration of transgenic varieties and improving
the market for private seed sector.
Although, New Seed Bill, 2004 was constructed to overcome the drawbacks of Seeds Act, 1966, but it could
not pass in parliament till present day due to some opposes by certain groups. According to them, this Bill
is friendlier to industrial structure than farmers in country. In considering the view, New Seed Bill, 2004
is being revised time to time i.e. 2006, 2010 and more recently New Seed Bill draft has been proposed in
2019. New Seed Bill draft, 2019 was formulated to remove drawbacks of New Seed Bill, 2004, is being
different from existing Seeds Act, 1966 in many important aspects as it ends the concept of notified varieties,
comply with compulsory registration of any kind or variety of seeds, taking the seeds of private hybrids
(officially released or truthfully labelled) under legally regulated purview and also redundant the
provisions of Seeds Control Order, 1983.
Seeds Control Order, 1983 was introduced to regulate the trading of seeds for improving genetic stamina
of seed. Seed (seed for sowing or planting materials of food crops, fruits, vegetables, cattle fodder and jute)
was declared as essential commodity by the ministry of civil supplies under the section 2(a) of Essential
Commodity Act, 1955 followed by issuing of Seeds Control Order dated on 30th December, 1983 the
Ministry of Agriculture, Dept. of Agriculture and Co-operation. The Essential Commodities Act, 1955 was
enacted for ensuring the easy and timely availability of essential commodities to the consumers and
References
1. Seeds Control Order, 1983. Seed Net India Portal. https://seednet.gov.in/PDFFILES/Seed_Control_Order_1983.pdf
2. Draft Seeds Bill, 2019. PRS India. https://www.prsindia.org/billtrack/draft-seeds-bill-2019.
Introduction
Milking Cows and buffaloes have been the secondary source of income for farmers living in rural India.
Farmer’s daily milk requirements are fulfilled through their animals. However, fertility remains the prime
concern in cows and buffaloes for farmers. Despite several advancements in the field of reproductive
physiology of farm animals, low conception rate and high embryo death rate remains a major problem.
Reproductive biotechnology helps us to improve our livestock production through various ways like
Artificial insemination, Estrous synchronization, multiple ovulation and embryo transfer, Ovum pickup,
superovulation, In vitro fertilization, Somatic cell nuclear transfer, Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection,
Semen sexing and Embryo transfer technique.
Estrous Synchronization
Detection of heat is not possible every time in buffaloes due to conditions called ‘silent heat’. Failure of heat
detection is a major factor responsible for economic loss to farmers because of the extended calving interval.
Synchronization of estrous helps in estrous signs detection in bovines. Estrous synchronization helps in the
arrival of female calves to heat within a short time frame (36 to 96 hours). This is achieved through the use
of hormones i.e. gonadotropin-releasing hormone and PGF2α.
Cloning
Cloning is a more advanced form of assisted reproductive techniques. It involves the production of
genetically identical animals from a single cell taken from the parent animal. A cloned animal is a similar
copy of its parent as it has the same DNA content. Cloning involves the removal of DNA from an egg cell
Semen Sexing
Semen having X or Y bearing sperm to produce progenies of a desired sex either female or male (with about
80-90% accuracy) is known as sexed semen. Sperm are sorted based on the size difference of the DNA
content in the X- and Y- bearing sperm. The X-chromosome (female) has 3.8% more DNA than the Y-
chromosome (male) in cattle. This difference in DNA content is the basis to sort the X- from the Y- bearing
sperm. Among several methods for semen sexing, flow cytometry-based sorting has is the most efficient.
Only sperm bearing the Y chromosomes are selected to fertilize the female and lead to the production of
female calves only. Production of female calves helps in the conservation of the resources that would have
been spent on undesired males and save money. This involves short distance transport.
Conclusion
Assisted reproductive techniques (ARTS), is much needed in the developing countries to meet their daily
production demands. Reproductive technique helps in shortening the calving interval and thereby directly
providing the benefit to farmers. These techniques help in the genetic improvement of the animals as it
involves the insemination of female calves with semen of proven quality bulls only. The ART allows the
good quality semen to be stored and transported to long-distance and which later can be used for Artificial
insemination. Artificial insemination has improved the reproductive efficiency of the animals
tremendously. Artificial Insemination (AI) has an effective contribution to the genetic improvement of dairy
animals. Estrous synchronization helps in increasing the number of chances an animal to be artificially
inseminated at the right time in a herd. Invitro fertilization helps in the production of genetically superior
animals as well as producing the embryo to study purpose. The study of embryo helps in understanding
the developmental associated events during the pregnancy. Animal cloning has opened ways for the
development of identical animals to their parents. Helps in conservation of germplasm of indigenous
livestock breeds. It made possible some embryo manipulation techniques for the development of transgenic
animals of selected traits. Semen sexing is a new project in India. It ensures the production of selected sex
animals, which reduces the burden of growing the unwanted male calves. The successful reproductive
technology needs to be made available to the farmer, and awareness programs must be carried out in the
country. These emerging techniques have the potential to rapidly improve our livestock breed quality.
References
1. Faizah, H. M. S., et al. "Multiple ovulation embryo transfer (MOET) in dairy cattle in Gatton." Malaysian journal of veterinary
research 9.2 (2018): 109-116.
2. https://www.nddb.coop/services/animalbreeding/animalreproduction/assisted
3. Patel, G. K., et al. "Artificial insemination: A tool to improve livestock productivity." J. of Pharmacognosy and Phytochem 1
(2017): 307-13.
4. Seidel Jr, G. E. "Overview of sexing sperm." Theriogenology 68.3 (2007): 443-446.
5. Verma, O. P., et al. "Assisted Reproductive Techniques in Farm Animal-From Artificial Insemination to Nanobiotechnology."
Veterinary World 5.5 (2012).
Introduction
Plants, as sessile organisms, have evolved elaborate mechanisms for sensing and responding to suboptimal
environmental conditions. Abiotic stresses caused by these conditions trigger a wide array of local and long-
distance signals which must be coordinated and integrated into whole plant processes. Several
phytohormones function as key regulators of stress tolerance, connecting local stimuli to systemic responses.
Cytokinin is a multifaceted plant hormone well known for its role in numerous aspects of growth and
development. Cytokinin was first identified as a potent inducer of cell division in tissue culture, although
abundant evidence also indicates that cytokinin functions in stress responses as well. Current knowledge
of the physiological relationships between cytokinin and abiotic stresses which is more or less based on
measurements of cytokinin levels under stress conditions and the effects of cytokinin treatment on stress
tolerance has been described. A pattern of transcriptional regulation of stress related genes by cytokinin in
different plant species have also been identified.
Cytokinin is generally considered to play a negative role in plant adaptation to stress. Evidence exists for
cytokinin having both positive and negative effects on stress tolerance. Numerous studies conducted in a
wide range of plant taxa, have found that cytokinin concentration decreases in response to extended stress.
By contrast, other investigations have reported both short term and sustained increase in cytokinin levels
particularly in response to severe stress.
International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2018: Crosstalk between abiotic stress signals
and cytokinin
Conclusion
It can be concluded that cytokinin metabolism and signalling play important roles in abiotic stress tolerance
and the manipulation of these processes in crops could be beneficial for sustainable agriculture. However,
recent studies have mainly focused on global transcriptomic, proteomic and metabolomic changes in various
plant species with modulated cytokinin levels. Thus, further detailed analysis is required to confirm the
importance of identified candidate genes or proteins and validate their roles in different stress tolerance.
To fully understand the interactions of phytohormone signalling with abiotic stress responses, it will be
crucial to integrate protein-protein interactions and the associated signalling hubs and networks.
References
1. Pavlů J., Novák J., Koukalová V., Luklová M., Brzobohatý B. and Černý M., (2018). Cytokinin at the crossroads of abiotic
stress signalling pathways. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 19(8):2450.
2. Thu N.B.A., Hoang X.L.T., Truc M.T., Sulieman S., Thao N.P. and Tran L.S.P., (2017). Cytokinin signaling in plant response
to abiotic stresses. Mechanism of plant hormone signaling under stress. 1:71-100.
3. Zwack P.J. and Rashotte A.M., (2015). Interactions between cytokinin signalling and abiotic stress responses. Journal of
experimental botany. 66(16):4863-4871.
Pesticides are the chemicals that are used to control or prevent the pests like insects, weeds, fungus,
pathogens, vectors etc. that may cause serious injury to our utmost livelihood material, crops. Pesticides
were synthetically start producing since the era of green revolution to enhance the productivity of crops by
effectively controlling the major pests. But the farmers became so attached to the use of this fast, effective
pest killers that excessive use generated huge environmental and ecological risk. Therefore, people started
believing in ecological revitalization and started using naturally originated pesticides called green
pesticides.
References
1. Isman MB, Machial CM. 2006. Pesticides based on plant essential oils: from traditional practice to commercialization.
Advances in phytomedicine. 3:29-44.
2. Koul O, Walia S, Dhaliwal GS. 2008. Essential oils as green pesticides: potential and constraints. Biopesticides International.
4(1):63- 84.
3. Parkash, A., Rao, J., Nandagopal, V. 2008. Future of botanical pesticides in rice, wheat, pulses and vegetable pest
manasgement. Journal of Biopesticides. 1: 154-169.
Introduction
In the changing climate, plants are being exposed to various biological or abiotic stresses, which can affect
their growth, yield and geographic distribution. Plants have developed various adaptive strategies to
survive in adverse climatic conditions, among which the accumulation of polyamines plays a protective role
in plant stress Plants have developed various adaptive strategies to survive in adverse climatic conditions,
of which the accumulation of polyamines plays a protective role in plant stress tolerance.
Polyamines are low molecular weight metabolites (aliphatic) that are synthesized in the cell, including
putrescine, spermidine, and spermine. Polymines are widely implicated in plant growth and development
of plants through cell division and differentiation, root elongation, floral development, fruit ripening, leaf
rigidity, programmed cell death, DNA synthesis gene transcription and protein translation (Tavladoraki et
al. 2012). Incorporating these functions, polyamine plays an important role in most environmental stresses,
such as salt, drought, low and high temperatures, heavy metals (Cu, Cr, Fe, and Ni), acids, ROS scavenging,
and oxidative stresses (Tavladoraki et al. 2012).
On the other hand, the exogenous use of polyamine on plants and transgenic plants engineered for the
overprocessed polyamine metabolic pathway exhibits a protective role in abiotic stress conditions, whereas
low levels of in vivo polyamine result in decreased tolerance (Alet et al. 2012; Minocha et al., 2014).
Therefore, polyamines are ideal for targeting genetic engineering to improve abiotic stress tolerance in
plants.
Conclusion
Polyamines are considered to play an important role in protecting plant cells against stress-damage.
Polyamines involved in plant abiotic stress responses was studied by many researchers and concluded the
physiological and genetic manipulation of polyamine biosynthetic and metabolic pathways related genes is
an effective approach for the development of stress-tolerant plants. Further work should really need the
omic profiling of polyamines, and interactions between polyamines and other stress responsive molecules
such as ABA and NO. Omics studies will bring us new insights to manifest polyamines related signalling
pathways and downstream targets.
References
1. Tavladoraki P, Cona A, Federico R, Tempera G, Viceconte N, Saccoccio S, Battaglia V, Toninello A, Agostinelli E (2012).
Polyamine catabolism: target for antiproliferative therapies in animals and stress tolerance strategies in plants. Amino Acids
42:411–426.
2. Alet AI, Sánchez DH, Cuevas JC, Marina M, Carrasco P, Altabella T, Tiburcio AF, Ruiz OA (2012). New insights into the role
of spermine in Arabidopsis thaliana under long‐term salt stress. Plant Sci 182: 94–100.
3. Minocha, R., Majumdar, R., and Minocha, S. C. (2014). Polyamines and abiotic stress in plants: a complex relationship. Front.
Plant Sci. 5:175.
4. Moschou, P. N., Wu, J., Cona, A., Tavladoraki, P., Angelini, R., and Roubelakis-Angelakis, K. A. (2012). The polyamines and
their catabolic products are significant players in the turnover of nitrogenous molecules in plants. J. Exp. Bot. 63, 5003–5015.
5. Gupta, K., Dey, A., and Gupta, B. (2013). Plant polyamines in abiotic stress responses. Acta Physiol. Plant. 35, 2015–2036.
6. Zhang, Y., Wu, R., Qin, G., Chen, Z., Gu, H., Qu, L.J. (2011b). Overexpression of WOX1 leads to defects in meristem
development and polyamine homeostasis in Arabidopsis. J. Integr. Plant Biol. 53 (6), 493-506.
7. Sharma, S., Pareek, S., Sagar, N.A., Valero, D., Serrano, M. (2017). Modulatory effects of exogenously applied polyamines on
postharvest physiology, antioxidant system and shelf life of fruits: a review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 18 (8), 1789.
8. Hatmi, S., Gruau, C., Trotel-Aziz, P., Villaume, S., Rabenoelina, F., Baillieul, F., et al. (2015). Drought stress tolerance in
grapevine involves activation of polyamine oxidation contributing to improved immune response and low susceptibility to
Botrytis cinerea. J. Exp. Bot. 66, 775–787.
9. Wang, J., Sun, P. P., Chen, C. L., Wang, Y., Fu, X. Z., and Liu, J. H. (2011b). An arginine decarboxylase gene PtADC from
Poncirus trifoliata confers abiotic stress tolerance and promotes primary root growth in Arabidopsis. J. Exp. Bot. 62, 2899–
2914.
Summary
Plants nutrients are essential for the production of crops and healthy food for the world’s ever-increasing
population. Bio-fertilizer can be an important component of integrated nutrients management.
Microorganisms that are commonly used as bio-fertilizer components include; nitrogen fixers (N-fixer),
potassium and phosphorus solubilizers, growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPRs), endo and ecto
mycorrhizal fungi, cyanobacteria and other useful microscopic organisms. The use of bio-fertilizers leads to
improved nutrients and water uptake, plant growth and plant tolerance to abiotic and biotic factors. These
potential biological fertilizers would play a key role in productivity and sustainability of soil and also in
protecting the environment as eco-friendly and cost-effective inputs for the farmers.
Introduction
A bio-fertilizer is a substance which contains living microorganisms applied to the soil, seed or plant surface
colonizes the rhizosphere and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of nutrients to the
host plant.
History of Bio-Fertilizer
The commercial history of bio-fertilizer began with the launch of “Nitragin” by Nobbe and Hilther in 1895.
This was followed by the discovery of Azotobacter and then Blue-green algae and a host of other
microorganisms which are being used till date as bio-fertilizer.
Types of Bio-Fertilizers
Bio-fertilizers are classified into different types depending on the type or group of microorganisms they
contain. Table 1 shows the classification of bio-fertilizers on the bases of the different types of
microorganisms used. The different types of bio-fertilizers include:
Table 1: Different Microorganisms used in Bio-fertilizer Production:
Groups Examples
Nitrogen fixing bio-fertilizers
Free-living Azotobacter, Bejerinkia, Clostridium, Klebsiella, Anabaena, Nostoc
Symbiotic Rhizobium, Frankia, Anabaena, Azollae
Associative symbiotic Azospirillum
Phosphate solubilizing bio-fertilizer
Bacteria Bacillus megaterium var, Phosphaticum, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus circulans
Fungi Penicillum Spp. Aspergillus awamori
Phosphate mobilizing bio-fertilizers
Arbuscular Glomus Spp., Gigaspora Spp., Acaulospora Spp.
Mycorrhiza
Ectomycorrhiza Laccaria Spp., Boletus Spp. and Amanita Spp.
Ericoid Mycorrhiza Pezizella ericae
Orchid Mycorrhiza Rhizoctonia solani
Bio-fertilizers for micronutrients
Bacillus Spp Silicate and zinc solubilizers
Plant growth promoting Rhizobacteria
Pseudomonas Pseudomonas fluorescens
Importance of Bio-Fertilizers
The importance of biofertilizers are highlighted below: Secretion of plant growth hormones which help in
plant growth, Protection of the plant against attack by pathogens, Improvement soil fertility, No special
care is necessary while using bio-fertilizer, Reduction in the use of chemical fertilizers, Bio-fertilizers are
cost effective compared to synthetic fertilizer, Promotes growth of plants, Bio-fertilizers restore the soil’s
natural, nutrient cycle and build soil organic matter and Bio-fertilizer provides protection against drought.
Limitation of Bio-Fertilizer
1. Unavailability of suitable strain due to lack of availability of specific strain.
2. Unavailability of suitable carrier.
3. Lack of awareness among farmers.
4. Inadequate human resources and inexperienced staff.
5. Environmental constraints.
Conclusion
The application of bio-fertilizers containing beneficial microbes promote to a large extent, crop productivity.
These potential biological fertilizers would play a key role in productivity and sustainability of soil and
protect the environment as eco-friendly and cost-effective inputs for the farmers. Using the biological and
organic fertilizers, a low input system can help to achieve sustainability of farming. This technology will
help provide relief from environmental stresses. However, the ignorance regarding improved protocols of
bio-fertilizers application to the field is one of the few limiting factors to bio-fertilizers usage.
References
Itelima J U., Bang W J., Onyimba I A. and Egbere O J. (2018). A review: biofertilizer; a key player in enhancing soil fertility and
crop productivity. Journal of Microbiol Biotechnol Rep.2(1):22-28.
Introduction
Agriculture is one of the major sectors that provides food for human, indirectly or directly in addition to
feed, fibre, fire and fuels. The ever-increasing population results in increase of demand of all above
tremendously in spite of constant availability of natural resources.
This is one of the concerning factors to accept the modern technique, the nanotechnology in
particular. Nanotechnology has become boon and its wide application in the field of agriculture increasing
day by day. Nanoparticles of size 1-100 nm, have unique properties due to their size, distribution and
morphology, are critical components of any nanotechnology. Particularly, the silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)
have received tremendous research attention.
Almost 5000 years ago, Romans, Greeks, Egyptians and Indians used silver in several forms to preserve
the food products (Block, 2001). In ancient period usage of silver utensils for eating and drinking and
preservation of eatable and drinkable items perhaps due to the awareness of antimicrobial action.
AgNPs and Ag-based compounds are extremely cytotoxic to several microorganisms, displaying robust
biocidal effects on various species of bacteria, including Escherichia coli (E.coli), Staphylococcus and
Streptococcus mutans. AgNPs have been widely used for bacterial diseases, incorporated into dental
materials, treatment of severe skin burns and water purification (Jain et al., 2009).
UV-Visible Spectrophotometry
UV-Vis spectrophotometry is one of the most commonly used techniques for the characterization of
synthesised nanoparticles which is also used to monitor stability and synthesis of AgNPs. It involves
quantifying the amount of ultraviolet or visible radiation absorbed by a constituent in solution.
UV-Vis measures the ratio, or function of ratio, of the intensity of two beams of light in the UV-Visible
region. In AgNPs, the valence band and conduction band lie very near to each other in which free movement
of electrons. These electrons produce a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) band due to the combined
oscillation of electrons of AgNPs in resonance with the incident light wave.
The absorption spectra of AgNPs depend on the dielectric medium, morphology, shape, size, and chemical
surroundings of synthesised nanoparticles.
References
1. Block S.S. (2001). Disinfection, sterilization and preservation.Lippincot Williams and Wilkins. 23(2), 109-109.
doi:10.1017/S0195941700084289
2. Jain J., Arora S., Rajwade J.M., Omray P., Khandelwal S. and Paknikar, K.M. (2009). Silver nanoparticles in therapeutics:
development of an antimicrobial gel formulation for tropical use. Molecular Pharmacy. 6(5): 1388-1401.
3. Iravani S., Korbekandi, H., Mirmohammadi, S.V. and Zolfaghari B. (2014). Synthesis of silver nanoparticles: chemical, physical
and biological methods. Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences.9(6): 385-406.
4. Natsuki J., Natsuki T. and Hashimoto Y. (2015). A Review of Silver Nanoparticles: Synthesis Methods, Properties and
Applications. International Journal of Materials Science and Applications. 4(5): 325-332.
Introduction
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) may be defined as an approach for transforming and reorienting
agricultural development under the new realities of climate change (Lipper et al. 2014).The most commonly
used definition is provided by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), which
defines CSA as “agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, enhances resilience (adaptation),
reduces/removes GHGs (mitigation) where possible, and enhances achievement of national food security
and development goals”. In this definition, the principal goal of CSA is identified as food security and
development (FAO 2013a; Lipper et al. 2014); while productivity, adaptation, and mitigation are identified
as the three interlinked pillars necessary for achieving this goal.
References
1. Lipper L., Thornton P, Campbell BM, Torquebiau EF., (2014). Climate-smart agriculture for food security. Nature Climate
Change. 4:1068-1077.
2. FAO. (2013a). Climate-Smart Agriculture: Sourcebook. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Introduction
India has been ranked 13th amongst 17 ‘extremely water stressed’ countries with a quarter of the world’s
population in the Aqueduct Water Risk Atlas released by Water Resources Institute (WRI). Warning of
unsustainable depletion, the report finds that global water withdrawals have doubled since the 1960s. NITI
Aayog report 2018 warns that, 21 major Indian cities will face extreme water crisis in the future. Wasteful
use of water in agriculture and also the waste of sanitation water in urban areas remains unaddressed.
WRI notes that, from 1990 to 2014, groundwater tables in some north Indian aquifers have been declining
at a rate of 8 cm per year. To tackle this crisis, WRI recommends increased agricultural efficiency, investing
in grey and green infrastructure, and treating, reusing and recycling water.
India conserves only a mere 8% of rainfall-the lowest in the world. The key intervention has to be on reusing
and recycling wastewater. It is estimated that if 80% of urban wastewater could be collected and treated
by 2030, there would be a total volume of around 17 billion m3 (BCM) per year; an increase of around 400%
in the volume of available treated wastewater. This 17 BCM of treated wastewater resource, if captured,
treated safely and recycled, is equivalent to almost 75% of the projected industrial demand in 2025 (MoWR
2006) and almost a quarter of the total projected drinking water requirements in the country.
Summary
Reuse of treated wastewater is a common and rapidly increasing practice, mainly in arid and semi-arid
regions around the world. There, treated wastewater serves as a ‘new’ resource which is added to the water
balance and substitutes conventional water in agricultural irrigation. Wastewater reuse may enhance the
quality of conventional water resources by reducing demand pressure and by eliminating the main
pollution source (municipal sewage) from the conventional water resources. Using untreated or partially
treated wastewater exposes farmers and crop consumers to potential health risks. Ideally wastewater
should be treated before using it for irrigation; health and risk aspects, along with international guidelines
for treatment.
References
1. WHO (2006). WHO Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, Excreta and Greywater- volume-4 Excreta and greywater use
in agriculture, Geneva, Switzerland.
2. Bahman, S., Kara, L.N., Brent, H. and Thebo, A. 2019. Grey water: Agricultural Use of Reclaimed Water in California. Journal
of Contemporary Water Research and Education. 165(1).
3. Minhas, P.S. 2002. Use of sewage in agriculture: Some experience. Presentation at workshop on ‘Wastewater Use in Irrigated
Agriculture: Confronting Livelihoods and Environmental Realities’. Hyderabad: IWMI.
4. Silva, P., Scot, C. 2002. What are the wastewater treatment plant effects on wastewater irrigation benefits? Presentation at
workshop on ‘Wastewater Use in Irrigated Agriculture: Confronting Livelihoods and Environmental Realities. Hyderabad:
IWMI.
5. Kaur, R.., Wani, S.P., Singh, A.K. and Lal, K. 2012. Wastewater production, treatment and use in India. New Delhi: Water
Technology Centre, Indian Agricultural Research Institute.
6. WII (Winrock International). 2006. Urban wastewater: Livelihoods, health and environmental impacts in India. New Delhi:
Winrock International.
7. Londhe, A., Talati, L.K., Singh, M., Vilayasseril, S., Dhaunta, B., Rawlley, K.K., Ganapathy and Mathew, R.P. 2004. Urban-
Hinterland Water Transactions: A Scoping Study if Six Class I Indian Cities. Paper Presented at IWMI-Tata Annual Partners
Meeting, Anand, India.
8. Amerasinghe, P., Bhardwaj, R.M., Scott, C., Jella, K. and Marshall, F. 2013. Urban wastewater and agricultural reuse
challenges in India. IWMI Research Report 147. Colombo: IWMI. 36p.
9. World Bank. 2010. Improving wastewater use in agriculture: An emerging priority. The World Bank.
10. https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/india-must-recycle-or-reuse-water-and-adopt conservation-methods-now/1674937/
11. https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/wastewater-recycling-multi-billion-dollar-opportunity-india-avoid-forthcoming-water-crisis-
7182/
12. Eran, F. 2001. Water resue- an integral part of water resources management: Israel as a case study. Elsevier science limited.
3:29-39.
Rajasthan.
3Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.
Introduction
Locusts are species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae that can form dense migrating
swarms through a phenomenon known as phase polyphenism. These species forms swarms under
intermittently suitable condition called locusts. These grasshoppers are normally innocuous, their numbers
are low and they do not pose a major economic threat to agriculture. However, under suitable conditions
of drought followed by rapid vegetation growth, serotonin in their brains triggers a dramatic set of changes;
they start to breed abundantly, becoming gregarious and nomadic when their populations become dense
enough. They form bands of wingless nymphs which later become swarms of winged adults. Both the bands
and the swarms move around and rapidly strip fields and cause damage to crops. The adults are powerful
fliers; they can travel great distances, consuming most of the green vegetation wherever the swarm settles.
They live in two different phases viz., solitary and gregarious phases. Locusts show marked variations in
behaviour, metabolism, development, reproductive physiology, morphology, and colour in response to
population density. Uvarov (1966) stressed the fact that when population density changes, it is the
behaviour of individuals that alters first, with other changes being secondary. Hence, the behaviour of
insects, that are solitarious by morphological and colour criteria, can be shifted by experience of crowding
toward that characteristic of phase gregaria, and vice versa. There are four species of locusts reported in
India viz., Desert locust: Schistocerca gregaria, Migratory locust: Locusta migratoria, Bombay Locust:
Nomadacris succincta and Tree Locust: Anacridium spp.
Fig. 1 Locusts’ species; (1) Schistocerca gregaria, (2) Locusta migratoria, (3) Nomadacris
succincta and (4) Anacridium spp.
Swarming Grasshoppers
Locusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short-horned grasshoppers. These insects are usually
solitary, but under certain circumstances become more abundant and change their behaviour and habits,
becoming gregarious (Simpson et al., 2008). Swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding. Increased
tactile stimulation of the hind legs causes an increase in levels of serotonin. This causes the locust to change
colour, eat much more and breed more easily. The transformation of the locust to the swarming form is
induced by several contacts per minute over a four-hour period. A large swarm can consist of billions of
locusts spread out over an area of thousands of square kilometres with a population of up to 80 million per
square kilometre. Desert locusts meet, their nervous systems release serotonin, which causes them to
become mutually attracted, a prerequisite for swarming. The initial bands of gregarious hoppers are known
as "outbreaks", and when these joins together into larger groups, the event is known as an "upsurge".
Continuing agglomerations of upsurges on a regional level originating from a number of entirely separate
breeding locations are known as "plagues". During outbreaks and the early stages of upsurges, only part of
the locust population becomes gregarious, with scattered bands of hoppers spread out over a large area. As
time goes by, the insects become more cohesive and the bands become concentrated in a smaller area
(Showler, 2013).
Impact on Agriculture
About 49,000 hectares of cotton, summer pulses and vegetable crops have been affected by locusts across
six states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and parts of
Maharashtra during the year 2019-20. Swarms of desert locusts occur irregularly in North Africa, the
Middle East and South Asia, usually when drought is followed by heavy rain. Normally, with the arrival of
the monsoon, locust swarms enter the desert areas of India via Pakistan for breeding in June-July, but this
year pink adult swarms were reported as early as April 30 in Rajasthan and Punjab. This is in part because
of the uncontrolled swarms in Pakistan that breed continuously. Swarms of pink adults fly high and travel
long distances with strong winds coming from Pakistan. Most of them settle on trees during the night and
mostly fly during the day. This is the second round of locust attack in India, the first one having occurred
during December-February. In January, the biggest locust swarm to hit Gujarat in over a quarter of a
century resulted in more than 25,000 hectares of wheat, rapeseed, cumin and potatoes being attacked, with
at least a third of the crops damaged in 75% of the affected areas.
Management Strategy
Early warning and preventive control are the strategy adopted by locust-affected countries in Africa and
Asia to try to stop locust plagues from developing and spreading. Locust surveillance by Locust Warning
Organizations (LWO) with the help of various surveys (foot transect, vehicle transect and aerial transects)
and survey equipment’s (survey nets and cages, digital equipment’s like eLocust-3 and GIS based data
analysis tools like RAMSES v4). The primary method of controlling desert locust infestations is with
insecticides applied in small concentrated doses by vehicle-mounted and aerial sprayers at ultra-low
volume (ULV) rates of application. The desert locust has natural enemies such as predatory wasps and
flies, parasitic wasps, predatory beetle larvae, birds and reptiles. These may be effective at keeping solitary
populations in check but are of limited effects against gregarious desert locusts because of the enormous
numbers of insects in the swarms and hopper bands. Farmers often try mechanical means of killing locusts,
such as digging trenches and burying hopper bands, but this is very labour-intensive and is difficult. Locust
swarms can be scared away from the fields by making noise, burning tires or other methods. This tends to
shift the problem to neighbouring farms and locust swarms can easily return to re-infest previously visited
fields. Biological control products have been under development since the late nineties; Green Muscle and
NOVACRID are based on a naturally occurring entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium acridum.
References
1. Dingle, H. (1996). Migration: The Biology of Life on the Move. Oxford University Press. pp. 273–274.
2. Showler, A. T. (2013). "The Desert Locust in Africa and Western Asia: Complexities of War, Politics, Perilous Terrain, and
Development". Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook. University of Minnesota.
3. Simpson, S. J. and Sword, G. A. (2008). "Locusts". Current Biology. 18(9): R364–R366.
4. Uvarov, B. P. (1966). Grasshoppers and Locusts: A Handbook of General Acridology, Vol. 1. London: Cambridge University
Press.
Introduction
Animal manure is a great source of nutrients for crops, but it is also complicated. Luckily, one of the
complications is something that can be controlled: manure application method. As a reminder, N occurs in
two forms in manure. Organic N is not available to plants. Inorganic N, on the other hand, can be broken
down into ammonium and nitrate (both are available to plants). This will be important as you consider the
various types of application methods and how they impact nutrient losses.
What is Manure?
1. Manure is a mixture of feces and urine and can include other things such as bedding, spilled feedstuffs,
feathers, hair and soil
2. It may also include wash-water from milking parlours or egg-wash facilities, and run-on water.
3. Manure can be used as fertilizer source, soil amendment, feedstuff, bedding and energy source
4. Manure from any source can cause water quality pollution if not managed properly.
Introduction
The need of crops, vegetables and fruits produced from organic farming is increasing as people want in
today's time. But due to lack of proper facilities, farmers are still not coming forward to produce livelihood.
If we talk about the need, then almost all the people writing and knowing want to buy organic products,
but the question is, who will do organic farming? The question is that if the farmer does not know the right
way of production, then if he has the information and does the production in an organic way, then there is
a problem that he said to be sold? If they get a proper platform to sell with great difficulty, but they do not
get the proper price for their production, due to this, the farmers have become disillusioned.
Neither can they help in improving their family development and social status. Because farming with
organic farming method is very troublesome in today's time. Due to modernization and increasing
production of innovative technology in the growing agriculture with time, the farmers get more profit, due
to which the farmers are hesitant to go into organic farming. In today's time, the biggest problem of farming
and farming is that the farmer does not want to adopt innovation in farming.
“Swami Vivekananda ji had said that the farmers of our country cannot develop themselves until their fear
of going to modernization or going out of their traditional farming practices goes out of modernization.”
Conclusion
Realizing the need of the farmers, farming is to increase organic farming, meeting the needs of farmers.
For this work, it is necessary that a plan should be made keeping in mind all the materials required for
organic farming. The development of agriculture is the basis of social development. And thus, if the method
of agriculture is healthy and pure, it will not take much time to improve human diseases, socio-economic
conditions as well as the condition of the farm and the environment.
Introduction
Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about 58 per cent of population in India and about 75 per
cent of country’s population involved directly and indirectly in agriculture and allied activities. In order to
strengthen the dissemination of agriculture extension services to the farmers and at the same time to tap
the potential of unemployed graduates the Ministry of Agriculture and farmer’s welfare, Government of
India in associated with National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) has launched
a unique programme called Agriclinics and agribusiness centre. Under this scheme agricultural graduates
provided training so, that they can open their own agriclinics and agribusiness centres and provides
professional extension services to the needy farmers.
Training Activities
Under agriclinic and agribusiness center scheme a two-month training programme is organized by National
Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) through various Nodal Training Institutions
(NTIs) to the eligible candidates and certificates provided at the end of the training programme.
The eligibility criteria for the candidates are:
1. Age of the agricultural graduates should be between 18 to 60 years.
2. Graduate/ post graduate in agriculture or allied subjects like Horticulture, Sericulture, Dairy, Animal
Husbandry, Fisheries, Home/ Community Sciences, Biotechnology, Agricultural Engineering, Forestry,
Food Technology, Food Nutrition and Dietetics etc,
3. Biological science students with PG in agriculture and allied subjects.
4. Diploma holders (with 50% mark)/ PG diploma holders in agriculture and allied subjects
5. Degree courses recognized by UGC having more than 60 percent of the course content in Agriculture and
allied subjects.
Credit Support
1. This scheme is linked with various banks these are Regional Rural Bank (RRB), commercial banks, state
cooperative banks, state cooperative agriculture and rural development banks and such other institution
eligible for refinance from NABARD to provide loan on a commercial and economically viable project.
2. Project ceiling cost- Rs. 20 lakhs for individual project ( 25 lakhs for extremely successful individual
project), and 100 lakhs for group project (group consist of at least 5 trained person).
3. Term loan- term loan is composite in nature covers fixed cost and working capital for one operating cycle.
At least 10 % value of the total financial outlay of the project should be in capital form. Repayment period
is 5 to 10 years depending of the project activity and gestation period of maximum 2 years. Interest rate is
as per RBI guideline.
4. Margin Money-In accordance with RBI guideline and no margin money in case of loan up to Rs.5 lakh.
A maximum of 50% of the margin money prescribed by banks could be given by NABARD to meet the
shortfall in borrower’s contribution.
5. Security-As per RBI guideline. But up to loan amount of Rs. 5 lakhs, the loans can be secured against
hypothecation of assets created and no further security would be necessary.
6. Time limit for completion of project is 6 months which may extend for further 6 months if the reasons
for the further extension is justifiable. If the project is not completed within the time period benefits of
subsidies will not be available.
7. Subsidy- It is 44% of project cost for women, SC/ST & all categories of candidates from NE and Hill states
and 36% of project cost for all others. Subsidy released upfront in one instalment by NABARB to banks
after sanction of loan and it is available to all candidates who are trained under this scheme. The subsidy
provided will kept in “Subsidy Reserve Fund Account” (Borrower-wise) and banks will not charge interest
rate on this portion.
Conclusion
In order to eliminate employment problem in India this scheme will act as a catalytic agent for agricultural
graduates by providing comprehensive support in the form of training, credit facility, subsidy and
landholding support for the establishment of agriclinic and agribusiness centres. And these centres will
provide extension service to the farmers at their doorstep. So, this scheme act in two ways to solve the
problem of the farmers as well as agricultural graduates.
Reference
Government of India, Ministry of agriculture and farmer’s welfare, Department of agriculture, cooperation and farmers welfare.
(2018) Revised guideline agri-clinics and agri-business center (ACABC) scheme. Retrieved from
http://www.agriclinics.net/ACABCGuidelines2018.pdf.
Introduction
Precision agriculture is a management strategy that assembles, processes and analyses temporal, spatial
and individual data and combines it with other information to support management decisions according to
estimated variability for improved resource use efficiency, productivity, quality, profitability and
sustainability of agricultural production. Precision farming is made up of two words i.e. “Precision” and
“Farming”. The term precision means to the quality or state of being precise. Where precise means minutely
exact or correct. Therefore, precision farming refers to exactness and implies correctness or accuracy in any
aspect of production. Precision farming or satellite farming is a farming management concept based on
observing, measuring and responding to inter and intra-field variability in crops. Today, precision farming
is about, whole farm management with the goal of optimizing returns on input while preserving resources.
The objectives of precision farming are to increase production efficiency, improve product quality, use of
chemicals more efficiently, energy conservation and soil and ground water protection.
Emerging Technologies
Precision agriculture is an application of breakthrough digital farming technologies like, Drones and
satellite imagery, Robots and Smartphone applications.
Introduction
Root-knot nematodes Meloidogyne spp. are highly adapted obligate parasites that settle in roots and
complete their life cycle by feeding from specially adapted host cells and they able to escape from plant
recognition, establish feeding sites and suppress host defence reactions which makes them the most
predominant pest species associated with various crops. The recent completion of the genomes of two RKNs,
Meloidogynehapla and Meloidogyne incognita, that exhibit striking differences in their mode of
reproduction (with and without sex, respectively), their geographic distribution and host range has opened
the way for deciphering the evolutionary significance of (a)sexual reproduction in these parasites. In this
aspect we provide a reappraisal of the current hypotheses about the molecular evolutionary mechanisms
that have shaped the Meloidogyne genus in light of recent findings that have mainly emerged from the
molecular and genomic eras.
Molecular Evolution
To date, whole RKN genomes have been sequenced for only two species, the obligate mitotic
parthenogenetic M. incognita and the facultative meiotic parthenogenetic M. Hapla . Comparison of these
two genomes from two species with different reproductive modes may point to genomic specificities linked
to the presence/absence of sexual reproduction in an animal. Initial comparison of these genomes revealed
a series of features common to the two species that might represent Meloidogyne signatures but also
revealed differences that may be associated with the different modes of reproduction.
Among common features, both RKN genomes were found to contain a number of genes that encode plant
cell wall–degrading enzymes unprecedented in animals. Interestingly, phylogenetic analyses have shown
that these genes were most probably acquired via horizontal gene transfer (HGT) from bacteria and fungi.
Recently, a systematic search for genes of nonmetazoan origin in RKNs has shown that up to 3.34% of
protein-coding genes in M. incognita might originate from HGTs (2). Because many of these genes have been
found in other plant-parasitic nematodes of the Tylenchida order, it is thought that most transfers have
taken place earlier in an ancestor of Tylenchida and may have promoted emergence of plant-parasitism in
this clade (3). In comparison with the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, both Meloidogyne
genomes appear to be depleted in genes that encode G protein–coupled receptors and collagens. However,
this apparent paucity appears to be due to specific gene family expansions in C. elegans and may not reflect
a general case for nematodes (4). Several genomic features, in contrast, appear to be notably different
between M. incognita and M. hapla. The most striking differences concern the genome structure itself as
well as the proportion of repetitive elements. Both features are probably linked to the differences in the
modes of reproduction between these two RKNs. Indeed, M. incognita, as a mitotic parthenogenetic animal,
reproduces without meiosis and without fusion of gametes, and this is likely to have a series of
consequences at the genome level. For instance, without constraint linked to the pairing of homologous
chromosomes to produce functional haploid gametes, it is very likely that many genomic rearrangements
otherwise counter-selected in a species that does meiosis can occur and be fixed.
Possibly as a consequence, whereas M. hapla has a standard genome structure for a diploid sexual species,
M. incognita has a peculiar structure in which most genomic regions are present in two or more copies with
substantial rearrangements and an average nucleotide divergence of 7 % (5). This within-genome divergence
level is substantially higher than heterozygosity levels observed between genomes of individuals of wild
populations in natural species. As a consequence of this structure, a number of genes present in one copy
in M. hapla are present in two or more copies in M. incognita. This feature is in part responsible for the
substantially bigger genome and higher gene number in M. incognita (86 Mb; 19,212 genes) than in M.
hapla (54 Mb; 14,420 genes). This genome structure is also probably linked to what had been originally
References
1. Danchin EGJ, Rosso MN, Vieira P, de Almeida-Engler J, Coutinho PM, et al. 2010. Multiple lateral gene transfers and
duplications have promoted plant parasitism ability in nematodes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 107:17651–56.
2. Paganini J, Campan-Fournier A, Da Rocha M, Gouret P, Pontarotti P, et al. 2012. Contribution of lateral gene transfers to the
genome composition and parasitic ability of root-knot nematodes. PLoS ONE 7(11):e50875
3. Rybarczyk-Mydlowska K, Ruvimbo Maboreke H, van Megen H, van den Elsen S, Mooyman P, et al.2012. Rather than by direct
acquisition via lateral gene transfer, GHF5 cellulases were passed on from early Pratylenchidae to root-knot and cyst
nematodes. BMC Evol. Biol. 12:221
4. Robertson HM, Thomas JH. 2006. The putative chemoreceptor families of C. elegans. WormBook.
doi/10.1895/wormbook.1.66.1.
5. Abad P, Gouzy J, Aury JM, Castagnone-Sereno P, Danchin EGJ, et al. 2008. Genome sequence of the metazoan plant-parasitic
nematode Meloidogyne incognita. Nat. Biotechnol. 8:909–15
6. Dalmasso A, Berg´e JB. 1983. Enzyme polymorphism and the concept of parthenogenetic species, exemplified by Meloidogyne.
See Ref. 80, pp. 187–96
7. Mark Welch D, Meselson M. 2000. Evidence for the evolution of bdelloid rotifers without sexual reproduction or genetic
exchange. Science 288:1211–15
8. Arkhipova I, Meselson M. 2000. Transposable elements in sexual and ancient asexual taxa. Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. USA
97:14473–77.
Introduction
Indian Agriculture is mostly dependent on monsoon. Again, an over-irrigation and under-irrigation leads
to poor crop production. So, it needs some alternative irrigation method which utilize the irrigation water
judiciously and also increase the crop productivity. In order to solve this issue, the best choice is an
automatic irrigation system. By using this system, it will possibly reduce such wastages. So that better
utilization of resources can be made possible. It shows the basic switching mechanism of motor using
sensors by sensing moisture present in the soil. Soil moisture, air humidity, temperature and water level
in the soil are wirelessly transmitted using wireless technology for better production Ogidan et al. (2019).
Temperature Sensor
Generally, LM35 temperature sensor is used. The output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius
temperature. Temperature range is varying in between -55 to 150 0C.
Humidity Sensors
It measures both air temperature and moisture. Relative humidity expressed as a percentage. HS1100 is
used for sensing humidity. The output is in terms of frequency range 5khz to 10khz.
Microcontroller
Generally, ATmega328P microcontroller is used. ATmega328P gets a result of throughputs approaching 1
MIPS per MHz which allows the system designer to find optimize power consumption versus processing
speed
Gsm Module
The SIM900 can be used embedded in many of the applications. The SIM900 has the capability of delivering
GSM/GPRS 850/900/1800/1900MHz performance for voice, Data, SMS and requires low power
consumption. GSM900 has a small configuration of 24mm x 24mm x 3 mm. It can be fit in nearly all the
space requirement in M2M application, as there is slim and compact demand of design.
Zigbee Module
Zigbee 802.15.4 RF modules are of XBee family, looking for excellent wireless performance. XBee Series 1
is depended on Zigbee 802.15.4 silicon from free scale. It is ideal for the topologies such as point-to-
Function
System uses sensors to measure the relative parameter in order to give the water to crops. Outputs of the
sensors measured are analogue in nature the system makes use of ADC which is inbuilt in microcontroller.
These digital signals at microcontroller 328P then uses Zigbee module for communication to send data at
the receiver and GSM module at the receiver side interfaced with microcontroller 328P for communication
at a particular level. Microcontroller sends the measured values to wireless communication zigbee module
and further uses GSM module to send message to the farmer. Microcontroller sends the measured values
of different parameter and according that water is given to the crops.
References
Ogidan O., Onile A. and Adegboro O., 2019. Smart Irrigation System: A Water Management Procedure. Agricultural Sciences 10,
25-31.
Needs of Hydroponics
The Indian farmers face the several challenges due to drought conditions, unpredictable weather, rising
temperatures, polluted water systems, lack of irrigation, poor water management and under-nourished or
over nourished crops etc., Lack of water for agriculture leads to production of lesser food, which means
more hunger and malnutrition. Hence, needs for some alternative technology in agriculture that can
contribute towards water savings and have a positive impact on food production and availability.
Cultivation of plants in water is called as Hydroponics. It is technique for growing plants without use of
soil. By utilizing this technology, the roots absorb balanced nutrients dissolved in water that meets all the
plant developmental requirements. It may be also called as “The Cultivation of Plants without Using Soil”.
Plants grow through a process called photosynthesis, in which they use sunlight and a chemical inside their
leaves called chlorophyll to convert carbon dioxide (a gas in the air) and water into glucose (a type of sugar)
and oxygen.
There's no mention of "soil" anywhere in the definition of Photosynthesis and that is the proof that plants
can grow without it. What they do need is water and nutrients, both easily obtained from soil. But if they
can get these things somewhere else say, by standing with their roots in a nutrient-rich solution they can
do without soil altogether. That is the basic principle behind hydroponics. For making this article we
collected the information from following research articles Sardare et al. (2013); Nguyen et al. (2016) and
Maucieri and Shradhdha (2019).
Advantages
Higher yields achieved in a smaller space, nutrients can precisely controlled, grow, bloom and boost
formulas used at the appropriate growth stage, indoor gardens grown using full-spectrum horticultural
lighting, soil-borne pests and diseases are eliminated, weeds are eliminated, plants are healthier and reach
maturity faster and automation is possible etc.
Disadvantages
Cost of initial investment is high, production is management, capital and labour intensive, a high level of
expertise is required, daily attention is necessary, specially formulated, soluble nutrients must always be
used and some water borne diseases can spread rapidly in recirculation system etc.
References
1. Maucieri C., Nicoletto C. Os E., Anseeuw D. Havermaet R.V. and Junge R., 2019. Hydroponic technologies. In: Goddek S.,
Joyce A., Kotzen B., Burnell G. (eds) Aquaponics Food Production Systems. Springer, Cham 77-110p.
2. Nguyen N.T., McInturf S.A. and Mendoza-Cozatl D.G., 2019. Hydroponics: A Versatile System to Study Nutrient Allocation
and Plant Responses to Nutrient Availability and Exposure to Toxic Elements. J. Vis. Exp. (113), e54317:1-9.
3. Sardare M.D. and Shraddha V.A., 2013. A review on plant without soil-Hydroponics. International Journal of Research in
Engineering and Technology 2: 299-304.
Abstract
Climate change is posing a threat to humanity, as the world’s population grows the demand for food and
water will also increase. The rise in global surface temperatures is a challenge for food security. The rise
in temperature will also cause water shortage and increase discomfort due to high temperature. Haryana
is primarily an Agriculture state and stands second at food production in India. Climate change in Haryana
will lead to reduced crop yield henceforth a threat to Nations food basket. The rise in temperature will
impact the Rabi crop for every degree rise in temperature there is a significant decline in the yield of Wheat
and reduced rainfall will impact the Khariff crop. Further, the change in Agriculture practices, as well as
the change in consumption patterns, is also responsible for the long-term change in the climate. Change in
consumption patterns alone cannot combat the challenge of food security; new technology has to be adopted
to meet the ever-growing needs of Food and Water.
Introduction
Climate change is a change in the usual weather found in a place; this could be a change in annual rainfall
or a change in usual temperature for a month or season (NASA). Climate change is a threat to Food security
as changes in temperature and precipitation threaten agricultural productivity and the capacity to feed the
world's ever-growing population. The changing climate will influence the crop pattern of a region.
Groundwater needed for global water and food security will probably intensify under climate change as
more frequent and intense climate extremes (droughts and floods) increase variability in precipitation, soil
moisture and surface water.- (Nature Climate change 2013).
This review article is about Climate change in Haryana state of North India and specifically of its Sirsa
district.
The climate of Sirsa district is tropical desert type. The climate of the area is characterized by its dryness,
extremes of temperature and scanty rainfall. This region in Haryana was Arid before the 1980s from the
1980s it started turning semi-arid, the humidity increased and an increase in annual rainfall was observed.
The crop pattern changed from crops like Maize Barley to Rice cultivation. Most of the waterlogged soils
occur in arid and semi-arid regions of the state including Sirsa district where 2325 hectares land turned
barren due to shallow water at 1.5 meters.
On the other hand, recent data gathered by the Groundwater wing of Agriculture Department of Haryana
State revealed that most districts in the state have witnessed a critical fall of 7.29m on an average in the
past 12 years.
The Annual rainfall dropped down to 384 mm in 2017. The situation is alarming; farmers now draw more
groundwater to irrigate their crops, particularly Rice-paddies, accelerating the fall of the water table.
Fewer rains mean lesser groundwater availability as the groundwater mainly depends on the rainfall for
recharge. Sirsa shows a decreasing trend in the monsoon rainfall.
The long-term analysis for trends in observed temperature over Haryana using IMD gridded temperature
at daily time scales shows that there is no significant trend in the mean maximum temperature while the
mean minimum temperature shows an Increase of about 1.00C to 1.20C.
Maximum temperature of Sirsa in all the months in winter has decreased from normal. Annual mean
maximum temperature also decreased by 0.2oC during the period 1995-2014 from normal of 31.5oC,
whereas, mean minimum temperature in all months had increased from normal with an annual increase
of 0.14oC during the period 1995-2014.
Changes in rainfall pattern are of greater importance for agriculture than the annual changes in
temperature, especially in regions where lack of rainfall may be a limiting factor for crop production.
References
1. 16-year poor monsoon in Punjab and Haryana TOI News.
2. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/16-year-trend-of-poor-monsoon-in-Punjab-
Haryana/articleshow/43115393.cms?from=mdr 1/40.
3. Airon, Anurag & Kumar, Anil & Singh, Diwan & Singh, Raj & Kumar, Manoj & Singh, Surender. (2017). Local impact of
climate change: A case study of western Haryana, India. Haryana State Action Plan on Climate change, Government of
Haryana.
4. Agricultural Water Management, Sinha SK, Swaminathan MS, 1991; 69(1):1-11.
5. Aggarwal, P.K., R.P. Roeter, N. Kalra, H. Van Keulen, C.T. Hoanh and H.H. Van Laar (Eds.), 2001. Land use analysis and
planning for sustainable food security: with an illustration for the state of Haryana, India. New Delhi, Indian Research
Institute/Los Baños, International Rice Research Institute/Wageningen, Wageningen University and Research Center. 167
pp.
6. Churkina G, Running SW, 1998. Contrasting climatic controls on the estimated productivity of global terrestrial biomes.
Ecosystems 1, 206– 15.
7. Ground Water Information Booklet of Sirsa District Haryana, Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources
8. Haryana State Action Plan on Climate change, Government of Haryana.
9. Sheehy, J.E., Elmido, A., Centeno, G. and Pablico, P. 2005. Searching for new plant for climate change. Journal of Agricultural
Meteorology 60:463-468.
10. Singh, S. 2001. Growth, yield and biochemical response of rice genotype to low light and high temperature-humidity stress.
Oryza 37 (1):35-38.
Abstract
Growth in agriculture sector and poverty elimination is directly correlated. As per the Global Food Security
Index 2019, India is amongst the bottom 50 countries in terms of food security in a list of 113 countries.
The key reason being that the focus has been more on staple crops, rather than on crops with high nutritious
value. In this paper, we look at two key components of agricultural growth, i.e., farm mechanization and
government role. Mechanisation level in India is at 40% but varies significantly across crops and stages of
crop production. Mechanisation level is seen to be higher for staple crops, like, paddy and wheat, while
lower for cash crops. To have a high food security index, it is essential that we have a diversified agriculture
sector. This is possible with committed research in producing crops of high protein quality, dietary diversity
and high micro-nutrient availability. Government investment in agriculture has remained stagnant for
several years. For a more diversified agriculture sector, it is essential that government scale up its
investment in agriculture research.
Keywords: Food security, farm mechanisation, government role.
Introduction
Agricultural growth has long been recognised as an important instrument for poverty elimination (World
Bank, 2009). Growth in agriculture not only helps in earning income within the sector but also induces
growth in other sectors. Cross-country estimates have shown that GDP growth resulting from agriculture
is at least twice as effective in reducing poverty as GDP growth outside agriculture (Anjum & Tarique,
2018). According to the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation’s “three –quarters of the world’s poorest people
get their food and income by farming small plots of land (Martin Drake, 2013). Hence, GDP growth from
agriculture benefits mostly the poor section of the population and supports the rural economy.
In India, the relationship between poverty reduction and growth in agriculture GDP has been studied by
several researchers. Ravillion, Dutt (2002) in their study on inter-state differences on level of poverty, found
non-farm economic growth was less effective in reducing poverty in states with low rural development.
Department for International Development, DFID (2004) emphasises the relationship between poverty
reduction and the growth of agricultural productivity.
They have linked the relationship through four transmission mechanisms:
1. Direct impact of improved agricultural performance on rural incomes.
2. Impact of cheaper food for both urban and rural poor.
3. Agriculture‘s contribution to growth and the generation of economic opportunity in the non-farm sector.
4. Agriculture‘s fundamental role in stimulating and sustaining economic transition.
These transmission mechanisms can lead to poverty reduction depending on the extent to which
agricultural productivity can be increased where it is most needed (Anjum and Tarique, 2017).
In this paper we look at two key elements of agriculture growth which can lead to higher food security and
therefore eliminate poverty. These include, farm mechanisation and government role. The paper is
organised as follows: The following section gives an overview of India’s position in terms of food security in
the world map. Section 3 gives a relationship between food security and farm mechanisation. Section 4
elucidates government role in promoting farm mechanisation and trends in investment on agriculture
research. Section 5 concludes the paper.
Very good Good (Score Moderate (40-60) Weak (Score 20- Very Weak (Score:
(Score 80+) 60-80) 40) 0-20)
Source: https://foodsecurityindex.eiu.com/
Clearly, both from the demand side and the supply side, there is a need to expand from basic staple food to
more nutritious food which is supported with strong agriculture infrastructure and high R&D expenditure
in agriculture.
0.2
0.1
0.0
F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15 F16 F17 F18 F19 F20 F21
Fig 1: Government spending on Research in Agriculture ‘000 Agri GDP (Source: Union Budget)
Conclusion
Growth in agricultural sector is essential to improve food security and eliminate poverty. India’s position
in term of food security though improved, yet much below the global average in various indicators
measuring food security. As per the Global Food Security Index of 2019, India stands at 72nd rank in a list
of 113 countries. On the demand side, with the reduction in poverty rate and well expanded food safety
programs, affordability of attaining food is high. However, significantly low per capita GDP as compared
to global average indicates the affordability of attaining nutritious food is still very low. Similarly, on the
supply side, while production of food grains crops has increased, but availability in terms of crops with high
protein quality, dietary diversity and micro-nutrient availability is still low. Poor agriculture infrastructure
and exceedingly low investment in agriculture has been the major hindrances in the growth of a diversified
agriculture sector.
Farm mechanisation has been one of the key components of agricultural growth in many developed
countries. Mechanisation can play a double role in improving food security index by minimising cost and
maximising productivity levels. India’s mechanisation level is at 40% as compared to 96% in USA and close
to 80% in many other developed countries. However, mechanisation level in India varies significantly by
crops and stages of crop production. Comparing the mechanisation level of staple crops, like, paddy and
wheat, with other cash crops, sugarcane and cotton, suggests that the focus on increasing productivity has
been more on staple crops.
Government has a large role to play in improving food security. Several measures have been taken so far,
to improve growth in agriculture sector. Promotion of farm mechanisation has also been one of the key
measures of the government. However, investment in agricultural research remained almost stagnant for
several years. A more diversified agriculture sector with high productivity levels at minimum cost requires
committed research. Thus, for India to improve its food security index, it is important government scale up
the investment on agricultural research.
References
1. World Bank (2009) , “Agricultural Growth and Poverty Reduction”
2. Anjum, Shabana & Md Tarique (2017), “Agriculture and Poverty Reduction in India: An Empirical Study”, Asian Journal of
Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol 7, No. 9, Sept 2017, pp – 35-48.
3. Ravallion, M. and G. Datt (2002). ―Why has economic growth been more pro-poor in some states of India than others?‖ Journal
of Development Economics 68(2), 381–400.
4. DFID (2004), ―Agriculture, Growth and Poverty ; Reduction‖,http://www.dfid.gov.uk/Documents/publications/agri-poverty-
reduction.pdf
5. Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (2018), University of Oxford.
6. Piesse, Mervyn (2019), “Agricultural Mechanisation, Farm Productivity and Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa”, Future
Directions International
7. Engr. Ndubuisi, Christian Ohakwe (2019), “The Role of Mechanized Agriculture in a Developing Economy” , paper presented
to ‘School of Engineering Technology , Federal Polytechnic Nekede Owerri, Imo State
8. Bill and Melinda Gates (2013): Gates Foundation, Canadian Federation of Agriculture.
9. Martin Drake (2013): The Borgen Project. Farming in Developing Countries.
10. Kalu, R.N. and Egbo, C.O. (1992): Introduction to Agric Mechanization. Published by The Macmillan Press Ltd. London.
11. Emami, Mohammad, Mortiza Almassi, Hossein Bakhoda, Issa Kalantari (2018), “Agricultural Mechanisation, a key to food
security in developing countries : strategy formulating for Iran”, Agric & Food Secur 7, 24 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0176-2.
Summary
There is growing observational evidence that the level of sunlight received at the Earth’s surface is not
stable over the years but undergoes substantial decadal changes. Global dimming, a decadal decrease in
incident global radiation is often accompanied with an increase in the diffuse radiation fraction. Hence, the
impact of global dimming on crop production is hard to predict. The effects of the observed solar radiation
reductions on plant processes and agricultural productivity are discussed here. Finally, the steps needed
to strengthen the evidence for global dimming, elucidate its causes, impact on agriculture and minimize its
effect are outlined.
Introduction
Global radiation, the total short-wave irradiation from sun and sky provides energy for both the carbon
assimilation of plant canopies and their water loss to the atmosphere. The amount of solar radiation
received in the photosynthetic active range (PAR) of the solar spectrum (between 400 and 700 nm), as well
as the relative proportion of direct and diffuse radiation directly affects the rate of photosynthesis. It also
determines the heat balance of agricultural surfaces to a great extent and thus the temperatures of crop
canopies, livestock surfaces, soil and air, the major environmental factor controlling the development of
crops, pastures, forest and livestock. Any significant and widespread change in this incoming short-wave
radiation is therefore likely to be of major importance for agricultural production as well as for climate
change and the direct exploitation of solar energy. There is growing observational evidence that the level
of sunlight received at the Earth’s surface is not stable over the years but undergoes substantial decadal
changes (Stanhill and Cohen, 2001; Wild et al., 2012).
where, global irradiance at the earth’s surface, Eg↓ is estimated as the product of extra-terrestrial
irradiance at the top of the atmosphere, E0, modified by a chain of five transmissivities ᴦ which quantify
the solar scattering and absorbing properties of the different components of the atmosphere. These include
ᴦr, representing Rayleigh scattering and ᴦg, permanent gas absorption, ᴦw, absorption by water vapour and
the absorption and ᴦa and ᴦc, scattering by aerosols and cloud components, respectively. The increase in
Rayleigh scattering and permanent gas absorption substantially reduce the Eg↓. The aerosol and clouds
are mainly responsible for decreasing global irradiance accompanied by an increase in diffused solar
radiation (Stanhill and Cohen, 2001).
Conclusion
To conclude, from the agricultural perspective the global dimming is harmful and may results into
substantial reduction in food production. Thus, climate change which includes both global warming and
global dimming might have negative impact on agriculture. Hence global dimming should also be given due
consideration, to minimise or nullify its impact on agriculture.
References
1. Darnell W.L., Staylor W.F., Gupta S.K., Ritchie N.A. and Wilber A.C., (1992). Seasonal variation of surface radiation balance
derived from International Cloud Climatology Project C1 data. J. Geophys. Res. 97 (D14): 15741–15760.
2. Roderick M.L. and Farquhar G.D., (2002). The cause of decreased pan evaporation over the past 50 years. Science. 298(5597):
1410-1411.
3. Shao L., Li G., Zhao Q., Li Y., Sun Y., Wang W., Cai C., Chen W., Liu R., Luo W. and Yin X., (2020). The fertilization effect of
global dimming on crop yields is not attributed to an improved light interception. Global Change Biology. 26(3):1697-1713.
4. Stanhill G. and Cohen S., (2001). Global dimming: a review of the evidence for a widespread and significant reduction in global
radiation with discussion of its probable causes and possible agricultural consequences. Agricultural and forest meteorology.
107(4): 255-278.
5. Wang K.C., Dickinson R.E., Wild M. and Liang S., (2012). Atmospheric impacts on climatic variability of surface incident solar
radiation.
6. Wang X., Wu J., Chen M., Xu X., Wang Z., Wang B.,..and Deng M., (2018). Field evidences for the positive effects of aerosols
on tree growth. Global Change Biology. 24: 4983–4992.
7. Wild M., Roesch A. and Ammann C., (2012). Global dimming and brightening–evidence and agricultural implications. CAB
Rev. 7(003): 1-7.
8. Williams M., Rastetter E. B., Van der Pol L., and Shaver G. R., (2014). Arctic canopy photosynthetic efficiency enhanced under
diffuse light, linked to a reduction in the fraction of the canopy in deep shade. New Phytologist. 202: 1267–1276.
Introduction
Bees of the Apis genus are distributed throughout the world in highly diverse climates. They are considered
as one of the most important beneficial insects having the capacity to generate income among the farmers
(Hoffman et al., 2019). The production of honey in India increased significantly towards the late 1990s and
it was reported that 70% of honey production comes from informal segments. As a major exporter of honey,
India is lagging behind China, Argentina, Germany, Hungary, Mexico and Spain. During 2005, India's
honey exports attained a value of US$ 26.4 million. At present approximately there are about 1.5 million
bee colonies in India, which produce 55,000 tons of honey annually. India is one of the honey exporting
countries. The major markets for Indian honey are Germany, the USA, UK, Japan, France, Italy and Spain
(Ramchandra et al., 2012).
Conclusion
Being an important social insect, emphasize should be given on its commercial production scenario and
protect it from various deadly diseases. Apiculture is a promising income generating source which should
be popularize throughout the country as well as globe by introducing different modern technology which
could help its productivity.
References
1. Hepburn H.R. and Radloff S.E., (2011). Honeybees of Asia. Springer, Berlin.
2. Hoffman G.D., Graham H., Ahumada F., Smart M. and Ziolkwoski N., (2019). The Economics of Honey Bee (Hymenoptera:
Apidae) Management and Overwintering strategies for colonies used to pollinate Almonds. Journal of Economic Entomology.
112: 2524-2533.
3. Otis G.W., (1990). Diversity of Apis in Southeast Asia. In: Vearesh GK, Malik B, Viraktanathan H (eds) Social insects and
Environment. IBA, Oxford, pp 725–726.
4. Ramchandra T.V., Subashchandran M.D., Joshi N.V. and Balachandran C., (2012). ENVIS technical. report: 49, Centre for
ecological sciences. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
Introduction
Bioenergy crops are those plants which are utilized for generating biofuels or transportation fuels. The
biofuels can be either in liquid form-ethanol, biodiesel, or in gaseous form-biogas, hydrogen. The reliance
on costly and uncertain imported energy sources can be reduced and thus, can increase the energy security,
with added benefits of foreign exchange savings and rural employment generation through local production
of biofuels, especially for a petroleum importing country like India. They are renewable sources of energy
which can fix atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis. The ‘National Biofuel Policy’ of India has proposed
the replacement of 20% diesel and 10-20% of gasoline with biodiesel and bioethanol, respectively.
Sugar crops like sugarcane, sugar beet, starchy crops like cassava and grain crops like corn, sweet corn,
wheat can be utilized for bioethanol production. Ethanol obtained through fermentation is used along with
gasoline or in pure form, to be used as motor fuel. Biodiesel can be generated from oil palm, cotton seed,
oilseed crops like groundnut, sesame, soya bean, rapeseed etc. The liquid fuel extracted are either mixed
with the conventional diesel or used in pure form. Since India is an importer of vegetable oil, importance
is given to non-food oil yielding crops like Jatropha, Pongamia, which can even be raised in wastelands.
Biofuels can be classified into three categories, based on the chemical and complex nature of the biomass.
Challenges
1. Water is a limiting factor for the production of biofuels, since the entire process of biofuel production is
highly water intensive, starting from the crop production. The Indian distilleries require about 36.5L of
water to generate 1L of ethanol from molasses.
2. Intensive monoculture of many of the biofuel crops (excluding Jatropha which helps in soil conservation)
has led to extensive application of chemical fertilizers. This has led to huge release of nitrous oxide with
high greenhouse gas potential and also, eutrophication of water bodies, making it difficult for the aquatic
organisms to survive.
3. High cost of commercial enzymes, handling and establishment of pre-treatment reactors, and high
feedstock size.
4. The costs involved in the production of biofuels and in retrofitting the existing vehicles and power plants
to work using it is not cheap.
5. Intensive cultivation of biofuel crops like oil palm has led to widespread clearing of rain forests resulting
in serious soil erosion, loss of habitat to many endangered species, release of huge amount of CO2 to
atmosphere and loss of biodiversity.
6. India already being an importer of cereal grains and vegetable oil, focusses mainly on bioethanol
production from molasses, since it may otherwise raise many food securities concerns. Even sugarcane juice
is not used as raw material, since we cannot afford to utilize such a water intensive crop (water requirement
Possibilities
The threats associated with bioenergy production can be brought down by efficient utilization of
wastelands/fallows spread over an area of 25 million ha for raising less input requiring biofuel crops.
Reclamation of degraded lands could be achieved by giving boost to the cultivation of these crops in the
wastelands, with proper attention and care, as in the case of Jatropha which helps in soil reclamation and
conservation. Many food and non-food crops in the tropics have potential to be used as biofuel feedstock,
which need to be explored. A new crop with biofuel potential introduced in India is Camelina/False flax
(Camelina sativa). It is an under exploited oilseed crop belonging to Brassicaceae family, with a seed oil
content of 40%. It is a short duration crop, tolerant to frost and weed infestation, and the oilcake proves to
be a nutritious feed for animals. So, year-round supply of raw materials for biodiesel production in India
can be assured by intercropping Camelina in Jatropha plantations of North India during winter months,
when Jatropha sheds its leaves.
Conclusion
Biofuels can bridge the wide gap between the global demand and supply of fuels and therefore, can check
the habitual hike in fuel prices. Hence, there is a huge potential for biofuel market in the global economy,
as well as in enhancing the quality and sustainability of the environment.
References
1. Bekunda, M., Victoria, R.L., Watson, H., Woods, J., Palm, C.A., de Fraiture, C., Leadley, P., Maene, L., Martinelli, L.A.,
McNeely, J. and Otto, M., 2009. Biofuels in developing countries. Cornell University Library's Initiatives in Publishing (CIP).
2. Zhou, A. and Thomson, E., 2009. The development of biofuels in Asia. Applied Energy, 86: S11-S20.
3. Sadhuram, Y., Maneesha, K. and MURTY, T.R., 2010. Camelina sativa: a new crop with biofuel potential introduced in India.
Current Science, 99(9):1194.
4. Gaurav, N., Sivasankari, S., Kiran, G.S., Ninawe, A. and Selvin, J., 2017. Utilization of bioresources for sustainable biofuels:
a review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 73:.205-214.
5. Bajhaiya, A.K., Mandotra, S.K., Suseela, M.R., Toppo, K. and Ranade, S., 2010. Algal biodiesel The next generation biofuel for
India. Asian J. Exp. Biol. Sci, 4:728-739.
Introduction
Tuber crops are known as the energy banks of nature, serving either as primary or secondary staple food
to meet the calorie needs of about one fifth of the world’s population. They are the third important food
crops after cereals and grain legumes. Tuber crops are well adapted to diverse soil and environmental
conditions, can come up even in marginal lands without much care and attention and can withstand
adverse biotic and abiotic stresses. The carbohydrate is stored in the underground stem or roots in the form
of starch.
Conclusion
Tuber crops are cheap and climate resilient alternative sources of energy which have been neglected by the
Indians. The major constraints faced in the utilization of these crops are the perishability and post-harvest
losses. These can be ruled out by developing low cost techniques for improved storage and processing of the
tubers. The starch obtained from under exploited tuber crops should be utilized for industrial applications.
Introduction
Mangroves are the valuable biomes which play a pivotal role in the maintenance of equilibrium of the
estuarine region. Its importance was realised when the areas with mangroves cover were spared from the
havoc created by Indian Ocean tsunami waves which hit the southern shores of India on 26 December,
2004.
A mangrove is a shrub or a small tree which can grow in saline or brackish water and thus are adapted to
survive in harsh coastal conditions of tropics and subtropics. The word ‘mangrove’ has probably originated
from the Portuguese word ‘mangue’, Spanish word ‘ mangle’, with the association of English word ‘grove’.
They belong to the genus Rhizophora of the family Rhizophoraceae.
They are ecologically distinct group of halophytic plant communities which are one of the most productive
and biologically important ecosystems of the world. There are about 153 mangrove species in India, among
which 36 species are true mangroves and the rest are mangrove associates.
Mangroves are seen in every continent, in the region between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
Indian mangroves occupy about 3.1% of the total global mangrove cover, with a total coverage of 4662.5 sq.
km and are distributed along the coastlines of Gujarat, Goa, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar islands (not in Lakshadweep), of which those in
West Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar islands are very dense.
The Sundarbans in WB is considered as the largest mangrove in terms of richness in biodiversity and
contribution to coastal fisheries. It has also been included in the World Heritage category since it is the
only tiger reserve in saline marshy mangrove habitat. Mangroves in Gujarat occupies second position (1058
sq.km) after West Bengal (2155 sq. km).
The members of a mangrove community have to be tolerant to saline, low O2 conditions, hot and humid
climate, and also many extreme environmental phenomena and thus very few species make up to that. The
red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle) can thrive in O2 deficient conditions with the aid of lenticels in their
bark, through which they can absorb air. The aerenchyma cells in the roots also help them to survive in
inundated environment.
According to Thom’s classification of estuarine habitats, India’s mangroves can be broadly classified into:
1. Deltaic: Found within the deltas of Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery
rivers, along the east coast.
2. Backwater-Estuarine: In the estuaries of Indus, Narmada and Tapi rivers. Found along the west coast
3. Insular types: Found in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Relevance of Mangroves
The ecosystem of mangroves, called ‘mangals’ are highly productive and support more than 80% of the
marine catches. They harbour a number of faunal species including fishes (mud skippers, carangids,
mullets, tilapia, milkfish, hilsa and others), praws, shrimps, snails, molluscs and even support migratory
and resident birds, estuarine crocodile (Crocodilus porosus) and the famous Royal Bengal Tiger, in the
Sundarbans of West Bengal.
Large number of terrestrial, semi aquatic, arboreal and aquatic organisms depend on this vegetation for
feeding as well as for breeding purposes. Since mangroves are located in the edge of sea and land, they can
act as live protective barriers against tsunami and tropical storms.
Conclusion
Mangrove forests are vital for healthy coastal ecosystems of the world. Realising their importance, July 26
is widely observed as International Mangroves Day. But mangroves are declining rapidly as they are
getting degraded for agriculture, tourism, urban development and overexploitation.
If there are no mangroves, the sea will be like a tree without roots. Helping the wetlands to help us can
undoubtedly save the mankind for the years to come.
Introduction
Coriander is an annual herb, mainly cultivated for its fruits as well as for the tender green leaves and
belongs to the member of Apiaceae family. It is native of the Mediterranean region and is now commercially
grown in India, Morocco, U.S.S.R, Hungary, Poland, Rumania, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, Mexico and the
U.S.A. In India, it is grown in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
The fruits have a fragrant odour and pleasant aromatic taste. The odour and taste are due to the essential
oil content which varies from 0.1 to 1.0 percent in the dry seeds. These essential oils are used for flavouring
liquors, cocoa preparations in confectionary and also to mask the offensive odours in pharmaceutical
preparations. The dried ground fruits are the major ingredient of the curry powder. The whole fruits are
also used to flavour foods like pickles, sauces and confectionary. The young plants as well as the leaves are
used in the preparation of chutney and are also used as seasoning in curries, soups, sauces and chutneys.
It has medicinal properties too. Fruits are said to have carminative, diuretic, tonic, stomachic and
aphrodisiac properties.
Uses
All parts of the plant are edible, but the fresh leaves and dried seeds are the parts most traditionally used
in cooking, Coriander is used in cuisines throughout the world.
Varieties
Co.1:
a. Superior variety of germplasm selection (TNAU).
b. Dual purpose, 110 days, Tolerant to grain mould.
c. Seed yield of 800 kg/ha (rainfed conditions) and 2000 kg/ha (irrigated conditions).
Co.2:
a. Reselection from the type P2 of Gujarat.
b. High yielding dual purpose variety, tolerant to drought.
c. 90-100 days, yield (600-700 kg/ha).
Co.3:
a. Pure line selection from Acc. No. 695, IARI.
b. Dual purpose, less susceptible to wilt and grain mould.
c. Duration is 90 days, yields (650-700 kg/ha).
Co(Cr.4): It is a newly released multi cut type yields better than Co.3.
CS 287:
a. Recurrent selection from CS.6.
b. Small, bold grain, tolerant to wilt and grain mould, suit for rainfed tracts.
Karan:
a. Developed through recurrent selection, based on progeny testing.
b. Small seeded, highly resistant against wilt and stem gall disease (Sharma and Bhatti, 1986).
CIMPOS-33: An improved strain developed by intensive selection from Bulgarian material
CS.2:
a. Selection from the germplasm collection Warangal
b. Medium to tall, more branching, bushy type with 83 cm height.
c. Yield of 1,350 kg/ha.
Other varieties are GAU1, UD1, 2, 20 and 21.
Seed Rate
1. 10 - 12 kg/ha (Irrigated crop).
2. 20 – 25 kg/ha (Rainfed crop).
3. Whole seed will not germinate and hence the seeds are split open into halves before sowing for more
germination percentage.
Seed Treatment
1. Soak the seeds in water for 12 hours. Treat the seeds with Azospirillum @ 1.5 kg /ha for better crop
establishment + Trichoderma viride @ 50 kg/ha to control wilt disease.
2. Pre sowing seed hardening treatment with Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate @ 10 g/lit of water for 16
hours is to be done for rainfed crop.
Manuring
1. Basal: FYM 10 t/ha; 10 kg N, 40 kg P and 20 kg K for rainfed and irrigated crops.
2. Top dressing: Top dressing may be done at 10 kg N/ha 30 days after sowing for the irrigated crop only.
After Cultivation
Pre-emergence spray of herbicide Fluchloralin 700 ml in 500 lit/ha. Thinning is done 30 days after sowing.
Subsequent weeding is done as and when necessary. Leave 2 plants per hill. Spray CCC @ 250 ppm one
month after sowing for inducing drought tolerance in rainfed crops.
Powdery Mildew
Seed treatment with Pseudomonas fluorescens (Pf 1) @ 10 g /kg and foliar spray of Pf1 2 g/lit or Spray
Wettable sulphur 1 kg/ha or Dinocap 250 ml/ha at the time of initial appearance of the disease and 2nd
spray at 10 days interval. Neem seed kernel extracts 5 % spray thrice (1st spray immediately after the
appearance of disease, 2nd and 3rd at 10 days interval).
Wilt
Seed treatment with Pseudomonas fluorescens @10g /kg followed by soil application of Pf1 @ 5 kg /ha.
Grain Mould
Grain mould can be controlled by spraying Carbendazim 0.1% (500 g/ha) 20 days after grain set.
Harvest
The plants are pulled just when the fruits are fully ripe but green and start drying. The plants are dried
and thrashed with sticks, winnowed and cleaned. For leaf, pull out the plants when they are 30-40 days
old.
Yield
1. Rainfed Grain yield: 300-400 kg/ha.
2. Irrigated: 500-600 kg/ha.
2. Leaf yield: 6-7 t/ha.
Introduction
A significant portion of beneficial/ superior alleles were not utilized till date in plant breeding as these were
left behind during evolution and domestication. This untapped genetic variation existing in wild relatives
and land races of crop plants could be exploited gainfully for development of agronomically superior
cultivars through the introgression of novel gene from wild relatives.
With rapid accumulation of sequence and expression data in various genomic databases, accelerated
discovery and annotation of new genes can be expected which would enable the development of allele-
specific markers. Based on gene and genome sequences, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) strategies are
devised to isolate useful alleles of genes from a wide range of species.
This capability enables direct access to key alleles conferring resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses,
greater nutrient use efficiency, enhanced yield and improved quality. Using novel genomic tools, similar
alleles responsible for a given trait and their variants in other genotypes can be identified. This is often
referred to as ‘dissection of naturally occurring variation at candidate genes/loci’ or simply ‘allele mining’.
Identification of allelic variants from germplasm collections not only provides new germplasm for delivering
novel alleles to targeted trait improvement but also categorizes the germplasm entries for their
conservation. Mutation is considered as an evolutionary driving force, which underlies existing allelic
diversity in any crop species either, by creation of SNPs or INDELs.
Initial studies of allele mining have focused only on the identification of SNPs/InDels at coding sequences
or exons of the gene, since these variations were expected to affect the encoded protein structure and/or
function. Recent reports indicate that the nucleotide changes in non-coding regions (5′ UTR) including
promoter, introns and 3′ UTR) also have significant effects on transcript synthesis and accumulation that
in turn alter the trait expression.
Two major approaches are available for the identification of sequence polymorphisms for a given gene in
the naturally occurring populations. They are:
1. Modified TILLING (Targeting Induced Local Lesions in Genomes) procedure called EcoTilling
2. Sequencing-based allele mining.
Modified Tilling
While TILLING is a technique that can identify polymorphisms (more specifically point mutations)
resulting from induced mutations in a target gene by heteroduplex analysis. EcoTilling, represents a means
to determine the extent of natural variation in selected genes in crops. The mutations are not induced
artificially and are detected from naturally occurring alleles in the primary and secondary crop gene pools.
Like TILLING,
EcoTilling also relies on the enzymatic cleavage of heteroduplexed DNA (formed due to single nucleotide
mismatch in sequence between reference and test genotype) with a single strand specific nuclease (i.e., Cel-
1, mung bean nuclease, S1 nuclease, etc.) under specific conditions followed by detection through Li-Cor
genotypers (Li-Cor, USA). At point mutations, there will be a cleavage by the nuclease to produce two
cleaved products whose sizes will be equal to the size of full-length product.
The presence, type and location of point mutation or SNP will be confirmed by sequencing the amplicon
from the test genotype that carry the mutation. Although TILLING and EcoTilling were proposed as cost
effective approaches for haplotyping and SNP discovery, these techniques require more sophistication and
involve several steps starting from making DNA pools of reference and test genotypes, specific conditions
for efficient cleavage by nuclease, detection in polyacrylamide gels using Li- Cor genotyper and confirming
through sequencing.
Perspective
1. A vital link between effective utilization of genetic and genomic resources
2. Keep pace with ever-increasing sequence data in GenBank and ever-expanding crop gene banks.
3. Develop tools and strategies should be equally focused on handling both genetic and genome resources.
4. As efficient tools for data mining and cost-effective and high throughput sequencing platforms become
available, it is certainly expected that sequencing-based allele mining would emerge as a method of choice
in revealing natural variations and in providing novel and effective alleles and would take centre stage for
all crop improvement activities.
References
Kumar G.R., Sakthivel K. Sundaram R.M., et al. (2010). Allele mining in crops: prospects and potentials. Biotechnol Adv. 28(4):451‐
461.
Introduction
Value addition is the process in which for same volume of a primary product, a high price is realized by
means of processing, packaging, upgrading the quality or other such methods. Value-Added is defined as
the addition of time, place, and/or form utility to a commodity in order to meet the tastes/preferences of
consumers. Value addition in food products will result in nutrient-rich products which have a higher degree
of quality, meet the standards set by different authorities and are safer for consumption. Sometimes, value
addition can be done in any food products using different methods and one such food product is okra. Okra,
scientifically known as Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench which belongs to family Malvaceae having
chromosome no, 2x =130. Okra is a multipurpose crop valued for its tender and nutritious pods. Okra per
100g of edible fruits it consists of dry-matter 10.4g, energy 3100 calorie, protein 1.8g, calcium 90mg, iron
1.0mg, thiamine 0.07mg, riboflavin 0.08mg, niacin 0.08mg, vitamin C 18mg, the dry seeds contain 13-22%
edible oil and protein 20-24%. It has many medicinal properties like reducing blood glucose levels, lowering
cholesterol levels, reducing the risk of colon cancer, immune system booster etc. Here in this article, new
techniques of value addition in okra which is the most important vegetable crop of the tropical and
subtropical regions of the world will be enlightened.
Conventional Methods
Usually okra can be subjected to value addition by various methods, some traditional methods followed
earlier are as below:
1. Drying / Dehydration: Drying is the removal of a liquid from a solid by evaporation, the necessary
heat of vaporization being provided by conduction from a solid surface, convective from a hot gas, or
radiation whereas Dehydration is the process of removal of moisture by application of artificial heat under
controlled conditions of temperature, humidity and air. The methods used here are Open-sun drying, Hot
air drying, Vacuum drying, Infrared drying, Methods of drying, Microwave drying.
2. Freeze drying/ Lyophilization of Okra: Removal of ice or frozen solvent from a material through the
process of sublimation and removal of bound water molecules through the process of desorption.
3. Canning of Okra: Canning is the process of sterilizing and sealing food in airtight containers to
preserve them and to retain nutrients and quality.
Non-Conventional Methods
The details about non-conventional or novel methods of value addition okra is presented below:
1. Fibre extraction: The method used here is stagnant water retting. This process of retting removes the
waxy epidermal tissue, adhesive pectin and hemicelluloses that bind the fibre bundles to each other. The
okra plants were bundled comprising of 350-400 plants, each of these bundles were immersed in a concrete
tank containing soft water for ten days. Later the stalks of the plant were tapped slightly with wooden
hammer for removal of soft pulp. In order to separate the pulp, it was scrapped with the help of a knife.
This is once again immersed and left in the tank for five days. Then the fibres will be separated thoroughly
from the pulp, washed, combed and exposed to sunlight for two days until the odour is removed from fibres.
Fibre yield is only four percent of the weight of green plant. The retting process required 10 days for initial
soaking and 5 days for final retting. For drying it takes 2 days in bright sun light and open air. So, the
complete fibre extraction process requires 17 days. About 200 litres of water and 9 labours may be needed
for the complete process of seventeen days.
2. Seed oil extraction: Most commonly followed method for seed oil extraction of vegetable seed oil is
solvent method using soxhlet apparatus on a heating mantle. The solvent used is n-Hexane. The milled
Conclusion
Value addition has become a key word of success in agricultural trade in international market, value
addition helps in avoidance of post-harvest losses, increases product diversification, foreign exchange,
employment generation, export and easy marketing of product. It is therefore appropriate time to come out
of primary processing and get into newer product development and marketing of ready to use products
through value addition.
References
1. AKOJA, S. S. AND COKER, O. J., 2018, Physicochemical, functional, pasting and sensory properties of wheat flour biscuit
incorporated with okra powder. Int. J. Food Sci. & Nutri., 3(5): 64-70.
2. EMANUEL, O. A. AND MOOYA, A., 2017, Food processing technologies and value addition for improved food safety and
security. Smart Tech. Sust. Small Hold Ag., 10: 201-210.
3. SHUBANGI, P. CHINWAN, D., 2014, Value addition of food crops. Int. J. Eng. & Sci. Rea., 4(12): 946-949.
(Rajasthan).
RNA interference (RNAi) is a naturally occurring mechanism that leads to the “silencing” of genes. In
consequence, the respective protein is no longer synthesised. In nature, this mechanism is used for the
regulation of specific genes and is also applied as a defence against viruses. RNA interference (RNAi) is a
form of post transcriptional gene regulation in which non translated double stranded RNA (dsRNA)
molecules called small interfering RNA (siRNA) mediate sequence specific degradation of target messenger
RNA (mRNA). RNA silencing is a novel gene regulatory mechanism that limits the transcript level by either
suppressing transcription (TGS) or by activating a sequence- Specific RNA degradation process
[PTGS/RNA interference (RNAi)]. The silencing effect was first observed in plants in 1990, when the
Jorgensen laboratory introduced exogenous transgenes into petunias in an attempt to up-regulate the
activity of a gene for chalcone synthase, an enzyme involved in the production of specific pigments (Agrawal
et al., 2003). The natural function of RNAi is referring to the mechanism involved in cellular defence against
viruses, genomic containment of retro-transposons, and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression.
RNAi can specifically silence individual genes, creating knockout phenotypes, either in transformants that
can produce the required hairpin RNAs, or upon infection with recombinant RNA viruses that carry the
target gene (VIGS, viral-induced gene silencing) (Tenea, 2009).RNAi is a multistep process involving the
generation of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) in vivo through the action of the RNase III endonuclease
‘Dicer’. The resulting 21- to 23-nt siRNAs mediate degradation of their complementary RNA (Zou et al.,
2005).
Process of RNAi
In general, RNAi is triggered by double stranded RNA, which may be produced naturally in a cell or may
enter the cell exogenously. An enzyme, called Dicer, cuts the long double stranded RNA into small pieces
of approximately 21 nucleotides length. These small pieces could be miRNA (micro RNA; originating from
endogenous long dsRNA) or siRNA (small interfering RNA; originating from exogenous sources). These
RNAs then bind to the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). After binding, one strand of the double
stranded RNA is removed, leaving the remaining strand available to bind to messenger RNA target
sequences. This strand is complementary to the sequence of the target mRNA. RNA Induced Silencing
Complex (RISC) cleaves mRNA or represses their translation by homology dependent mRNA degradation,
which effectively silences the gene. The use of RNAi has been extensively reported for modifying plants to
enhance their nutritive value, pathogen and pest resistance, decreasing amount of unwanted metabolite
production, etc.
Recently two RNAi based crops have been given regulatory approval for commercial production and sale.
These are the non-browning Arctic apples and the non-browning Innate potatoes. The firms producing
these crops claim that the idea behind producing the non-browning apples and potatoes is not only to
improve the look of the product, but it is also intended to increase the consumption of the raw fruits along
with reducing naturally occurring carcinogens (as in the case of innate potatoes). While the science behind
both these products is a little complicated as both are RNAi based, in simple way it can be put as both
apples and potatoes have certain genes suppressed. Both of them, though genetically modified, are grown
the same way as conventional varieties. These products are likely to find a place of attraction in the fresh-
cut product sales.
Mechanism of RNAi
1. The entry of long double stranded RNA, such as an introduced transgene, a rogue genetic element or a
viral intruder, triggers the RNAi pathway of cells. This results in the recruitment of the enzyme Dicer.
Advantages of RNAi
1. This technology is highly gene specific.
2. High gene silencing efficiency.
3. Screening targeted plants takes less time.
4. It is highly inducible.
Disadvantages of RNAi
1. It does not knockout a gene for 100%.
2. siRNA tends to activate unwanted pathways.
References
1. Agrawal N, Dasaradhi P V N, Mohmmed A, Malhotra P, Bhatnagar R K, Mukherjee S K (2003). RNA Interference: Biology,
Mechanism, and Applications. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 67: 657-685.
2. Tenea G N (2009). Exploring the world of RNA interference in plant functional genomics: a research tool for many biology
phenomena, Centre of Microbial Biotechnology pp. 4360-4364.
3. Zou G M, Yoder Mervin C (2005). Application of RNA interference to study stem cell function: current status and future
perspectives. Biol. Cell 97: 211–219.
Abstract
The Greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions from agriculture and allied sectors are mainly CH4, N2O, and
CO2. Rice occupies 11% of the global arable land and it is responsible for 10.1% of total agricultural
emissions. In rice systems, it has been shown that CH4 emissions are high relative to N2O emissions and
therefore the focus should be on reducing CH4 emissions. Emissions during the growing season of rice can
be reduced mostly by water management, nutrient management, tillage management, cropping system
management and integrated farming. Rice straw is the primary source of C for CH4 production during the
early growth period of rice plants. Management practices for minimizing N2O emissions from rice paddy
soils and increase Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) include: better matching of N supply to crop demand,
using improved fertilizer management techniques including controlled release fertilizers, use of
nitrification inhibitors and timing of fertilizer application.
Keywords: Greenhouse gases (GHGs), CH4, N2O, nitrification inhibitors.
Introduction
In the global context of addressing climate change, the key GHGs are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), and chlorofluorocarbon (CFC). The GHG emissions from agriculture and
allied sectors are mainly CO2, CH4, and N2O. The CO2 released from agriculture is considered neutral due
to photosynthesis and fixation. The high level of GHG emissions from agriculture is due to application of
different sources of nutrients for raising crop production, high rate of decomposition of biomass and plant
residues, plant respiration, livestock rearing, enteric fermentation in ruminants, manure handling, and
burning of crop residues. Globally, 50.1 Gt CO2 eq GHGs are emitted from anthropogenic sources in which
agriculture (direct sources) accounts for about 5.0-5.8 Gt CO2 eq (⁓10-12%). Including indirect sources is
likely to account for a further 3-6% of the global emissions. Amongst the agricultural crops, rice (Oryza
sativa) accounting for 11% of the global arable and the world's second most produced staple crop is
responsible for 10.1% of total agricultural emissions and about 1.3%-1.8% of the global anthropogenic GHG
emissions. Rice production is the second largest anthropogenic source of CH 4 with a global warming
potential (GWP) of 25 and N2O with a GWP of 298. By 2050, there will be nine billion people which will
necessitate a rise of 60% agricultural production (including rice). About 80% of yield increase will come
from intensification (use of more fertiliser, pesticides and water inputs, multiple cropping, shorter fallow
periods and improved seed varieties) and another 20% from extensification. Both intensification and
extensification are likely to demand more farm inputs, thus generating a larger proportion of GHG
emissions. About 75% of the world's paddy is produced in continuously flooded condition. However, flooding
results in anaerobic conditions and therefore promotes methanogenesis and methane emissions whereas
decreases N2O emission. Therefore, paddy cultivation is one of the chief sources of CH4, accounting for
about 11% of global CH4 emissions (493-723 Mt CO2 eq) in 2010. Moreover, rice stubble is either left on the
ground to decay or burnt to ashes hence, produces both CH4 and N2O emissions. Therefore, this calls for
certain mitigation practices to lower the level of GHGs emission from paddy fields.
Mitigation Strategies
In rice systems, it has been shown that CH4 emissions are high relative to N2O emissions and therefore the
focus should be on reducing CH4 emissions. Mitigation strategies should be selected based on their effect
on CH4, N2O and CO2 emission and their total GWP. Mitigation potentials for CO2 represent the net change
in soil carbon pools, reflecting the accumulated difference between carbon inputs to the soil after CO2
uptake by plants, and release of CO2 by decomposition. Emissions during the growing season of rice can be
reduced mostly by water management, nutrient management, tillage management, cropping system
Conclusion
Water management through alternate wetting and drying or intermittent irrigation or mid-season
drainage proves to be an effective mitigation tool to reduce CH4 emissions on the other hand it increases
N2O emission. Management of nitrogenous fertilizers through nitrification inhibitors or slow release
fertilizers or right source of fertilizer reduces the emission of N2O. Incorporation of rice straw in rice fields
increases the emission of CH4. Biochar application in rice is effective in reducing GHG emissions for short
term basis only. Integrated rice-fish farming increases or decreases the emission of CH4 and N2O depending
on the foraging habit of the fish.
Bibliography
1. Segers, R., 1998. Methane production and methane consumption: a review of processesunderlying wetland methane fluxes.
Biogeochemistry. 4:23–51.
2. Eichner, M.J., 1990. Nitrous oxide emissions from fertilized soils: summary of available data. J. Environ. Qual. 19(2):272–280.
3. Nayak, D.R., Saetnan, E., Cheng, K., Wang, W., Koslowski, F., Cheng, Y.F., Zhu, W.Y., Wang, J.K., Liu, J.X., Moran, D.,
Cardenas, L., Newbold, J., Pan, G., Lu, Y. and Smith, P., 2015. Management opportunities to mitigate greenhouse gas
emissions from Chinese agriculture. Agri. Eco. Envt. 209:108-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2015.04.035.
Introduction
Molasses, an adhesive brown liquid organic material with a specific gravity of 1.4, is a by-product in the
industrial process of producing crude sugar from Saccharum officinarumand Beta vulgaris. It is the most
easily decomposable organic substance and source of alcohol and other chemicals. It is an important
constituent of animal feeds. The use of sugar beet molasses in agriculture stimulates nutrient elements
uptake efficiency and soil biological activity. Several studies have shown that the molasses, organic acids,
amino acids, humic and Fulvic acids have significant effects on plant growth. Sugar beet molasses contains
different amounts of humic, fulvic and amino acids (Samatav and Samatav, 2014). Humic substances are
the major components of soil organic matter, and they are used in various areas of agriculture such as soil
chemistry, fertility, plant physiology, as well as environmental sciences, because of multiple ways in which
these materials can greatly benefit the plant growth (Lobartini et al., 1997). Molasses sterilize soil partially
and increase nitrogen fixation (Rouillard, 1954). The majority of sugar producing countries have found
more profitable outlets for their molasses and do not use much on the land. it may be concluded from work
in these, and other countries, that where soils are deficient in potash and of poor structure, the application
of molasses is highly beneficial. In the past molasses has been used as a fertilizer and soil improver
particularly on sandy soil and soil of poor structure (Barnes, 1954). Molasses supplies carbohydrates and
alters C: N ratio which affects soil microbial ecology and lowers plant parasitic nematodes as well as
provides other favourable effects on plant growth (Schenck, 2001). Filter mud cake, FYM and molasses
increased NPK uptake and yields (Abo-Baker, 2017). Molasses improves soil aggregation and reduces
surface crusting in hard-setting soils (Wynne and Meyer, 2002). In the soils, high in potash with good
physical properties, the response appears to be proportional only to the nitrogen content of the molasses,
and can be equalled by the application of ammonium sulphate or any other form of nitrogen. The effect of
molasses on the soil is firstly to supply considerable quantities of plant food, particularly potassium, but
also appreciable amounts of nitrogen, magnesium, phosphate and calcium. It improves the tilth of soil and
bring about an increase in the number and stability of the soil aggregates.
What is Molasses?
Molasses is a highly viscous and dark coloured organic substance produced in the process of sugar refining.
It is made by boiling down sugar cane or sugar beet juice into a thick syrup. Once sugar crystals are
extracted, a syrup that remains is called molasses. Different types of molasses are available, they vary in
sweetness and in the way they are extracted. Molasses made from sugar cane is often made into sweeteners
or used as a flavouring for foods. Sugar beet molasses, on the other hand, has an unpleasant smell and is
unpalatable, so it is normally used as an animal feed additive. Not all types of molasses are suitable for
soil application. Only the organic molasses is suitable for crop production.
Types of Molasses
There are different types of molasses, from light coloured molasses that is pure sugarcanesyrup, to dark
molasses and then blackstrap molasses which is denser and thicker than the other types. Blackstrap
molasses has undergone multiple boiling and extraction processes, so that it has the highest concentration
of vitamins, micro and macro elements. It is very rich in calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium and other
valuable elements.
Composition of Molasses
The composition of molasses varies according to numerous factors that include the maturity and variety of
cane milled, climatic conditions, soil type, fertiliser history and process of manufacture (Baker, 1975). In
general molasses comprises about 20% water and 80% solids of which 55% is sucrose, 25% non-sugars and
10% mineral constituents usually represented as sulphated ash. The fertiliser value of molasses is due
mainly to about seventy per cent of the potassium in the cane crop entering the mill, going into solution
with sucrose in the juice and reappearing in the inorganic fraction of molasses.
Conclusion
Molasses is used as both nutrient and insecticide. It helps in keeping pests away from plants for ensuring
the speedy growth. It used primarily as a source of K. It also contains secondary elements in small
quantities such as P, S, Ca, Mg and numerous trace elements. In the soil it can feed microbes to stimulate
the conversion of nitrates to the more efficient NH2 to synthesize protein more directly by the plants. The
References
1. Abo-Baker AA (2017) Succesive application impact of some organic amendments combined with acid producing bacteria on soil
properties, NPK availability and uptake by some plants. International Journal of Current Micro-Biology andAppilied Sciences,
2394-2413.
2. Baker, BP (1975). Composition, properties and uses of molasses and related products.United.
3. Barnes AC (1954) Agriculture of Sugarcane. London: Leonard-Hill ltd.
4. Chandraju S., Basavaraju H.C. and ChidankumarC.S. (2008)Investigation of impact of Irrigation of distillery on the nutrients
of cabbage and mint leaf. Indian Sugar, 39(19):15-28.
5. concentration of corn under calcareous conditions. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 37:2074-2084.
6. Leventoglu H., Erdal İ.(2014). Effect of high humic substance levels on growth and nutrient.
7. Lobartini J.C., Orioli G.A. and Tan K.H.(1997). Characteristics of soil humic acid fractionsseparated by ultrafiltration.
Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 28:787-796.
8. Makela K., Jokinen K., Kontturi M., Peltonen-Sainio P., Pehu E. and Somersalo S., (1998). Foliar application of glycinebetaine
a novel product from sugar beet as an approach to increase tomato yield. Industrial Crops and Products, 7:139–148.
9. Molasses Trading Co. Ltd, London. 80 pp.
10. Mweresa C.K., Omusula P., Otieno B., Van Loon J.J.A., Takken W. and Mukabana, W.R., (2014). Molasses as a source of
carbon dioxide for attracting the malaria mosquitoes Anophelesgambiae and Anopheles funestus. Malaria Journal, 13:160.
11. Pujar, S.S. (1995). Effect of distillery effluent irrigation on growth, yield and quality of crops. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, University
of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, India.
12. Pyakurel, A. ,Dahal B. R., Rijal, S (2019)Effect of Molasses and Organic Fertilizer in Soil fertility and Yield of Spinach in
Khotang, Nepal. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 7(1): 49-53.
13. Rouillard G (1954)Annual report 1954. Mauritus: Mauritus Sugar Industry.
14. Samavat S and Samavat S (2014) Effects of fulvic acid and sugarcane molasses on yeild and qualities of tomato. International
Resaerch Journal of Applied and Basic Sciences 8 (3): 266-268.
15. Sanli, A., karadoğan, T.,tosun, B (2015) The Effects of Sugar Beet Molasses Applications on Root Yield and Sugar Content of
Sugar Beet (Beta vulgaris L.).TarlaBitkileri Merkez AraştırmaEnstitusuDergisi, 2015, 24 (2):103-108.
16. Schenck S (2001)Molasses Soil Amendment for Crop Improvements and Nematode Management. Hawaii:Hawaii Agriculture
Research centre.
17. Suliasih and Widawati S (2017) Effect of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria and molasses on seed germination and seedling
growth of Sorghum bicolor(Moench). (pp. 94- 99). Research Centre for Biology Indonesian Institute of Sciences.
18. Wynne AT and Meyer JH (2002)An Economic Assesment Of Using Molasses and Condensed Molasses Solids as a Fertilizer in
South African Sugar Industry. Mount Edgecombo: South African Sugar Association Experiment Station.
Summary
Rotavator means use of rotary power for doing work. It is a tractor mounted PTO operated machine which
is used for both primary and secondary tillage operations. It uses the tractor engine power directly to the
soil by means of PTO with reduced slippage. The all in one rotary tiller does several operations at a time.
It helps in opening up of any type of land (dry, wet, sticky), pulverizes the soil to provide good tilth and
levelling the soil at the same time. Besides, seed cum fertilizer drill is used for both sowing the seed and
fertilization process after seed bed preparation. The seed drill effectively sows seeds at equal distances and
drops the fertilizer at proper depth and helps to avoid wastage. This is used for sowing different types of
seeds. Rotavator is used for land preparation and seed cum fertilizer drill is used for sowing the seed along
with the fertilizer application. Both the operations are done by using different implements one after
another. Rotovator and seed cum fertilizer drill together combined as roto seed drill for doing two different
operations simultaneously at the same time. This not only reduces the operating time but also increases
the efficiency, beside making the operation so economical.
Introduction
Roto seed drill is a machine which is specially designed for direct sowing of seed after harvesting of paddy
or any other crop besides, crushing and pulverizing the soil by mixing the stubbles of previous crop. Hence
this can be called as all-in-one agricultural implement which helps in land preparation for good seed bed
and sowing of seeds simultaneously at the same time by maintaining proper spacing and placing the
fertilizer at proper depth without wasting the seed and fertilizer. This reduces the operating time and
increases the efficiency beside making the operation so economical.
Principle of Operation
Roto seed drill works by means of rotary power which is generated by the blades used on each flange
clamped together to the rotor shaft for generating the required power. More the number of blades on the
flange and less the distance between the blades results in efficient pulverization and better crushing of
clods of the soil, besides, the seed cum fertilizer drill consists of a seed box (for placing the seeds), fertilizer
box (for placing the fertilizer), seed and fertilizer metering mechanisms, seed tubes, furrow openers,
adjusting lever for seed and fertilizer rate and power transmitting wheel or transportation wheel. The
fluted rollers inside the seed box, which are driven by a shaft that gets power from wheels. Fluted rollers
fastened within the seed box, receive the seeds into longitudinal grooves and drop them in the seed tube
which is connected to the furrow openers. By shifting the rollers sideways, the length of the grooves exposed
to the seed, can be adjusted and hence the total amount of seed sown can be varied. Based on the different
field conditions, the working width of the roto seed drill can be increased or decreased according to the
necessity. The speed of the rotor can be reduced or increased by the changing the size of the gears available
within the gear box according to different field conditions. Different working widths of Roto seed drill are
available for different field conditions. Matching the horse power of the tractor with working width gives
efficient work. Change in working width of the machine also changes the number of blades on the rotor
shaft and number of furrow openers of seed drill.
Conclusion
Roto seed drill can be best suitable for almost all types of field condition. Instead of using two different
implements/machineries for seed bed preparation as well as for sowing the seeds along with fertilizer
application, it is desirable to use a single machine which works satisfactorily in desired depth and soil
conditions in a single pass. It reduces labour, time, fuel and increases efficiency of the operation besides
being economical in operation. But the right thing to achieve desirable field conditions is to match the
available tractor horse power with the roto seed drill size and the blades along with furrow openers required
for different field conditions.
Introduction
There are countless models and decision support tools currently under development or already available
for describing and predicting the effects of land management practices on soil nitrogen dynamics. While
many of these models have been used effectively for modelling soil Nitrogen (N) dynamics in research
situations (Paustian et al., 1992). Soil N models must meet specific criteria in order to be useful as decision
support tools for farmers, especially farmers who are striving to comply with the Nitrates Directive.
Computer models is a broad term used to describe a variety of computer programmes, which can be
conceptual, analytical or numerical, and help to identify, explain and tackle problems (Defra, 2006).
Decision support tools (DST) are software packages based on models that present key information in a
“decision appropriate fashion using computer power to search through many thousands of options for viable
management solutions” (Defra, 2006).
Technologies
1. Precision agriculture - mapping soil fertility in a field through the use of Global Positioning System
(GPS) -based maps and use of variable rate application equipment.
2. Site-specific management.
3. Remote sensing - electromagnetic energy that is emitted or reflected from plants and convert this energy
into data that can be used in soil fertility evaluation.
The ultimate value of these increasingly sophisticated technologies, however, lies in our ability to interpret
the results. An ideal recommendation system would need the following to be adopted by farmers:
1. Show financial / environmental benefits of saving on N applications.
2. Needs to be easy to understand / implement / no extra work load.
3. Needs to be low cost.
4. An effective tool for technology transfer is required, for example Ireland BETTER farms / discussion
groups (theory into practice).
5. Link up with industry partners and train / understand new technology.
6. A range of dissemination methods.
7. Provide technical support / website / iPhone etc.
8. Monitor and fine tune the system to meet crop requirements.
GPS and GIS based soil pH map GPS and GIS based soil organic carbon
content map
GPS and GIS based soil available nitrogen GPS and GIS based soil available
content map phosphorous content map
The challenge for all disciplines of agriculture is to increases production and improves the quality of
produce. As a global scenario, plant diseases are a major challenges and biotic constraints which leads to
significant crop yield losses in terms of both quantity and quality of the produce. Over the past few decades,
the excessive & unnecessary use of chemical pesticides was the dominant form of disease control and
subsequently created many problems such as the frequent emergence of fungicide resistance in pathogens
and the harmful effects of fungicides to human health and negative impact on plants and environment. To
overcome all these problems, adopting integrated disease management strategy as a alternative tools for
disease management. Integrated disease management (IDM) is a sustainable approach which combines all
the suitable techniques such as biological, cultural, physical and chemical control strategies in a holistic
way rather than using a single component strategy proved to be more effective and sustainable and
minimizes economic, health and environmental risks. But in current scenario, due to the changing climatic
conditions, the plant pathogenic organisms have developed the different types of resistance mechanisms
against pesticides and also emergence of new race of the pathogens in environment through which diseases
caused by the pathogens has become resistant which is very difficult task to manage it effectively by
adopting the traditional approaches including IDM. So, for this, scientists have evolved a novel, emerging
and latest and most popular technique known as CRISPR/CAS9 based genome editing technology through
which plant disease can be managed by developing disease resistance in plants at genetic level.
CRISPR/CAS9 is an important tool for genome editing in an organism. Genome editing is a technology
which can produce modifications such as insertion/deletion/substitution at specific sites in the genome of
an organism.
CRISPR stands for clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats. It is an array of short repeated
sequences separated/ interspaced by spacers sequence derived from foreign DNA with unique sequences.
First report of CRISPR clusters by Ishino et al. in E. Coli bacteria in 1987. CRISPR is a defence system in
bacteria which fight against the phage infection and provide sequence-specific adaptive immunity acts by
integrating short virus sequences in the cell's CRISPR locus, allowing the cell to remember, recognize and
clear infections. There are different tools for genome editing process which includes Meganucleases, Zinc
Finger Nucleases (ZFNs), Transcription Activator Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs), CRISPR/Cas9 and
CRISPR/Cas12a (also called CRISPR/Cpf1). Among these, CRISPR/Cas9 is most popular and efficient
technique. It has two components such as Cas9 protein and a guide RNA (cr-RNA). RNA (cr-RNA) guides
the Cas9 protein to the complementary sequence on target DNA which is subsequently cleaved by Cas9
proteins. The mechanisms of the CRISPR/Cas9 system can be easily understood by three different stages.
The first stage is adaptation, which leads to insertion of new spacers in the CRISPR locus. In the second
stage, expression, the system gets ready for action by expressing the cas genes (cas operon) and transcribing
the CRISPR into a long precursor CRISPR RNA (pre-crRNA). The pre-crRNA is subsequently processed
into mature crRNA by Cas proteins (endo-nuclease activity) and accessory factors. In the third and last
stage, interference, the combined action of cr-RNA and tracr-RNA(transactivating cr-RNA) fused into
single sg-RNA(small guide RNA) which interact with their target DNA through complementary base
pairing and Cas proteins associated with it, recognized the PAM (Protospacer Adjacent Motif) region in
target DNA and ultimately degrade/destroy the target DNA and make them inactive. The application of
CRISPR/Cas9 is being used at molecular level like gene deletion/ insertion/ replacement, base editing,
transcription modulation and DNA labelling, etc and as a practical application level, it is being used in
References
1. Overton, J. 1996. Ecologically Based Pest Management-New Solutions for a New Century. National Academy Press,
Washington DC, USA.
2. Zhang, K., Raboanatahiry, N., Zhu B. and Li M. 2017. Progress in genome editing technology and its application in plants.
Front. Plant Sci. 8:177.
3. Ishino Y., Shinagawa H., Makino K., Amemura M. and Nakata A. 1987. Nucleotide sequence of the iap gene, responsible for
alkaline phosphatase isozyme conversion in Escherichia coli, and identification of the gene product. J. Bacteriol. 169: 5429–
5433.
4. Jennifer, A., Charpentier, D.E. 2014. The new frontier of genome engineering with CRISPR-Cas9. 346 (6213).
5. Rath, D., Amlinger, L., Rath, A and Lundgren, M. 2015. The CRISPR-Cas immune system: Biology, mechanisms and
applications. Biochimie 117: 119-128.
The challenge for all disciplines of agriculture is to increases production and improves the quality of
produce. As a global scenario, plant diseases are a major challenges and biotic constraints which leads to
significant crop yield losses in terms of both quantity and quality of the produce. Over the past few decades,
the excessive & unnecessary use of chemical pesticides was the dominant form of disease control and
subsequently created many problems such as the frequent emergence of fungicide resistance in pathogens
and the harmful effects of fungicides to human health and negative impact on plants and environment. To
overcome all these problems, adopting integrated disease management strategy as a alternative tools for
disease management. Integrated disease management (IDM) is a sustainable approach which combines all
the suitable techniques such as biological, cultural, physical and chemical control strategies in a holistic
way rather than using a single component strategy proved to be more effective and sustainable and
minimizes economic, health and environmental risks. But in current scenario, due to the changing climatic
conditions, the plant pathogenic organisms have developed the different types of resistance mechanisms
against pesticides and also emergence of new race of the pathogens in environment through which diseases
caused by the pathogens has become resistant which is very difficult task to manage it effectively by
adopting the traditional approaches including IDM. So, for this, scientists have evolved a novel, emerging
and latest and most popular technique known as CRISPR/CAS9 based genome editing technology through
which plant disease can be managed by developing disease resistance in plants at genetic level.
CRISPR/CAS9 is an important tool for genome editing in an organism. Genome editing is a technology
which can produce modifications such as insertion/deletion/substitution at specific sites in the genome of
an organism.
CRISPR stands for clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats. It is an array of short repeated
sequences separated/ interspaced by spacers sequence derived from foreign DNA with unique sequences.
First report of CRISPR clusters by Ishino et al. in E. Coli bacteria in 1987. CRISPR is a defence system in
bacteria which fight against the phage infection and provide sequence-specific adaptive immunity acts by
integrating short virus sequences in the cell's CRISPR locus, allowing the cell to remember, recognize and
clear infections. There are different tools for genome editing process which includes Meganucleases, Zinc
Finger Nucleases (ZFNs), Transcription Activator Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs), CRISPR/Cas9 and
CRISPR/Cas12a (also called CRISPR/Cpf1). Among these, CRISPR/Cas9 is most popular and efficient
technique. It has two components such as Cas9 protein and a guide RNA (cr-RNA). RNA (cr-RNA) guides
the Cas9 protein to the complementary sequence on target DNA which is subsequently cleaved by Cas9
proteins. The mechanisms of the CRISPR/Cas9 system can be easily understood by three different stages.
The first stage is adaptation, which leads to insertion of new spacers in the CRISPR locus. In the second
stage, expression, the system gets ready for action by expressing the cas genes (cas operon) and transcribing
the CRISPR into a long precursor CRISPR RNA (pre-crRNA). The pre-crRNA is subsequently processed
into mature crRNA by Cas proteins (endo-nuclease activity) and accessory factors. In the third and last
stage, interference, the combined action of cr-RNA and tracr-RNA(transactivating cr-RNA) fused into
single sg-RNA(small guide RNA) which interact with their target DNA through complementary base
pairing and Cas proteins associated with it, recognized the PAM (Protospacer Adjacent Motif) region in
target DNA and ultimately degrade/destroy the target DNA and make them inactive. The application of
CRISPR/Cas9 is being used at molecular level like gene deletion/ insertion/ replacement, base editing,
transcription modulation and DNA labelling, etc and as a practical application level, it is being used in
References
1. Overton, J. 1996. Ecologically Based Pest Management-New Solutions for a New Century. National Academy Press,
Washington DC, USA.
2. Zhang, K., Raboanatahiry, N., Zhu B. and Li M. 2017. Progress in genome editing technology and its application in plants.
Front. Plant Sci. 8:177.
3. Ishino Y., Shinagawa H., Makino K., Amemura M. and Nakata A. 1987. Nucleotide sequence of the iap gene, responsible for
alkaline phosphatase isozyme conversion in Escherichia coli, and identification of the gene product. J. Bacteriol. 169: 5429–
5433.
4. Jennifer, A., Charpentier, D.E. 2014. The new frontier of genome engineering with CRISPR-Cas9. 346 (6213).
5. Rath, D., Amlinger, L., Rath, A and Lundgren, M. 2015. The CRISPR-Cas immune system: Biology, mechanisms and
applications. Biochimie 117: 119-128.
Introduction
Traps to capture insects vary greatly, depending on the target, location, and purpose. Traps may be simple
interception devices that passively capture insects, contain lures or baits, or have specific designs and
colours to attract a particular type of pest. Traps may be inexpensive and disposable, or more complex.
Insect traps are useful tools in pest management programs. For the most part, they are used to monitor
the appearance of specific stages of various pests. These monitoring traps do not provide control but instead
are used to predict optimal timing of treatment. There are a few cases such as with bagworms and pine
shoot that the traps can be used to reduce the populations of the insects.
Pheromone Traps
How to make How to use
• Make 10 to 12 holes into an old 1 liter plastic • Half-fill the trap with soapy water.
bottle or 3 holes on each side of 1 liter ice • Put bait in the pheromone dispenser or
cream container, to allow moths to enter. suspend the pheromone capsule from the lid
• Heat a small piece of metal to make the using string or wire.
holes easily. • Close the container.
• Put a wire from the cover to suspend the • Attach the trap to a bamboo or wooden stake
bait. or hang on branch of a tree.
• Secure the pheromone dispenser align with • Place traps for different pests at least 3
the entrance holes inside the trap. meters apart. If traps are used for
• Make a rectangular opening into the lower monitoring the pests, 2-3 traps are enough
part of the container for removing the moths for 1 ha field.
caught.
Light Trap
Light trap is a device used at night in the field to collect moths and other flying insects such as:
1. Armyworm.
2. Bugs.
3. Cutworm.
4. Flies.
5. Gnats.
6. Heliotis / Helicoverpa.
7. Leafhoppers.
8. Planthoppers.
9. Stem borers.
Introduction
Certain flowering plants (Phanerogams) also parasitize the crop plants in addition to the microorganisms.
They mostly belong to Loranthaceae, Convolvulaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Orabanchaceae, Lauraceae,
Santalaceae and Balauophoraceae. They produce flowers and seeds and parasitize their host by drawing
nutrition and water. Some phanerogams have green leaves, roots and they have the ability to synthesis
food materials but they obtain only the mineral constituents of food from the host, then they are called
hemiparasite/waterparasite/partial parasite. Some of the phanerogams which do not have any chlorophyll
completely depend on host for water and all minerals.
They are called as holo parasite or complete or total parasite. The phaneroganic plants are divided into.
1. Stem parasite:
a. Total parasite - Cuscuta
b. Semi-parasite- Loranthus
2. Root parasite:
a. Total parasite - Orabanche
b. Semiparasite - Striga
Phanerogams have haustoria as absorbing organ, which are sent deep into the vascular bundle of the host
to draw water and nutrients. The haustoria in general secrete some pectolytic and cellulolytic enzymes
which soften the host tissue. Haustoria have higher osmotic pressure than that of host tissue which
facilitates easy absorption of nutrients. The affected plants show stunting, chlorosis and death.
Stem Parasite
1. Complete / holo / total stem parasite: Cuscuta sp.
a. C. campestris, C. trifoli, C. planiflora Dodder C. indicora.
i. Commonly known as gold thread, hellvine, hair weed, devil’s hair and love vine.
ii. Attacks alfalfa, clover, onion, flax, sugar beet, potato, chillies many ornamentals etc.
iii. It is a yellow or orange vine strand which grow and twin the plant. They do not have
leaves but bear only very minute scale leaves.
iv. Dodder produces flowers and fruits. Flowers are white, pink or yellowish, which form
seed.
v. On severe infection, they form a dense and tangled mat on the crop.
vi. Seeds of dodder overwinter in the infested soil, germinate to produce a slender yellow
shoot, make contact with the susceptible host plant, encircle and send haustoria into the
vascular bundle of the host.
vii. It does not produce any roots. As soon as the dodder is established with the host, base of
the dodder shrivels, dries and cut off from the ground. Thus, it completely depends upon the
host for nutrients and water.
viii. Thus the affected plants get weakened and yield poorly.
ix. Seeds of cuscuta are mainly spread by animals, water and implements.
b. Partial / semi / hemi stem parasite: Commonly known Loranthus ,Giant mistletoe, Banda.
Dendrophthae flacata (Order: Santalales; Family: Loranthaceae)
i. Attacks mango, citrus, apple, rubber, guava etc.
ii. Partial parasite of tree trunks and branches with brown stem, dark green leaves but no
roots.
iii. Stem of the parasite is usually thick, and flattened at the node, appears in clusters at the
point of attack which can be easily spotted on the trees.
Purple or yellow turft at the base of plant Its attached to host and absorb essential
mineral element from host
Conclusion
A Phanerogams parasitic plant is a plant that derives some or its entire nutritional requirement from
another living plant. All parasitic plants have produced flowers and seeds and parasitize their host by
drawing nutrition and water. Some phanerogams have green leaves, roots and they have the ability to
synthesis food materials but they obtain only the mineral constituents of food from the host, then they are
called hemiparasite / water parasite / partial parasite. The haustoria in general secrete some pectolytic and
cellulolytic enzymes which soften the host tissue. Mistletoes cause economic damage to forest and
ornamental trees.
A moderate infestation from across the border chomped through crops in an estimated 300,000 hectares in
Rajasthan and Gujarat in January. The locusts are currently active in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Rajasthan is the worst-affected state, according to the union
environment ministry.
Locusts, which look like common grasshoppers, come in swarms during dry spells and can destroy massive
swathes of vegetation within days. The Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN had also warned
that the impact of the locust attack could be far more serious this year than last year. Some countries in
East Africa have already declared an emergency because of the loss caused by locusts.
Armies of locusts swarming across continents pose a “severe risk” to India’s agriculture this year, the UN
has warned, prompting the authorities to step up vigil, deploy drones to detect their movement and hold
talks with Pakistan, the most likely gateway for an invasion by the insects, on ways to minimise the
damage.
Locust attacks are known to cause a considerable drop in agricultural output. Authorities at the national
plant protection office said the country was prepared and deploying a wide range of measures. But large-
scale invasions could still prove challenging given that India lacks equipment like large sprayer aircraft,
experts said. A moderate infestation from across the border chomped through crops in an estimated 300,000
hectares in Rajasthan and Gujarat in January. The authorities say they are preparing to conserve crops
during the upcoming summer-sown kharif season, which is most at risk. An upsurge in locust attacks since
last year is being attributed to favourable breeding weather caused by a large number of cyclones in East
Africa. India, China and Pakistan face the most risk in Asia. Pakistan has already declared an agricultural
emergency, according to an Indian official. Locusts can fly up to 150km in a day and a one-square-kilometre
swarm can eat as much food as 35,000 people, in terms of weight, in a single day, according to the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO)’s Desert Locust Information Service bulletin.
A report of a senior locust forecasting officer of the FAO to the government noted that “swarms would be
present in Haryana and Punjab, moving east towards Bangladesh similar to 1950 when there were
devastating plagues that lasted up to 14 consecutive years.” The situation remains extremely alarming in
the Horn of Africa, specifically Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia, where widespread breeding is in progress and
new swarms are expected to form in the coming weeks,” an FAO alert issued to nearly 53 countries,
including India, agriculture secretary Sanjay Agarwal chaired a high-level meeting on desert locust control
with officials from Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana, the external affairs ministry and the
Hindustan Insecticides Limited.
The Union government has decided to conduct awareness campaigns and training for farmers and officials
from these states. According to analysts, such disruptive events create awareness among farmers and
provide stimulus to the use of agrochemicals. Though many insecticides or combinations are used to control
locusts, considered one of the most destructive pests in the world, chlorpyrifos is one of the key insecticides.
While most agrochemical companies generate some revenues from chlorpyrifos, Gharda Chemicals, an
unlisted company, is one of the major players in India. However, shortage of agrochemicals in trade due to
lockdown post covid-19 and logistics and transportation issues may not allow faster access of agrochemicals
to farmers. As India’s rabi season gets over in March and kharif season commences in June, there is
negligible farming in India in this period. Hence, analysts believe that there is no immediate impact on
Indian agriculture but if the pest attack remains after June, there will be threat to kharif crops in 2020.
References
https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/locusts-pose-severe-threat-to-agriculture-in-india.
Summary
Chemical pesticides have played and will continue to play a major role in the rapid advancement of
agricultural production. With time, the quality of the crop as well as yields have been improved and the
use of chemical pesticides, herbicides has greatly reduced labour requirements for controlling insects on
plants, controlling plant diseases and for controlling the weeds.
But the wide spread use of pesticides has resulted in some serious health problems mainly to the user.
Hence improvement of application equipment and techniques to permit the effective use of smaller dosages
of chemicals and to reduce drift and harmful residues has become increasingly important as one means of
minimizing the problems associated with the use of chemical pesticides.
Present day agricultural pest control equipment includes air blast sprayers, which utilizes an air stream
as a carrier for sprays mainly for orchards and vineyard.
Introduction
In recent years there has been a trend towards reduced liquid application rates per hectare, using high
concentrations of active ingredient, primarily to reduce the amount of water that must be hauled and
handled. Air blast spraying includes mainly Ultra low volume (ULV) spraying, which is defined as the
application of undiluted, technical grade, liquid pesticides (i.e., no water added). ULV applications of
several pesticides with air blast sprayers gave excellent control of insects, mites in orchard crops.
Air blast sprayers are mainly divided in three categories mainly:
1. Airotec turbo sprayers.
2. Bullet sprayers.
3. Airotec cyclone 1500.
Bullet Sprayers
Bullet sprayers are tractor mounted sprayers. These are light in weight, compact in design and sturdy
design and performs well with tractors having 18 hp or more.
Some of the bullet sprayers which are currently available in market and used in vineyards and orchids are
1. V4 616 Grape master bullet sprayer (Grape, pomegranate).
2. V4 550 Grape master bullet sprayer (Grape, pomegranate).
3. Grape master eco plus (Air assisted orchard sprayer).
4. Pome master eco plus sprayer (Pomegranate).
5. Pome master rocket plus sprayer (Pomegranate).
6. V4 616 orange master bullet sprayer (Orange plants).
7. Orange master eco plus plus (Orange plants).
Conclusion
Improvement of application equipment and techniques is important so as to permit the effective use of
smaller dosages of chemicals and to reduce drift and harmful residues has become increasingly important
as one means of minimizing the problems associated with the use of chemical pesticides. Present day
agricultural pest control equipment includes air blast sprayers, which utilizes an air stream as a carrier
for sprays mainly for orchards and vineyard.
Introduction
"Sericulture is an agro-based business, in which we raise silk insects for the production of raw silk. In order
to boost agricultural production, there are other businesses or industries in India, such as crop production,
horticulture production, dairy production, poultry farming, which also support their participation to boost
the economy of India. One of them is "sericulture", which we can establish from small to large scale and
earn profits of millions at the least cost. In silkworm rearing, an insect, which produces a large number of
silks, is reared for silk production. It is a business that makes the most profit at the least cost. We can
develop this business easily with any other business. If we talk about silk production, China is the largest
producer of silk. India stood second in the production of silk. About the 80% of the silk produced in the
country is of mulberry silk, majority of which is produced is the three southern states of Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu followed by West Bengal and Jammu & Kashmir. Silkworm is mainly the second
profitable insect after honeybee, which benefits the entire human race, as silkworm helps in increasing the
availability of textiles. If we talk about ancient times, China sold silk moth equal to the weight of gold, but
if we talk about today, then four varieties of silk are produced in our country as - Mulberry, Tassar, Eri
and Muga because with time the demand for silk clothes is increasing. In view of this demand, Farmers is
showing his interest in sericulture and is moving towards silk cultivation, due to which farmers are also
getting more profit. In today's time, if we want to get more income along with crop production, then we can
opt business related to sericulture and then we will be able to increase income of our farmers as well as we
can increase the economy of our country.
What is Silk?
Silk is the secretion from the salivary glands which are found on both sides of the alimentary canal of silk
worm larva and this secretion harden into fine threads called silk. The cocoons with which pupae are
covered by the worms are utilized for silk production.
Silkworm Insect
Scientific Name of silkworm insect is Bombyx mori, Order-Lepidoptera, Family- Bombycidae. Mulberry
main host tree for the cultivation of silk insect.
Rearing of Silkworms
The silkworms are reared in places which should avoid dampness stagnation of air, exposure to bright
sunlight and strong winds. The temperature should between 25-300C and humidity should never drop
below 70% and proper ventilation should be ensured for highest productivity. The size of the rearing house
depends upon the quantum and type of rearing. To cultivate silkworm, first of all we should take a good
variety of seeds. Those seeds should be taken from a trusted institution only. The centres that provide seeds
are called grain age. To rearing the seeds, spread them on a paper in a tray and place a mesh cloth over
the eggs and when the caterpillar starts coming out, some finely chopped leaves should be placed on the
tray. And gives them mulberry leaves as food. The first and second stages of the caterpillar are given a
softly cut leaf. And when the caterpillar becomes mature and threads come out of the mouth, remove them
from the tray and place them in the basket where they are made. No more insect should be kept in a basket
of cocoon because two cocoons get entangled in such a situation. Entangled cocoons are called dupionis,
they do not remove thread.
Reeling
The process of removing the threads from killed cocoon is called as reeling.
Boiling
It is common practice for swelling, softening and to some extent dissolution and removal of sericin and
gum. It is purified by acid and fermentation.
Brushing
By brushing the outer surface of cocoons mechanically, the free and of silk filament is recognized. It is the
essential operation for reeling the entire intact thread.
Conclusion
Silk which is the secretion of salivary gland of silk worm can be a very good alternate for Indian farmers
in increasing their farm income as require an Investment of only Rs. 12,000 to Rs. 15,000 (excluding cost
of land and rearing space) for mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing in one acre of irrigated land can
generate net income levels up to Rs. 30,000/acre/ annum which is comparatively higher than traditional
crop cultivation. Along with higher incomes silk growing is also more resource friendly because Mulberry
takes only six months to grow for starting silkworm rearing and once planted it can support five crops in
one year under tropical condition.
Soil Degradation?
It is defined as change in the soil health status resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to
provide good and services. -- By FAO Process that leads to decline the fertility or future productive capacity
of soil as a result of human activity. (United Nations Environment Programme,1993). It occurs whenever
the natural balances in the landscape are changed by human activity through misuse or overuse of soil.
Degraded soils results in poor or no production. Have poor life sustaining property. Out of 100 per cent
potentially active lands only 44 per cent are available for cultivation and 56 per cent of land are non-
available for cultivation. Soil degradation is a wide spread problem in India. Total geographical area of
India is 329 mha, Estimates of land area. affected by different soil degradation process include 33 mha by
water erosion. 11 mha by wind erosion, 3 mha by fertility decline, 8 mha by water logging and 7 mha by
salinization. It causes soils physical, chemical and biological properties are badly hampered.
TYPES OF SOIL DEGRADATION
HUMAN-INDUCED NATURAL
INDUSTRIAL
LAND CHEMICAL
URBAN PHYSICAL
Soil Laterization BOILOGICAL
LAND Pan
compaction AGRICULTUR Calcification Decline in
• Pollution AL LAND information
soil Leaching/Illuv soil diversity
•Compaction Hard- setting
contamination iation
Erosion
Acid rain
PHYSICAL CHEMICAL
• Compaction • Acidification BIOLOGICAL
• Crusting • Nutrient depletion • Decline in soil organic C
•Water imbalance • Nutrient imbalance • Soil biodiversity reduced
• Impeded erosion •Salanization/alkanizat • Decrease biomass C
• Runoff ion
Mulching
1. Mulch influences reflectivity of heat and water transmission characteristics of mulched soil.
2. Mulch also improves the soil water storage and reduces evaporation losses.
3. Mulch helps in on moisture conservation and minimize soil temperature.
4. Crop residue is an effective mean of runoff, erosion and transport of sediment to stream.
Green Manuring
1. Green manuring crops contains sufficient nutrient (N, P, K, Ca, Mg) and also biological fixation of
nutrients adds to improve fertility status of the soil.
2. Increases the availability of Zn and Significant effect on Cu and Mn availability in soil.
3. Crop residue incorporation and green manuring adds a substantial amount of C to the soils.
4. Sustainability in crop production can be achieved.
Afforestation
1. Forest growth exerts ameliorative effect on the soil by loosening subsoil, improving permeability and
adding organic matter.
2. Carbonic acid produced through root activity mobilize calcium for replacement of exchangeable sodium.
Crop Rotation
1. Crop rotation.
2. Offer diverse “diet” to the soil micro- organism.
3. Exploring different soil layer for nutrients.
4. Diversity of crops.
5. Leads to a diverse soil flora and fauna.
Inter Cropping
Intercropping provides an insurance against calamities and helps in the maximization of productivity and
profit by efficient utilization of natural resources like land, light and water. Growing of some crops on
conserved soil moisture performs better under intercropping system.
Conclusion
1. Soil degradation reduce through the adoption of various methods Mulching improve the physical,
chemical properties of soil. Ultimately yield of various crop increase.
2. Continuous recycling of green manuring and FYM application enhance the organic matter content, also
supply the nutrient pool of soil impact on increase productivity fertility and yield.
3. Overcoming the salinity and water logging problem through the adoption of sub-surface drainage.
Integrated approach on application of organic and inorganic sources of plant nutrient which can maintain
higher productivity by alleviating nutrient deficiency.
Summary
Zero budget natural farming (ZBNF) is a grassroots movement attempting to improve India’s capacity to
produce its own food by farming with nature and ending farmers’ reliance on purchased inputs and credit.
In the long run it might be profitable but as of now, completely depending on it for profit is not feasible
(particularly for those owning more than 5 acres).
After the Green revolution, Indian agriculture had shifted from self-sufficiency, towards increased inputs
into a piece of farmland that could not consistently breed well from generation to generation. As ZBNF is
suitable for small-scale but not for intensive farming, the best option is to combine chemical-based farming,
organic farming and ZBNF and slowly, over years reduce the proportion of land under chemical farming.
Introduction
Green revolution on one hand, helped India in achieving self-sufficiency in food production by introducing
high yielding varieties, high analysis fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation etc. but on the other hand, destroyed
the traditional self-sufficient natural farming system by making it input-dependent. To feed such a large
population, increased production is urgently needed but high costs and volatile prices are driving farmers
into debt (Smith et al., 2020).
In the Union Budget 2019-20, the Indian Finance minister focused on Zero Budget Natural Farming
(ZBNF) with an aim to break the input cost burdens on farmers. The current trend in Indian agriculture is
to achieve higher yields of farm produce without disturbing the nature of the soil since the area under
cultivation is drastically reduced due to rapid urbanization. This comprehensive approach is emerging due
to socio-environmental issues such as climate change, deteriorating soil health, migration of the younger
generation away from agriculture and lack of food security, which leads to the growing awareness about
organic agriculture and various other forms of natural farming. ZBNF is one among these various types of
natural farming that are being practiced across India.
Conclusion
ZBNF is particularly suitable to small and marginal farmers having no financial resources but its wider
adoption may have an impact on India’s ability to feed its rising population. Following the stagnation or
even downfall in crop productivity in farms using modern technologies and tonnes of pesticides and
fertilizers, natural farming proves to be more productive on a sustainable way ensuring every farmer its
livelihood. Despite having potential, more research is required to examine its scalability and variation.
While presenting the Union budget 2020-2021, Government of India has emphasized on balanced use of all
types of fertilizers, including traditional organic and other innovative varieties (e.g., biofertilizers, city
compost etc.) to bring about a change in the prevailing regime that encourages excessive use of chemical
fertilizers. Standing at a crossroads in the history of time, we must abandon our inclination to focus on risk
and start embracing the opportunities for a sustainable and prosperous society. As any ecological change
does not happen instantaneously, the sudden shift from chemical farming towards completely organic or
natural farming may not be able to meet the country’s food demand. Being a developing as well as world’s
second most populated country, India can start with semi-organic farming, i.e., immediately losing
pesticides, but gradually phasing out chemical fertilizers.
References
1. Khadse A. and Rosset P.M., (2019). Zero Budget Natural Farming in India–from inception to institutionalization. Agroecology
and Sustainable Food Systems. 43(7-8): 848-871.
2. Palekar S., (2006). The principles of spiritual farming II. 2nd ed. Amravati: Zero Budget Natural Farming Research,
Development & Extension Movement, Amravati, Maharashtra, India. http://www.vedicbooks.net/principles-spiritual-farming-
volume-p-14779.html.
3. Smith J., Yeluripati J., Smith P. and Nayak D.R., (2020). Potential yield challenges to scale-up of zero budget natural farming.
Nature Sustainability. 3(3):.247-252.
Introduction
Push-pull strategy is used for controlling agricultural pests by using repellent "push" plants and attractant
"pull" plants. It is mainly used in cereal crops like maize or sorghum which are often infested by stem
borers. The grasses are planted in the border around the maize and sorghum fields where invading adult
moths become attracted to chemicals emitted by the grasses themselves. Instead of landing on the maize
or sorghum plants, the insects head for what appears to be a tastier meal. These grasses provide the "pull"
in the "push-pull" strategy. The "push" is provided by the plants that emit chemicals called kairomones
which repel stem borer moths and drive them away from the main crop i.e. maize or sorghum.
W.B.-736165.
3Manoj Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central
Introduction
Semiochemicals are the chemicals which are involved in communication. Semiochemical communication
can be divided into two broad classes:
1. Communication between individuals of the same species i.e. intraspecific (pheromones)
2. Communication between different species i.e. interspecific (allelochemicals).
Pheromones
A substance that is secreted by an organism to the outside environment and causes a specific reaction in a
receiving organism of the same species. Pheromones are further divided into two categories i.e. primer,
which initiates changes in development and releaser, which induces an immediate behavioural change.
1. Sex pheromone: These are among the most powerful of chemical attractants. These chemicals have
great potential as pest control agents. It is produced mainly by females to attract the males for the purpose
of mating. Sex pheromones are released from specialized glands which opens on the terminal segment of
the female abdomen and are perceived by the chemosensillary of the male antenna. Examples: Gossyplure
of Pectinophora gossypiella, Helilure of Helicoverpa armigera, Grandlure of Anthomonus grandis.
2. Alarm pheromone: A substance produced by an insect to repel and disperse other insects in the area.
An individual also releases them when an enemy attack. It is reported in homoptera, Isoptera and
hymenoptera.
3. Aggregation pheromone: A substance produced by one or both sexes that brings both sexes together
for feeding and reproduction. These are the chemicals that allow insects to congregate for feeding and other
activities. These are released by members of one sex only but elicit responses in members of both sexes of
a species.
4. Trial marking pheromone: These are substances of low persistence that are released and perceived
by individuals in a trial. These pheromones are specially found in social insects like Hymenoptera and
termites. For example, ants use formic acid as trial marker.
5. Territorial pheromones: These pheromones are secreted by males of some species and attract both
males and females. For example, males of bumblebees and carpenter bees demarcate the territory for
foraging activity.
6. Epidiectic pheromone: These are compounds which function in the regulation of population density
by controlling the dispersion of individuals.
7. Parapheromones: When a chemical not found in an insect or it is not naturally occurring in insect but
has a pheromone like action, artificially synthesized, then it is often referred to as parapheromone.
Allelochemicals
Chemicals involved in interspecific communication are termed as allelochemicals. It is defined as non-
nutritive substances originating from an organism may be plant or animal, which affect the behaviour,
physiological condition or ecological welfare of organisms of another species. They affect the survival,
growth and development of insects as well as their natural enemies.
1. Allomone: An allomone is any chemical substance released by an individual of one species that affects
the behaviour of a member of another species to the benefit of the emitter but not the receiver.
Advantages of Semiochemicals
1. They have adverse effects only on target pests.
2. They are relatively nontoxic.
3. They are required in low amounts.
4. They are non-persistent and environmentally safe.
5. They appear difficult for insects to develop resistance against.
Uses in IPM
1. For monitoring, mass trapping and mating disruption of pest populations to determine if control is
warranted.
a. Monitoring helps us to detect population and level of infestation. Developing trap baited with sex
pheromones on a large scale can do the monitoring of the insect pests.
b. Mating disruption by confusing insect to find their sexual counterparts for mating.
c. Mass trapping by using a large number of pheromone traps to capture adult moths and thus
reduce the number of males for mating.
2. To alter the behaviour of the pest or its enemies to the detriment of the pest.
Introduction
High density planting or orcharding is one of the improved and advanced production technologies to achieve
the objective of enhanced productivity of fruit crops. Yield and quality of the produce are two essential
components of the productivity of any fruit crop. HDP aims to achieve the twin requisites of productivity
by maintaining a balance between vegetative and reproductive load of tree without impairing the plant
health. High density planting is a new concept in orchard planting throughout the world which refers to
the maximum utilization of available space by accommodating maximum number of fruit plants per unit
area to achieve maximum production of quality fruits within short period of time with low growing cost. In
HDP, fruit plants come into fruiting very early, often in second or third year after planting, as compared
to standard trees which come into bearing 5-6 years after planting. Maximum utilization of land and solar
energy can be done by accommodating a greater number of plants per unit area through different systems
of density planting.
Advantages of Semiochemicals
1. To make best use of vertical and horizontal space per unit time.
2. To harness maximum possible returns per unit of inputs and available resources.
3. Increased capture sunlight per unit area.
4. Land use efficiency.
5. Appropriate vegetative and reproductive balance of the plants.
Methods of HDP
High density can be achieved by close planting which in turn is made possible through control of tree size
or planting in a system which accommodates a greater number of plants. Manipulation of tree vigour is an
important prerequisite for success of high-density planting in any fruit crop. High density of fruit orchards
is generally achieved by controlling the size of tree or through improved planting system. Tree size can be
controlled by applying different methods such as – Use of genetically dwarf scion cultivars, use of dwarfing
rootstocks and inter stock Training and Pruning, use of growth retardants, Induction of viral infection, use
of incompatible rootstock, and Use of genetically dwarf scion cultivars etc.
Impact of HDP
In mango, Amrapali at 2.5x 2.5m in triangular system accommodation of 1600 plants and Dashehari at 3.0
x 2.5 m in square system 1333 plants per hectare, increase in yield per hectare was 2.5 times in Amrapali
than that of the low-density orchards of vigorous cultivar. In Dashehari mango, the average yield in high
density is reportedly 9.6 tonnes compared to 0.2 tonnes in low density planting. This yield can further be
improved in alternate bearing cultivars like Dashehari, Chausa and Bombay Green through the application
of growth retardant like Paclobutrazol. In Citrus, Kinnow on Troyer Citrange and Karna khatta rootstocks
could be planted at1.8 x1.8.m and 3x3 m to accommodate 3000 and 1088 plants per hectare, respectively.
In pineapple, population density of 63758 per hectare coupled with improved package of agro techniques
result in increase in yield from 15-20 to 70-80 tonnes/ha.
Sr. No. Crop Normal spacing(m) HDP spacing(m) Meadow spacing(m)
1. Mango 7.5 x 7.5-12.5 x 12.5 3 x 2.5-5 x 5 2.5 x 2.5-3 x 1
2. Banana 2 x 2-2 x 3 1.5 x 1.5-1.8 x 1.8 1.2 x1.2-3 x 0.5
3. Citrus 6 x 6-8 x 8 3-6 x 3-4.5 -
4. Papaya 2 x 2-3 x 3 1.8 x 1.8 1.2 x1.2-1x1
5. Guava 6 x 6-8 x 8 3 x 3-3 x 1.5 2 x 2-2 x1
6. Sapota 10 x 10 5x5 -
Conclusion
Advancing knowledge in fruit architecture, growth physiology and possibility of using growth retardants
has enabled farmers to adopt technology such as closer planting and maintaining reachable canopy. It
enables profitable cropping pattern, high regular yields and improved farm management practices, leading
to higher sustainable productivity. High density planting technique is a modern method of cultivation
involving planting of trees densely, allowing small or dwarf trees with modified canopy for better light
interception and distribution and ease of mechanised field operations. HDP and meadow orcharding gives
higher yield as well as returns per unit area due to increasing the number of tree/unit area. Control of pests
and diseases, weeds and pruning of tree canopy can be carried out by machine. Irrigation and fertigation
are automatically controlled. Such system produces precocious cropping, high and regular yields of good
quality fruits and low labour requirement to meet ever rising production costs.
Reference
1. Athani SI, Revanappa, Dharmatti PR. Effect of plant density on bunch weight and yield of banana cv. Rajapuri. Karnatka J
Agric. Sci. 2019; 2(1):143-146.
2. Dalvi NV, Salvi BR, Chavan SA, Kandalkar MP. High density planting in mango cv. Alphonso. Hort. Sci. 2012; 5(2):117-119.
3. Gardner, V.R., Bradford, F.C. and Hooker, H.D.Jr. 1952. The fundamental of fruit production. 3rd Edn. McGraw Hill Book
Co., Inc. New York.
4. Hayes, W.B. 1957. Fruit Growing in India. 3rd Ed. Kitabistan, Allahabad. pp. 125-140.
5. Kundu S. Effect of high-density planting on growth, flowering and fruiting of guava (Psidium guajava). Acta Hort. 2017;
735:267-270.
6. Singh G. “High density and meadow orcharding of guava”, Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture. 2018; 35(1):1-20.
Introduction
Agriculture plays an important role in India’s economy. It provides gainful employment to a large section
of population of the country, particularly, the rural population. In view of the importance of agriculture,
the basic data on structure and characteristics of agricultural holdings, Govt. of India has been conducting
comprehensive Agriculture Census as a part of the World Agriculture Census Programme.
Periodic Agriculture Censuses are the main source of information on basic characteristics of operational
holdings such as land-use, cropping pattern, irrigation status, tenancy and dispersal of holdings etc. This
information is tabulated by different size classes and social groups and serves as an input for development
planning, socio-economic policy formulation and establishment of national priorities. The Census also
provides basis for development of a comprehensive integrated national system of agricultural statistics.
Administration of Census
The Census is carried out by the States/Union Territories under the overall technical and administrative
support from the Ministry of Agriculture. It is a Central Sector Scheme being financed completely by the
Govt. of India. The field work is carried out by the Primary Reporting Agencies of the Revenue
Departments in most of the States. In some of the States, primary staff of the Agriculture Department is
also put on this job. Supervision of the field work is done by the supervisory officers of the
Revenue/Agriculture/Statistics Departments, of the State Governments.
Conclusion
The operational holding is the fundamental unit of decision making in agriculture and consequently for
development of programmes aimed at improving the income and standard of living of cultivators, a census
of operational holdings providing data on their numbers, tenure relationship, size, type of farming and
farming practices assumes' special importance. Data from Agricultural Census are equally valuable for
planning at various levels such as national, regional, block and individual farm. While it is not intended to
describe exhaustively the various uses of agricultural census data, it may be worthwhile to point out a few
areas where census results would be useful for policy decisions and for planning agricultural production
programmes.
Reference
1. http://agcensus.nic.in
2. http://agricoop.nic.in
3. https://www.agademy.in
Summary
The average surface temperature of earth will rise by 3-5˚c by next 50-100 years. This is concurrent with
the increased frequency of abiotic and biotic stresses, which drastically affects the global agriculture.
Additionally, rapid population growth increase pressure on global food demand. In order to mitigate the
adverse effects and enhance crop yield to ensure food security, we must think beyond the conventional and
molecular plant breeding approaches.
To develop the cost effective, eco-friendly strategy requires comprehensive knowledge on transcriptomics
and its alteration patterns in varying environments. In recent decades, advent in high throughput
transcriptome analysis, allows the scientists to study thousands of gene network together, this rapidly
expands our understanding of relationship between transcriptome and phenotype. This also helps to
identify the functional candidate genes, eQTLs and molecular markers.
Keywords: Transcriptome, gene expression, microarray, RNA-Seq.
Introduction
Even though all cells in the organisms has same genotype, they vary in their phenotype and function. For
instance, Stomata cells different from the parenchyma cells. This variation is due to the differential
expression of gene, the same gene may transcribe in multiple ways under various circumstances.
The gene expression is the dynamic process in which genetic information encoded in the DNA is converted
into mRNA and to Proteins (Fig 1). Messenger RNA (mRNA) acts as transient intermediate and other non-
coding RNAs namely rRNA, tRNA, miRNA, small nuclear RNA (snRNAs) and small nucleolar RNA
(snoRNAs) execute diverse function in the cell, collectively called as transcriptome (Morozova et al., 2009).
Understanding transcriptome is essential for interpreting the functional elements of genome and to know
which gene is “turned on “and “turned off” in a cell at a given time.
Initially northern blot and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) has been used for gene
expression studies which are limited to analysing single transcript and low throughput. Over a decade,
technologies have been evolved to study the quantification of gene expression at whole transcriptome level.
Based on the principle, technologies have been classified as hybridization-based approach and sequence-
based approach.
Hybridization-Based Approach
Hybridization approach involves the microarray technology. First transcriptome study using microarray
technology was done in Arabidopsis (Schena et al., 1995). Microarray analysis can be classified into two
steps: probe production and sample (cDNA) preparation. Microarray consists of the oligonucleotides called
probes are arrayed on the glass surface. The fluorescently labelled samples were allowed to hybridize on
the probes (Fig 2.). The fluorescent intensity at each probe spot on the array depicts the transcript
abundance (Royce et al., 2007). Microarrays are high throughput, relatively low cost and allows for the
evaluation of large number of transcripts simultaneously. However, they have several limitations notably:
it relies on the prior knowledge on sequence information, high background noise due to cross hybridization
while analysing highly similar sequence.
Conclusion
Comparative transcriptome analysis, study of expression pattern of genes across species and integrating
transcriptomics with other “omics” technology using more sophisticated approaches like system biology will
help to resolve the gene function at subcellular level. This also play a vital role in dissecting out the
molecular mechanism underlying the agronomically important complex traits which is of great use in
genomic assisted breeding.
Reference
1. Grabherr, M., Haas, B., Yassour, M., Levin, J. Z., Thompson, D., Amit, I., Adiconis, X., Fan, L., Raychowdhury, R., & Zeng, Q.
(2011). Full-length transcriptome assembly from RNA-Seq data without a reference genome. Nature biotechnology, 29(7): 644-
652.
2. Kukurba, K., & Montgomery, S. (2015). RNA sequencing and analysis. Cold Spring Harbor Protocols, 2015(11): pdb. top084970.
3. Lowe, R., Shirley, N., Bleackley, M., Dolan, S., & Shafee, T. (2017). Transcriptomics technologies. PLoS computational biology,
13(5): e1005457.
4. Morozova, O., Hirst, M., & Marra, M. (2009). Applications of new sequencing technologies for transcriptome analysis. Annual
review of genomics and human genetics, 10 : 135-151.
5. Royce, T., Rozowsky, J., & Gerstein, M. (2007). Toward a universal microarray: prediction of gene expression through nearest-
neighbor probe sequence identification. Nucleic acids research, 35(15): e99.
6. Schena, M., Shalon, D., Davis, R. W., & Brown, P. O. (1995). Quantitative monitoring of gene expression patterns with a
complementary DNA microarray. Science, 270(5235): 467-470.
7. Wang, Z., Gerstein, M., & Snyder, M. (2009). RNA-Seq: a revolutionary tool for transcriptomics. Nature reviews genetics, 10(1):
57-63.
Bhubaneswar, India.
The term flooding is termed as the soil condition, where excess water inhibits gas exchange of roots with
the atmosphere. In addition, it refers partial or complete submergence of shoots. Due to flooding soil oxygen
rapidly depletes and plant metabolism highly affected, thereby growth reduced. Response to flooding varies
with the type of plant, with the duration and timing of flooding. Excess water than the optimum is
otherwise called as flooding.
Effect of Flooding
Decrease in net CO2 assimilation, stomatal conductance and transpiration is the very first symptoms of
flooding stress (Schaffer et al., 1992). Therefore, to measure the degree of flooding stress leaf gas exchange
characteristics is useful (Schaffer et al., 1992).
It would be influenced by number of factors viz.
1. soil type, porosity and chemistry
2. degree and duration of anaerobiosis
3. soil microbe and pathogen status;
4. vapour pressure deficits and root zones and air temperature
5. plant age, stage of development etc.
Reference
1. Hsiao TC . 1973. Plant response water stress. Annual rev. Plant physiol.24:519-570.
2. Neog B, Gogoi N , Baruah KK, Gogoi N. 2002. Morphological changes associated with water logging in rice(Oryza sativa).
Indian J .Agril. Sci. 72(7):404-407.
3. Schaffer B, Andersen PC and Ploetz RC. 1992. Responses of fruit crops to flooding. Horticultural Reviews,13:257-313.
Nutrient
A nutrient element is one that is required to complete the life cycle of organism and relative deficiency
produces specific deficiency symptoms.
Nitrogen
1. Functions:
a. It is constituent of proteins, nucleoproteins, nucleotides, phospholipids, alkaloids, enzymes,
hormones, vitamins.
b. It is a constituent of important pigment (Clorophyll A, B). Nitrogen imparts dark green colour in
plants + vigour growth of plants.
c. N also produces early growth and also results in delay in maturity. It pushes up for utilization of
other elements as P, K and other elements. Supply of nitrogen is related in carbohydrate utilization.
2. Deficiency symptoms:
a. Plant having less than 1% N-content are usually regarded deficient in Nitrogen.
b. Symptoms appear on older leaves in the form of light green to pale yellow coloration (through
proteolysis). Reduction in flowering, crop yield, Low protein content, stem will be erect, lateral buds
will be suppressed and growing tall or spindle. Restricted root growth seems to be fibrous and
reddish-brown colour.
Phosphorus
1. Functions:
a. P plays an important role in energy storage and transfer (ATP, ADP energy compounds). It is
component of ADP, ATP, RNA, DNA, Phytin and phospholipids.
b. P is having important role in photosynthesis, respiration, energy storage and transfer, cell
division, cell enlargement etc.
c. It promotes early root formation and growth and there by helps to establish seedlings quickly. It
improves quality of fruit, vegetables and grain crops and vital for seed formation. It brings about
early maturity of crops mostly in cereals. It is constituent of majority of enzymes.
2. Deficiency symptoms:
a. Plant having less than 0.1 % or 1000 ppm P content are deficient in P.
b. Symptoms appear first on older leaves, tips or on the margin of leaves. Accumulation of
carbohydrate result in dark-green colour leaves. Severe restriction occurs in the growth of plant tops
and roots. P deficient plants are thin, erect and spindly with sparse and restricted foliage.
c. Developments of lateral buds are suppressed, making acute angle with the stem axis and foliage
turns bluish-green. Under conditions of continuous deficiency older leaves become bronzed or
develop reddish- purple tips and leaf margins.
Potassium
1. Functions:
a. It regulates salt-water balance in cells. It stimulates enzymes activity. It is used in storage and
release of energy.
b. Role in cell division. It is required for formation of carbohydrates K is required in process of
photosynthesis. It is required for translocation of sugar.
2. Deficiency symptoms:
a. Symptoms first develop on older leaves.
Calcium
1. Functions:
a. Ca+2 is essential to cell wall membrane structure and permeability.
b. It is important to N metabolism and protein formation by enhancing NO 3- uptake also provides
some regulation of cation uptake. It is essential for cell elongation and division. It is essential for
translocation of carbohydrates and nutrients.
2. Deficiency symptoms:
a. Usually plants having Ca-content less than 0.1 % are regarded as Ca deficient. It is immobile in
plant; deficiency symptoms appear on younger structures.
b. Leaves become cup-shaped and crinkled and the terminal buds deteriorate with some break down
of petioles. Desiccation of terminal buds and weakening of stem structure occurs.
Magnesium
1. Functions:
a. It is also necessary for formation of sugar from CO2 and H2O in sunlight and essential part of
chlorophyll.
b. It regulates the uptake of other plant foods and it also acts as carrier of P in plants. It also plays
an important part in translocation of starch and required for maximum activity of phospho rylating
enzymes in carbohydrate metabolism.
c. It is common activator of enzyme concerned with energy metabolism.
2. Deficiency symptoms:
a. Mg is mobile in plant; deficiency symptoms appear on older leaves. Plant having Mg
concentration less than 0.1 % are Mg deficient.
b. Interveinal Chorosis and streaked or patchy effects on older leaves. Affected leaves are usually
small in final stages and curve upwards at margin. Under acute deficiency, the affected leaf tissues
dry up and may even die.
Sulphur
1. Functions:
a. It is involved in synthesis of oil.
b. It is essential for formation of proteins and amino acids like methien, cystine, systein. It is
constituent of some biologically active compound vitamins (thimine, biotine), Lipoic acid, coenzyme
A, ferredoxin, gluten.
c. It also promotes nodule formation, required for chlorophyll formation.
2. Deficiency symptoms:
a. Plant having less than 0.1 to 0.2 % S content are deficient in S.
b. S is immobile in plants, deficiency first occur on younger growths. The fading of normal green
colour of the leaves followed by Chlorosis is most common deficiency symptom. In brassicas , the
lamina is restricted, leaves show cupping owing to the curling of the leaf margins and arresting to
the growth points.
Iron
1. Functions:
a. Transfer of electrons between organic molecules and Fe provides the electrochemical potential for
many enzymatic transformations in plants. Fe is a structural component of porphyrin molecules:
cytochromes, hematin, ferrichrome, and leg-hemoglobin.
b. Fe-containing cytochromes in the chloroplasts function in photosynthetic reduction processes
where ferrodoxin, and Fe-S protein, is an electron acceptor.
2. Deficiency symptoms:
a. Plant having less than 50 ppm of Fe are usually classified as iron- deficient.
Zinc
1. Functions:
a. Zn is involved in many enzymatic activities, but it is not known whether it acts as a functional,
structural, or regulatory cofactor.
b. Zn is important in the synthesis of tryptophane, a component of some proteins and a compound
needed for the production of growth hormones (auxins) such as indol acetic acid, involved in
chlorophyll synthesis.
2. Deficiency symptoms: Plant having less than 15 ppm of Zn are usually classified as Zinc - deficient.
Common deficiency symptoms of Zn are Interveinal Chlorosis, first appearing on young leaves. Reduction
in size of young leaves which are often clustered or borne very closely, bronzing, and purple, violet reddish
brown or brown coloration of the foliage.
Copper
1. Functions:
a. Photosynthesis and respiration involve the transfer of electrons that requires Cu.
b. Lignin formation in cell walls, several enzymes important to synthesis of lignin contain Cu. If
photosynthesis is impeded by Cu deficiency during the vegetative growth stage, then carbohydrate
production and plant growth are reduced.
2. Deficiency symptoms:
a. Plant having less than 5 ppm of Cu are usually classified as Copper - deficient.
b. Male flower sterility, delayed flowering and senescence are the most important effects of Cu-
deficiency. Chlorosis of the younger shoot tissues, white tips, reclamation disease, necrosis, leaf
distortion and die-back are the characteristics Cu- deficiency symptoms.
Manganese
1. Functions:
a. Mn is essential to photosynthesis reactions, enzyme activation, and root growth.
b. Most O2 in the atmosphere originates from Mn-facilitated electron transport in photosynthesis.
c. Cu, and Mn activates several enzymes that synthesis several amino acids and phenols important
to lignin production. In addition to lignin, these compounds are used to synthesize phenolic acids
and alcohols that provide resistance to infections by pathogens.
2. Deficiency symptoms:
a. Plant having less than 25 ppm of Mn are usually classified as Manganese - deficient.
b. Deficiency symptoms of Mn are severe on middle leaves than on the younger ones because Mn is
preferentially translocated to younger tissues. Interveinal Chlorosis on dicotyledonous plants is
characterized by the appearance of chlorotic and necrotic spots in the Interveinal Chlorosis.
Boron
1. Functions:
a. The primary function of B is cell wall structural integrity in plant. B provides cross links between
cell wall polysaccharides that gives structure to the cell wall – important for cell expansion,
regulation of H+ transport, retention of cellular Ca+2, and control of lignin production and cell
expansion.
b. Thus, B deficiency commonly appears as a structural deformity in actively growing regions.
Serious yield reductions in grains and elsewhere due to B deficiency causing male sterility, as
exhibited by poorly developed anthers and non-viable pollen grains.
2. Deficiency symptoms:
a. Plant having less than 5-30 ppm of B are usually classified as Boron -deficient.
b. Internodes become short and give a bushy appearance. Increased diameter of stem and the
petioles gives rise to the typical cracked stem of celery.
Introduction
Hydraulic ram pump or HYDRAM is an automatic device that uses the potential energy of flowing water
such as stream of water or river to pump part of water to a height above that of the source with the
continuous flow of water. Hydraulic ram pump or HYDRAM is a cyclic water pump powered by hydropower.
It functions as a hydraulic transformer that takes in water at one “hydraulic head (pressure)” and flow
rate, and output water at a higher hydraulic head and lower flow rate (Kherde et al 2020). The hydraulic
ram is used in remote areas especially hilly areas and in the villages, which are located at the greater
heights from altitude, where there is both a source of low-head water and a need for pumping water to a
destination higher in elevation than the source. In this situation, the ram is often useful, since it requires
no outside source of power other than the kinetic energy of flowing water. Hydraulic Ram Pump technology
is unfashionable (Pathak et al 2016). The need for water has always been a basic motivation of mankind,
which frequently had to be lifted from a lower height to an upper height. This ever-increasing need of water
ultimately resulted in the development of various pumping aids. The increasing need of water is always
being closely associated with the demands of domestic water supply for rural populations, irrigation etc
(Mishra et al 2018). In recent years an increased interest in renewable energy devices and an awareness of
the technological needs of a particular market in developing countries have prompted a reappraisal of
hydraulic ram pump.
Working Principle
A simplified Hydraulic Ram Pump initially, the take a look at valve is opened and the delivery valve is
closed. The water inside the power pipe starts to flow under the pressure of gravity and selections up pace
and kinetic energy until the growing drag force closes the waste valve. The momentum of the water flow
inside the deliver pipe against take a look at valve causes a water hammer that raises the pressure within
the pump, open the transport valve and force some water to flow into the transport pipe. Because this water
is being compelled uphill via the delivery pipe rather than its miles falling downhill from the source, the
float slows; while the drift reverses; the delivery test valve closes.
Suitable Conditions
A hydraulic ram pump is powered by a body of water flowing downhill with a height difference. A general
rule of thumb is that the water can be pumped 30 times as high as the available drive head (the height
difference of the water driving the pump). So, a head of 1 m can be used to pump up water to ~30m, while
a 7 m head can pump water up to 210 m.
The capacity of a hydraulic ram depends on the scale of the pump, which is often measured in the diameter
of the tube delivering the water to the pump. Pumps exist in the range 1" up to 5". With height difference,
the actual difference in vertical height is meant, not the length measured along the slope.
Advantages
1. Use renewable energy sources.
2. Very effective in mountainous areas.
3. No prime mover is required because it runs itself.
4. Simple design.
5. Low repair cost.
6. Negligible running cost.
7. No electricity consumption.
8. It work continuously and, therefore gives regular supply.
9. Long life.
10. Reliable.
Disadvantages
1. It can pump only one tenth of the received water volume remaining being wasted through waste valve.
2. It must have a continuous source of supply at a minimum height of not less than 3 feet or 91 cm.
3. It cannot pump viscous fluids to a greater height. Usually used for pumping drinking water or portable
water.
Abstract
Moring which is popularly known as Drumstick is truly magical vegetable tree. Because, it is a vegetable
with a load of incredible health nutrients. Just add fresh or dried leaves to any of your dishes and
strengthen your body and mind. It is not an essential nutrient but herbal supplement. So, there is no
recommended dosage of drumstick as of now. As drumstick is a natural source of nutrients and more
bioavailable than the other form of supplements. It doesn’t take much to grow a tree either. It requires only
8 months with marginal soil and a little water and a bit of care. Our ancestors have consumed almost every
part of this tree including seed pods (drumstick), leaves, fruits, seeds, and oil for thousands of years except
the roots. Different preparation from Moringa leaves, flowers, and fruits are used in Indian subcontinent
for various purposes.
Introduction
Moringa is one of those rare plant species whose seeds, flowers, leaves, and stems are edible and extremely
nutritious. Moringa commonly referred to as drumstick is treated as a 'super plant' for its unique yet
powerful properties that combat different ailments in our system. One of the most important health
benefits of moringa is that it promotes a healthy bone structure due to the presence of high amount of
calcium and iron that not only help build strong bones, but also prevents the loss of bone density, further
increasing overall stamina and health.
Moringa belongs to mono generic family named Moringaceae, and this family includes 12 species of various
type trees etc. (Olson, 2002) and is indigenous to Indian subcontinent and has become naturalized in the
tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Tree occupies important position in the Indian vegetable
industry. It is a drought tolerant, fast growing, perennial and easily adapted to diverse eco and farming
systems. It is still supposed to be underutilized plant in family Moringaceae. Regional names of Moringa
are Drumstick tree, Sajna, Horseradish tree, Mulangay, Kelor, Saijihan, and Benzolive, (Fahey, 2005).
Every street in Indian villages has a moringa tree (Moringa Oleifera Tree). And if we enter a kitchen, we
will most certainly find the Drumstick vegetable (slender, long green seed pods). In India people swear by
the health benefits of drumstick leaves, flowers and seeds. It is a long, bean-like vegetable, sometimes 30
– 45 cm long, that grow on very tall trees in South India and some other states of India. Moringa is grown
in tropical and subtropical areas with annual rainfall of 760 to 2500 mm and temperature ranging from
18-28 °C. It grows in any soil type except waterlogged ones. Slightly alkaline clay along with sandy loam
soils is considered ideal due to their good drainage properties (Abdul, 2007)
Conclusion
It can be concluded that moringa is an important medicinal plant in ayurvedic system. It can be proved by
several scientific studies also. It has several medicinal properties like anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, anti-
cancer, anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic, analgesic activity,
hypocholesterolaemia effect, cardio protective property, anti-asthmatic, water purification properties. It is
proven in numerous cases that the moringa tree possesses a wide range of medicinal and therapeutic
properties. The research on moringa is yet to gain importance in India. It is essential that the nutrients of
this wonder tree are exploited for a variety of purposes.
References
1. Abdul, D.A.S., (2007). Economic Importance of Moringa oleifera in Tafa Local Government Area of Niger State NDE Project.
Federal College of Forestry Mechanization, Kaduna, Nigeria.
2. Fahey, J.W., (2005). Moringa oleifera: a review of the medical evidence for its nutritional, therapeutic, and prophylactic
properties. Part 1. Trees for life Journal, 1(5), 1-15.
3. Farooq, A., S. Latif, M. Ashraf, and A. H. Gilani (2007). Moringa oleifera: a food plant with multiple medicinal uses.
Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Natural
Product Derivatives, 21(1), 17-25.
4. Ganguly, S., (2013). Indian Ayurveda and traditional medicinal implications of indigenously available plants, herbs, and fruits:
A review. Int. J. Res. Ayurveda Pharm., 4, 623–625.
5. Lipipun, V., M. Kurokawa, R. Suttisri, P. Taweechotipatr, P. Pramyothin, M. Hattori and K. Shiraki. (2003). Efficacy of Thai
medicinal plant extracts against herpes simplex virus type 1 infection in vitro and in vivo, Antiviral Research. 60:175–180.
6. Lovepreet Singh, Jyoti and Jatinder Singh. 2019. Medicinal and Nutritional Values of Drumstick Tree (Moringa oleifera - A
Review. Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci. 8(05): 1965- 1974.
7. Mishra, S.P., P. Singh and S. Singh (2012). Processing of Moringa oleifera leaves for human consumption. Bulletin of
Environment, Pharmacology, and Life Sciences. 2:28-31.
8. Olson, M. E. (2002). Combining data from DNA sequences and morphology for a phylogeny of Moringaceae (Brassicales). Syst.
Bot., 27: 55–73.
9. Omotesho, K.F, F. E. Sola-Ojo, T. R. Fayeye, R. O. Babatunde, G. A. Otunola, and T. H. Aliyu (2013). The potential of Moringa
tree for poverty alleviation and rural development: Review of evidences on usage and efficacy. International Journal of
Development and Sustainability, 2: 799-813.
Introduction
Crop plants needs about 17 essential elements for better growth and development. When these minerals
are required in relatively high amounts, they are called macronutrients and in trace amounts as
micronutrients. While micronutrients are required in relatively smaller quantities for holistic plant growth,
they are as vital as macronutrients. If even one of these elements is lacking in the soil or not adequately
balanced with the other nutrients, it may result in growth suppression or even complete inhibition.
Micronutrients often act as cofactors in enzyme systems and participate in redox reactions, additionally to
having several other vital functions in plants. But most importantly, micronutrients are involved in the
key physiological processes of photosynthesis and respiration and their deficiency can choke these vital
physiological processes and thus impacting yield gain.
‘Hidden hunger’ or mineral deficiency in edible food grains is a major health concern in a majority of
developing countries. For example, dietary Zinc (Zn) deficiency may result in loss of immunity, poor wound
healing and even dermatitis. Whereas an adequate amount of Zn nutrition helps to improve resistance to
some infectious diseases such as diarrhoea and increase immunity.
Micronutrients are vital for both plant growth and human health. While, foliar and soil applications are
the most prevalent methods of micronutrient addition, the initial cost involved and difficulty in obtaining
high quality of micronutrient fertilizers are quite costly, which are important factors especially in
developing countries.
Enhancing plant micronutrient status in circumstances where micronutrient nutrition is inadequately
supplied from the soil has proven to increase yield. However, this requires application of higher doses of
fertilizer to soils too because of low nutrient-use efficiency. In crop plants, micronutrients may be
supplicated to the soil, foliar sprayed or added as seed treatments. Although the required amounts of
micronutrients can be supplied by almost any of these methods, foliar sprays have been most effective in
and grain enrichment and yield improvement. By the way, the more cost hastens a wider acceptability,
particularly by resource-poor farmers. Plus, foliar application occurs at a later growth stages when crop
stands are already established. On the other hand, micronutrient seed treatments, which include seed
priming and seed coating, are an easy and cost-effective alternative.
Hence, seed treatment is a wiser option from an economical perspective as only a small amount of
micronutrient is needed, is easy to apply and the seedling growth is improved.
Seed Priming
Seeds can either be treated with micronutrients or by soaking in nutrient solution of a specific
concentration for a specific duration or even by coating with micronutrients. Seed invigoration is a
relatively new term and is interchangeably used for two methods of seed treatment.
Seed priming is also surely more cost effective in comparison with soil application having significant
savings, it is sensitive and can be changed by various environmental conditions and other factors. Oxygen
levels, temperature and water potential are amongst the most important factors that impact seed priming.
Even after seed priming with Zn, crops have shown to possess no effect on the grain yield and sometimes
leading to even complete failure . This is possible due a lack of testing and optimizing the priming levels.
Instead, it's wiser to optimize micronutrient seed priming levels within the laboratory then test in soil for
germination before priming the whole batch.
Conclusion
Overall, there is massive potential of micronutrient seed treatments for enhancing crop growth and grain
nutrient enrichment. Micronutrient applications through seed treatments improves the crop stand
establishment, increases phenological events by many folds and increases yield and micronutrient grain
contents. Being an easy and cost-effective method of micronutrient application, seed treatments has
emerged an attractive option for resource poor farmers.
Seed treatment with micronutrients has the potential to deal with crop micronutrient requirements,
enhance seedling emergence, yield, and grain micronutrient enrichment. Seed priming or seed coating, are
pragmatic, inexpensive and an easy alternatives of micronutrient delivery especially by small landholders
in developing countries. Variation exists within crops and varieties / genotypes / hybrids which researchers
are actively working on to:
1. Develop precise techniques using a range of micronutrient sources at varying concentrations and
durations.
2. Optimizing the temperature range, oxygenation requirements and water potential for maximum benefit.
3. Enhancing the storage potential of nutriprimed seeds, which may be critical for technology transfer in
the future.
Introduction
Food fortification is the process of adding micronutrients (essential trace elements and vitamins) to food.
It may be a purely commercial choice to provide extra nutrients in a food, while other times it is a public
health policy which aims to reduce the number of people with dietary deficiencies within a population.
Staple foods of a region can lack particular nutrients due to the soil of the region or from inherent
inadequacy of a normal diet. Addition of micronutrients to staples and condiments can prevent large-scale
deficiency diseases. It is a safe, effective way to improve public health and has been used around the world
since the 1920s. Commonly fortified foods include staple products such as salt, maize flour, wheat flour,
sugar, vegetable oil and rice.
Need of Fortification
More than two billion people worldwide suffer from micronutrient deficiencies because they are not meeting
their daily dietary requirements for essential vitamins and minerals. These deficiencies not only affect an
individual’s long-term health but can also raise social and public health care costs and potentially depress
a nation’s economic productivity (WHO/FAO).
It may be difficult for those living in developed countries to remember when diseases such as goitre, rickets,
beriberi, and pellagra were once common health problems back in the early 20th century. As per World
Health Organization (WHO), about two billion people worldwide suffer from micronutrient deficiencies
because they are not getting essential daily dietary requirements. Many diets, especially those of the poor,
contain insufficient amounts of these essential vitamins and minerals due to lack of variation and/or
consumption of predominantly processed foods.
Since most populations in rural areas do not have access to adequate quantities of fruits, vegetables and
meats, where micronutrients are abundant, they are vulnerable to long-term health problems and raise
social and public health care costs and potentially depress the country’s productivity. Today, these diseases
are rarely seen due to a series of food fortification programs that helped fend off a multitude of nutrient
deficiencies.
According to the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, food fortification is the practice of designedly increasing content of an essential micronutrient in
a food, so as to improve the nutritional quality of the food supply and provide a public health benefit with
minimal risk to health.
Limitation
1. A specific fortified foodstuff might not be consumed by all members of a target population. While,
everyone in the population is exposed to the increased levels of micronutrients in food, whether they need
it or not.
2. Infants and young children, who consume relatively small amounts of food, are less likely to fulfil their
recommended micronutrients from universally fortified staples alone.
3. Fortified foods often unable to reach the poorest segments of the general population due to their low
purchasing power and an underdeveloped distribution channel. Availability, access and consumption of
adequate quantities and a variety of micro nutrient-rich foods, such as animal foods and fruits and
vegetables, is limited.
4. Very low-income population groups are known to have coexisting multiple micronutrient deficiencies.
Although multiple micronutrient fortification is technically possible, the poor will be unable to obtain
recommended intakes of all micronutrients from fortified foods alone.
5. Nature of the food vehicle or the fortificant, sometimes limit the amount of fortification. For example,
some iron fortificants change the colour and flavour of many foods, and can cause the destruction of
fortificant vitamin A and iodine.
References
1. McLean E, De Benoist B, Allen LH.2008. Review of the magnitude of folate and vitamin B12 deficiencies worldwide. Food
Nutr. Bull., 29 (1):38–51.
2. Serdula M. 2010. Maximizing the impact of flour fortification to improve vitamin and mineral nutrition in populations. Food
Nutr. Bull., 31(1):86–93.
3. Varma, J. L, Das S, Sankar R, Mannar MGV, Levinson FJ, Hamer DH. 2007.Community-level micronutrient fortification of a
food supplement in India: a controlled trial in preschool children aged 36–66 mo. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 85(4):1127–1133.
Introduction
Crop residue is the largest agricultural harvest. Over half of all dry matter in the global harvest consists
of cereal and legume straws; tops, stalks, leaves, and shoots of tuber, oil, sugar, and vegetable crops; and
pruning and litter from fruit and nut trees. Out of various crops grown, rice, wheat and sugarcane are
prone to crop residue burning.
These crops are preferred by farmers since they provide higher economic return, as compared to other crops.
Soil organic carbon (SOC) content, which plays an important role in soil sustainability, is a key indicator
of soil fertility. The main source of SOC in cropland is crop residue; therefore, crop residue amendment is
considered one of the most important management practices in maintaining soil fertility. Crop residue, the
largest product of agricultural harvests, contains large amounts of assimilated carbon (C) and nutrients
such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (P); these elements must be recycled for the
sustainable development of agriculture.
Harvesting of various crops generates large volume of residues both on and off farm. Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy estimated that about 500 Mt of crop residues are generated annually. The generation
of crop residues is highest in Uttar Pradesh (60 Mt), followed by Punjab (51 Mt) and Maharashtra (46 Mt).
Among different crops, cereals generate maximum residues (352 Mt), followed by fibres (66 Mt), oilseeds
(29 Mt), pulses (13 Mt) and sugarcane (12 Mt).
Cereal crops (rice, wheat, maize, millets) contribute 70%, while rice crop alone contributes 34% to the crop
residues. A large portion of crop residue is burnt ‘on-farm’ primarily to clean the field for sowing the next
crop. burning of crop residues is predominant in four states, namely, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh &
West Bengal.
1. Loss of nutrients: It is estimated that burning of one tonne of rice straw accounts for loss of 5.5 kg
Nitrogen, 2.3 kg phosphorus, 25 kg potassium and 1.2 kg sulphur besides, organic carbon. Generally, crop
residues of different crops contain 80% of Nitrogen (N), 25% of Phosphorus (P), 50% of Sulphur (S) and 20%
of Potassium (K). If the crop residue is incorporated or retained in the soil itself, it gets enriched,
particularly with organic C and N.
2. Impact on soil properties: Heat from burning residues elevates soil temperature causing death of
beneficial soil organisms. Frequent residue burning leads to complete loss of microbial population and
reduces level of N and C in the top 0-15 cm soil profile, which is important for crop root development.
3. Emission of greenhouse and other gases: Crop residues burning is a potential source of Green House
Gases (GHGs) and other chemically and radiative important trace gases and aerosols such as CH4, CO,
2. Mulcher Machine: It is used for mulching of straws of crops such as rice, maize, sunflower and tobacco
residues easily. The knives which are jointed on the roller, rotates vertically. This machine shreds the
weeds and stock of row crops in orchards. Cutting height is adjustable by two wheels at the back of the
machine.
3. Beller: It is used to compress raked residues of rice, wheat, fodders, sugarcane, legumes etc into compact
bales that are easy to handle, transport, and store. Two different type of bale rectangular or cylindrical, of
various sizes, bound with twine, strapping, netting or wire. Crop residues are turned into bales, which is
used for animal feeding as well as bio fuels. It creates alternative business for farmers to sell bales to power
plants. Save the environment from air pollution.
Advantages
It removes the need to burn rice stubble before planting wheat, therefore reducing air pollution. Direct
sowing also reduces soil disturbance, enabling it to retain more nutrients, moisture and organic content. It
also saves money as less time is needed on carrying out field operations, which in turn reduces fuel and
labour costs.
Conclusion
The practice of crop residue amendment triggers the benign cycling of C and nutrients such as N, P, and K
in agriculture. In the past, crop residue was, and remains, in areas of poverty, used for household fuel
(cooking and heating), fodder, and bedding. Intensive burning of crop residue in the field is currently an
environmental problem in India, especially in the primary agricultural regions. animals, and SOC levels
were low compared to those in natural soils. Control of burning of crop residue to prevent environmental
degradation and loss of soil nutrients and minerals by promotion of in-situ management should be done.
References
1. Basch, G. Carvalho, M. Barros, J. F. C. and Caladon J. M. G.(2010). The importance of crop residue management for carbon
sequestration under no-till. Congreso Europeo de Agricultura de Conservación Madrid, 27:929-940.
2. Clapp C. E, Allmaras R. R, Layese M. F, Linden D. R, and Dowdy R. H. (2000). Soil organic carbon and 13-C abundance as
related to tillage, crop residue, and nitrogen fertilizer under continuous corn management in Minnesota. Soil Tillage Research,
55:127–142.
3. Lal, R. (1997). Residue management, conservation tillage and soil restoration for mitigating greenhouse effect by CO2-
enrichment. Soil & Tillage Research, 43: 81–107.
4. Zhang, Q. Yang, Z. andWu, Z. (2008). Role of Crop Residue Management in Sustainable Agricultural Development in the North
China Plain. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 32(1).
5. Directorate of Economics & Statistics, MOA, DAC, New Delhi.
Introduction
India is the second-largest producer of fruits in the world but productivity was less compared to other
countries, the reason for low productivity is lack of availability of quality planting material and climate
change resulting in low productivity. The occurrence of a hail storm is very frequent nowadays in
temperate areas due to climate change results in damage to the crop and increased incidences of the pests
and diseases cause widespread damage and losses to the fruit crops and quality of the fruits are also greatly
affected. Though hailstorm can occur in any part of the world, temperate zones are the most vulnerable.
Widespread unseasonal rains spells accompanied by hail occurred in several states during February-
March, 2014. It caused large scale destruction of crops in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Punjab, Gujarat, Uttarakhand, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka with central India
(Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh) being the worst hit. The country did not witness such a severe weather
aberration for a long time (source: The Indian Express, 20 March 2014). Hail is a solid, frozen form of
precipitation that causes extensive damage to properties and growing crops.
Hailstorm
1. Formation, Occurrence, and size of Hails: Hailstones are formed when raindrops are carried upward
by thunderstorm updrafts into extremely cold areas of the atmosphere and freeze. Hailstones then grow by
colliding with liquid water drops that freeze onto the hailstone’s surface. If the water freezes
instantaneously when colliding with the hailstone, cloudy ice will form as air bubbles will be trapped in the
newly formed ice. However, if the water freezes slowly, the air bubbles can escape and the new ice will be
clear. The hail falls when the thunderstorm's updraft can no longer support the weight of the hailstone,
which can occur if the stone becomes large enough or the updraft weakens. Hail falls when it becomes heavy
enough to overcome the strength of the thunderstorm updraft and is pulled toward the earth by gravity.
Smaller hailstones can be blown away from the updraft by horizontal winds, so larger hail typically falls
closer to the updraft than smaller hail. (Source: https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/hail/). Size
is a very important factor causing crop damage. Studies have concluded that most property damage begins
when hailstone diameters are 20 mm or greater. Hails of different sizes borne out of hailstorms of different
intensities are given in table 1.
Table:1 Hailstorm intensity scale:
Size code Typical hail Equivalent Intensity category Typical damage impact
diameter shape
H0 <8.4 Pea Hard hail No damage
H1 8.4-15.2 Marble Potentially damaging Slight damage to plants,
crops
H2 15.2-20.3 Coin or Potentially damaging Significant damage to
Grape fruit, crops, vegetation
H3 20.3-30.5 Nickel to Severe Severe damage to fruit and
Quarter crops, damage to glass and
plastic structures, paint
and wood scored
H4 30.5-40.6 Golf ball Severe Wide spread glass damage,
vehicle bodywork damage
Conclusion
The climate the change resulted in the occurrence of thunderstorms associated with hails which resulted
in great damage to the fruit crops. The damage intensity of the hails depends on the size of the hails, if the
crop in reproductive stage or fruiting stage the great economic damage will occur and quality of the hail
affected fruits also poor quality, later they invade by microorganisms causing a secondary infection.
Netting is a good solution to save the crop from hail damage compared to cloud seeding and creating shock
waves that are cost-effective.
References
1. Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources, Victoria
2. Compendium of Apple and Pear Diseases, Published by the American Phytopathological Society.
3. NationalInstituteofAbioticStressManagement .TechnicalBulletin 5
4. The Indian Express
5. https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/hail/
6. www.noaa.govandwww.torro.org
7. https://core.ac.uk/reader/19152618
Introduction
Agricultural science is rapidly developing in the modern world. As the world’s population is dramatically
increasing over the decades and it will reach about 10 billion by 2030. Plant breeding is the only way to
feed and meet the growing population demand. Using this science (Art) breeder from all over the world can
develop the food which is sufficient to meet the growing population demand.
Plant breeding helps not only in the development of high yielding plants also useful for inducing desirable
traits in the food which allows the people to get satisfied. Different crop breeding techniques were developed
by scientists to create new traits. To help educate people about the different plant breeding methods that
are used in agriculture to create new traits in plants, here an overview of different crop breeding techniques
has been listed for simple understanding.
Cross Breeding
It is the classical breeding method that has been used since ancient times. Traditional crossbreeding has
been the backbone of improving the genetics of our crops. In this method, pollen from one plant is placed
on the female part (ovary) of the flower of another, leading to the production of seeds that are hybrids of
the two parents. Then, plant breeders select the plants that have the beneficial traits they are looking for
to go on to the next generation. Many plant species were developed in this way. Apple varieties such as the
Honey crisp apple were developed in this way.
Mutation Breeding
In nature, new traits often arise through spontaneous mutations which led to the greater fitness of species
in course of evolution. In the past century, this idea has been mimicked by scientists, who have used
mutagens (such as ethyl methane sulfonate or radioactivity to generate random mutations in plants, and
subsequently screening for new or desired traits. The Ruby Red and the Star Ruby varieties of citrus fruits
were developed using ionizing radiation. The mutations that they carry give these fruits their characteristic
deep red colour. (Graca et al. 2004).
Polyploidy
Most of the eukaryotic species in the world are called diploid organisms, having 2 sets of chromosomes in
their genome (Diploidy). One set inherited from the male parent and another set from the female parent.
Using these concept plant breeders developed a technique called Polyploidy which involves the
multiplication of the original chromosome number in a plant to impact its fertility. Polyploidy is the
occurrence of more than 2 sets of chromosomes.
It can occur naturally in some species, but polyploidy can also be induced through the use of chemicals
(Thomas et al. 2002). This breeding technique is usually used to increase the size of fruits or to modify their
fertility. For example, the seedless watermelon (having 3 sets of chromosomes) was created using the
hybridization of one watermelon (having 4 sets of chromosomes) with another watermelon (having 2 sets
of chromosomes) making a sterile watermelon with 3 sets of chromosomes. (Jerry parson et al. 2000).
Protoplast Fusion
It is the biotech breeding method of using plant living cells that involves the fusion of cells or cell
components to transfer traits between plant species. When sperm cells in pollen combine with the ova in
the ovaries of a flower, this is a fusion of two cells into one Protoplast fusion is an artificial version of this
process. This technique is useful for the transfer of beneficial traits from one species to another species by
Transgenic Breeding
Transgenic breeding is a genetic engineering approach that involves the addition of desirable genes from
any foreign genome into the organism's genome of interest. The food developed using these plants is called
GM (Genetically Modified) food. This technique usually involves handling and modifying the DNA itself in
a test tube, and then packaging it to insert it into the new organism.
There are several ways to transfer genes such as biolistics or “gene gun” (Kikkert et al. 2005) using
Agrobacterium, a naturally occurring organism that inserts DNA into plants (Gelvins, 2003) or by using
electricity, a process called electroporation (Joersbo M and Brunstedt J. 1996). Using this approach breeder
can create many useful traits such as insect resistance, herbicide tolerance, and drought tolerance, etc. in
the plants. For instance, papayas were transformed with a gene from the virus that infects the plant to
make it resistant to the virus.
Genome Breeding
This is the very recent development in the plant breeding world. Here Use of an enzyme system to modify
or change the DNA genome at specific sequence directly within the cell. Different enzyme systems can be
used for genome editing, the most promising of which is the CRISPR-Cas9 system (Patrick et al. 2014).
Canola crop with the sulfonylurea (SU) herbicide-tolerant was developed using this technique to enable
farmers to better control weeds and to enable crop rotation. The crop was created using a patented genome
editing system known as Rapid Trait Development System (RTDS). You could conceivably edit the genome
of any crop to alter any gene you wanted, from introducing new genes to restoring ‘natural’ alleles from the
ancestors of our crops (Gina Kolata, 2015).
Conclusion
Each of these crop modification techniques has similarities and differences, and some work better for some
traits rather than others. Each of them modifies the genetic makeup of the plant to combine useful traits
to improve agriculture.
All of them have examples that are being grown on farms and are producing benefits, all can be patented
in one way or another, and all of them can have unintended consequences. However, socially and politically
the products of these methods are treated very differently.
The fact that the changes that these techniques introduce do not line up with how they are treated when
it comes to debates over the regulations for health and environmental safety, and political debates about
labelling has come to be known as the “Frankenfood Paradox.” For instance, transgenesis produces far
fewer changes and unintended consequences than mutagenesis while mutagenesis is generally accepted
and ignored in political discussions (Layla katiraee, 2015).
Introduction
Crop residue recycling has to play a key role in achieving sustainability in agricultural production. An
important resource not only as a source of significant quantities of nutrients for crop production but also
improve soil quality by improving physical, chemical and biological functions of soil. The removal of NPK
at the present level of crop production has been estimated at 125 kg/ha whereas the annual addition is not
more than 75 kg/ha resulting in depletion of soil nutrients. The country has potential to produced 650
million tonne crop residues every year which can provide 11.6 million tonne of plant nutrients annually
(Pathak et al., 2012). Therefore, the regular recycling of crop residue in the soil is most efficient on the use
of organic input is aimed at the conservation and optimized utilization of available resource for maintain
soil quality and crop productivity.
Crop Residue
Defined as the vegetative crop material left on a field after a crop is harvested, pruned or processed or left
after pasture are grazed.
Composting
C:N ratio = 30 (26 - 40) of raw material is most favourable for efficient composting. With wide C:N ratio
such as in residues of wheat, paddy, sorghum, pearl-millet, maize, sugarcane trash, stalks of the cotton;
microbial activities diminish, as they do not get sufficient amount of nitrogen.
Different methods of composting:
1. Indore method.
2. Bangalore method.
3. NADEP method.
4. Vermi-composting.
5. Coimbatore method.
Biochar
Biochar is a carbon rich charcoal-like substance created by heating of biomass (organic matter) in low
oxygen conditions (pyrolysis). It is produced with the intent to deliberately apply to soils to sequester carbon
and improve soil properties.
Conclusion
Crop residues is dynamic material changing/improving physical (B.D. porosity, available water capacity,
hydraulic conductivity), chemical (OC, CEC, available NPK, S, Zn & Fe) and biological (fungi,
actinomycetes, bacteria) properties of soil. Judicious use of crop residues considerably improves soil fertility
and productivity. Therefore, the crop residues should be utilized through proper recycling in soil rather
than burning unnecessarily.
References
1. Badarinath, K. V. S. and Chand Kiran, T. R. 2006. Agriculture crop residue burning in the indo-Gangetic Plains- A study
using IRSP6 WiFS satellite data. Current Science, 91(8), 1085–1089.
2. Bairathi, R.C., M.M. Gupta, and S.P. Seth. 1974. Effect of different legume crop residues on soil properties, yield and nutrient
uptake by succeeding wheat crop. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 22:304-307.
3. Niveta, J. Pathak, H. , Bhatia, A. 2014 . Sustainable management of crop residues in India, Current advances in agricultural
sciences 1(9), 0975-2315.
Introduction
With a growing global population, the world food demand is expected to increase as well (FAO 2004). To
compensate this demand, farmers continuously applying nutrient in excess amount which leads to poor soil
health, low crop yield and other environmental impacts. Apart from this, lack of synchronization between
plant nutrient demand and soil nutrient supply leads to poor nutrient use efficiency. To face these
challenges, efficient nutrient management strategies along with new production technologies are needed
to feed the increasing global population (Sakamoto et al. 2009). A new concept, precision farming has been
introduced where nutrients are supplied according to spatial and temporal variability of nutrients in the
field. Sensors are important tool in precision agriculture to optimize the supply and demand of nutrients
according to crop demand. These sensors placed in contact with or close to the crop which can provide a
rapid and real time assessment of nutrient status.
Classification of Sensors
Proximal optical sensors are classified in three categories: transmittance-based sensors, reflectance-based
sensors, and machine vision systems (Padilla et al., 2018).
GreenSeeker
GreenSeeker is an incorporated system of optical sensor and application system for optimizing N
application. This unit emits light in two wavelengths and the light reflectance from target (plants in the
soil) is measured. The GreenSeeker active lighting optical sensor uses high intensity light emitting diodes
(LEDs) that radiate light at 780 mm (NIR) and 600 nm (red) as light sources. The normalized difference
vegetation index (NDVI) is calculated from the NIR and red values by the computer.
Crop-Circle
It measures plant reflectance using light sensor. It used up to 6 spectral bands: Blue (450 ± 20 nm), Green
(550 ± 20 nm), Red 1(650 ± 20 nm), Red 2 (670 ± 11 nm),Red edge (730 ± 10 nm), and NIR (760 nm).As a
result, a variety of spectral vegetation indices can be derived (Table 6). Some of these indices have been
found to be better than the traditional NDVI and RVI indices for estimating crop N status.
Conclusion
High NUE can be achieved by replacing blanket fertilizer recommendation by an optical sensor-based
strategy. Digital meter devices, such as SPAD and GreenSeeker are widely used but more expensive as
well as Crop-Circle based VIs has better performance than GreenSeeker in nitrogen management.
Currently, drone is more popular to detect the early sign of nutrient stress in plants. For a regional scale,
satellite or aircraft-based techniques are most feasible option to monitor the nutrient status in crops. Apart
from traditional indices like NDVI, RVI, other indices like P_1080_1460 and S_660_1260 have better
prediction of nutrient status. Site specific nutrient management strategies based on sensors are most
powerful tools to enhance the nutrient efficiency. A maximum sensor has been developed for primary
nutrients, so there is need to develop sensors for other secondary and micronutrients. In USA, satellite and
GIS based projects (like FERTISAT & CROPSAT) are going on which provide the soil fertility and plant
nutrient data to farmer to synchronize the demand and supply. Therefore, we have to implement such type
of strategies in our country also.
References
1. Francisco M. Padilla ID, Marisa Gallardo, M. Teresa Peña-Fleitas, Romina de Souza and Rodney B. Thompson. (2018)
Proximal Optical Sensors for Nitrogen Management of Vegetable Crops: A Review. Sensors 18, 2083.
2. Mahajan, G.R., Sahoo, R.N., Pandey, R.N., Gupta, V.K., and Kumar, D. (2014) Using hyperspectral remote sensing techniques
to monitor nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and potassium in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Precision Agriculture 15, 499-522.
3. Sakamoto, T., Van, P.,Kotera, A., Nguyen,D. and Yokozawa, M. (2009) Detection of yearly change in farming systems in the
Vietnamese Mekong Delta from MODIS time-series imagery. Japan Agriculture Research Quarterly 43,173–85.
Introduction
Heavy metals are generally defined as metals with relatively high densities more than 5gm/cm3 and atomic
weight more than sodium and conventionally defined as elements with metallic properties and an atominc
number > 20 (Emsley, 2011) .The most common heavy metals found at contaminated sites, in order of
abundance are Pb, Cr, As, Zn, Cd, Cu, and Hg [40]. Those metals are important since they are capable of
decreasing crop production due to the risk of bioaccumulation and biomagnification in the food chain.
There’s also the risk of superficial and groundwater contamination. Knowledge of the basic chemistry,
environmental and associated health effects of these heavy metals is necessary in understanding their
speciation, bioavailability, and remedial options. The fate and transport of a heavy metal in soil depends
significantly on the chemical form and speciation of the metal. Once in the soil, heavy metals are absorbed
by initial fast reactions (minutes, hours), followed by slow adsorption reactions (days, years) and are,
therefore, redistributed into different chemical forms with varying bioavailability, mobility, and toxicity
(Shiowantana et al. 2001).
This distribution is believed to be controlled by reactions of heavy metals in soils such as:
1. Mineral precipitation and dissolution.
2. Ion exchange, adsorption, and desorption.
3. Aqueous complexation.
4. Biological immobilization and mobilization.
5. Plant uptake (levy et al. 1992).
Phytoremedation
The term phytoremediation comes from the Ancient Greek word phyto meaning “plant” and the Latin word
remedium meaning “restoring balance.” It is a technology that uses plants to treat environmental pollution
problems. Plants are used either to remove or to stabilize (hold in place) pollution in the soil.
Phytoremediation concept of using plant to remove metals from contaminant soil given by Utsunamiya and
Chaney (1991) first plant use for phytoremediation is Thalpsi caerulscens.
Phytoremedation Mechanisms
1. Phytosequestration.
2. Rhizodegration.
3. Phytohydralics.
4. Phytoextraction.
5. Phytodegradation.
6. Phytovoltalisation.
Rhizodegradation Mechanism
This is also refered to as phytostimulation. Rhizodegradation refers to the breakdown of contaminants
within the plant root zone, or rhizosphere. It is believed to be carried out by bacteria or other
Phytohydraulic
This is the control of the water table and the soil field capacity by plant canopies. Phytoremediation projects
employing hydraulic control generally use phreatophytic trees and plants that have the ability to transpire
large volumes of water and thereby affect the existing water balance at the site.
Phytoextraction
This also called phytoaccumulation, it refers to the uptake and translocation of metal contaminants in the
soil by plant roots into the above ground portions of the plants. Phytoextraction is primarily used for the
treatment of contaminated soils (USEPA, 2000).
Phytodegradation
This is also referred to as phytotransformation. It involves the degradation of complex organic molecules
to simple molecules or the incorporation of these molecules into plant tissues (Trap et al., 2005).
Phytodesalination Mechanism
This technique is a modality of phytoextraction. Salinization is most serious problem confronting
sustainable agriculture in irrigated production system in arid and semi-arid regions. it is a recently
reported emerging technique that utilizes halophytes to remove excess salts from saline soils. The potential
of Suaeda maritima and Sesuvium portulacastrum in removal and accumulation of NaCl, from highly
saline soils, has been demonstrated. Example of halophytes plants are: Portulaca oleracea, Amaranthus
spp., Sesuvium portulacatrum, Suaeda fruticose.
Conclusion
Phytoremediation is a fast-developing field, since last ten years a lot of field applications were initiated all
over the world, this sustainable and inexpensive process is fast emerging as a viable alternative to
conventional remediation methods, and will be most suitable for a developing country like India. There is
a need to optimize the agronomic practices to maximize the clean-up potential of premeditative plants.
References
1. Cunningham, S. D., Anderson, T. A, Schwab, P. A, and Hsu, F. C. (1996). Phytoremediation of soils contaminated with organic
pollutants. Adv. Agron., 56: 55-114.
2. Levy, D.B . Barbarick, K.A. Siemer,E.G and Sommers,L.E “Distribution and partitioning of trace metals in contami-nated
soils near Leadville, Colorado,” Journal of Environmental Quality, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 185–195, 1999
3. Raskin, I., and Ensley, B.D. (2000). Recent developments for in situ treatment of metal contaminated soils. In:
Phytoremediation of Toxic Metals: Using Plants to Clean Up the Environment. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. Available
at: http//clu-n.org/techfocus.
4. Trap, S., Kohler, A., Larsen, L. C., Zambrano, K. C., and Karlson, U. (2005). Phytotoxicity of fresh and weathered diesel and
gasoline to willow and poplar trees. J. Soil Sediments, 1: 71-76.
5. Shiowatana,J. R. G. McLaren, N. Chanmekha, and A. Sam-phao, “Fractionation of arsenic in soil by a continuous-flow
sequential extraction method,” Journal of Environmental Quality, vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 1940–1949, 2001
6. United Nations Environment Programme Division of Technology, Industry, and Economics United States Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA). (2000). Introduction to Phytoremediation. EPA 600/R-99/107, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH.
Introduction
Potassium (K) is one of sixteen essential nutrients required for plant growth and reproduction. It is
classified as a macronutrient, as are nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). The chemical symbol for potassium
is "K." It is taken up by plants in its ionic form (K+).
The word potassium translates from the Latin or German word, Kalium. The term "potash" comes from the
colonial practice of burning wood in large pots and using the ashes as fertilizer and making soap,
gunpowder and glass. "Potash" is defined as K2O and is used to express the content of various fertilizer
materials containing potassium,such as muriate of potash (KCl), sulfate of potash (K2SO4), double sulfate
of potash and magnesium (K2SO4·2MgSO4), and nitrate of potash (KNO3). Frequently, the expressions
"K" and "K2O" are used interchangeably, although technically incorrectly.
Potassium is abundant in nature, comprising about 2.4 percent of the earth’s crust. The potassium content
of soils varies widely, ranging from only a few hundred pounds per acre (furrow-slice 6" depth) to over
50,000 pounds per acre or more in fine-texture soils formed from rocks that are high in potassium-bearing
minerals. All naturally occurring potassium contained in the soil originated from the disintegration and
decomposition of potash-feldspars (orthoclase and microcline) and micas (muscovite and biotite).
Soil potassium is present in four forms:
1. Soil solution potassium.
2. Exchangeable potassium.
3. Non-exchangeable potassium.
4. Lattice potassium.
Potassium in Plants
Potassium plays a vital role in: Photosynthesis, translocation of photosynthates, protein synthesis, control
of ionic balance, regulation of plant stomata and water use, activation of plant enzymes and, many other
processes. It is known to activate at least sixty enzymes involved in plant growth. They are also less
resistant to pests, diseases and nematode attacks.
Potassium is also known as the quality nutrient because of its important effects on quality factors such as
size, shape, colour, taste, shelf life, fibre quality and other quality measurements. Potassium plays many
roles in plants such as water relation, energy relations, translocation of assimilates, photosynthesis, protein
and starch synthesis, metabolic processes and grain/seed formation, preventing lodging in crops, improving
resistance to pest and diseases.
Losses of Potassium
Losses of potassium may take place in the form of luxury consumption, leaching, and soil erosion as
described below.
1. Luxury Consumption: Some crops tend to absorb and accumulate potassium far in excess of their
needs, if it is present in sufficiently large quantities in the soil. This tendency is termed “luxury
consumption”
2. Leaching and Erosion Losses of potassium: Leaching losses can vary widely from traces to 4-5
kg/ha/yr, depending on soil, irrigation, fertilizer-usage and cropping. leaching of the applied potassium are
highest in light textured soils (7-17 kg/ha/yr), organic soils and soils with kaolinite as the dominant clay
mineral soil.
The erosion loss of potassium is considerable and generally exceeds that of any other major nutrients
element and it generally varies between 10and 55 kg/ha/yr. Soil erosion also leads to considerable loss of
total potassium from the soil.
Conclusion
Phytoremediation is a fast-developing field, since last ten years a lot of field applications were initiated all
over the world, this sustainable and inexpensive process is fast emerging as a viable alternative to
conventional remediation methods, and will be most suitable for a developing country like India. There is
a need to optimize the agronomic practices to maximize the clean-up potential of premeditative plants.
References
1. Cunningham, S. D., Anderson, T. A, Schwab, P. A, and Hsu, F. C. (1996). Phytoremediation of soils contaminated with organic
pollutants. Adv. Agron., 56: 55-114.
Introduction
Global agriculture is facing numerous challenges and adversely affecting food and nutritional security.
Among others, intensive agriculture and excessive use of external inputs are leading to degradation of soil,
water and genetic resources and negatively affecting agricultural production. Degradation of natural
resources is posing a serious threat to meet the future demand for food, feed, fodder and fibre. Wide spread
soil erosion, nutrient mining, depleting water table, and eroding biodiversity are the global concerns which
are threatening the food security and livelihood opportunities of farmers, especially the poor and
underprivileged. A study by the Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations (FAO) revealed that
an estimated 1.5 billion people depend directly on land that is degrading. Another study by the FAO
indicated that land degradation is worsening rather than improving, with declining trends revealed across
some 24 per cent of global land area. According to this study, the main driver of degradation is poor land
management (Paroda, 2009).
Conservation Agriculture
The concept of conservation agriculture is relatively new in modern cultivation practices. It is differentiated
with the conventional agriculture. It argues that the conventional agriculture promotes extensive soil
tillage and burn crop residue. Bare soil is also allowed for weeks or months. Broadly, the conventional
agriculture is characterised as intensive tillage, straw burning and external inputs. Such practices lead to
soil degradation through loss of organic matter, soil erosion and compaction. In Brazil, it was estimated
that 1 tonne harvest of soybean means degradation of 10 ha.
On the contrary, conservation agriculture is a range of soil management practices that minimise effects on
composition, structure and natural biodiversity and reduce erosion and degradation. Largely, the
conservation agriculture practices include:
1. Direct sowing / no- tillage, reduced tillage/minimum tillage.
2. Surface-incorporation of crop residues.
3. Establishment of cover crops in both annual and perennial crops.
These concepts confined to improve soil health and do not refer the farm income. To integrate farm income
and soil health through conservation agriculture, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), has focused the concept as resource-saving agricultural crop production. As per FAO
definition, the conservation agriculture is to:
1. achieve acceptable profits.
2. high and sustained production levels
3. conserve the environment (FAO, 2009).
Constraints in Adoption
There are a number of problems encountered in adoption of conservation agriculture. The most important
is the mindset of farming community who were educated extensively and convinced about the intensive
Conclusion
CA is spread over 155 M ha across all continents (11% of global cropland), an increase of 24% since 2010,
& continues to spread at an annual rate of 10 M ha. Originally a farmer’s driven process, but attention
increasingly paid by donors, national and international development organizations, and increasingly by
governments – becoming a structural response CA is getting recognized more widely as an approach for
sustainable production intensification that offers enhancement of productivity with ecosystem services and
improved resilience, and climate change adaptability and mitigation. The spread of CA is equally divided
between developed regions and developing regions; major share is located in the Americas and Australia.
CA is now increasing in Europe, Asia & Africa as relatively more attention is directed to it by development
stakeholders and governments. Other regions struggle with keeping good quality CA (Latin America with
Soya) Further policy and institutional support is needed for faster adoption AND for safeguarding quality
of CA to ensure environmental services.
References
1. Ghosh P. K., Das, A., Sah, R., Kharkrang, E., Tripathi, A. K., Munda, G. C. and Ngachan S. V.(2010). Conservation agriculture
towards achieving food security in North East India, Current science, VOL. 99, NO. 7.
2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2009), Conservation Agriculture. http://www.fao.org/ag/ca
Rome, Italy.
3. Lal, R. (2004), Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security. Science, Vol.34, pp. 1623-
1627.
Introduction
India is the second-largest producer of fruits in the world but productivity was less compared to other
countries, the reason for low productivity is lack of availability of quality planting material and climate
change resulting in low productivity. The occurrence of a hail storm is very frequent nowadays in
temperate areas due to climate change results in damage to the crop and increased incidences of the pests
and diseases cause widespread damage and losses to the fruit crops and quality of the fruits are also greatly
affected. Though hailstorm can occur in any part of the world, temperate zones are the most vulnerable.
Widespread unseasonal rains spells accompanied by hail occurred in several states during February-
March, 2014. It caused large scale destruction of crops in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Punjab, Gujarat, Uttarakhand, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka with central India
(Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh) being the worst hit. The country did not witness such a severe weather
aberration for a long time (source: The Indian Express, 20 March 2014). Hail is a solid, frozen form of
precipitation that causes extensive damage to properties and growing crops.
Hailstorm
1. Formation, Occurrence, and size of Hails: Hailstones are formed when raindrops are carried upward
by thunderstorm updrafts into extremely cold areas of the atmosphere and freeze. Hailstones then grow by
colliding with liquid water drops that freeze onto the hailstone’s surface. If the water freezes
instantaneously when colliding with the hailstone, cloudy ice will form as air bubbles will be trapped in the
newly formed ice. However, if the water freezes slowly, the air bubbles can escape and the new ice will be
clear. The hail falls when the thunderstorm's updraft can no longer support the weight of the hailstone,
which can occur if the stone becomes large enough or the updraft weakens. Hail falls when it becomes heavy
enough to overcome the strength of the thunderstorm updraft and is pulled toward the earth by gravity.
Smaller hailstones can be blown away from the updraft by horizontal winds, so larger hail typically falls
closer to the updraft than smaller hail. (Source: https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/hail/). Size
is a very important factor causing crop damage. Studies have concluded that most property damage begins
when hailstone diameters are 20 mm or greater. Hails of different sizes borne out of hailstorms of different
intensities are given in table 1.
Table:1 Hailstorm intensity scale:
Size code Typical hail Equivalent Intensity Typical damage impact
diameter shape category
H0 <8.4 Pea Hard hail No damage
H1 8.4-15.2 Marble Potentially Slight damage to plants, crops
damaging
H2 15.2-20.3 Coin or Potentially Significant damage to fruit, crops,
Grape damaging vegetation
H3 20.3-30.5 Nickel to Severe Severe damage to fruit and crops, damage
Quarter to glass and plastic structures, paint and
wood scored
H4 30.5-40.6 Golf ball Severe Wide spread glass damage, vehicle
bodywork damage
H5 40.6-50.8 Tennis ball Destructive Wholesale destruction of glass, damage to
tiled roofs, significant risk of injuries
Conclusion
The climate the change resulted in the occurrence of thunderstorms associated with hails which resulted
in great damage to the fruit crops. The damage intensity of the hails depends on the size of the hails, if the
crop in reproductive stage or fruiting stage the great economic damage will occur and quality of the hail
affected fruits also poor quality, later they invade by microorganisms causing a secondary infection.
Netting is a good solution to save the crop from hail damage compared to cloud seeding and creating shock
waves that are cost-effective.
References
1. Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources, Victoria.
2. Compendium of Apple and Pear Diseases, Published by the American.
3. Phytopathological Society.
4. NationalInstituteofAbioticStressManagement .TechnicalBulletin 5.
5. The Indian Express.
6. https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/hail/
7. www.noaa.govandwww.torro.org.
8. https://core.ac.uk/reader/19152618.
Introduction
Irrigation is life line for agriculture. It is said that .India’s irrigation potential has increased from 22.6
million hectares in 1950–1951 to about 123 million hectares by including 42 million hectares under major
and medium irrigation projects, 14 and 67 million hectares under minor surface and minor groundwater
lift projects, respectively, making it a world leader in irrigation. Irrigated area accounts for nearly 48.8
per cent of the 140 million hectare (mha) of agricultural land in India and the remaining 51.2 per cent of
land is under rainfed.
Low irrigation efficiency, poor physical structures, seepage loss, siltation, soil salinity, lack of judicial use
of water for irrigation among the farmers, improper coordination among irrigation department officials of
command area with the local farmers, and politicizing water disputes are the major drawbacks that an
irrigation sector is facing right now in our country.
Aforementioned problems are to be met with local solution. Farmers’ participation in irrigation policy
framework and management is the key. Water Policy of India has underlined upbringing farmers’
participation in irrigation management. At the present scenario Participatory Irrigation Management
(PIM) is the saviour trend which mainly stress upon bringing local solution to local problems affecting our
farmers.
PIM in India
Realizing the need of PIM, the Government of India brought out a model act which has to be adopted by
the state legislatures. This model act provides a blueprint of legal framework for creation of farmers
organizations at different levels of irrigation system as under:
1. Water Users’ Association (WUA): will have a delineated command area on a hydraulic basis, which
shall be administratively viable. Generally, a WUA would cover a group of outlets or a minor.
2. Distributary Committee: will comprise of 5 or more WUAs. All the presidents of WUAs will comprise
general body of the distributary committee.
3. Project Committee: will be an apex committee of an irrigation system and presidents of the
Distributary committees in the project area shall constitute general body of this committee.
Constraints of PIM
1. Lack of proper coordination among WUAs , Distributary Committee, Project Committee.
2. Uncertainty of water availability.
Conclusion
PIM ensures the better irrigation aspect than the past methodologies used . proper legal framework helps
in boosting up the skill, technology and funding for the irrigation management in our country. Regular
monitoring and evaluating the performance of WUAs is the only key in enhancing the PIM programme.
States should also constitute a State level monitoring committee. The success and failure of the WUAs at
one place could provide useful lessons and enable taking up of corrective steps in formation and
sustainability of WUAs at other places.
References
1. “Status Of Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) In India - policy Initiatives Taken And Emerging Issues”- The Ministry
of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation.
2. MoSPI. 2010. ‘Irrigation Infrastructure’, Infrastructure Statistics 2010: First Issue. Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Implementation, Government of India.
Abstract
In India, having wide range of climatic conditions, varied topography which helps to growing different type
of horticultural crops. India is following largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after china.
Unfortunately, due to ineffective postharvest management practices a significantly postharvest loss of 5%
- 15% of fruits and vegetables occur yearly. Only 2% of fruit and vegetable crops are processed of total
production.
Due to improper post-harvest management, storage, processing and value addition consequences in
horticultural produce the farmers’ incomes decreases every year because of this economy has losses huge
amount of money. These losses controlled by different methods like proper harvesting and handling of
produce, provide better postharvest management practices, storage facilities and good transportation
services which reduced the postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables as well as doubling the farmer’s
income.
Introduction
India is a rich horticultural country producing wide variety of fruits, vegetables, ornamental and flower
crops, medicinal and spices plants. The Indian Economy is deeply dependent on agriculture and allied
sector which contributed approximately 13.9% of India’s GDP in 2013-14 (Ministry of Agriculture, 2015).
India is following largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after china.
In India, food production has been progressively increased due to improvement in production technology,
on the other hand improper post-harvest management, storage, processing and value addition
consequences in higher losses in agricultural produces. Unfortunately, due to ineffective postharvest
management practices a significantly postharvest loss of 5% - 15% of fruits and vegetables occur yearly.
The optimum postharvest management of fruits and vegetables are not the same for all products, they
based on the requirements of growers, traders, exporters, retailers, consumers, processing and
transportation distance. Approximately, according to CIPHET, Ludhiana only 2% of fruit and vegetable
crops are processed of total production.
Due to harvesting and postharvest losses of agricultural produce the farmers suffer Rs. 92,651 crore per
annum. The word postharvest losses are well-defined as “losses that happen after harvest till the produce
reaches to the consumers from field” which can quantity as well as qualitatively losses. Major causes for
postharvest losses are done during harvest and postharvest management due to poor handling of products.
These losses controlled by different methods like proper harvesting and handling of produce, provide better
postharvest management practices, storage facilities and good transportation services which reduced the
postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables.
References
1. Chaturvedi, B. K., & Raj, A. (2015). Agricultural storage infrastructure in India: An overview. IOSR Journal of Business and
Management, 17(5), 37-43.
2. Nath, A. "Post-harvest Management and Value Addition in Horticultural Crops: Scope for Entrepreneurship Development
with Special Reference to North-East India." Published in Horticulture for economic prosperity and nutritional security in 21st
century. Edited by TK Hazarika and BP Nautiyal Published by Westville Publishing House, New Delhi (2013): 207-219.
3. Nath, A., Mangaraj, S., Goswami, T. K., & Chauhan, J. (2016). Post-Harvest Management and Production of Important
Horticultural Crops. Scientific Publishers.
4. Nath, A., Meena, L. R., Kumar, V., & Panwar, A. S. (2018). Postharvest management of horticultural crops for doubling
farmer’s income.
5. Watkins, C. B., & Nock, J. F. (2012). Production guide for storage of organic fruits and vegetables.
Abstract
Communication in nematodes are associated with:
1. Nervous system.
2. Sensory organs.
3. Chemical communication.
Nervous System
The nervous system of nematodes consists of a set of parallel interconnected neuronal processes that run
lengthwise on the nematode body, or circle the nematode body adjacent to the hypodermis. Various
functions of stimulation, coordination and responsive actions are the responsibility of nervous system. It
receives stimuli from the environment and transmits them to the internal tissues in which latent energy
for the activity is stored. It is the nervous tissue that controls and directs the results of the liberated energy.
The functional unit of the nervous system is neuron
Sensory Organs
Nematodes interact with their external environment by wide range of sensory organs /sensilla.
There are two types of sensory organs:
1. Exteroreceptors.
2. Interoreceptors.
The sense organs receive the stimulus and transmit the same to the nerve centre. A nematodes receptor
system is highly sensitive and the nervous system is highly coordinated. A number of chemo- , mechano- ,
thermo-,and electro – reception systems , the four functional systems attributed in nematodes.
1. Chemoreceptors: Amphids, Phasmids.
2. Mechanoreceptors: Cephallic papillae, Labial papillae, Genital papillae, Deirids.
3. Photoreceptors: Oceli.
Chemical Communication
Root exudates and host recognition:
1. Plant roots exude a range of compounds into the rhizosphere which mediate belowground interactions
with pathogenic and beneficial soil organisms.
2. Root exudates include secretion of ions, free oxygen and water, enzymes, mucilage and a diverse array
of primary and secondary metabolites.
3. These compounds alter nematode behaviour and can either attract nematode to the roots or result in
repellence, motility inhibition or even death.
Pheromones
Pheromones are the chemicals released by male and female nematodes for attracting the nematodes of
their own species. These are mostly water soluble or they require a definite medium for their spread. In
some nematodes volatile type of attractants are produced. They are secreted in gonads (Hsueh et al. 2013).
The organs of chemoreception are amphids, phasmids and labial sensilla. These chemoreceptors are very
sensitive and respond to attractants diffusing from a distant source or they may be less sensitive and
respond to contact with the source.
References
1. Choe, A., Stephan H., Von R., Dima K., Robin B. G., Edward G. P., Frank C. S., and Paul W. S., (2012). Ascaroside Signaling
Is Widely Conserved among Nematodes. Current Biology, 22(9): 772-780.
2. Hsueh Y. P., Daniel H. W. And Paul W. S., (2013). Nematode Communication. Biocommunication of animals. Pp: 383-407.
India.
Introduction
Indian agriculture has come a long way since independence. The country has achieved self-sufficiency in
food grain production and is in a position to export various food commodities to other countries. The
tremendous growth in agriculture is mainly due to the new production technologies introduced during
green revolution in early 1970s.
High yielding crop varieties of wheat and rice were introduced for commercial cultivation with intensive
application of chemical pesticides and nutrients. As a result, the production and productivity increased by
many folds. Intensive agriculture brought some negative effects also as a number of pest and diseases
emerged as major problem and caused epidemics in several parts of India.
Worldwide insect pests cause an estimated loss of 14% (Pimentel, 2009). The major epidemics of insects
such as brown plant hopper, armyworm and stem borer in rice, boll worm in cotton, fall armyworm in
maize, fruit and shoot borers in various vegetables are being noticed frequently from several parts of India.
Management of insect pests are most important in sustainable crop protection and production.
One of the effective strategies of management of pests is the use of chemical pesticides. These are the
chemical substances designed to control pests in various crops. Pesticide industry is growing every year
and globally six billion pounds of pesticides are applied worldwide.
In India alone, pesticides of worth INR 197 Billion was sold in market during 2018.They are being used in
agriculture fields by different method of applications.
They include, seed treatment, seedling dip, foliar spray, soil or stem injection methods. Based on the type
of pests they control, pesticides are grouped as insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, nematicides,
rodenticides, antibiotics etc. Large scale and injudicious application of pesticides created several negative
problems like they could harm beneficial insects, birds, mammals along with causing environmental
pollution.
The serious problem created by pesticides raised concern among researchers and people to look for alternate
form of pesticides. The pesticides which are precision in their action and non-harmful to environment must
be explored. Nano pesticides are the best alternatives to chemical formulations which are gaining attention
of researchers to solve the problems associated with chemical pesticides.
Nano Pesticides
Nano pesticides are the pesticides incorporated within nanoparticles. Nanoparticles are very small
molecules (Billionth of a matter) that are usually made of metals. Being smaller in size, they can cover
larger surface areas and very low rate of nano pesticides would require covering a larger area with high
precision.
They do not break down easily and need not be applied frequently for pest control. Since they are encased
in a capsule form, penetration and killing of targeted pests is possible more effectively. They also have
lower efficacy on non-targeted pests and could reduce overall pesticide requirement.
Nanoparticles with pesticidal action are silver nitrate, gold chromite, zinc oxide and zinc acetate, cadmium
sulphide and zinc sulphide and carbon. They can be synthesized from different sources like plant and
natural sources (Rai and Ingle, 2012).
Conclusion
Nanotechnology and its application in plant protection is still in the early stages of development. Isolation
and characterization of potential nanomaterials for their pesticide properties are being explored. Use of
nano pesticides / nano pesticide formulations in agriculture could provide better plant protection when
compared to chemical pesticides. Various types of pesticide formulations like microemulsion, nano
emulsion, nano dispersion and nanoencapsulation of pesticides enhances the efficacy of pesticides by site
specific delivery and action. In conclusion, nano pesticides hold tremendous promise for reducing
environmental pollution due to conventional pesticides.
References
1. Ojha, S., Singh, D., Sett, A., Chetia, H., Kabiraj, D and Bora, U., (2018). Nanotechnology in Crop Protection in: Nanomaterials
in Plants, Algae, and Microorganisms Concepts and Controversies: Volume 1, 2018, Pages 345-391.
2. Pimentel, D., (2009). Pesticide and pest control. In: Peshin, P., Dhawan, A.K (eds) Integrated pest management: Innovation-
development process. Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands pp. 83-87.
3. Rai, M and Ingle, A., (2012). Role of nanotechnology in agriculture with special reference to management of insect pests. Appl
Microbiol Biotechnol. 94:287–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-012-3969-4.
4. Urkude, R., (2019). Application of Nanotechnology in Insect Pest Management Int. Res. J. of Science and Engineering, 7 (6):
151-156.
Bengal.
Abstract
The state of West Bengal has a distinct culture which has its roots in the Bengal‘s history, literature, music,
arts, drama, food, festival and cinema. Each of these components of culture is preserved as cultural beliefs
in heritage sites across different districts over the state. Nadia district, a traditional heritage in West
Bengal is also well-known for its cultural richness. It borders Bangladesh to the east, North 24 Parganas
and Hoogly District to the south, Purba Bardhaman to the west and Murshidabad to the north. The cultural
heritage of this district is very rich. It has been serving as a Centre for Promotion of Indian Culture, Music,
Drama, Dance, Cultural discussions, Recreative Entertainment and Film Festivals for a long time.
Krishnagar Rabindra Bhaban was situated at the district headquarter Krishnagar in the year 1961 to
commemorate the birth centenary of Rabindranath Tagore. Besides Nadia district is a district famous for
its reach traditional folk culture. Important folk forms of the district are Baul & Fakir Songs, String Puppet
Dance, Bolan, Jhapan, Astak, Horse-dance, Pot-chitra (Painting on clay plates or paper) etc.
Food Group
It is often said, half-jokingly, while others eat to live, the Bengalis live to eat. All Bengali rituals and
festivities end up with one thing, hearty feasts involving an astonishing number of intricately prepared
dishes.
In this context, we are trying try to make a list of Bengali cuisine generally followed in different temples
(form of Prasad) and in household consumption.
1. Staple Food: Rice.
2. Number of Meals per day: 3 to 4 meals.
3. Cereals – 2 to 3 times.
4. Pulses – 2 times.
5. Spices and condiments – 2 times.
6. Oils – 2 times.
7. Vegetables – 2 to 3 times.
8. Fruits – 1 time.
9. Fish – 1 to 2 time.
10. Cereals, pulses, spices and condiments, oils, drinks, vegetables, fruits, milk products, egg-meat, fish,
etc.
11. Dried fruits/vegetables.
12. Processed food.
Food Type
Seasonal – Spring, Summer, Monsoon, Autumn, Pre-winter, Winter:
Spring Rice, Dal, Palak curry, fish, Tomato chatni
Summer Rice, Dal, Bassella curry, Rui/katla fish, Mango chatni
Monsoon Rice, Dal, Mixed vegetable curry, small fish curry
Autumn Rice, Dal, Vegetable curry, fish curry
Pre-winter Rice, Dal, Vegetable curry, fish curry
Winter Rice, Dal, Amaranth sag, Mixed vegetable curry, fish
1. Daily thali (number of meals/day): 2 to 3.
2. Special festival food: Prasad in temples (Bhog veg dish consisting of rice, pulao, ghee, fries, vegetable,
curries and sweets), Hilsa fish curry, Vegetables with small fishes, Arandhan- fermented rice especially in
summer months, colocasia sag etc.
3. Ritualistic fasting food: Fruits, Sarbat, items prepared from Wheat flour (Roti, Paratha, Puri), Sabji
etc.
4. Community food (food prepared by a section of the community during various times either
during life events/festivals/harvest/social work): Khichuri, plain rice, dal, vegetables, fish curry,
Chatni (Mango, tomato etc.).
5. Prasad in temples, Fruits, Different items prepared from Wheat flour (Roti, Paratha, Puri), Sabji etc.
List of Literature
1. Nadia jelar Purakirti
2. Paschim Banga Bhramon O Darshan
3. Bengal District Gazetteer, Nadia
4. Nabadwip: Municipality, Nadia district, India, West Bengal Paperback
5. Bangler Laukik Debata- Gopendra Krishna Basu, Retrieved on 20nd february, 2020.
6. Nadia Religion 2011. Retrieved on 22nd February 2020.
7. Press Note, Delimitation Commission (PDF). Assembly Constituencies in West Bengal. Delimitation
Commission. Retrieved on 22nd February, 2020.
8. http://nadia.gov.in/DICO/CulturalHeritage.html retrieved on 21st January, 2020.
785013.
Introduction
Synthetic polymers are having paramount importance in many industries in particular the packaging
industry. Nonetheless, it has an inadmissible influence on the environment and causes problems with
deposition of waste and consumption. So, there is a propensity to replace the synthetic polymer with a
biodegradable one. Starch based plastics, bacteria-based plastics, soy-based plastics, cellulose based
plastics, lignin-based plastics and natural fibre reinforced plastics are some of the notable biodegradable
plastics that have been commercialized. Production of this kind of material and its introduction to the
market is important for the natural environmental.
Biodegradable Plastic
Biodegradable plastics have been studied extensively in past few years and have been commercialized in
the manufacturing of several products such as garbage bags, compost bags, poly bags and agricultural
mulch films. Such materials can be decomposed by the activity of microorganisms to produce the final
products carbon dioxide and water.
Exploratory studies have shown that the usage of biodegradable plastics can curtail the cost of disposal.
Photodegradable plastics, mulch film and biodegradable plastics have been considered by researchers to
replace petroleum-based plastics (Halley et al., 2001).
Broadly there are two main types of degradable plastics such as photodegradable and biodegradable.
Photodegradable plastic is generally made of plastic polymers and is oil-based as in the case of conventional
plastic. The structure of photodegradable plastic is such that the bonds may get damaged by sunlight or
they contain chemical additives which absorb light and then attack the polymer to break some of the bonds.
Photodegradable plastic tends to break down into small plastic rather than fully decompose.
Unfortunately, this is often not the case with non-biodegradable plastics which remain in the environment.
Presently, most of the plastic waste ends up in landfills where it is buried in the ground. Under these
conditions, photodegradable plastic will not decompose.
Two major types of biodegradable polymers used in manufacture of eco-friendly agricultural mulch film are
polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). PLA is a versatile biodegradable polyester derived
from renewable resources such as corn and starch and offer great promise in many commodity applications
(Drumright et al., 2000).
The promising PHA biodegradable plastics have been highlighted as green because they are made of
polymer from renewable resources in a one-step fermentation of sugar or lipid bacteria (Posada et al., 2011).
High production costs of PHA have been a major drawback for its substitution with petrochemical plastics.
Biodegradable plastics can be produced from oils or plant-based products. During the process of
decomposition biodegradable plastics will be susceptible to bacteria, fungi or other micro-organisms that
use them as food.
At the present time, there are an increasing number of commercial biodegradable plastics manufacturers.
Some biodegradable plastics available in the market are:
1. Starch-based plastics.
2. Bacteria-based plastics
3. Soy-based plastics.
4. Cellulose based plastics.
5. Lignin-based plastics.
Conclusion
Technical and economic problems related with reusing materials have provoked scientists to search for new
materials that can be recycled organically. The negative effect of synthetic polymers on the natural
environment creates a lot of problems with deposition of waste and consumption.
Biodegradable polymers have been contemplated, however polymer-based sources that are sustainable are
the most attractive. The main advantage of biodegradable polymers is that they can be composted with
organic waste and release back to enrich the soil.
Their utilization won't just lessen dangers to untamed life brought about by dumping traditional plastic
yet will likewise decrease the expense of work for expulsion of plastic waste in the earth since they are
parsed essentially.
Decay will help increment the life span and stability of the landfills by reducing the amount of waste, which
can be recycled to useful monomers and oligomers by microbial and enzyme treatments. Using
biodegradable polymers in a variety of industries instead of synthetic materials can significantly help to
protect the natural environment.
Introduction
In beekeeping management, seasonal colony management means adoption of system of control. This leads
to the maximum possible production whether it’s for honey production or for pollination service. Seasonal
colony management is the combination of activities which are undertaken by beekeepers at different
seasons. Bees need to be checked periodically and the amount of time you spend on the bee depends on the
needs of the bees at the given time.
Summer Management
Summer is generally marked by hot winds and an ambient temperature often exceeds 40 degrees Celsius.
During this period bees throw out drones and colony population also dwindles due to the death of old bees
who have worked hard during honey flow season. Attack of bee enemies and robbing activity of bee also
increases if not managed properly.
To maintain the colony properly we should the following practices during summer,
1. Provide the bee colonies with shade by shifting to shady areas or placing them under open straw huts.
2. Provide proper ventilation by slightly raising the brood chamber or the super such that bees don’t pass
through this ventilation.
3. Close all the cracks and crevices to prevent the entry of enemies.
4. In areas where summer temperature rises above 40 degree Celsius, gunny bags or straw packs moistened
twice a day with water should be spread over the top of the colonies.
5. Provide a source of fresh water as honey bees maintain their hive temperature during summer by
collecting water from outside source, spilling it inside hive evaporating it by fanning.
Monsoon Management
In the tropical and subtropical regions of the country, June to September represents the monsoon season.
Bees face several problems of pests, predators, excessive humidity and starvation. Sometimes due to
continuous rains, bees are confined to their hives for a long period. Honey bees become lethargic and may
develop dysentery.
Colony needs the following management practices,
1. Week colonies which have become queen less should be united with queen right colonies, since during
this period due to absence of drone’s new virgin queen cannot mate.
2. If colonies have poor food stores, then provide sugar in the form of candy or dry sugar instead of sugar
syrup.
3. Keep in check the attack of enemies like wax moth, ants, mites and wasps.
Autumn Management
The management practice during this period depends on the climatic and floral conditions where bees are
kept. During this period many colonies make preparation for superseding old queens and raise few queens’
cells and this is natural replacement of failing queen any colony. The new queen on emergence kills the old
queen.
For successful over wintering, following management should be done.
1. Colonies below average population or having scattered or less brood than the average colonies indicate
failure of queens. Replace queens of such colonies by early fall so that these colonies produce desirable
number of young bees.
2. Colonies for winter should be free from disease.
3. Reduce the comb space by removing extra frames to such a level which can be covered by the bees well.
4. Under moderate climatic conditions, colonies of bees on 3-5 frames can winter successfully, if the colonies
have proper food stores. Unite the weak colonies with colonies of average bee strength.
5. If colonies have less honey stores, feed them with heavy sugar which is prepared by dissolving 2 parts of
sugar in one part of boiling water and to avoid crystallization add 1 table spoon full of tartaric acid to each
of 50kg of sugar. Fill the syrup in combs and exchange for empty combs in the hive.
Conclusion
The general purpose of seasonal colony management is to ensure that the maximum strength of the colonies
can be coincide with the maximum nectar flow in order to obtain a surplus honey production, strong or
large colonies produce more honey than small or weak colonies. The primary aim is therefore to have large
or maximum population of adult bees in the colonies during the period of main honey flow. Population must
be built up at the appropriate time. By practicing the above management practices beekeepers can get the
maximum output from bee colony.
References
1. http://www.nafis.go.ke/livestock/bee-keeping/apiary-establishment/seasonalmanagement/
2. https://www.academia.edu/41238851/seasonal_management_of_honey_bee_colony
Introduction
Locusts are short horned grasshoppers and have an exceptional ability to fly over miles i.e., 10-100 km/day.
These Orthopteran ruiners belong to the family Acrididae. Locusts differ from grasshoppers in their ability
to change behavior and habit from time to time. They migrate by forming swarms and settle at a stretch
on foliage and start feeding voraciously. There are about ten different species of locusts, viz., Desert locust,
Schistocerca gregaria; Bombay locust, Nomadacris succincta; Migratory locust, Locusta migratoria; Tree
locust, Anacridium Spp., Italian locust, Calliptamus italicus; Moroccan locust, Dociostaurus morocannus;
Red locust, Nomadacris septemfaciata; Brown locust, Locustana pardalina; South American locust,
Schistocerca paranensis and Australian locust, Chortoicetes termenifera. The first four in the above list are
major species found in India.
Behaviour
Active flight of swarms is seen during day and roosting begins at the sunset. Early in the morning after
sunrise the individuals start flying in small scattered groups and these joins eventually forming large
swarms. The swarms generally fly at an elevation of one to two thousand feet during their mass movement.
Whereas, during rainy days they settle down on foliage or barren land even during day. At sun set the
swarms start settling on the trees and standing crops and feed. Unlike the gregarious forms, adults of
solitary locust fly generally during nights. Locust swarm size may range from one to several hundred
square kilometres and there may me be up to 40 million locust adults in each swarm of one kilometre.
Conclusion
Locusts are the minimal creatures which cause maximum crop damage. Proper management practices
along with the timely precautions can reduce the crop loss. Study of the locust behaviour is pivotal step in
order to lessen the burden caused by them. Proper chemical management along with the smart enhanced
measures will enable farmers to face the hurdles caused by the mighty locusts.
Benefits of ZBNF
1. With the rising cost of external inputs (fertilizers and pesticides), which is the leading cause of
indebtedness and suicide among farmers. According to the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) data,
almost 70% of agricultural households spend more than they earn and more than half of all farmers are in
debt.
a. Since in ZBNF there is the need to spend money or take loans for external inputs, the cost of
production could be reduced and farming made into a “zero budget” exercise.
b. This would break the debt cycle for many small farmers and help to envisage the doubling of
farmer's income by 2022.
2. At a time when chemical-intensive farming is resulting in soil and environmental degradation, a zero-
cost environmentally-friendly farming method is definitely a timely initiative.
3. The ZBNF method promotes soil aeration, minimal watering, intercropping, bunds and topsoil mulching
and discourages intensive irrigation and deep ploughing.
4. It suits all crops in all agro-climatic zones.
Future Prospective
1. In her maiden Union Budget speech in july last year, Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman hailed
ZBNF as an innovative model and said adopting this could help Indian farmers to double their income by
2022, which happens to be the 75th of independence.
2. A new farmer pension scheme called Pradhan Mantri Kisan Pension Yojana worth Rs. 900 crores were
announced. To promote and deepen markets, creation of 10,000 new farmer producer organizations (FPOs)
was envisaged and passing reference was made to the role of e-NAM and APMC in that regard. Fishery
sector was given a thrust as the speech proposed to create value-chains and infrastructure. Return to zero-
budget traditional farming was emphasized.
3. The population of India, which is currently 17.71 percent of the total world population, is predicted to
increase by 33 percent from 1.2 billion in 2010 to 1.6 billion in 2050. Under ‘business-as-usual’ scenario, by
2050, 60 percent of the people on Earth, will experience severe deficiencies in calories, digestible protein
and fat.
4. One of the more progressive announcements were the cluster-based scheme SFURTI (Scheme of Fund
for Up gradation and Regeneration of Traditional Industries). It is designed to promote bamboo, honey and
khadi clusters. Hundred such clusters are envisaged under SFURTI for 2019-20.
5. To meet increased demands for food on a shrinking area of agricultural land, efficiency of crop production
must increase, but climate change, soil degradation and depopulation present further challenges to
increasing the efficiency of Indian agriculture.
Conclusion
Zero budget natural farming started as a grassroots movement, aiming to provide multiple benefits, both
to the environment and to farmers. However, there are conflicting opinions about how it should be
developed for widespread use.
SINCE as far back as we know, all religions of the world propagated that a clean environment was
fundamental for the growth of community, both for its individuals or collectively in their endeavours. This
explains why primacy was given to invoking magnanimity of elements before any enterprise was
undertaken. The objectives were not purely religious, but to underline and ensure proper regards for
environmental bounties like earth, air, water, etc. whose utilization was ordained to be done judiciously
and with universal approval. Over the centuries, unfortunately, man in his capriciousness has reached a
stage where the all-round development, that was said to be the reason behind the exploitation of natural
resources, now looks ephemeral and not worth it. We seem to be almost veering round to the view that
perhaps our approach had been short-sighted, if not completely irresponsible. Planet earth is heading
towards becoming unliveable and its resources are nearing extinction due to over exploitation.
Development and environment have been the issues at debate ever since industrialization brought in quick
prosperity to the Western World. In its haste to amass wealth, the natural resources were exploited blindly.
The result was what we see today. The cities and towns are too crowded, too noisy and too unhygienic for
healthy human living.
The forests are denuded leading to increased disturbances in the weather and water table. Oceans are not
only polluted but are getting shore of their natural wealth through human voraciousness. The atmosphere
is beset with the looming danger of depleting ozone layer. The earth through over exploitation is losing its
fertility. What a scenario which we are going to bequeath to posterity.
The question of environment protection is not only linked to the quality of life but to the very survival of
millions of people. Large scale destruction of forest and vegetable cover, contamination of rivers and other
water bodies, rise of air pollution in urban areas, is the beginning of the end.
According to FAO estimates, 10 million hectares of the world’s tropical forests disappear each year. Fertile
lands are lost at a rate of 24 billion tonnes every year, and it is the most productive tracts of lands which
are lost lying in the fertile earth belts, in the deltas and flood lands of our major rivers. That’s 3.4tonnes
lost every year for every person on the planet.
When man begins to interfere with the order and system that nature has so interestedly arranged in an
act of seeming revenge, he further upsets the delicate balance in the planet’s eco-system by causing death
and destruction through floods, droughts and epidemics.
The environmental scenario in India is alarming in all its aspects. Almost all surface water is unfit for
human consumption. It is estimated that 4, 00,000 lives are lost every year due to poor water quality,
sanitation and hygiene. WHO data shows that 21 per cent of all communicable diseases in India are water
related. All the 16 major rivers, lakes and other water bodies have become contamination of ground water
resources has reached a critical stage.
Over exploitation, enhanced pumping intrusion of saline water in coastal areas, discharge of toxic effluents
on land and in water bodies have all led to a decline in water table and serious contamination of ground
water resources. The Ground Water Board has identified 231 blocks in the Country where ground water
depletion has reached critical levels.
Since a majority of population in the Country relies on ground water even for drinking water, the situations
called for immediate steps in regulating the use of ground water and prevent contamination. Though
various government bodies exist under the Ministry of Water Resources, none was empowered to take
action against polluting industries or against misuse of ground water.
In all the big cities, the number of vehicles playing on the roads has increased phenomenally. As a result
of the noxious emissions into the atmosphere, heart problems, respiratory diseases, asthma etc. are on the
References
1. Arneson, P. A. 2001. Plant Disease Epidemiology.
2. Fry, W.E. 1982. Principles of Plant Disease Management. Academic Press, New York.
3. Jacobsen, B. 2001. Disease Management. Pages 351-356 in: Encyclopedia of Plant Pathology, O.C. Maloy and T.D. Murray,
eds. Wiley, New York.
4. Maloy, O.C. 1993. Plant Disease Control: Principles and Practice. Wiley, New York.
5. Maloy, O.C. and A. Baudoin. 2001. Disease Control Principles. Pages 330-332 in: Enclyclopedia of Plant Pathology. O.C. Maloy
and T.D. Murray, eds. Wiley, New York.
6. www.tnau.ac.in.
7. www.icar,org.ac.in.
Introduction
An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere consisting of community of living
beings and the physical environment, both interacting and exchanging materials between them. It consists
of both the biotic and abiotic components which are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy
flows. Examples of ecosystems are agroecosystems, forest ecosystems, grassland ecosystems aquatic
ecosystems etc. Ecosystem services refer to the various benefits which human beings obtain from the
natural environment and from healthy ecosystems (Fig.1).
Such benefits include natural pollination of crops, timber, fiber, clean air, clean water, extreme weather
mitigation, recreational value from natural environment, human mental and physical well-being. The
concept of ecosystem services was popularized in early 2000s by Millennium ecosystem assessment (MA)
which is a UN funded assessment body. According to MA, 2006 the ecosystem services are defined as "the
benefits people obtain from ecosystems". The MA also delineated the four categories of ecosystem services—
supporting, provisioning, regulating and cultural.
Supporting Services
Supporting services are the services that are necessary for the production of all the other ecosystem
services. Unlike other ecosystem services, supporting service impacts on people are either indirect or occur
over a very long time. These include services such as nutrient cycling, primary production, soil formation,
habitat provision and pollination. These services make it possible for the ecosystems to continue providing
services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification. Several services can be considered as
being both supporting services and regulating/cultural/provisioning services.
Provisioning Services
Provisioning services consist of all "the products obtained from ecosystems". These services are also known
as ecosystem goods which include Food and fiber (plants, animals, and microbes, wood, jute, hemp, silk),
fuel (wood, dung, and other biological materials serve as sources of energy), genetic resources (including
crop improvement genes, and health care), water purity, medicinal resources (pharmaceuticals, chemical
models, and test and assay organisms), energy (hydropower, biomass fuels), ornamental resources
(including fashion, handicraft, jewelry, pets, worship, decoration and souvenirs like furs, feathers, ivory,
orchids, butterflies, aquarium fish, shells, etc.).
Regulating Services
Regulating services are the "benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes". This service
includes air quality maintenance, climate regulation, water regulation, erosion control, water purification
and waste treatment, regulation of human diseases, biological control, pollination, storm protection etc.
Cultural Services
These are the nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive
development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences. These are not easily quantifiable in
monetary terms. The cultural service include cultural (including use of nature as motif in books, film,
painting, folklore, national symbols, advertising, etc.), spiritual and historical (including use of nature for
religious or heritage value or natural), recreational experiences (including ecotourism, outdoor sports, and
recreation), science and education (including use of natural systems for school excursions, and scientific
discovery), therapeutic (including Ecotherapy, social forestry and animal assisted therapy).
Conclusion
Agroecosystems also produce a variety of ES such as regulation of soil and water quality, carbon
sequestration, support for biodiversity and cultural services. Agroecosystems are thus both providers and
consumers of ecosystem services.
References
1. MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) (2003) Ecosystems and Human wellbeing: a Framework for Assessment. World
Resources Institute, Washington, D.C
2. MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) (2005) Ecosystems and human wellbeing: biodiversity synthesis. World Resources
Institute, Washington, D.C
3. Farber, S.C., R. Costanza and M.A. Wilson. (2002) Economic and ecological concepts for valuing ecosystem services. Ecological
Economics 41: 375–392.
Introduction
Weed is unwanted plant, grown everywhere in the field. Weeds are major threats to the farmers community
and growers. They are destroying habitats of our crops, threatening native plants and animals including
rivers and forests, mainly disturbing biodiversity. Weeds reduce farm and forest productivity in respect of
production, invade crops, smother pastures and some can harm livestock. Weed from integral part of each
and every argophytocoensis thus their interference with crop plant but nature. Because of their highly
competitive ability and allelopathic influence weed causes irreversible damage to crops. Weeds constitute
a major limiting factor in successful crop production and cause huge yield losses which depends on nature
and intensity of the weed flora, duration of crop-weed competition, various soil factor and agro climatic
conditions prevailing under a particular region.
The loose caused by weed are well known which depend upon the species density, dominance and ecological
success. India loses agricultural produce worth over $11 billion more than the Centre’s budgetary allocation
for agriculture for 2017-18. Annually to weeds, according to a study by researchers associated with the
Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR). At $4.42 billion, the actual economic losses due to weeds
were found to be highest in rice, followed by wheat ($3.376 billion) and soybean ($1.56 billion). The real
cost of weeds to the environment is difficult to calculate, however it is expected that the cost would be
similar to, if not greater than, that estimated for agricultural industries.
After estimation of critical period of weed crop competition, weed control is very essential to harvest
maximum yield all the crops which are grown in field. Weeds can be controlled manually, mechanically,
biologically and chemically. Manual weed control is laborious, time consuming and expensive than
chemicals weed control. Chemical weed control by herbicide is relatively efficient and economical. The
effectiveness and relatively low cost of herbicide has resulted in management system which are reliant
upon their continued availability and has led to almost a total exclusion of non-herbicidal methods of weed
control.
References
1. Anonymous (2013). ICAR-Weed report.
2. The hindubusinessline.com/article-10033566
3. Singh, R. and Yadav, S. K. (1990). Time and method of control in pearl millet. Experimental Agriculture, 26(3): 319- 324.
Abstract
Over the past decades, the serious environmental problem is the accumulation of petroleum derived plastic
waste which are non-biodegradable in nature. There is a need for alternative plastic “bio-plastics” which
are degraded into environment and will not cause any harm to the environment.
Poly lactic acid (PLA) is a well-known sustainable bio-plastic material, and an emerging product from lactic
acid is used in the manufacture of biodegradable plastics.
Introduction
The production of lactic acid from fossil fuel is now widely accepted as unsustainable due to depleting
resources and the accumulation of environmentally hazardous chemicals. Cost effective production of Lactic
Acid using cheap raw material is appreciable.
Bio-renewable biomass has been widely studied and employed due to their availability and cost. PLA is
synthesised biologically by lactic acid fermentation. In the first step, lactide was synthesized and further
PLA polymerized.
PLA based plastics are produced from fermentation of starch rich substances like maize, wheat, corn which
converts into lactic acid. The strength and properties of packaging material made of PLA based bio-plastic
depends on the ratio of two optical isomers (D or L) of lactic acid monomers. 100% L-PLA results in high
crystallinity and 90%D/10%LPLA result in polymerizable melt.
Synthesis of PLA
PLA can be obtained using different routes (Figure 1). In general, there are three methods which can be
used to produce high molecular mass PLA of about 100,000 Daltons. Currently, direct condensation and
ring-opening polymerization are the most used production techniques.
Azeotropic dehydrative
condensation
Ring-opening
polymerization
Inkinen et al ., 2011
Figure 2
Applications of PLA
Conclusion
There has been rising awareness for the use of bio-degradable polymers which is derived from variable
renewable resources. Polymers found in nature, or biopolymers, can be derived from a plethora of plants,
vegetables, and even industrial waste products. The need of synthetic plastic can be fulfilled by bioplastics
like PLA-based which is bio-degradable in nature and safe to the environment.
References
Inkinen S., Hakkarainen M., Albertsson AC. and Sodergard A., (2011). From Lactic Acid to Poly(lactic acid) (PLA): Characterization
and Analysis of PLA and Its Precursors. BioMacromolecules. 12: 523-532.
Onion is most important commercial vegetable crop grown in India. India is the second largest onion
growing country in the world. It is a cool season vegetable crop. It is a known as “Queen of Kitchen”.
Pungency in onion is due to volatile oil - allyl propyl disulfide. Yellow color of the outer skin of onion bulb
is due to “Quercetin”. Onion is richest source of vanadium. Anti- fungal factor in onion is phenolic compound
known as “Catechol”.
Botany
Onion is a highly cross-pollinated crop. It is a pollinated by bees and another insect. Onion is an herbaceous
annual for the edible bulb production and biennial for seed production having bisexual flower. The edible
portion is a modified stem called bulb and develops underground. The leaves are yellowish to bluish green
and grow alternately in a flattened, fan shaped swathe. From the underside of disc, a bundle of fibrous
roots extends for a short way into the soil. Onion flower are protandrous. The common onion contains 88 -
90 % moisture, 0.8-1.4% protein, 0.2% fat, 5.2-9.0% carbohydrates, 50-52 mg sulphur and 23-26 calories
energy per 100 gm of edible portion.
Climate
Onion is a cool season, long days favor bulb formation. Optimum temperature is required vegetative growth
12.8-23 °C and bulb formation 20-25 °C. Low temperature in early stage cause bolting whereas high
temperature result in small sized bulb. Kharif Onion varieties require day length of 10-11hrs where Rabi
varieties relatively higher temperature and 12-13 hrs. of the day length. Temperature is the most important
than day length in seed production while photoperiod is more important than temperature for bulb
formation.
Soil
Onion prefers to grow well and form good size of bulb in light soil rich humus, well drained, friable with
ability to retain soil moisture. The optimum pH is 5.8 - 6.5.
Method of Planting
1. Kharif season:
a. Seed broadcasting method- 15th June - 15th July.
b. Transplanting method – Raising seedling in nursery bed 15 th June -15 th July. 45-50 days
seedling transplanted July to August.
2. Winter season:
a. Only transplanting - Raising seedling 20 Sep to 10 Oct and transplanting Oct - Nov.
b. Seed Rate - Raising seedlings- 8 to 10 kg /hac.
c. Broadcasting - 20 to 25 kg /hac.
Seed Treatment
Application of Trichoderma viride @1.25 g/ha is and recommended to manage damping off and raise healthy
seedling.
Spacing
1. Big onion - 15cm×10cm.
2. Small pickling onion - 8cm×5cm.
2. White onion: White onion have a white or off-white skin and are a little less pungent compared to
yellow onions. They are majorly used for processing and in Mexican cuisines. Variety-Pusa White Round,
Pusa White Flat, Bhima Shweta, Bhima Subra, Agri found White.
3. Red onion: Red onion have a mild sweet flavour and suitable for raw consumption in salads and
sandwiches. Variety- Pusa Ratnar, Pusa Madhavi, Pusa Riddhi, Pusa Red.
Irrigation
1. Kharif season 15-20-day interval irrigation.
2. Rabi season 8-10-day interval irrigation.
Interculturing
Weeds are to be kept down to get a good yield of onion. Onion is a poor competitor of weeds. Stomp @ 3.35
l /ha applied immediately after transplanting and before first irrigation with one hand weeding gives the
best results. Application of Basalin @1l/ha immediately transplantings.
Harvesting
Harvesting of onion depends on its type and purpose:
1. Onion for green: The purpose of this type of onion is to get high quality green leaves. Plants are pulled
when bulb formation starts.
2. Immature bulb: As per need for the home consumption and supply to the market, immature onion
plants are pulled along with bulbs.
3. Mature bulb: When bulbs become fully mature, the maturity is indicated by dropping of the tops just
above the bulb knows as neck fall.
Yield
1. Big sized onion - 25 - 30 t/ha.
2. Small sized onion - 16 - 20 t/ha.
3. Multiplier onion - 15 - 18 t/ha.
Curing
Curing is an essential operation after harvesting. It will remove excess moisture from the outer skin and
neck of onion bulbs. Curing increases storage life of the onion bulbs. Not only this, curing helps in improving
the colour of the skin. Properly cured onion will have tight skin and well dried outer skin. Usually 10 to 15
days or so will be sufficient for curing the onion bulbs.
Grading
Cureds bulbs are graded on size and depending on market.
Different grades of onion are as follows on the basis of their diameter:
1. < 35 mm.
2. 35-50mm.
Storage
1. Cured bulbs are stored in well ventilated rooms.
2. Pre harvest spray malic hydrazide (2000-2500ppm) prevents rooting and sprouting of bulb stored @room
temperature.
3. Bulbs harvested in kharif can be stored @0.2- 2.26 under cold storage.
Plant Protection
1. Diseases:
a. Damping off: Fusarium spp, Pre emergence and poste emergence damping off seedlings
whenever onion grown from seeds.
Control: seed Treatment with thiram @2.5 /kg. Drenching of nursery bed with captaf
@2.5l/of H2O
b. Purple Blotch: Alternaria porri. Large bleached lesions with purple center, rapidly enlarged
leading to rot of infected bulbs.
Control: Spray dithane M-45 @O.25%.
c. Black Mould: Aspergillus Niger. Common storage disease. Black powdery mass of spores of black
mould on exterior of scales.
Control: Protects bulbs from moisture after harvest. Store the bulbs @0 °C.
d. Bottom rot / basal rot: Fusarium oxysporum. Soil born disease yellowing and dying back from
the tips of leaves.
Control: follow crop rotations upto 4 years soil drenching with captaf or thiram @ 0.2%.
2. Insects:
a. Thrips: Trips tabaci. Both larvae and adult causes injury. Feed by rasping surface of leaves and
sucking liberated juice.
Control: Spray 0.1% malathion to 1% sandovit 4 spray @15 days interval.
b. Maggot: Hylenia antiquay. It attacks the tender portion of the remain hiding in the base of the
plant and or in the cracks of the soil where they also lay the eggs.
Control: Soil application thimet 10G is beneficial. Follow crop rotation.
c. Mites: Rhizoglyphus sp. These are very small insects. They remain mostly on the under surface
of the leaves. They suck the sap of leaves, aftected plants become pale yellow.
Control: Dust the crop with sulphur at the rate of 20 to 25 kg / ha. Exposes infected bulbs
to sun for about two days.
Abstract
As the nutrient status of the soil is depleting day by day due to overuse of chemical fertilizers for increasing
the production to meet the demands of the increasing population. One of the reasons for depletion in
nutrient status of the soil can be continuous cropping without using optimum or required quantity of
manure. Green manuring can be a method or strategy to improve the properties of soil that will ultimately
lead to the good production. Main nutrient that is added by the method of green manure is nitrogen as in
its leguminous crops are used that fix atmospheric nitrogen in the root nodules by forming symbiotic
association with rhizobium bacteria. Green manuring also adds organic matter in the soil.
Introduction
Green manuring is a method in which undecomposed green plants are incorporated into the soil. Both
legume and non-legume crops can be used for green manure but basically legume crops are used. Crops
grown for this purpose are called as green manure crops. As we know that nitrogen is a major
macronutrient needed by the plant for its proper growth and development, this nutrient can be added to
the soil at low cost by adopting the method of green manuring. It also helps in maintaining the fertility
status of soil and soil productivity. Mulching is an effective measure to suppress weed growth and in
maintenance of soil moisture green manure crops can be used as a mulch by cutting and leaving them on
the soil surface. The documents of low crop yields are acceptance of inappropriate methods of soil
management, across-the-board of the afire of crop residues, non-judicious adoption of agronomic practices
(Florentinet al., 2011) and asymmetric nutrients management. Further, depletion of soil organic matter,
scant use of bio and organic-fertilizer and poor management is as well amenable for lowering down crop
yield per unit area of land (Martiuset al., 2002; Salahinet al. 2013).
Conclusion
Greenmanuring can be utilised as a powerful tool for optimum growth of the crop. It also helps in
maintaining soil fertility by adding nutrients like nitrogen to the soil thus maintaining the quality of this
soil. Soil diversity is also increased as green manuring helps in the growth of beneficial microbes. Pandeyet
al., (2008) declared that green manuring helped to advance the physical and biochemical anatomy of the
soil, prevented leaching losses of nutrients, enhanced water holding capacity. Some challenges in this
technique should be overcome for proper functioning like good quality when manure seeds should be
available to the farmers, more research should be conducted on green manure crops to know more about
their potential.
References
1. Baig MB, Zia MS. Rehabilitation of problem soils through environmentally friendly technologies- II: Role of Sesbania
(Sesbaniaaculeata) and gypsum. AgriculturaTropicaetSubtropica. 2006; 39(1):26-33.
2. Boydston RA, Hang A. Rapeseed (Brassicanapus) green manure crop suppresses weeds in potato (Solanumtuberosum). Weed
Technol. 1995; 9:669-675.
3. Bugg RL, Sarrantonio M, Dutcher JD, Phatak JD. Understory cover crops in pecan orchards: Possible management strategies.
Am. J Alt. Ag.1991; 6:50-62.
4. Doran JW, Fraser DG, Culik MN, Liebhardt WC. Influence of alternative and conventional agricultural management on soil
microbial process and nitrogen availability. American J Alt. Agri. 1988; 2:99-106.
5. Eriksen J. Gross sulphur mineralization-immobilization turnover in soil amended with plant residues, Soil Biol. Biochem.
2005; 37:2216-2224.
6. Florentin MA, Penalva M, Calegari A, Derpsch A. Green manure / cover crops and crop rotation in conservation agriculture
on small farms, FAO, Integrated Crop Management, 2011; 12:97.
7. Martius C, Tiessen H, Vlek PLG. (eds.) Managing Organic Matter in Tropical Soils: Scope and Limitations.Kluwer Academic
Publisher, ZEF Bonn, 2002.
8. Pandey DK, Pandey R, Mishra RP, Kumar S, Kumar N. Collection of Dhaincha (Sesbaniaspp.) variability in Uttar Pradesh,
Biodiversity and Agriculture (Souvenir), Uttar Pradesh Biodiversity Board, Lucknow, 2008, 48-51.
9. Salahin N, Alam MK, Islam MM, Naher L, Majid NM. Effects of green manure crops and tillage practice on maize and rice
yields and soil properties, Australian Journal of Crop Science. 2013; 7(12):1901-1911.
Summary of Article
Rice is the major staple food of more than 2 billion peoples of Asian subcontinent. It is the major source of
energy and rich in much nutrition. Apart from energy and essential nutrition it has many medicinal
properties. Recent studies from Indian ancient ayurvedic literature reveal the valuable medicinal
properties of rice. Since from ancient time till today rice is used to clear stomach problem, Skin diseases,
reduces High Blood Pressure and Dysentery. Recent studies claim that some traditional varieties of rice
have anti-cancerous properties.
Introduction
Food is the basic need of any living creature for its day to today activities as it provides energy for body and
it also provide immunity against disease so act as a natural medicine for everyone. So, it is the right of
everyone to provide proper nutrition to their own body for its proper function. Among all three fundamental
need food is most vital for human and the food should be highly nutritious and rich in different essential
amino acids and vital minerals. The immunity of human mainly depends on the consumption of quality
food. Now the major research is going on to increase the yield rather than the quality of food to feed the
rapid growing population of the world. So, to solve the food scarcity we forgot the quality of food. Major
population solely depends on rice as major food, so our major aim should concentrate towards the
development of highly nutritious and quality rice which can fight against disease and provide immunity
for future. From Indian ayurvedic literature it is mentioned that rice is treated as tonic, to reduce stomach
gas, anti-diuretic and effective in biliousness (Caius, 1986).
Research is also going to develop rice with rich in Zn and Fe. Now researcher successfully developed low
GI rice which is helpful the diabetic patients. Many traditional varieties have great importance as
medicinal properties. Early peoples were used these traditional land races for their medicinal requirement
because that time there was no modern improved medical facilities available like now. These are natural
and eco-friendly, no negative impact after use like toady’s chemical treatments. Now our effort should
concentrate on these natural rice varieties, how can we use these varieties for the human civilization? So,
in this article we will more focus on the rice which is of medicinal properties.
Rice can be used as Husks for animal feed, Rice Bran to extract oil, Broken Rice for animal feed, (Rice
Flour, Rice Milk, Rice Pudding) for human consumption, (Rice Starch, Rice Straw) for animal feed and Rice
can be used in Beverage Making, Rice Paper, Rice Glue, Rice Cakes (mochi), Rice Vinegar, Rice Soy Milk,
Red Yeast Rice, Rice based food products. So, it is called as rice is life.
Conclusion
Rice not only energy providing food plant, but also highly rich in nutrition. Apart from energy and
nutritional value it rich in many medicinal properties. It is very effective in reducing stomach pain; relief
from muscle pain, used as ointment, tonic, and recent studies also claims that it has anti-cancerous
property. Ancient and traditional knowledge are very useful for tracing the medicinal value of rice.
Traditional varieties are the source of medicinal value, so conservation of these varieties is very essential
for further research and study.
References
1. Caius J.F., (1986). The medicinal and poisonous plants of India (Reprint). Pbl. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India.
2. Oudhia P., (2008). One Day in Chhura forest region, Chhattisgarh, India rich in floral and faunal diversity. Part‐I: Medicinal
Rice and Traditional Medicinal Knowledge about it. http://www.Ecoport.org.
3. Vir O.M., Singh B.B. and Tomar B.S., (2005). Specialty rice for therapeutic purposes, good health and processed food products.
Proceedings of the National Symposium on Basmati Rice Research: Current Trends and Future Prospects, SVBP University
of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India, 65–72.
Introduction
Frederick Campion Steward discovered and pioneered micro-propagation and plant tissue culture in the
late 1950s and early 1960s. The term “Plant tissue culture” broadly refers to the in-vitro cultivation of
plants seeds, plant parts (tissues, organs, embryos, single cells, protoplasts etc.) on nutrient media under
aseptic conditions. This article reviews the salient characteristics of micro-propagation and its
commercialization in India.
Micro-Propagation
In simple terms the micro-propagation is the clonal propagation in vitro (Chawla, 2011). The word “clone”
means those cultivated plants that were propagated vegetative. Thus, clonal propagation is the
multiplication of genetically identical individuals by asexual reproduction. This technique is used to
multiply those plants that have mainly been bred through genetic transformation methods. Although this
technique has also been promising for the multiplication of plants those are generated through conventional
breeding methods. This technique provides sufficient number of plantlets for planting from a mother plant
which does not respond well to vegetative reproduction or does not produce seeds. Micro-propagation is so
useful because of the advantages it offers like rapid multiplication, required limited mother stock,
uniformity in products, seasonal independency, agronomic superiority, high returns etc. Plant regeneration
through micro-propagation can be categorized in three categories:
1. Axillary bud proliferation: Enhanced release of axillary bud proliferation i.e. by multiplication
through growth & proliferation of existing meristems. It can be through apical shoots excised from the
parent plant and by multiplication of existing meristems within axillary shots, which proliferate on
explants after removal from the parent plant.
2. Organogenesis: Formation of individual organs such as shoots & roots either directly on the explant
where a performed meristem is lacking or de novo origin from callus and cell culture induced from the
explant.
3. Somatic embryogenesis: Formation of a bipolar structure containing both shoot & root meristems
either directly, from the explant (adventive origin) or de novo origin from callus and cell culture induced
from the explant. In other words, somatic embryogenesis refers to an artificial process where a plant or
embryo is derived from a single somatic cell. Somatic embryos are produced from plant cells that are not
generally involved in the development of embryos. Somatic embryos do not contain any endosperm or seed
coat.
Table 1: Various micro-propagation techniques used for propagation of different plant/tree species:
S. No. Name of the species Used Micro-propagation Techniques
1 Orchids Seed culture
2 Cereals, legumes Embryo culture
3 Solanaceous crops Root culture
4 Tobacco Callus culture
5 Bamboo Organ culture
6 Apple Nucellus culture
7 Banana Endosperm culture
Applications of Micropropagation
Micropropagation has several applications in breeding of plants. The major applications of
micropropagation are as follows:
1. This micropropagation technique provides a better alternative for those plant species that exhibits
resistance to practices of conventional propagations.
2. Using this technique, millions of clones can be produced from small amount of plant tissues in just a
single year. Although, production of equal number of plants using conventional methods will require many
years.
3. Generated large number of plants can be maintained in small spaces which allows storage of germplasm
and conservation of endangered species at minimum expenses.
4. This technique is considered as most powerful alternative of vegetative propagation as it allows
production of large number of plants in short period. This technique can reduce time required for varietal
development by 50%.
5. Propagation of plants through this technique do not require any specific natural season or climatic
condition, as this technique exploits artificial environment.
6. This technique is also useful for seed production in certain crop species as required for genetic
conservation.
7. This technique through somatic embryogenesis procedure also allows production of synthetic/artificial
seeds. These synthetic artificial seeds are becoming popular nowadays.
8. The micropropagation method also allows production of disease-free plants. Hence, disease-free varieties
are produced through this technique by using meristem culture.
9. In floriculture sector, this technique has huge demand as it provides increased yield and vigour in
floricultural species.
10. This technique provides fast international exchange of plant material without the risk of disease
introduction. Use of this method reduces the time required for quarantine.
Conclusion
Based on certain reports it can be said that India is progressing in tissue culture by focusing on mainly
horticulture, floriculture. Because these fields require less space and gives high quality productions within
limited period of time which can be prove a good move towards utilizing the science of tissue culture.
References
1. Chawla, H., 2011. Introduction to plant biotechnology (3/e). CRC Press.
2. Suman, S.U.G.A.N.D.H. and Kumar, H.A.R.S.H., 2015. Micropropagation of banana cv. Malbhog. The Bioscan, 10(2), pp.647-
650.
3. Shukla, S.K., 2017. National Certification System for Tissue Culture Raised Plants (NCS-TCP) as the Unique Quality
Management System for Plant Tissue Culture Sector: Its Inception, Evolution, Impact and way Forward. International Journal
of Tropical Agriculture, 35(3), pp.415-423.
4. Mascarenhas, A.F., 1999. Scope of the tissue culture industry in India. In Plant Biotechnology and In Vitro Biology in the 21st
Century (pp. 713-720). Springer, Dordrecht.
Micro propagation is the true to type propagation of selected varieties through meristem culture under
controlled nutritional and environmental conditions. This provides a rapid and reliable system for
production of a large number of genetically uniform disease-free plantlets which ensures maximum
production potential of varieties. It is an important Technique for commercial plant propagation in
sugarcane seed production and has vast significance. This technique in sugarcane can be used for rapid
multiplication of newly developed high yielding, high sugar, disease resistant varieties and rejuvenation of
outstanding varieties under cultivation. The vegetative propagation of sugarcane through seed cane
cuttings is cumbersome requiring larger quantities of vegetative seed material and the normal rate of
multiplication is 1:10. This low rate of multiplication is one of the constraints in the rapid spread of newly
released variety for immediate large-scale adoption by the farmers. Classes of quality seed viz., Nucleus
and Breeder seed of newly released and notified varieties are generally raised through micro propagation
tissue culture technique.
Figure- 1. Sugarcane apical bud or explant (plate1): Establishment of apical shoot bud (plates
2): Shoot initiation in MS (Plates 3): Shoot elongation (plates 4): Shoot initiation in MS (plates
3): Shoot Elongation (plates 4): Initiation of multiple shooting (plates 5): Shoot multiplication
(plates 6): Rooting (plates 7): Hardening (plates 8).
Advantages
The rate of multiplication is enormous which ensures rapid spread of newly released varieties. True- to-
type, healthy, uniforms, disease and pest free plantlet are produced within shorter time. So, spread of
disease and pests through indiscriminate movement of seed can be totally eliminated easily and availability
throughout the year. The vigour of the varieties is regained to its original level, thus improving cane yield
and quality .Old degenerated varieties can be renovated to ensure higher production. High yielding better
quality soma clones can be developed.
Conclusion
This system can be initially utilized to produce breeder seed in sugar factories. Foundation and certified
seed can be produced from the meristem multiplied plants through vegetative cutting. If properly
implemented it will be possible to obtain improved cane yield and increased sugar production by
introducing the newly identified varieties at shorter interval as and when they are released. Though the
cost of soma clones becomes a concern for commercial planting, for efficient and economic use of micro
propagation, for expansion of sugarcane varieties it is suggested to use micro propagation initially to
produce a sizable quantity of breeder seed cane and subsequent multiplication can be done by conventional
planting( Sett planting) to raise foundation and certified seeds.
Introduction
Hypermetamorphosis is a form of complete insect metamorphosis or holometaboly in which at least one of
the instars in the life cycle differs considerably from the others. Two broad categories of
hypermetamorphosis can be recognized in insects viz., type-I hypermetamorphosis and type-II
hypermetamorphosis.
Type I Hypermetamorphosis
In this case, adult females do not oviposit directly at the larval feeding site; instead, the first instars must
find the food source. Such larvae are active, slender, and well-sclerotized. Eg: Strepsiptera (all groups),
Neuroptera (Mantispidae), Coleoptera (several families), Diptera (Bombyliidae).
Type II hypermetamorphosis
In this case of hypermetamorphosis the oviposition and larval feeding sites do not differ. But, the first
instar (sometimes the second as well) individual has a distinctive morphology. Eg: Several families of
parasitic Hymenoptera and in the Lepidopteran family (Gracillariidae, Phyllocnistidae).
I Type I Hypermetamorphosis
1. S.N: Fulgoraecia cerolestes (Kirkpatrick, 1957).
Fa: Epipyropidae.
Or: Lepidoptera.
Habitat Egg Larva I Larva II, Larva III Pupa Adult
Ectoparasitic The eggs are The first- The legs becoming Fulgoraecia Adults of
way of life laid, in instar larva much reduced and makes a waxy these bugs
batches of 200 of the the body covered cocoon and are found on
to 400, on the parasitoid is with white wax. It pupates on the the tree-
trunks of a very active does not leave the tree-trunk trunks,
trees planidium host (Metaphaena) where they
frequented by type, which fully grown when it occur in small
the host rely largely looks much like a colonies
insects on chance to large mealybug.
find a host
(Metaphaena)
2. S.N: Mantispa Sp. (Comstock, 2009).
Fa: Mantispidae.
Or: Neuropter.
Egg Larva I Larva II Pupa Adult
Habitat Female The young larva Here they feed It then Adults
The larvae Mantispa (planidia) upon the young spins a eat small
of Aleochara species kept eggs in are campodeiform spiders; and the cocoon, and insects
are solitary confinement. and they find body becomes changes to
ectoparasitoids of These eggs their way into the proportionately a pupa
Cyclorrhaphous were rose- egg-sacs of the thicker and within the
Diptera red in color, above-named changed into skin of the
and fastened is scarabaeiform larva
II Type II Hypermetamorphosis
1. S.N: Phyllocnistis citrella (Kernasa et al., 2008).
Fa: Lepidoptera.
Or: Phyllocnistidae.
Egg Larva-(1-3) Larva-4 (Pre-pupa) Pupa Adult
Habitat P. citrella Sap-sucking The fourth instar pupal chamber Adults of the
usually lay a stage became a prepupa made of a microlepidopteran
single egg possessing a that was a spinning cocoon of silk P. citrella usually
on the young flattened, stage by changing to a and folding emerged from
citrus apodal body. cylindrical body with over the leaf evening to dawn
leaves, Legs were spinneret mouthpart. edge (obtect but sometimes
mainly near reduced and form). occurred at noon.
the midrib prolegs were
and also, on absent and
the leaf had scissor-
blade. like
mouthpart.
2. S.N: Phyllonorycter blancardella (Body et al., 2014).
Fa: Gracillariidae
Or: Lepidoptera.
Egg Larva-1, Larva-2, Larva-3 Larva-4, Larva-5 Pupa Adult
Habitat lay eggs on Fluid feeders (have a Tissue feeders Resting Active phase
the lower triangle prognathous, (have a more phase
surface of elongated and rounded
green apple dorsoventrally flattened (cylindrical) and
tree leaves head) shorter (relative to
in random its body length)
locations head and which is
not as
dorsoventrally
compressed)
Conclusion
The hypermetamorphosis is the important character in most of the insect’s group to show their different
habit and habitat. This phenomenon would help the insect to thrive well in the dearth conditions. There is
a lot of scopes to work related to the evolution of the hypermetamorphosis in the understudied insects.
Acknowledgment
A very special thanks to Dr. Prabhuraj, A, Head of the department, Agricultural Entomology, UAS, Raichur
who inspired us to write this article.
Reference
1. Body, M., Burlat, V., Giron, D., (2014). Hypermetamorphosis in a leaf-miner allows insects to cope with a confined nutritional
space (Arthropod-Plant Interactions). Springer. 50:21-25.
2. Comstock, C., (2009). Introduction to Entomology, p. 290.
3. Kernasa, O, Suasa, W. and Charernsom, K., (2008). Citrus Leafminer, Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton (Lepidoptera:
Phyllocnistidae) and Its Natural Enemies. Journal of Natural Science. 42: 238 – 245.
4. Kirkpatrick, T. W., (1957). Insect life in the tropics. Longmans green and co press, London, New york, Toronto. Pp.186-187.
Introduction
Crop domestication is the process of innately selecting plants to largen their suitability to human
requirements. There is number of evidence that crop domestication can extremely alter interactions among
plants, herbivores and their natural enemies. In general, domesticated crop plants represents better
physical traits, simpler morphologies, altered nutritional content and reduced plant defenses compared
with their wild ancestors. Given that the traits of domesticated crops have standup from artificial selection
rather than natural selection, these domesticated crop phenotypes are likely to be ecologically representing
good characters with respect to species at higher tropic levels. A key question, then, is to understand how
domestication has shaped plant traits and how, in turn, these plant traits may influence species
interactions in agriculture.
Morphological Traits
Domesticated crops tend to differ from their wild progenitors in morphological traits. For example:
Enlargement of plant structures: Domesticated sunflower increases its flower size from domestication
is positively correlated with landing and egg laying effort of female sunflower moths, Homoeosoma
electellum, but increased seed size will have less accessibility to parasitoid H. electellum larvae. Hence,
selection for gigantism may interfere with natural control and domesticated sunflower moths,
Homoeosoma electellum will have enemy free environment. (Chen, 2003).
Conclusion
Crop domestication has long been validated as a valuable model for understanding evolution. Humans have
imposed strong directional selective pressures on crops, providing a unique opportunity to understand how
those selective pressures can influence other aspects of plant ecology, such as interactions with herbivores.
Recent years have seen considerable advances in technologies such as high-throughput plant phenotyping
and comprehensive metabolomics that hold considerable promise for addressing which plant traits are most
affected by domestication and how they are related to herbivore resistance. Continued work in this area
can provide theoretical insight into the complex dynamics of evolutionary processes involving humans and
other organisms as well as a practical understanding of how evolutionary ecology shapes the food systems
that sustain our lives.
Reference
1. Rosenthal, J., Dirzo, R., 1997, Effects of life history, domestication and agronomic selection on plant defence against insects:
evidence from maizes and wild relatives. Evol. Ecol. 11, 337–355.
2. Chen, Y.H., Welter, S.C., 2003, Confused by domestication: incongruent behavioral responses of the sunflower moth,
Homoeosoma electellum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and its parasitoid, Dolichogenidea homoeosomae (Hymenoptera:
Braconidae), towards wild and domesticated sunflowers. Biol. Control. 28(2):180–90.
3. Michaud, J.P., Grant, A.K., 2009, The nature of resistance to Dectes texanus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in wild sunflower,
Helianthus annuus. J. Appl. Entomol. 133(7):518–23.
Introduction
Among several components of IPM, bio-control is one of the most important components, especially under
protected cultivation. The main problems of pesticide use under protected cultivation are 3 R’s, i.e.
resistance, resurgence and residue. The reason that necessitates the use of bio-control in greenhouse crops
is that the pests in the greenhouse are more likely to develop resistance to chemicals when applied over
long periods. In addition, crops are harvested frequently in close intervals, and thus intensive use of
chemicals becomes questioned due to possible contamination of chemicals with residues. Furthermore,
most of the greenhouse vegetables are consumed fresh, which becomes another main motivation to use
fewer chemicals or otherwise bio-control agents for pest management. Thus, the bio-control has the solution
for it. Bio-control involves the utilization of predators, parasitoids and pathogens as the antagonists of
insect pests and mites. The bio-control is more promising because of low cost, effectiveness, eco-friendly
and offers permanent results.
The protected cultivation environments are most suitable for the build-up of insect pests especially sucking
pests as well it is most suitable for the use of bio-control agents because it is a closed system that acts as a
barrier. In addition, inside protected cultivation structures, we can control the environment which is
suitable for the establishment of natural enemies. In Agro-ecosystems, several natural enemies of pests are
found but only a few among them are most promising.
The use of biological control in protected cultivation dates back earlier to the second World war with the
use of whitefly parasitoid Encarsia formosa Gahan (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). The development of
resistance to organic insecticides by the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari:
Tetranychidae), was observed in the early 1950s. this opened up the window for the research on utilization
of bio-control under protected cultivation, such as the application of Phytoseiid mite, Phytoseiulus
persimilis Athis-Henriot (Acari: Phytiseiidae) which is an effective predator of T. urticae.
Conclusion
The use of biological control against insects and mite pests in protected cultivation has proven to be both
effective and reliable. Studies show the advantages of biocontrol over chemical control. For this reason, it
is expected that pest control in the greenhouse will increasingly rely on biological control. Emerging
Reference
1. Sanchit, S. M. and Shukla, A., 2016, Feeding potential of predatory mite, Amblyseius longispinosus (Evens) (Acari:
Phytoseiidae) on two spotted red spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch. J. Exp. Zool. India., 19(2): 951-953.
2. Shipp, J. L., Zhang, Y., Hunt, D. W. A. and Ferguson, G., 2003, Influence of humidity and greenhouse microclimate on the
efficacy of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) for control of greenhouse arthropod Pests. Environ. Entomol. 32(5): 1154 – 1163.
3. Vásquez, M. G., David B. O. and. Baker, J. R., 2006, Efficacy Assessment of Aphidius colemani (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) for
Suppression of Aphis gossypii (Homoptera: Aphididae) in Greenhouse-Grown Chrysanthemum. J. Econ. Entomol., 99(4):1104-
1111.
Abstract
India is an agriculture-based country producing more than 500 million tons of crop residues per year. The
residues are generally burnt in the field after harvesting of crops and that affects the air quality, leads to
nutrient loss, degrades soil properties. In this present situation, agriculture have to sustainably produce
more food from less land through more efficient and optimum use of natural resources with minimal impact
on environment. Conservation agriculture with proper residue management have to be widely promoted
as a practice to maintain or improve soil quality and enhance crop productivity to meet growing population
demand.
Introduction
Conservation agriculture (CA) is a concept for resource-saving agricultural crop production that strives to
achieve acceptable profits together with sustained production and soil quality (Scopel et al. ,2013).
Conservation agriculture is characterized by three interlinked principles, namely continuous minimum
mechanical soil disturbance, permanent organic soil cover and diversification of crop species grown in
sequence or associations (FAO, 2015). Farm Mechanization particularly use of combine harvesters,
decrease in no of livestock and non-availability of alternate viable way- out, farmers are generally burning
the residues leads to release of soot particles and smoke which causes health hazards and air pollution (
H.S. Gupta et al. , 2012). Karlen et al. (1994) showed that normal rates of residue when combined with
zero-tillage gave better soil surface aggregation. Soil microbial biomass (SMB) has generally been used to
assess below-ground microbial activity and is a sink and source for plant nutrients. Different amendments
such as residues and manures increase while burning and removal of residues reduce SMB (Doran 1980;
Collins et al. 1992; Angers et al. 1993; Heenan et al. 2004; Alvear et al. 2005).
Conclusion
For ensuring our country's food security both in short and long run and making agriculture sustainable,
the soil resource base should be strong enough and healthy also. Conservation agriculture with crop
residues as an integral component, is an effective solution. The optimal amount of surface residue in the
practice of conservation agriculture will depend on the type of constraints to crop production. All
stakeholders including farmers should understand the full potential of crop residues and other valuable
resources for sustainability and resilience of Indian agriculture. Proper and efficient management of crop
residues in conservation agriculture leads towards sustainable agriculture by soil health improvement,
biodiversity enhancement, reduced GHGs emission and improved use efficiency of inputs.
Reference
1. Chauhan BS, Singh RG, Mahajan G et al (2012) Ecology and management of weeds under conservation agriculture: a review.
Crop Prot 38:57– 65.
2. Corbeels M, Scopel E, Cardoso A et al (2006) Soil carbon storage potential of direct seeding mulch-based cropping systems in
the Cerrados of Brazil. Glob Chang Biol 12:1773– 1787.
3. Doran, J. W. 1980 Soil microbiol and biochemical changes associated with reduced tillage. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44, 765– 771.
4. H.S. Gupta et al (2012) Crop Residues Management with Conservation Agriculture: Potential, Constraints and Policy Needs
(7-20).
5. Karlen DL, Wollenhaupt NC, Erbach DC et al (1994) Crop residue effects on soil quality following 10-years of no-till corn. Soil
Tillage Res 31:149– 167.
6. Kassam A (2011) The Future of Farming: What Needs To Change? The Sixth Hugh Bunting Memorial Lecture, University
of Reading, UK.
7. Kumar K, Goh KM (2000) Crop residues and management practices: effects on soil quality, soil nitrogen dynamics, crop yield
and nitrogen recovery. Adv Agron 68:198– 279.
8. Pathak H, Saharawat YS, Gathala M, and Ladha JK (2011) Impact of resource-conserving technologies in the rice-wheat
system. Greenhouse Gas Science & Technology 1:261– 277.
9. Scopel E, Triomphe B, Affholder F et al (2013) Conservation agriculture cropping systems in temperate and tropical conditions,
performances and impacts. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 33:113– 130.
10. Thierfelder C, Wall PC (2009) Effects of conservation agriculture techniques on infiltration and soil water content in Zambia
and Zimbabwe. Soil Till Res 105:217– 227.
Introduction
Enzymes are the vital activators in life processes, likewise in the soil they are known to play a substantial
role in maintaining soil health and its environment. The enzymatic activity in the soil is mainly of microbial
origin, being derived from intracellular, cell-associated or free enzymes. A unique balance of chemical,
physical, and biological (including microbial especially enzyme activities) components contribute to
maintaining soil health. Evaluation of soil health therefore requires indicators of all these components.
Healthy soils are essential for the integrity of terrestrial ecosystems to remain intact or to recover from
disturbances, such as drought, climate change, pest infestation, pollution, and human exploitation
including agriculture. Deterioration of soil, and thereby soil health, is of concern for human, animal, and
plant health because air, groundwater, and surface water consumed by humans, can be adversely affected
by mismanaged and contaminated soil. As soil is the part of the terrestrial environment and supports all
terrestrial life forms, protection of soil is therefore of high priority and a thorough understanding of soil
enzymes activities is a critical factor in assuring that soil remains healthy. A better understanding of the
role of this soil enzymes activity in maintaining the soil health will potentially provide a unique opportunity
for an integrated biological assessment of soils due to their crucial role in several soil biological activities,
their ease of measurement, and their rapid response to changes in soil management. Although there have
been extensive studies on soil enzymes, little has been reported on their roles in maintaining soil health.
Soil Enzymes
Soil enzymes are a group of enzymes whose usual inhabitants are the soil and are continuously playing an
important role in maintaining soil ecology, physical and chemical properties, fertility, and soil health. These
enzymes play key biochemical functions in the overall process of organic matter decomposition in the soil
system. They are important in catalysing several vital reactions necessary for the life processes of micro-
organisms in soils and the stabilization of soil structure, the decomposition of organic wastes, organic
matter formation, and nutrient cycling, hence playing an important role in agriculture. All soils contain a
group of enzymes that determine soil metabolic processes which, in turn, depend on its physical, chemical,
microbiological, and biochemical properties. The enzyme levels in soil systems vary in amounts primarily
due to the fact that each soil type has different amounts of organic matter content, composition, and activity
of its living organisms and intensity of biological processes.
Conclusion
It is very essential to understand the possible roles of soil enzymes in order to maintain soil health and its
fertility management in ecosystems. These enzymes, usually found in the soil, may have significant effects
on soil biology, environmental management, growth and nutrient uptake in plants growing in ecosystems.
Their activities may, however, be influenced by unknown cultural management practices either in a major
or minor amount. Studies focusing the discovery of new enzymes from microbial diversity in the soil might
be the most suitable practices that may positively influence their activities for improved plant growth as
well as rendering the friendly biological environments in order to sustain other living beings.
Abstract
Enzymes are proteins that catalyse chemical reactions in living systems, transforming specific substrates
into the products needed in biological cycles and for many edaphic processes. Soil enzymatic activities have
been proposed as soil quality indicators, due to their relation with soil biology. Although the long-term
effects of organic and mineral fertilization on physical and chemical soil properties have been previously
studied, little is known about their effects on microbial community structure, microbial biomass carbon,
microbial activity and enzymatic activity. Some studies report that organic and mineral fertilizers can
affect, be it positively or negatively, microbial biomass size as well as soil microbial activity. This work
examines the effect of fertilization on the enzymatic activity of soil hydrolases.
Keywords: hydrolases, mineral fertilizers, organic fertilizers, soil.
Introduction
Enzymes are proteins whose function is to catalyze chemical reactions in living systems. They act on
specific substrates, transforming them into products necessary for biological cycles, and participate in many
edaphic processes such as organic residue decomposition, humic substance synthesis, nitrification,
oxidation, xenobiotic degradation and nitrogen fixation, among others. Enzymes are also related to
ecological functions such as biomass production, contaminated soil recovery and ecosystem conservation.
Hydrolase, transferase, oxidoreductase and lyase enzyme activity, all of which participate directly in the
C, N, P and S cycles, has been detected in soil. Due to their function, oxidoreductases (in particular
dehydrogenases, catalases and peroxidase) and hydrolases (phosphatases, proteases and ureases) are the
soil enzymes most studied. Organisms and plants release enzymes into the soil by secretion and cellular
lysis upon death; a low percentage of these proteins remain immobilized and stabilized in interaction with
different components of the soil solid phase, such as clay, organic molecules and organo-mineral complexes.
Depending on the components of the soil solid phase, this interaction is caused by mechanisms that include
microencapsulation, transversal bonds, copolymer formation, adsorption, capture, ion exchange and
covalent bonds. Only a low percentage of the enzymes leaving the cells are stabilized, as they are released
into an inhospitable environment where they can be subjected to non-biological denaturalization,
adsorption or protease degradation. The highest production of extracellular enzymes is attributed to
microorganisms, due to their high metabolic activity and short life cycle, in contrast with other organisms
that also release enzymes, such as plants and animals. High correlations have been found between soil
microbial activity and enzymatic activity . Enzymes can also originate from organic matter applied to soil.
Nutrients from organic fertilizers are released by microbial metabolism, thus making them available to the
plants. In contrast, nutrients in mineral fertilizers can be directly acquired by the plant. The application
of organic and mineral fertilizers to soil increases the nutrient content, microbial activity, enzymatic
activity, humic fraction, soil structure and the ion exchange system. Although the long-term effects of
organic and mineral fertilization on physical and chemical soil properties has been previously studied, little
is known about the effects on the microbial community structure, microbial biomass carbon, microbial
activity and enzymatic activity . Some studies have reported that organic and mineral fertilizers can have
an effect, be it positive or negative, on the size of microbial biomass and soil microbial activity. This work
examines the effect of fertilization on the enzymatic activity of soil hydrolases.
Conclusion
Hydrolytic enzyme activity responded to different forms of fertilizers. Organic restitutions stimulate
hydrolytic enzymatic soil activity. In contrast, mineral fertilization can inhibit or slow down the synthesis
of these enzymes. The combined use of mineral and organic fertilizers generates a greater positive effect
on enzymatic activity, due to the easily-available, enriched nutrients from mineral fertilization and the
high levels of organic matter and biological activity promoted by the addition of organic fertilizers. The
works consulted show that phosphatase and urease activity were the biochemical parameters analysed
with the highest frequency to evaluate the effect of fertilization on soil enzymatic activity.
Introduction
Futures are derivative financial contracts that compel the parties to transact an asset at a predetermined
future date and price. In this irrespective of the current market price at the expiration date, the buyer must
purchase or the seller must sell the underlying asset (physical commodities or other financial instruments)
at the previously set price. Futures contracts enlists the quantity of the underlying asset and are
standardized to enable trading on a futures exchange. It can be used for hedging or trade speculation.
Futures, also called futures contracts allow traders to lock the price of the underlying asset or commodity
in advance. These contracts have expirations dates and set prices that are made in advance. Futures are
identified by their expiration month.
Conclusion
Although there are number of considerable amount of arguments for and against the introduction of future
contract especially on essential commodities, the significance of such market-based instruments cannot be
disregarded in an era of linearization and economic reforms. The only things that need to be assured are
the existence of a well-organized spot market and an active risk management and regulatory frame work.
Introduction
Green fodder plays major role in feed of milch animals, thereby providing required nutrients for milk
production and health of the dairy animals. Rapid urbanisation and mining areas has caused shrinkage of
grazing and fodder producing lands. Due to non-availability of quality green fodder throughout the year,
milk producers are forced to utilise extra concentrates for optimum milk production. On account of this cost
of milk production is higher in the state as compared to neighbouring states. Non availability of irrigated
lands for fodder production, higher labour cost, and small land holdings has left dairy farmer with many
challenges for milk production in Goa. It is quite evident that with decreasing cultivable land and depleting
natural resources, sustainable technology would be the key driver of the dairy industry in the years to
come. Hydroponic green fodder needs suited growing condition for better forage grain germination with
short period of time in special growing rooms. Fresh forages are developed from wheat, oat, barely and
other grains. Even if there is variation in development of different forage grains, the average fresh forage
mat reaches 15 to 30cm height, 7 to 9kg and 0.9 to 1.1kg dry matter. In production of hydroponics there is
a recommendation to use water efficiently in semi-desert conditions. Therefore, the aim of this review is to
review hydroponics feed value on livestock production. The increase in livestock production demands
nutrient requirement to feed animals. Productive and reproductive performance of animals increase
through feeding green fodder. Subsequently, feeding green fodder improve livestock products. For instance,
provision of hydroponic fodder to dairy animal leads to sustainable economic development of dairy
production and it is a fact that deficiency happens if dairy animals feed without including green fodder in
their ration.
Hydroponics Technology
It is a science of growing plants in nutrients rich solutions instead of soil and can be efficiently used to
take pressure off the land to grow green feed for the livestock. Plants require three things to flourish, water,
nutrients, and sunlight. Hydroponics is a straight forward way of providing all these nutrients without the
need of soil under controlled environment conditions to optimise the growth of plants. Technology has been
tested on various crops as Maize, Sorghum, Barley, Oats for producing high quality of nutritious green
fodder for dairy animals. Beside this hydroponics can be used for growing wheat grass, paddy saplings etc
in seven days of time for optimum growth. Fodder obtained from hydroponics consists of grass with grains,
roots, stem and leaves as compared to only stem and leaves part in conventionally grown fodder.
Advantages of Hyrdoponics
1. Conservation of water: it requires just 2- 3 litres of water to produce one kg of lush green fodder, as
compared to 60-80 lts to conventional system of fodder production. Water left over in hydroponics is recycled
to grow the fodder.
2. Land: Hydroponics greenhouse requires marginal land to erect the system ie 10 mts x 4.5 mts land for
600 kg green fodder / day/ unit, in comparison to one-hectare land for conventional green grass field.
Reduction in the amt of land required for maximum fodder production is an asset for both regions where
agriculture is difficult and densely populated areas that lacks sufficient growing space.
3. Reduced labour requirement: In conventional fodder production requires continuous intense labour
for cultivation to harvesting of the grass, but in hydroponics labour required is 2- 3 hours / day only.
4. Reduction in growth time of green fodder: To obtain nutritious fodder requires just over 7 days
from seed germination to fully grown plant of 25 – 30 cm height. Biomass conversion ratio is as high as 7-
8 times to traditional fodder grown for 60-80 days.
5. Green fodder round the year: technology is capable to make provision for the green fodder round the
year, as per demand .Constant supply can be organized irrespective of rain, storm, sunshine or drought.
Conclusion
One of the agro-technology which could be developed locally with low cost materials and is more nutritious,
palatable and digestible fodder for livestock is hydroponics. Hydroponics is a smart alternative technology
against scarcity of land and impeding climate changes. Now a day’s several countries are practicing it for
their sustainable livestock production. Developing seed culture and new activities in hydroponics reduce
production cost and helps for cooperatives to produce and sell. Thus, it is very vital to use hydroponic fodder
for livestock which is with low cost and highly nutritive. This technology has a solution to avoid scarcity of
green feed special in dry seasons and urban areas having a shortage of land for forage production. Having
a characteristic of high intake palatable and digestible properties, this technology is best chosen than cereal
grains and other concentrate feeding. Progressive modern farmers can also adapt this technology for their
dairy animals to enhance productivity. Therefore, further research and development endeavours should be
carried out for its further utilizations.
Introduction
Reproductive efficiency is a critical component of a successful dairy operation and acts as an important
component of a profitable dairy farm, whereas reproductive inefficiency is one of the costliest problems
facing the dairy industry today. Reproductive problems occur frequently in lactating dairy cows and can
dramatically affect reproductive efficiency in a dairy herd.
Some of the most common problems include twinning, dystocia, abortion, stillbirth, retained placenta and
metritis. These are diverse disorders that are similar in that they all can result in impaired reproductive
function. Deciding whether to breed, treat, or cull dairy cows exhibiting one or more of these reproductive
problems is a challenge for both veterinarians and dairy producers.
In addition, there is considerable controversy among dairy scientists and bovine practitioners regarding
the economic impact of these problems in a dairy operation and the most effective management or
therapeutic intervention for treating them. Because of this controversy, dairy managers should focus on
prevention and control of risk factors associated with each problem rather than on prescriptive therapeutic
interventions. Dairy producers should work closely with their herd veterinarian to develop such
management strategies and discuss appropriate interventions when necessary.
These results, in considerable economic loss to the dairy industry due to slower uterine involution, reduced
reproductive rate, prolonged inter-conception and calving interval, negative effect on fertility, increased
cost of medication, drop in milk production, reduced calf crop and early depreciation of potentially useful
cows. It is very difficult to diagnose those problems by one particular disorder or symptom because there is
interrelation between predisposing factors.
References
1. Ghavi Hossein-Zadeh N, Ardalan M, 2011c. Cow-specific risk factors for retained placenta, metritis and clinical mastitis in
Holstein cows. Vet Res Com 35: 345-354.
2. Tagesu Abdisa2018 Review on the Reproductive Health Problem Journal of Dairy & Veterinary Sciences of Dairy Cattle 5 1
ISSN: 2573-2196.
3. N. Ghavi Hossein-Zadeh 2013Effects of main reproductive and health problems on the performance of dairy cows: a review
spanish journal of agricultural research · 11 3 718-735.
Introduction
Human beings have at least five of these, i.e., noses, tongues, ears, eyes and skin. They represent the main
types of sensor. In the laboratory, one of the best-known types of sensor is the litmus paper test for acids
and alkalis, which gives a qualitative indication, by means of a colour reaction, of the presence or absence
of an acid. A more precise method of indicating the degree of acidity is the measurement of pH, either by
the more extended use of colour reactions in special indicator solutions, or even by simple pH papers.
However, the best method of measuring acidity is the use of the pH meter, which is an electrochemical
device giving an electrical response which can be read by a needle moving on a scale or on a digital read-
out device or input to a microprocessor.
A biosensor can be defined as an integrated receptor transducer device, which is capable of providing
selective quantitative or semi quantitative analytical information using a biological recognition element
(IUPAC, 2000).
Basic Concepts
A biosensor consists of a bio-element and a sensor-element. The bio-element may be an enzyme, antibody,
living cells, tissue, etc., and the sensing element may be electric current, electric potential, and so on.
Different combinations of bio-elements and sensor- elements constitute several types of biosensors to suit
a vast pool of applications.
Principle of Biosensor
The desired biological material (usually a specific enzyme) is immobilized by conventional methods
(physical or membrane entrapment, non-covalent or covalent binding). This immobilized biological material
is in intimate contact with the transducer. The analyte binds to the biological material to form a bound
analyte which in turn produces the electronic response that can be measured.
Types of Biosensors
1. On the basis of transducer:
Applications of Biosensors
1. Biosensors in food quality: Biosensors obviously offer food industry monitoring of specific analyte at
real-time and a Feedback control. This will not only increase the food safety but also provide less effective
control , less employment, time and energy saving (Velasco-Garcia and Mottram, 2003).
2. Detection of microorganisms: Conventional methods to determine and specify microorganisms are
time consuming and laborious. They are based on so-called colony counts on solid media and often include
different enrichment and isolation steps on selective media.
References
1. Rajasekhar, T., Upadhaya, J.B. and Shah, B.P. 2005. Role of biosensors in dairy and food industry. Beverage and foodworld.
March: 21-24.
2. Giese, J. 2002. Food biosensors. Food Technology, 56(7):72-75.
3. Mello L.D. and Kubota L.T., 2002. Review of the use of biosensors as analytical tools in food and drink industries. Food
Chemistry, 77: 237-256.
4. Mello L.D. and Kubota L.T. 2007. Biosensors as a tool for the antioxidant status evaluation. Talanta 72:335–348.
Introduction
Azolla (also known as green gold, The Super Plant ,mosquito fern) is a free-floating aquatic fern of family
Azollaceae and order Pteridophyta, nowadays being used as unconventional feed and protein supplement
for animals like ruminants ,pigs, poultry and fish. Dry flakes of azolla are used as feed in livestock and
poultry while fresh azolla for fish. Azolla mostly is also used as mosquito-repellant, biofertilizer and bio-
scavanger as it has capability to accumulate heavy metals. Azolla is good source of probiotics,
protein(mainly essential aminoacids) with higher lysine, arginine and methionine content, bio-polymers,
minerals , chlorophyll and vitamins(Vitamin A, Vitamin B, beta carotene, vitamin B12) while carbohydrate
and oil content are low. It is easy to cultivate, moreover gives high production compared to legumes and
grasses. It is highly digestible in animals because of low lignin and high protein. Azolla also acts as
biofertilizer for wetland paddy. Azolla can grow both in wild and controlled conditions. It can be found
growing naturally in stagnant water of pond, canal, river and other water sources. Azolla grows well in
symbiotic relationship with blue green algae. It usually grows on water surface consisting of alternate
leaves with adventitious roots. The fronds of azolla are triangular in shape. Optimum water pH required
for growth of azolla is 4.5-7.0(Tolerable pH 3.5-10) and temperature 18-28ºC. In world, atleast eight species
are known of Azolla,namely Azolla pinnata, Azolla nilotica, Azolla caroliniana, Azolla japonica, Azolla
circinata, Azolla microphylla, Azolla rubra and Azolla Mexicana of which most common is Azolla pinnata.
In this article compilation of research related to feeding of azolla in various animals has been done along
with its nutritional value and method of cultivation.
Azolla Production
1. The soil in the area is first cleared of weeds and levelled.
2. Bricks are lined horizontally in a rectangular fashion.
Harvesting
1. Will grow rapidly and fill the pit within 10 - 15 days. From then on, 500 - 600 g of azolla can be harvested
daily.
2. Can be done every day from the15th day onwards with the help of a plastic sieve or tray with holes at
the bottom.
3. The harvested azolla should be washed in fresh water to get rid of the cow dung smell.
Alternative Inputs
1. Fresh biogas slurry may also be used.
2. Waste water from bathroom and cattle shed can also be used to fill the pit. In areas where there is a
problem of fresh water availability, the water left after washing clothes (after the second rinsing) can also
be used.
3. Temperature 20°C - 28°C.
4. Light 50% full sunlight.
5. Relative Humidity 65 - 80%.
6. Water (standing in the tank) 5 - 12 cm.
7. pH 4-7.5.
References
1. Kathirvelan,C.,Banupriya,S. and Purushothaman, M.R. Azolla- an alternate and sustainable feed for livestock. International
Journal of Science, Environment and Technology,2015, 4,4:1153 – 1157.
2. Senthilkumar, S. and Manivannam C. Adoption of azolla cultivation technology in the farmers field: An analysis. International
Journal of Science and Environmental Technology, 2016,5,5:3081-3087.
3. Yanshi and Anshu R. azolla-emerging animal feed., International Research Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences
2019,6,1:2349-4077.
Introduction
Reproductive inefficiency is one of the most important causes of economic losses in animal industries and
it is realized throughout the world. Despite of the remarkable advancement that has been made in the field
of reproductive physiology in recent years, infertility due to low conception rate and high embryonic
mortality rate remains a major problem.
On the other hand, there is an increasing necessity to produce animals with high genetic potential to
increase the productivity of animal unit instead of increasing the number of animal herds to achieve high
quality and quantity production.
Various assisted reproductive techniques have been developed and refined to obtain a large number of
offspring from genetically superior animals or obtain offspring from infertile (or sub fertile) animals in
addition to disease control.
Development of reproductive techniques like; estrus synchronization, superovulation, non-surgical embryo
collection, embryo transfer, cryopreservation of embryos, oocytes pick- up from live animals, in vitro embryo
production, and cloning could not make an impact on animal production quality due to non-availability of
low-cost embryos from high genetic merit animals.
Artificial Insemination
This technology has now become a practical technology in commercial dairy cattle programs in both
developed and developmental countries. Artificial insemination (AI) is the process of collecting sperm cells
from a genetically superior male animal and manually depositing them into the reproductive tract of a
female. The first successful insemination was performed by Spallanzani, (1784) in a bitch. Pioneering
efforts to AI were begun in Russia in 1899 by Ivanoff. Ivanoff (1922) had studied AI in domestic farm
animals, dogs, foxes, rabbits, and poultry. Later on, this technique was performed by various researchers
worldwide in different species. Use of frozen semen (Polge et al., 1949) revolutionized the AI program
through worldwide transport of semen. Initially, the AI was used to spread improved indigenous breeds.
Cloning
Cloning is a powerful technique and potentially it could be used for multiplication of elite animals and
minimize the genetic variation in experimental animals. It can be used for the conservation as well as tool
for the production of stem cells for therapeutic purposes, as therapeutic cloning. Cloning using somatic cells
offers opportunities to select and multiply animals of specific merits (Das et al., 2003). Numerous types of
somatic cells are used as donors in somatic cloning; foetal fibroblasts, adult fibroblasts, granulosa cells,
hepatocytes, lymphocytes … etc. (Campbell et al., 2007).
First animal obtained by somatic cloning was a sheep called “Dolly” (Willmut et al., 1997). She was derived
from cells that had been taken from the udder of a 6-year old Finn Dorset ewe and cultured for several
weeks in the laboratory. Individual cells were then fused with unfertilized eggs from which the genetic
material had been removed. Two hundred and seventy-seven of these reconstructed eggs' – each now with
Transgenesis
Since the initial demonstration in 1980s that a transgenic animal can be generated harboring a transgene
from a different species, genetic engineering has revolutionized all aspects of fundamental biological and
biomedical research. Since then much has been accomplished in the generation of various was types of first
transgenic animals (Fig. 4) like mouse (Gurdon and Ruddle, 1981), pig (Hammer et al., 1985), sheep (Simon
et al., 1998), goat (Ebert et al., 1991) and cattle (Galli et al., 2003).
Several biotechnological techniques such as pro-nuclear micro-injection, cytoplasmic micro-injection,
retrovirus-based vectors, transferring DNA to embryos or embryonic stem cells via retroviral vectors, sperm
mediated gene transfer of lentivectors and RNA interference, are presently being used to produce
transgenic animals. Transgenic farm animals can be used both in breeding and biomedicine (Rob et al.,
2007; Wells, 2010). In breeding, transgenic individuals produced are equipped with disease resistance and
improved.
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is recent advancement in cellular and molecular biotechnology. It has an enormous
potential to revolutionize agriculture and livestock sector. This technology allows researchers to handle
biological materials and media in minute quantities usually nanoliters or picoliters. In addition to its
applications in cellular biology, biotechnology, theraputic medicine and genetics, it might be useful
technique in farm animal breeding and reproduction. ualitative traits.
Laser Technology
Laser effects on sperm motility parameters improvement of oocyte maturation and characterization of
semen in livestock have been reviewed (Abdel-Salam and Harith, 2014). Several applications of laser had
been reviewed as assisted techniques of ART to benefit the energy from different types of laser to excite
either sperm of oocyte to improve their competence toward fertilization. Also, they mentioned the promising
types of laser and wave length in the applications of improving semen parameters either pre- or post-
thawing, oocyte maturation for IVF.
Conclusion
Assisted Reproduction Technologies (ART) in farm animals are recently receiving renewed attention. ART
can be used to meet the increasing global desire for animals’ products and to overcome reproduction failure
in high producing animals. On the other hand, embryo genomics are a valuable tool for studying the
probable causes responsible for various defects at cellular level (i.e. early embryonic death due to defective
expression of genes). Nowadays, the new breakthrough in ART techniques made it possible to manipulate
embryo production with desired criteria. Moreover, introduction of ART accelerates genetic improvement
toward accretion or secretion type of production.
West Bengal.
Summary
Biofloc is a heterogeneous aggregate of suspended particles and variety of microorganisms associated with
extracellular polymeric substances. It is composed of microorganisms such as bacteria, algae, fungi,
invertebrates and detritus, etc.
Introduction
The aquaculture business is expanding quickly at pace of 9% every year since the 1970s (FAO,2012). To
get ready commercial feed for aquaculture, fishmeal and fish oil are one of the prime constituents. About
half use for aquaculture production get from feed costs, which is transcendent because of the expense of
protein component in commercial diets (Bender et al.). To expand aquaculture production, issues identified
with this action like expanding the zone required for the facility, water conduction carriage and building
lakes channels for remaining water must be settled. Presentation of exotic species has made a hazard by
inciting the progress of new microorganisms and ailments to local organism. (De Schryver et al. 2008;
Emerenciano et al. 2011; FAO, 2010).
The natural amiable and cost-effective aquaculture framework called "Biofloc Technology (BFT)" is
considered as a productive substitute process since supplements could be ceaselessly reused and recycled.
The technologies are strong for supportability of aquaculture, practical and environmentally sustainable.
One choice to lessen the natural harms brought about by aquaculture and to enhance production is the
utilization of the "Biofloc" Technology (BFT), this technology was invented during the 70's, and it is situated
in the microbial communities that help limit or maintain a strategic distance from water exchange and, as
an extra advantage or benefit, the production of microbial protein that can be utilized as food. (Avnimelech,
2009).
Biofloc Technology
The biofloc process was created under a similar rule that regular waste water treatment plants have, in
which the microorganisms were developed from dung of the refined life forms being, changing it into less
mind organic items that can be devoured by different living beings and come back to the food chain.
(Avnimelech & Kochba, 2009). In aquaculture, the "biofloc" technology acts like a maintenance trap for the
supplements in the lake, and diminishes support costs since it very well may be utilized as food supplement
for the commercial organisms being refined, which gives an additional incentive by improving the food
utilization rate (Azim & Little, 2008). On the off chance that carbon and nitrogen are even in the
arrangement, ammonium added with organic nitrogenous waste will be changed over into bacterial biomass
(Schneider et al., 2005).
By adding carbohydrates to the lake, heterotrophic bacterial development is invigorated and nitrogen take-
up through the production of microbial proteins happens (Avnimelech, 1999). Biofloc technology is a
process of increasing water quality through the addition of extra carbon to the aquaculture system, by an
external carbon source or supplement carbon content of the feed. This promoted nitrogen uptake by
bacterial growth decreases the ammonium concentration more rapidly than nitrification (Hargreaves,
2006).
The growth rate and microbial biomass yield per unit substrate of heterotrophs are a factor 10 higher than
that of nitrifying bacteria because Immobilization of ammonium by heterotrophic bacteria occurs much
Conclusion
To build up the biofloc technology gives advantages to the production process, for example, bringing down
the thickness of the poisonous components that can influence the culture, it can likewise help decreasing
or wiped out the water exchange in the lakes, which is of extraordinary assistance when there is lack of
Bibliography
1. Avnimelech Y. 1999a. Biofloc technology- A practical guide book. The world aquaculture society. Baton Rouge, United States.
2. Avnimelech Y. 1999b. Carbon/nitrogen ratio as a control element in aquaculture systems. Aquaculture 176: 227-235.
3. Avnimelech Y. 2007. Feeding with microbial flocs by tilapia in minimal discharge bio-flocs technology ponds. Aquaculture
264:140-147.
4. Avnimelech Y, Kochba M. 2009. Evaluation of nitrogen uptake and excretion by tilapia in bio floc tanks, using 15N tracing.
Aquaculture 287: 163-168.
5. Azim M, Little D. 2008. The biofloc technology (BFT) in indoor tanks: Water quality, biofloc composition and growth and
welfare of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture 283: 29-35.
6. Bender, J., R. Lee, M. Sheppard, K. Brinkley, P. Philips, Y. Yeboah and R.C. Wah, 2004. A waste effluent treatment system
based on microbial mats for black sea bass Centropristisstriata recycled water mariculture. Aquac. Eng., 31: 73-82.
7. Chu, C.P., Lee, D.J., 2004. Multiscale structures of biological flocs. Chemical Engineering Science 59, 1875–1883.
8. De Schryver, P., R. Crab, T. Defoirdt, N. Boon and W. Verstraete, 2008. The basics of bio-flocs technology: the added value for
aquaculture. Aquaculture, 277: 125-137.
9. Eding, E.H., Kamstra, A., Verreth, J.A.J., Huisman, E.A., Klapwijk, A., 2006. Design and operation of nitrifying trickling
filters in recirculating aquaculture: a review. Aquaculture Engineering 34, 234–260.
10. FAO, 2012. Fisheries global information system FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations Rome.
11. Hargreaves, J.A., 2006. Photosynthetic suspended-growth systems in aquaculture. Aquaculture Engineering 34, 344–363.
12. Schneider, O., Sereti, V., Eding, E.H., Verreth, J.A.J., 2005. Analysis of nutrient flows in integrated intensive aquaculture
systems. Aquaculture Engineering 32, 379–401.
Summary of Article
Dirks et al. (2009) proposed a novel plant breeding technology named reverse breeding, which can directly
generate parental inbred lines from any hybrid. Hybrid seeds are produced by a cross between to inbreed
lines. Reverse breeding, meets the challenge of fixation of complex heterozygous genomes by constructing
complementing homozygous lines. This is accomplished by the knockdown of meiotic crossovers and the
subsequent fixation of non-recombinant chromosomes in homozygous doubled haploid lines (DHs). The
approach not only allows fixation of uncharacterized germplasm but provides breeders with a breeding tool
that, when applied to plants of known backgrounds, allows the rapid generation of chromosome
substitutions that will facilitate breeding on an individual chromosome level. There is a short
communication related to the different methods of this approach.
Introduction
Reverse breeding (RB) is a novel plant breeding technique designed to directly produce parental lines for
any heterozygous plant, one of the most sought-after goals in plant breeding.
Reverse breeding has been tested in Arabidopsis by Wiinker et al. (2012). Firstly, they crossed Landsberg
(Ler-0) and Columbia erecta (Col-0) to develop an F1 hybrid. In the hybrid, the meiosis crossover is
suppressed using RNAi to knock-down the DMC1 gene, which is required for the crossover formation during
meiosis. Secondly, they crossed this hybrid to the centromere mediated haploid inducer line to generate
haploids which were doubled into DH lines through spontaneous doubling. Genetic analysis of 69 DH lines
using SNP markers at approximately 4-Mb intervals showed absence of recombination. Lastly, they
recovered the original hybrid by crossing complementing DH lines.
Procedure
1. The generation of DMC1: RNAi transgenic lines (Achiasmatic parental lines)
2. Development of achiasmatic hybrids
3. Haploid induction by crossing to GFP-tail swap
4. Generation of DH lines by self-pollination of haploids and
5. Recreation of original hybrids by crossing DH lines with complementary sets of parental chromosomes.
Future Aspect
Reverse breeding accelerates the breeding process considerably and increases the number of available
genetic combinations which allows breeders to respond much quicker to the needs of farmers and growers
with better varieties. Other main advantage of reverse breeding is that it facilitates selection of superior
hybrid plants. Large populations of plants can be generated and screened and well performing plants can
be regenerated indefinitely without prior knowledge of their genetic constitution. This essentially removes
the randomness in earlier hybrid breeding. Reverse breeding is currently limited to crops with a relatively
small, diploid genome.
Conclusion
As a breeding tool, reverse breeding may be regarded more versatile as its controlled deconstruction of
complex genotypes into homozygous parental lines allows the further improvement of these lines by classic
breeding methods. Reverse Breeding generates perfectly complementing homozygous parental lines
through engineered meiosis. The method is based on reducing genetic recombination in the selected
heterozygote by eliminating meiotic crossing over. Male or female spores obtained from such plants contain
combinations of non-recombinant parental chromosomes which can be cultured in vitro to generate
homozygous doubled haploid plants (DHs). From these DHs, complementary parents can be selected and
used to reconstitute the heterozygote in perpetuity. Since the fixation of unknown heterozygous genotypes
is impossible in traditional plant breeding, Reverse Breeding could fundamentally change future plant
breeding.
References
1. Baobao Wang, Lei Zhu, Binbin Zhao, Yongping Zhao, Yurong Xie, Zhigang, Yaoyao Li, Juan Sun and Haiyang Wang (2019).
Development of a Haploid-Inducer Mediated Genome Editing System for Accelerating Maize Breeding. Mol. Plant.12, 597-602
2. Erikkson D, Schienmann J. (2016) Reverse breeding ‘Meet the Parents’. Crop Genetic Improvement Techniques. Proceedings
of European Plant Science Organization, 1-3.
3. H. C. Chawla, introduction to plant breeding. Oxford & IBH publication.
Biochar
Biochar is a fine-grained, carbon-rich, porous product remaining after plant biomass has been subjected to
thermo-chemical conversion process (pyrolysis) at low temperatures (~350–600°C) in an environment with
little or no oxygen (Amonette and Joseph, 2009).
Biochar is not a pure carbon, but rather mix of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), sulphur
(S) and ash in different proportions. The central quality of biochar and char that makes it attractive as a
soil amendment is its highly porous structure, potentially responsible for improved water retention and
increased soil surface area. It is a carbon-rich organic material, an organic amendment, and a by-product
derived from biomass by pyrolysis under high-temperature and low-oxygen conditions. Biochar is produced
through a process called pyrolysis, which basically involves heating of biomass (such as wood, manure, or
leaves) in complete or almost complete absence of oxygen, with oil and gas as co-products. However, the
quantity of these materials produced depends on the processing conditions. Recently, it has been reported
that biochar obtained from the carbonization of organic wastes can be a substitute that not only influences
the sequestration of soil carbon but also modifies its physicochemical and biological properties (Zhang et
al., 2017).
Advantages of Biochar
1. Increase water holding capacity of sandy soils.
Conclusion
Crop residues in fields can cause considerable crop management problems as they accumulate. However,
biochar amendment improves soil health and soil fertility status, especially increasing organic C, N, K and
CEC. The long-term impact of biochar application on soil physical properties, nutrient availability, soil
microbial activities, carbon sequestration potential, crop productivity, and greenhouse gas mitigation. The
initial outcomes reveal that biochar application helps in improving soil health and crop productivity.
Efficient use of biomass by converting it as a useful source of soil amendment/nutrients is one way to
manage soil health and fertility.
References
1. Aditya Parmar, Prabhat K. Nema and Tripti Agarwal. (2014).Biochar production from agro-food industry residues: a
sustainable approach for soil and environmental management current science.,107:10, 2.
2. Zhang R, Zhang Y, Song L, Song X, Hanninen H, Wu J.(2017) Biochar enhances nut quality of Torreya grandis and soil fertility
under simulated nitrogen deposition. Forest Ecology and Management. 391:321-329.
Hypovirulence
Hypovirulence is a term used to describe reduced virulence found in some strains of pathogens. It is the
phenomenon by which a strain of a pathogen is less virulent than normal due to the presence of double
stranded RNA (dsRNA).
History
In 1940, more than 4 billion American chestnut trees were infected with the chestnut blight (Cryphonectria
parasitica).
In 1960’s, Italian and French scientists observed the healing cankers growing on chestnut trees in Italy.
In 1964- Grente, first discovered hypovirulence in Italy.
Hypovirulence has become a model system for the biology of fungus-virus interaction. Hypoviruses are most
significant for biological control of chestnut blight belongs to the family Hypoviridae. Four species of
hypoviruses have been described in Cryphonectria parasitica Cryphonectria hypovirus 1 (CHV-1), CHV-2,
CHV-3, CHV-4.
Mechanism
Virulent strain is converted to hypovirulent strain by the transmission of dsRNA virus in hypvirulent strain
through hyphal anastomosis between virulent and hypovirulent strains. In fungi, the LacCl gene encodes
an extracellular laccase and which appears to be involved in lignin degradation, virulence, sporulation and
pigmentation. It has been found that laccase biosynthesis was down-regulated by dsRNA containing
hypovirulent strain. Gene Crp encodes a cell wall hydrophobin, which is specific to aerial hyphae and
fruiting bodies of C. Parasitica, has been down regulated.
Transmission
Fungal viruses have no extracellular mode of transmission and under natural conditions are reliant on
their fungal hosts for intracellular transmission. Virus transmission in two ways: Horizontal transmission
and Vertical transmission. Horizontal transmission only occurs after hyphal anastomosis (fusion of hyphae)
and the mixing of cytoplasm of one individual with another. Vertical transmission by production of asexual
spores, overwintering sclerotia and more or less effective transmission into sexual spores. During virus
transmission the individuals are vegetative compatible. Individuals are vegetative compatible if they share
the same alleles at all loci.
Cross Protection
Is a phenomenon in which infection of a plant with a mild virus strain protects it from disease resulting
from a subsequent encounter with a severe strain of the same virus? Mild strain also named as protective
History
1929- McKinney, first reported the phenomenon of cross protection in Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) in the
Canary Islands.
1951- Grant and Costa, first demonstrated that cross protection could be used to control citrus tristeza
virus (CTV) in Brazil.
1978- Balaraman and Ramakrishnan reported cross protection for control of Citrus Tristeza Virus in India.
Conclusion
Whereas most mycoviruses lead 'secret lives', some reduce the ability of their fungal hosts to cause disease
in plants. This property, known as hypovirulence, has attracted attention owing to the importance of fungal
diseases in agriculture and the limited strategies that are available for the control of these diseases. Using
one pathogen to control another is appealing, both intellectually and ecologically. Because cross protection
does not rely on harmful materials or chemicals such as pesticides and fungicides, it is suitable for
sustainable agriculture, which is in high demand. Because cross protection is effective in general, it is
necessary to increase good attenuated strains against many severe viruses. Based on the molecular
research of attenuation and cross protection, new techniques might be developed to further our progress in
controlling viral diseases through cross protection with attenuated viruses. The genetic stability of
attenuated viruses should be examined in each of the hosts to which they will be applied. Further molecular
study and understanding of cross protection/ interference should pave the way for broadening the practical
applications of attenuated viruses. The resistance in transgenic plants that is conferred by the introduction
of a virus gene is lost upon infection by unrelated viruses but the cross protection is not.
Introduction
In India, the concept of natural farming was pulled into light by Shri Subhash Palekar, for which he was
honoured with Padma Shri in 2016. According to Palekar, it is a method of farming where the cost of
growing and harvesting the plants is zero. This means that farmers need not to purchase fertilizers and
pesticides in order to ensure the healthy growth of the crops. This method dictates locally available natural
bio-degradable materials saturated with scientific knowledge of ecology and modern technology with
traditional farming practices based on naturally occurring biological processes.
Principles of ZBNF
1. Intercropping: This is primarily how ZBNF gets its “Zero Budget” name. It doesn’t mean that the
farmer is going to have no costs at all, but rather that any costs will be compensated by income from
intercrops, making farming a close to zero budget activity.
2. Contours and bunds: To preserve rain water, which promote maximum efficacy for different crops.
3. Local species of earthworms: the revival of local deep soil earthworms through increased organic
matter is most recommended.
4. Cow dung: Dung from the Bos indicus (humped cow) is most beneficial and has the highest
concentrations of micro-organisms as compared to European cow breeds such as Holstein. The entire ZBNF
method is cantered on the Indian cow, which historically has been part of Indian rural life.
Conclusion
Increasing use of chemicals in agriculture resulted into many environmental and health issues. Therefore,
it is high time and challenge before all the agriculturists to work on the aspects using least chemicals in
agriculture and ZBNF is one of them. This aspect is holistic, eco-friendly and has no harmful effects on
humans and environment.
Reference
Bishnoi, R., & Bhati A. (2017). An overview: Zero Budget Natural Farming. Trends in Biosciences. 10(46): 9314-9316.
Summary
The tremendous increase in mortality of chicks and a drop in performance of birds during the winters
require an establishment of optimal micro-environment in the house as a countermeasure. It commences
with the preheating of room 24 hours prior to the arrival of chicks and continued to the adult stages of
birds. Feed the birds with carbohydrate and protein-rich diet to enhance heat increment in the body and
their chances of survival besides maintaining production. Provide ad libitum lukewarm water in small
doses at regular intervals with anti-stress medications. Maintain good litter condition as poor litter
condition predisposes the birds to stress and diseases. In the end, the uniform distribution of birds in the
house and their activity level will ensure better poultry production during the winters.
Introduction
Worldwide, the survival ability and productivity of poultry birds is greatly influenced by the environment.
Any deviation in the normal environment deviate the normal physiological functions in the birds. Birds are
homeotherms and can constantly maintain their deep body temperature but this is possible up to a certain
limit i.e. 18-25°C. Beyond the limits, birds show signs of behavioural changes and discomfort leading to
reduced performance. Nevertheless, by merit of physiology, the birds are better tolerant too cold than high
temperature yet due to the low temperature, poor ventilation and reduced photoperiod they exhibit a higher
degree of mortality, reduction in water intake, FCR, weight gain, egg production, fertility and hatchability,
thereby jeopardizing the economy of poultry production. Besides, the availability of infrastructure and
electricity in rural India is missing; making the management of poultry during winter an important concern
for poultry owners. It is noted that different age groups of birds have unparalleled requirements and
abilities to withstand cold stress where day-old chicks are the most vulnerable and a temperature of 95°F
during the first week is essential. Poultry owners experience hundreds of challenges but maintaining the
birds during cold environment or winter season is the greatest of all time, therefore, the following factors
should be considered to optimize the poultry production during the winters.
Conclusion
The success of raising poultry during the winter season lies in controlling the environmental fluctuations
to the bird’s specifications as early as possible. It begins by ensuring the optimal brooding environment for
chicks 24 hours before their arrival which can later be easily recognized by the uniform distribution of
chicks in the brooder room and finishes with the meticulous uphold of micro-environment in the adult
stage. Besides sustaining the micro-environment, frequent turning, raking and replacement of litter and
appropriate feeding and watering arrangements are compulsory to reduce the antagonist effects on poultry
production during the winter season and achieve profitability.
Source of Images
The images are captured by the author’s itself and can only be used by giving proper credit to the authors.
Reference
1. Anonymous., (2020). Broiler management during winter. Opti Feeds. Assessed on July 15, 2020. https://bit.ly/3fyB8ek.
2. Anonymous., (2016). Poultry farming in winter. Growel Agrovet Private Limited.
3. Khanday Z.B., War I.A., Ashraf A. and Shehriyar Q., (2018). Winter management of poultry. Poultry World.
4. Singh R.K., (2017). Management of poultry during winter. Pashu Sandesh.
Introduction
Sorghum downy mildew: Peronosclerospora sorghi
Philippine downy mildew: Peronosclerospora philippinensis
Crazy top: Sclerophthora macrospora
Symptoms:
1. The most characteristic symptom is the development of chlorotic streaks on the leaves.
2. Plants exhibit a stunted and bushy appearance due to shortening of the internodes.
3. White downy growth is seen on the lower surface of leaf.
4. Downy growth also occurs on bracts of green unopened male flowers in the tassel. Small to large leaves
are noticed in the tassel.
5. Proliferation of auxiliary buds on the stalk of tassel and the cobs is common (Crazy top).
Symptoms
Pathogen
The fungus grows as white downy growth on both surfaces of the leaves, consisting of sporangiophores and
sporangia. Sporangiophores are quite short and stout, branch profusely into series of pointed sterigmata
which bear hyaline, oblong or ovoid sporangia (conidia). Sporangia germinate directly and infect the plants.
In advanced stages, oospores are formed which are spherical, thick walled and deep brown.
Favourable Conditions
1. Low temperature (21-33˚C).
2. High relative humidity (90 per cent) and drizzling.
3. Young plants are highly susceptible.
Disease Cycle
The primary source of infection is through oospores in soil and also dormant mycelium present in the
infected maize seeds. Secondary spread is through airborne conidia. Depending on the pathogen species,
the initial source of disease inoculums can be oospores that over winter in the soil or conidia produced in
infected, over wintering crop debris and infected neighbouring plants. Some species that cause downy
mildew can also be seed borne, although this is largely restricted to seed that is fresh and has high moisture
content. At the onset of the growing season, at soil temperatures above 20°C, oospores in the soil germinate
in response to root exudates from susceptible maize seedlings. The germ tube infects the underground
Management
1. Deep ploughing.
2. Crop rotation with pulses.
3. Rogue out infected plants.
4. Treat the seeds with metalaxyl at 6g/kg.
5. Spray the crop with Metalaxyl + Mancozeb @ 1kg on 20th day after sowing.
6. Grow resistant varieties and hybrids viz. CO1, COH1and COH2.
Reference
1. Agrios G N. 2010. Plant Pathology 5 th edition. Acad. Press.
2. Jagtap G. P. and Hingole D. G. 2018. A text Book on Disease of Field & Horticultural Crops & their management.
Introduction
Insect-plant interaction refers to the activities of two types of organisms: Insects that seek out and utilize
plants for food, shelter, and/or egg-laying sites and the plants that provide those resources. The landscape
or canopy is usually heterogeneous and each site is characterized by a set of heat fluxes (net radiation,
convection‐conduction and evapotranspiration). These heat fluxes between the leaf surface and the
environment determine directly the leaf temperature depending on the stomatal behaviour and they also
indirectly influence the plant's chemical defences its nutritional quality, the emission of volatile organic
compounds (VOC s).
All these traits potentially set the performance of the insect and ultimately its fitness and population
dynamics. The insect by feeding on plant tissues may initiate a defence response either in the form of
production of secondary metabolites or attracting a natural enemy that inturn protects the plant by feeding
/ ovipositing on the insect.
R Genes-Examples
Vat (R gene) confers resistance to one biotype of the melon-cotton aphid Aphis gossypii , while Bph14 (R
gene) confers resistance to the rice brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens.
Abdul Rashid et. al., (2011) studied and reported the effect of Jasmonic acid (JA) as a spray on induced
resistance in three groundnut genotypes namely, ICGV 86699 (resistant), NCAc 343 (resistant) and TMV
2 (susceptible) against Helicoverpa armigera was studied. The activity of oxidative enzymes [peroxidase
(POD) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO)] and the amounts of other host plant defence components [total
phenols, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), malondialdehyde (MDA), and protein content] were recorded at 24, 48,
72, and 96 h after pre-treatment (1 day) with JA followed by infestation with H. armigera (PJA-HIN) and
Conclusion
There is a need to understand the ecological significance of HIPVs by integrating biochemical and molecular
mechanisms in the production, and understand their ecological functions. Understanding of such
interactions will open up new avenues for further studies on primary signaling cascades to the ecological
consequences in various eco-systems.
Agricultural land systems (cropland, managed grassland, permanent crops including agroforestry and
bioenergy crops) cover about 40%–50% of the Earth’s land surface (Smith et al., 2007), on which humanity
needs to secure food production. World agricultural cropping systems intensively using a large number of
fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides to achieve more production per unit area. Continuous fertilizer input
becomes essential to sustain and increase food production. But using more doses than optimum of these
chemicals and fertilizers leads to several problems like environmental pollution and several problems in
the world community. So, our duty is to overcome these fundamental lapses with entirely new concepts
developed. Smart fertilizers may be a solution to enhance food production as a response to food security
and improving environmental quality.
Smart fertilizers include:
1. Slow and controlled release fertilizers.
2. Nitrification inhibitors.
3. Urease inhibitors.
Technological advances in phosphorous fertilization include products that increase phosphorous
availability in the soil for better uptake by plants.
The history of the Indian fertilizer industry dates back to 1906 when the first fertilizer factory opened at
Ranipet (Tamil Nadu). Since then, there have been major developments in terms of both the quantity and
the types of fertilizers produced, the technologies used and the feedstocks employed. The fertilizer industry
in India is in the core sector and second to steel in terms of investment. Before 1960/61, India produced
only straight nitrogenous fertilizers [ammonium sulphate (AS), urea, calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN),
ammonium chloride and single superphosphate (SSP)]. The production of NP complex fertilizers
commenced in 1960/61. Currently, India produces a large number of grades of NP / NPK complex fertilizer.
India imports mainly urea, DAP, and potassium chloride (MOP). The country has almost reached self-
sufficiency in urea production. Besides, India also imports a small quantity of mono-ammonium phosphate
(MAP) and potassium sulphate (SOP) (65,000 and 10,500 tonnes, respectively, in 2003/04).
Fertilizers are indeed essential for the healthy growth of plants but they are harmful to the environment.
Fertilizers these days contain all sorts of chemicals which boost the healthy and fast growth of plants but
further to this, these fertilizers are not really environment friendly. Hence, organic and natural fertilizers
made from compost and manure should be used to balance the environment. The huge amounts of
conventional P fertilizer need to be applied annually to maintain available P levels in soil-plant systems.
N and P fertilizer application at levels exceeding plant requirements due to low acquisition efficiency leads
to significant environmental consequences in many parts of the world due to N losses, such as nitrate (NO3-
) and phosphate (PO3-) leaching, NH3 volatilization, and nitrous oxide (N2O) emission. Transport of P and
N from agricultural soils to surface waters has been linked to eutrophication of freshwater and estuaries.
In addition, current agricultural activities and fertilizer applications contribute up to 20% to the annual
atmospheric emissions of GHG, such as methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
To enhance nutrient use efficiency, new types of smart fertilizers with the controlled nutrient release is
essential. The development of such fertilizers could be based on the use of microorganisms (biofertilizers)
and/or nanomaterials (nano fertilizers). Nano fertilizers are synthesized and modified forms of traditional
fertilizers, fertilizers bulk materials or extracted from the different vegetative and reproductive parts of
Introduction
Orchids comprise the largest family of flowering plants with 25,000 to 35,000 species belonging to 600-800
genera. They are prized for their incredible diversity in the size, shape and colour and attractiveness of
their flowers and high keeping qualities even up to 10 weeks. Vase life or longevity of a cut flower was
determined on the basis of attributes like diameter and length of florets, opening of flowers, changes in
fresh weight, diameter or length of stem or pedicel, senescence pattern, colour of petals, total longevity and
foliage burning. The post-harvest life of cut flowers is often limited by their inability to maintain
photosynthesis under the lighting conditions of the interior environment where they are held, so it is
important to ensure high carbohydrate levels in plants at harvest time. Many factors like Pre-harvest,
Harvest and Post-Harvest factors are affected to the quality of orchid flower are discussed here under.
Pre-Harvest Factors
1. Varietal differences: Varietal differences in cut flowers had been reported due to variations in water
uptake, fresh weight, flower diameter, stems lignification, vase life and senescence behaviour. Among
different species, the vase life ranges from 9 – 18 days. Some of the orchids like Dendrobium, Vanda
remained perfect for 7 to 30 days. The flowers of Cattleya and Phalaenopsis remained fresh for 1 to 4 weeks
whereas Aranda lasted for 18 to 28 days.
2. Light intensity: Light was found to determine the carbohydrate levels before harvest which in turn
influence the keeping quality. Flowers containing relatively higher amounts of carbohydrates especially
mobile sugars lasted longer in the vase. Plants having few leaves, or leather like leaves required a high-
light environment. If the leaves are soft and limp, the plants were probably very light-sensitive, and should
not be placed in a sunny south-facing window. Most orchid’s preferred indirect or filtered light and 50%
shading.
a. Low light orchids (1200-2000 f.c.): Phalaenopsis, Calanthe.
b. Medium light orchids (2000-3000 f.c.): Cattleya, Laelia, Brassovola.
c. High light orchids (3000 f. c. or more): Cymbidium, Vandaceous groups.
3. Temperature: Generally, higher temperature resulted in higher level of respiration. Cooling was
essential to reduce other metabolic changes such as enzymatic activity and to slow the maturation of
flowers. Cooling prior to packaging and transport reduced ethylene production and improved longevity.
Based on temperature requirements, orchids were classified into three groups:
a. Warm orchids (Aerides, Vanda, Rhyncostylis and Dendrobium): 32.2° C day temperature
and 15.5° C night temperature.
b. Intermediate orchids (Cattleya, Laelia, Oncidium, Miltonia): 26.6° C day temperature and
12.8° C night temperature.
c. Cool orchids (Cymbidium, Odontoglossum, Cypripedium): 24° C day temperature and 10°
C night temperature.
4. Humidity: As a thumb rule, orchids required 80-85% humidity for satisfactory growth. Monopodial
orchids required higher humidity than sympodial ones. Many sympodial orchids like Cattleya, Oncidium
and Dendrobium form pseudo bulbs, which were swollen shoots that store water and nutrients to help the
plant survive periods during prolonged drought. Insufficient humidity during summer might lead to
shrivelling of pseudo bulb. Excessive humidity during winter might lead to spotting of flowers usually
caused by Botrytis.
5. Nutrition: Orchids were light feeders and they required nitrogen from beginning to two-third of their
life cycle. During rest period, they did not need any fertilizers. During flower initiation and inflorescence
development plant were fed with less nitrogen, more phosphorus and potassium. In orchids, foliar feeding
was found to be ideal. Frequent application of fertilizers in low concentrations was the best way of feeding
Harvest Factors
1. Time of harvest: Flowers should be harvested in mild temperature because high temperature causes
rapid respiration rates and excessive water loss. Flowers should be harvested in the early morning or in
the evening. In the early morning, flowers remained turgid due to transpiration at night and higher sugar
levels. Similarly, flowering stems retain a higher amount of stored carbohydrates if cut in the afternoon
and retained more vase life.
2. Method of harvest: Sharp tools or secateurs were always used to detach the stem of flowers from the
mother plant. The angle of the cut was given in slanting position and the stem was not crushed during
harvesting, especially hard wood stems. The spikes were dipped in a bucket containing water immediately
after harvest.
3. Stage of harvest: The optimum harvesting stage of the commercial orchids was fully open and mature
flowers. The stage of harvest, spike length and number of flowers of some commercial orchids are given in
Table 3. Out of three Cymbidium hybrids namely ‘Pine Clash Moon Venus’, ‘Valley Legend Steff ’ and ‘Pure
Inca Gold’, flower spikes were harvested at four stages like fully open, 75% open, 50% open and 25% open
to standardize the stage of harvesting, and enhanced vase life. Vase life was noticed highest in 75 % open
stage. Maximum vase life of 59 days was recorded in ‘Pine Clash Moon Venus’ and followed by 48.83 days
in ‘Valley Legend Steff ’ and 53 days in ‘Pure Inca Gold’.
Post-Harvest Factors
1. Temperature: Opening of flower buds and rate of senescence accelerated at higher temperatures. At
lower temperature, the respiration came down and the flowers produced a lesser amount of ethylene.
Temperature played an important role for flowers harvested at the immature stage for full expansion of
buds and the flower buds were kept at temperatures as low as 0.5 to 4.0° C in Cymbidium and
Paphiopedilum, 5-7° C in Dendrobium and 7-10° C in Cattleya.
2. Light: Light was essential for long distance transport or prolonged storage of cut flowers. Similarly, high
light intensity was essential for opening of tight bud cut flowers. Florists had to maintain a light intensity
of 2000-3000 lux for 12-24 hours in their shops for illuminations for most of cut flowers.
3. Humidity: Cut flowers were kept at 90-95% relative humidity for maintaining turgidity. Flowers started
showing wilting symptoms when they had lost 10-15% of their fresh weight. The rate of transpiration from
leaves was reduced with the increase of high relative humidity.
4. Water quality: Water quality is defined as pH and EC value, hardness contents of phytotoxic elements
and microorganisms causing vascular occlusions affecting longevity of cut flowers. Saline water decreased
the vase life of cut flowers. Vase life increased in tap or well water passed through a de-ionizer. The
importance of low pH of the holding solutions is well known for improving vase life. A holding solution of
pH 3.0-5.0 was optimum for increasing vase life of cut flowers.
5. Ethylene: Ethylene played an important role in the regulation and co-ordination of senescence in
climacteric flowers. Production of this hormone was less and stable in floral buds and young flowers. A
sharp increase in ethylene evolution was found during flower maturation, opening and senescence.
Afterwards, ethylene production decreased and remained static. Orchid flowers were highly sensitive to
ethylene. High level of ethylene production was due to herbivore damage, mechanical injuries and
pollination. De capped and emasculated flowers produced more ethylene than untreated ones. Sometimes,
forced unfolding of flower buds in orchids reduced vase life.
Introduction
Soil and land use surveys help in the assessment, mapping and proper interpretation of the basic data on
soil and characteristics for various land use purposes. Soil survey can be regarded as complete only if report
that describes the kinds of soil shown on the map and their capabilities for use is given to enable farmers,
farm advisors, planners and other users to make full utility of the data. Soil survey reports or soil bulletins
are the end products of any survey. They form the essence of all field investigations.
Abstract
The abstract may include broad facts, conclusions and recommendations offered by the surveyors.
Table of Contents
The purpose of the table of contents is to help the reader to find specific items in the report.
Introduction
Explains the purpose of the survey and the circumstances leading to it. It gives a brief account of the survey
area, intensity of survey and the organization which conducted the survey. A simple location map giving
all the places mentioned in the report should be provided at the beginning of the chapter.
Annexures
Annexures are vital because they enable the surveyor to present essential data without mixing the main
text. The following annexures are normally included.
1. Morphological description of the soil series.
2. Index to village wise mapping units.
3. Legend for soil symbols.
4. Analytical data of representative soil profiles.
5. Glossary.
Maps
The soil and interpretative maps complete the soil survey reports. Maps must be clear, attractive and self-
explanatory.
Conclusion
Soil surveys are land inventories composed of soil maps, soil descriptions, some physical and chemical
analyses, engineering properties and limitations for major land uses. The utilization of soils in a better way
has also been reported possible through soil survey.
Introduction
In recent years, abrupt changes in climatic conditions are posing a potential threat to biodiversity. A rapid
rise in the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and other potent greenhouse gases due to
industrial revolution are also one of the major factors for global warming. These changing environmental
conditions have not only affected biotic factors, but have also severely affected several abiotic stressors like
drought, salinity, flooding, cold, and high temperature and causing reduction in arable land. Since plants
are sessile in nature they cannot escape from various environmental stresses.
Plants growing under such natural environment are often exposed to adverse environmental condition that
has devastating effect on their normal growth and productivity. Among the abiotic stresses, drought is the
limiting factor creating high impact on sustainable food production. Study reported drought has reduced
the global crop production by 10%.
Drought is exacerbated by high temperature and its severity is unpredictable because it depends on several
factors like intensity and distribution of rainfall, weather, evapotranspiration and soil properties for water
storage. Drought causes responses at different levels and at different stages.
Water stress at different stage of plants like seedling, vegetative and reproductive stage causes severe loss
in morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular characters. Drought stress adversely affects the
plant height, leaf area, number of leaves likewise photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, stomatal
conductance is also affected. Specifically, root growth and yield characters are significantly reduced.
Consequently, these effects cause severe loss in yield potential of the crop.
Therefore, this becomes the great challenge for the researchers to keep up the production under adverse
environmental condition. In advance, a better understanding is required on physiological and molecular
basis on drought tolerance to develop a better approach to combat the drought effects.
Apart from these constraints, it is projected that the world population is expected to reach 9 billion by 2050.
Indeed, global food production needs to be doubled by the year 2050 to deal with the projected demand for
cereal grain to feed the burgeoning population.
To achieve this production in the face of rising atmospheric temperature, rainfall extreme events, limited
land availability and increased fertilizer cost, a quantum advance in yield potential is required.
Conclusion
Plants are non-motile in nature and are inevitable to adverse environmental condition. In recent decades
frequency of drought years are often encountered which creates yield loss and reduction in arable land.
This becomes the great challenge for the scientists to improve the crop production under adverse
environment by developing innovative mitigation technologies. Among which exogenous application of
plant growth regulators such as gibberellic acid, ABA, brassinosteroid, jasmonic acid, salicyclic acid and
some of the polyamines are playing major role on improving plant defence mechanisms against water
scarcity. Thus, helps to reduce the yield loss in agriculture production and meet the food demand for
burgeoning population.
Reference
1. Abid Ullah, Hakim Manghwar, Muhammad Shaban, Aamir Hamid Khan, Adnan Akbar, Usman Ali, Ehsan Ali, Shah Fahad.
2018. Phytohormones enhanced drought tolerance in plants: a coping strategy. Environmental Science and Pollution Research.
2. Awan, F.K., Khurshid, M.Y, and Mehmood, A. 2017. Plant Growth Regulators and Their Role in Abiotic Stress Management.
The International Journal of Innovative Research in Bioscience. 1(1), 9-22.
Introduction
Soil Micropedology is a method of studying undisturbed soil and regolith samples with the aid of
microscopic and ultramicroscopic techniques in order to identify the different constituents and to determine
their mutual relations, in space and time, as far as the latter is possible. This means that the investigation
should be carried out on undisturbed (and mostly naturally oriented) soil samples, in contrast to the other
analytical methods used in soil science (e.g., mineralogical, chemical and physical analyses) requiring
mostly a mixing, crushing, solubilisation or fractionation of the samples.
The term micromorphology was originally used to refer to that field of micropedology dealing with fabric
analysis only, but soon both were used as synonyms. Micromorphology as a general term, comprises both
the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the soil; the latter is commonly referred to as
micromorphometry. Optical microscopy is one of the few techniques that allow us to examine the soil and
its components in situ, unaltered and undisturbed by preparation or analytical procedure.
Micromorphological investigations are based on the principles of preservation of the fabric and structure
and functional investigation. Observations made on soil materials using a hand lens have probably been
performed since the very beginning of soil science. A normal micromorphological study consists of the
following successive steps:
Sampling, analysis and description of the thin sections, and finally the interpretation and summarizing of
the results. The purpose of sampling is to obtain information relating to solving a particular problem, or to
extrapolate information gained to understanding of other similar materials or soils.
Conclusion
Therefore, micromorphology is the branch of soil science that is concerned with the description,
interpretation and to an increasing extent, the measurement of components, features and fabrics in soils
at a microscopic level. Optical microscopy is one of the few techniques that allows us to examine the soil
and is components in situ, unaltered and undisturbed by preparation on analytical procedures.
Introduction
1. INM refers to the maintenance of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for
sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of organic,
inorganic and biological components in an integrated manner.
2. It implies intelligent use of organic, inorganic & biological sources so as to sustain optimum yield,
improve or maintain soil fertility and provides crop nutrition packages which are technically sound,
economical & environmentally safe.
Objectives of INM
1. Increasing the fertilizer use efficiency.
2. Increasing the returns to investment on fertilizers.
3. To use balanced system of crop nutrition management.
4. To account for different amounts of plant nutrients.
Components of INM
1. Fertilizers.
2. Manures.
3. Compost.
4. Green manure.
5. Bio fertilizers.
INM Involves
1. Efficient fertilizer management.
2. Use of on form organic manures.
3. Recycling of crop residues & nutrient residues in the soil.
4. Use of microorganisms for biological nitrogen fixation & better absorption of nutrients in soil.
Organic Manures
1. Periodical application of organic manures will be preventing soil degradation & sustaining ecological
balance.
2. Acts as soil conditioners by improving physical & chemical conditions of soil.
3. Helps in better retention of fertilizer nutrients and water.
4. Increases biological activity which helps to nutrient transformation.
Green Manuring
Classification:
a. Legumes: Diancha (Sesbenia), Sunhemp, Glyricidia etc.
b. Non-Legumes: Calotropis, Neem etc.
Bio Fertilizers
1. Bio fertilizers are microbial inoculants containing live or latent cells of efficient strains of nitrogen fixing,
P solubilising microorganisms.
2. Accelerate certain microbial process.
3. Used for application of seed, soil or composting areas.
Advantages of INM
1. Improves production capacity of farm through the application of plant nutrient sources, amendments
and efficient recycling of crop residues.
2. Enhance the availability of applied as well as native soil nutrient.
3. Provides balanced nutrition to the crops.
4. Involves risk management and enhances beneficial effect between crop, water and plant nutrition
managements.
5. Minimisation of losses and replenishment of nutrients from both internal & external sources.
Conclusion
1. Since INM system hold the key to soil health and sustainable agriculture production, more efficient
technological innovations are needed for bio fertilizers, crop residue management composting etc.
2. Integrated nutrient management play an important role in sustaining soil health and productivity.
3. The combine use of organic manure and inorganic fertilizers which lead to increased uptake of NPK and
nutrient use efficiency.
4. INM help to maintain productivity, profitability and quality of Agricultural crops.
Introduction
1. Water soluble fertilizers are the fertilizers which are completely soluble in water leave no residue in the
water.
2. These are having different soluble nutrients grades.
3. Available in the powder or liquid form.
4. These fertilizers are applied to crops through fertigation and foliar spray for efficient use of nutrients
leading to better yields and quality.
Limitations of WSF
1. Good quality water is very essential.
2. Costly and limited availability of water-soluble fertilizers.
3. Infestation of insect’s pest and diseases increase.
4. Have scorching effect if used at higher dose.
Through Trichomes
They are hair like organs (epidermal outgrowth) from which nutrients penetrates. Importance of this
pathway depends on:
1. Trichomes rate and position.
2. Leaf age and its origin.
Through Cuticle
Cations penetrate first as they are attracted to the negative charge of the tissue. They move according to
the gradient difference. After few minutes the cations changes the electrical balance in the tissue and
causes less negative and more positive. From this point anions start penetrating the tissue.
Translocation
After the ions have penetrated, transportation to different parts of plants starts and this is referred to as
translocation. Done by;
1. Cell to cell (apoplast movement).
2. Through vascular channels (symplast movement).
Introduction
Chilli (Capsicum annum L.) is one of the most valuable crops of India which belongs to the genus Capsicum
under Solanaceae family. Different varieties are grown for vegetables, spices, condiments, sauces and
pickles. The crop is grown practically all over India. India is a major producer, exporter and consumer of
chilli. The area and production of chilli in the country is 6.81 lakh ha and 10.09 lakh tonne. The major
states growing chilli in the country are Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal etc.
For the organic cultivation of chilli often open pollinated varieties are preferred. Seed selection is the
important step in organic chilly production and seeds should be carefully selected from certified organic
farms. We must choose disease resistant and locally demand varieties.
Harvesting
The stage of maturity at which chillies are picked depends on the type and purpose for which they are
grown. Chillies which are used for vegetables purposes are generally picked while they are still green and
full grown. Those which are used for pickles are picked either green or ripe Harvesting should be done at
Yield
The yield of fresh chilli varies from 30-40 q/acre depending on variety and growing conditions. Out of 100
kg of fresh fruits 25-35 kg of dried fruits may be obtained. The yield of dry chilli is expected to be in the
range of 7.5 to 10 q/acre. However, in the present model, yield of 8 q/acre has been assumed.
Introduction
The potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is a crop which has been considered as the ‘poor man’s food’ and is one
of the most important food crops of the world. Potato is a crop of the cool, temperate regions of elevation of
approximately 2000 m or more in the tropics. It requires cool nights and well-drained soil with adequate
moisture and does not produce well in low altitude, warm, tropical environment. In India, potato is grown
in tropics as well as in sub-tropics in the cool season. Potatoes are an economical food; they provide a source
of low-cost energy to the human diet. About 86% of potato crop is grown in the plains during winter under
short-day conditions, about 8% in the hills during summer under long day conditions and around 6% in the
plateau during the rainy season. The advantages of the potato growing over other crops are high
productivity, price stability, profitability and easy market. The main constraint to potato farming in India
is: It is vulnerable to pests and diseases hence implying a high risk of failure, growing potatoes requires
substantial capital and the crop needs intensive care and attention. However, a proper insect pest
management program will minimise losses to potato crop.
Aphid
2. Epilachna Beetle (Epilachna viginatioctopunctata): The grubs and adults both are the damaging
stages of the insect. It is one of the serious pests of the potato crop. They feed the foliage. The grubs scrap
away the chlorophyll from the leaves leaving only veins. These beetles are very sluggish and move very
slowly while feeding on leaves. These are yellowish in colour with erect spines on their body. A severe
infestation may cause a loss up to 70% in yield.
Control measures:
a. Handpicking of grubs and collection of beetles by hand nets during early stages of attack, helps
in reducing the intensity of infestation.
Epilachna beetle
3. Potato Cutworms (Agrotis ypsilon): They are medium sized (22-25 mm longer) stout with greyish
brown wavy lines and sports on fore wings and creamy white wings. The moths are active at dusk and are
attracted by light. These pests damage plants and tubers during dark. They attack young plants by severing
their stems, pulling all parts of the plant into the ground and devouring them. Plants with severed stems
have difficulty growing again. This pest can cause serious damage; particularly when crops are at 25 – 35
days after planting. Signs of damage on tubers are boreholes larger than those made by potato tuber moths.
Control measures:
a. 5% Carbaryl poison bait at the rate of 25-60 kg/ha controls the pest effectively.
b. Heaps of green grasses may be kept at suitable interval in infested field during evening and next
day early in the morning along with caterpillars to destroy.
c. Clean cultivation and mechanical destruction of caterpillars also help in reducing pest infestation.
d. Apply insecticides Coragen 20 SC 300 ml/ha.
Cutworm
4. Potato Tuber Moth (Phthorimaea operculella): This is mainly a pest of stored potato but it causes
damage in the standing crop also. Potato moths are small narrow winged greyish brown in colour which
measures about 12 mm long. Full grown caterpillars are pinkish white or pale greenish in colour and 14-
20 mm long. Potato tuber moths affect both tubers and foliage. The caterpillars mine the leaves causing
patches in them. The damage done by the caterpillars to potato in stores is much more serious. The
caterpillars feed inside the pulp. The tunnels made by the caterpillars are filled with excreta. Such tubers
generally become unfit for human consumption and seed purposes.
Control measures:
a. Only healthy potatoes should be kept in the store.
b. Potatoes should be stored in cold stores. In case they are to be kept in ordinary store, a layer of
sand about 2.5 to 5-centimetre-thick should be kept and above the heap of the potato.
c. Seed potato should be protected by dusting 5 per cent malathion dust on and around the heap at
the rate of 5 kg/tonne.
d. Two sprays in standing crop of monocrotophos 36 EC at the rate of 1.5 mi/litre water at 15 days
interval when infestation starts.
Leafhopper
6. White Grub (Holotrichia spp.): White grubs are the larva form of beetles. They are large reaching 2-
3 cm in length, are shaped like the letter C and have three pairs of legs on their thorax. The damage is
done mainly by feeding on the underground portion viz., roots , stems and tubers of the plant. The grub in
the early stage feed on the roots with the result the plant dry up. Later on, when tubers are developed, the
grubs cut holes in the tubers. The market value of such tubers is very much reduced.
Control measures:
a. Collecting larvae when tilling soil, planting, weeding and hilling up
b. Avoiding to plant potatoes in fields that were previously covered with grasses
c. Apply phorate 10% granule at the rate of 10 kg per hectare or carbofuran 3% granules at the rate
of 30kg per haectare at the time of sowing and mix it properly.
Whitegrub
Agriculture in general has played a key role in the economic and cultural development of all societies and
in the Indian spectrum it is the largest private enterprises contributing 17% of national GDP, sustains
livelihood of about 2/3 of the population of India, which has been and will continue to be the lifeline of the
Indian economy at least in the foreseeable future.
Modern crop production technology has considerably raised output but has created problems of land
degradation, pesticide residues in farm produce, gene erosion, atmospheric and water pollution and all this
is due to the indiscriminate use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and antibiotics etc., hence there is need
to avoid those factors. The only solution for this problem is use of organic fertilizers, which is called as
“Organic Farming.”
Future Prospects
The movement started with developed world is gradually picking up in developing countries. But demand
is still concentrated in developed and most affluent countries. Local demand for organic food is growing.
India is poised for faster growth with growing domestic market. Success of organic movement in India
depends upon the growth of its own domestic markets. India has traditionally been a country of organic
agriculture, but the growth of modern scientific, input intensive agriculture has pushed it to wall. But with
the increasing awareness about the safety and quality of foods, long term sustainability of the system and
accumulating evidences of being equally productive, the organic farming has emerged as an alternative
system of farming which not only addresses the quality and sustainability concerns, but also ensures a debt
free, profitable livelihood option.
Conclusion
An environmentally sustainable system of agriculture like organic farming will be able to maintain a stable
resource balance, avoid over exploitation of renewable resource, conserving inherent soil nutritional quality
and soil health, and biodiversity. It will lead us to sustainable agriculture and create a sustainable lifestyle
for generations to come.
Introduction
Among all the crops, the total loss due to pests in crop yield is 18-30% each year valued at Rs 900-1500
billion. Biological control is the best way to manage the crop pests as it checks pests by their own
antagonists in an echo friendly manner. Biological control involves the mass-production and release of
natural enemies such as parasitoids and predators to control pest insects in an environmentally sound
manner. Biological control is the best way to manage the CR Environmental stewardship and food security
are the most important factors that involved in agriculture. In many cases by the misuse of insecticide led
to population resurgence, pesticide residues, and pest resistance. The microorganisms like virus, fungus,
protozoan or bacterium are the active ingredient in this type of pesticides. Safety of food alludes to the
conditions and practices that save the quality of food to anticipate tainting and food borne sicknesses.
Predators
Predators are mainly free-living species that directly consume a large number of preys during their whole
lifetime. Given that many major crop pests are insects, many of the predators used in biological control are
insectivorous species. Lady beetles, and in particular their larvae which are active between May and July
in the northern hemisphere, are voracious predators of aphids, and also consume mites, scale insects and
small caterpillars. The spotted lady beetle (Coleomegilla maculata) is also able to feed on the eggs and
larvae of the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata).
Hoverflies, resembling slightly darker bees or wasps, have characteristic hovering, darting flight patterns.
There are over 100 species of hoverfly, whose larvae principally feed upon greenfly, one larva devouring up
to 50 a day, or 1000 in its lifetime. They also eat fruit tree spider mites and small caterpillars. Adults feed
on nectar and pollen, which they require for egg production. Eggs are minute (1 mm), pale yellow-white,
and laid singly near greenfly colonies. Larvae are 8–17 mm long, disguised to resemble bird droppings; they
are legless and have no distinct head. Therefore, they are semi–transparent with a range of colours from
green, white, brown, and black. Hoverflies can be encouraged by growing attractant flowers such as the
poached eggplant (Limnanthes douglasii), marigolds, or phacelia throughout the growing season.
Dragonflies are important predators of mosquitoes, both in the water, where the dragonfly naiads eat
mosquito larvae, and in the air, where adult dragonflies capture and eat adult mosquitoes. Community–
wide mosquito control programs that spray adult mosquitoes also kill dragonflies, thus removing an
important biocontrol agent, and can actually increase mosquito populations in the long term.
Other useful garden predators include lacewings, pirate bugs, rove and ground beetles, aphid midge,
centipedes, as well as larger fauna such as frogs, toads, lizards, hedgehogs, slow–worms, and birds. Cats
and rat terriers kill field mice, rats, June bugs, and birds. Dogs chase away many types of pest animals.
Dachshunds are bred specifically to fit inside tunnels underground to kill badgers.
Parastoids
Parasitoids are among the most widely used biological control agents. Each parasitoid requires one host,
which it kills for its development. Most insect parasitoids are wasps or flies. For example, the parasitoid
has been introduced to control the glassy-winged sharpshooter Homalodisca vitripennis. Parasitiods
comprise a diverse range of insects that lay their eggs on or in the body of an insect host, which is then
Entomopathogens
Entomopathogens are extensively used in pest control and they are disease causing organisms( such as
bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa in insect pests), which kill their hosts or debilitate the future
generations. Under certain conditions they cause disease epizootics in the field, eg. Verticillium lecanii on
scale insects, nucleopolyhedrovirus or Nomuraea rileyi in lepidopterans. Entomopathogens play a
significant role in management of small fruit and vegetable pests in temperate climate. Bt and
baculoviruses for lepidopteran pests, EPF for hemipteran pests, and EPNs for coleopteran, dipteran, and
lepidopteran pests are good candidates in multiple cropping systems. Small fruits and vegetables have a
variety of pests that are good targets for one or more entomopathogens. Rotating and combining MCAs
with chemical or botanical pesticides can provide effective pest control while reducing the reliance of
chemical pesticides and the associated risk of pesticide resistance. Continuing field studies and developing
IPM strategies that include microbial control as an important component will contribute to sustainable
management practices for small fruit and vegetable industries.
Microbial Control
Microbial control of insects is achieved through the inundative application of allowable formulations of
insect-pathogenic bacteria (e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis), insect-pathogenic fungi (e.g., Beauveria bassiana),
or insect viruses.
Information about rates and timing of release are available from suppliers of beneficial organisms. The
quality of commercially available biocontrol agents is an important consideration. Biological and microbial
control agents are living organisms, and must not be mishandled during shipping, storage, or application.
Conclusion
Biocontrol is environmentally friendly and active means of decreasing or mitigating pests and pest effects
through the use of natural enemies. The goal of biocontrol is to promote the technology and science.
Biological control is a technique of controlling pests, that is, mites, insects, weeds, and plant diseases by
using other microorganisms.
Wide research is going on, and it is required much more in future to achieve the improvement. The
biological methods must able to control/suppress/kill the harmful insects pests and also prevent them,
relatively in proper manner to conventional methods. Researchers, producers, and farmers should widely
explore the use and find the safe environment and also maximum production of crops.
Introduction
Live cell imaging is the study of living cells using time-lapse microscopy. It is need by the scientist to
understand biological function through the study of cellular dynamics. It provides spatiotemporal images
of subcellular events in real-time. It helps to understand migration, cell development, intracellular
trafficking and enables to capture 3D data in real-time for cellular networks (in situ) and entire organisms
(in vivo). Live cell imaging is an important analytical tool in laboratories studying biomedical research
disciplines, cell biology, neurobiology, pharmacology and developmental biology.
History
1. Live-cell imaging started long ago. On the simplest level it requires very little in terms of equipment.
Using a magnifying glass to look at pond water, for example, is live-cell imaging.
2. In the late 17th century when Dutch scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek made a microscope that could
magnify images by about 270 times. In fact, he used this microscope to reveal many of the microscopic
creatures living in a drop of water.
3. In 1839, William Henry Fox Talbot made the first photomicrograph to make static images of living cells.
4. In 1907, Swiss biologist Julius Ries filmed the fertilization and following development of a sea urchin
egg.
5. In 1930s, American Scientist Warren H. Lewis filmed the process of pinocytosis using
microcinematographic device.
6. In 1940s, Kurt Michel developed the phase-contrast microscopy for time-lapse imaging.
7. In parallel with improvements in imaging technology, crucial changes in labelling of living cells started
in the late 1800s using the synthetic fluorescent dyes.
8. In 1962, Osamu Shimomur, discovered the Green fluorescent Protein (GFP) from jelly fish Aequorea
Victoria, revolutionized the live cell imaging.
9. In 1992, Douglas Prasher cloned the sequence of GFP and Martin Chalfie expressed this sequence in
vivo.
10. Later on, the group of Roger Tsien reported the first crystal structure of GFP, showing the way for the
creation of GFP mutants, to finally obtain different colour variants and improve the fluorescence signal
and photostability.
11. In 2008, Shimomura, Chalfie and Tsein awarded Nobel Prize in chemistry for their work on the
genetically encoded fluorescent proteins.
Microscopic Techniques
Since many cellular processes can be visualized directly on the microscope, different imaging techniques
are required. Live cell imaging microscopes are usually inverted, because most cell types sink to the bottom
and onto the cover slip for adherence. In an inverted microscope living cells are observed through the
bottom of cell culture vessels. We can access the sample from the top. No contact between objective and
sample, as it provides sterile working conditions.
In an inverted microscope, the source for transmitted light and the condenser are placed on the top of the
stage, pointing down toward the stage. The objectives are located below the stage pointing up. The cells are
observed through the bottom of the cell culture vessel. To meet the criteria for successful inverted
microscopy, the bottom of the culture vessel must have the highest optical features.
Imaging Chambers
The cell chamber during imaging must provide conditions that keep the cells functioning and allow
observation with the microscope objective. Most often live cells are viewed with an inverted microscope and
are grown on glass coverslips.
Various types of imaging chambers exist, from the simplest sealed coverslip on a microscope slide for short
term live cell imaging experiments to perfusion chambers for long term imaging experiments that enable
control of the environment variables.
They should all allow observation of the living samples with minimal invasion. They should be easily
sterilized and isolated from the environment with a cover or seal during the observation, to avoid
contamination. Sometimes it is also required that they offer access to the cells for the addition of reagents,
changes of the medium or microinjections.
Analysis
After imaging it is very much necessary to convert the image into useful information. It is necessary to
reducing background noise, enhancing contrast and quantifying the intensity of a signal. Software for
analyse and annotate the image data are ImageJ and Lcy.
Conclusion
Live-cell imaging allows biologists to examine and analyse living samples. This capability completely
changes what can be learned about life, and how that information can be used from basic research through
biotechnology and medicine.
References
1. Chudakov D.M., Matz M.V., Lukyanov S. and Lukyanov K.A., (2010). Fluorescent proteins and their applications in imaging
living cells and tissues. Physiological Review. 90:1103-1163.
2. Cole R., (2014). Live-cell imaging the cell’s perspective. Cell adhesion and migration. 8(5):452-459.
3. Frigault M.M., Lacoste J., Swift J.L. and Brown C.M., (2009). Live cell microscopy – tips and tools. Journal of Cell Science.
122:753-767.
4. Jensen, (2013). Overview of live-cell imaging: requirements and methods used. Anatomical Record Insights. 296:1-8.
5. Tung J.K., Berglund K., Gutekunst C.A., Hochgeschwender U. and Gross R.E., (2016). Bioluminescence imaging in live cells
and animals. Neurophotonics. 3(2):25001-25006.
Introduction
Bhendi, Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Moench), is an important vegetable crop grown under garden land
conditions. Recent estimates reveal that in Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated in an area of 8000 ha, with a
production and productivity of 56.67 thousand metric tonnes and 7.10 metric tonnes ha-1
(https://www.indiastat.com). A total of 26 herbivory and 23 predatory insect species were recorded in the
bhendi ecosystem (Chakraborty et al., 2014). Arthropod diversity plays an important role in enhancing crop
yield. Therefore, present study was contemplated to compare the diversity of arthropods in bhendi grown
under organic and inorganic conditions. There should be a continuous monitoring and documentation of
the arthropod diversity to know about the present status of their population and distribution which affect
the crop yield due to sudden outbreak of herbivores in absence of natural enemies.
Acarina
Araneae
Isoptera
Embioptera
Arthropod orders
Thysanoptera
Odonata
Dictyoptera
Orthoptera Species
Diptera
Family
Lepidoptera
Coleoptera
Hemiptera
Hymenoptera
0 20 40 60 80
No. of species/ families
700 Hemiptera
Coleoptera
600
No. of population
Hymenoptera
500 Araneae
400
300
200
100
0
37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Standard week
Fig 2. Seasonal abundance of arthropods in bhendi ecosystem
References
1. Chakraborty, A. Kumar, K. and N. Chitra. 2014. Computation of insects biodiversity in bhendi ecosystem. The Bioscan.
9(4):1405-1409.
2. Sangha, H. and G. Mavi. 1995. Seasonal activity and host-range of blister beetle, Mylabris phalerata (Pallas). Journal of Insect
Science. 8: 106-107.
Introduction
Terminator Gene Technology or Genetic use restriction technologies (GURTs) are the methods developed
to confine the illegal usage of genetic material by implementing specific genetic switch mechanisms in a
genetically modified (GM) plant (FAO, 2001). The original patent of the technology was granted to U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the seed company, Delta and Pine Land (D&PL) Company of
Mississippi in March 1998 (Van Acker et. al., 2007). The Canadian governmental organization, Rural
Advancement Foundation International (RAFI) named this technology as “Terminator” in an international
campaign against this technology. In 2006, Monsanto purchased D&PL and got ownership over a patented
GURT (Van Acker et. al., 2007) and Monsanto designated this technology as a “gene protection technology”.
Goals
The main goals of GURTs are:
1. Protection of the genetic material from unauthorized use.
2. Procurement of specific and economical viable novel plant traits and benefits.
3. Encouragement of research and development in the area of crop breeding.
Classification
Broadly, GURT can be classified into two categories:
1. Variety specific (V-GURT or suicide/sterile seed/gene technology or Terminator technology).
2. Trait specific (T- GURT or Traitor Technology).
Terminator Technology
Terminator technology completely terminates or controls the plant fertility and seed development. V-GURT
is designed in such a way that farmer could harvest sterile seeds only for sale as food or fodder and could
not be used as seeds in next year. In general, the main type of terminator comprises of a set of three novel
genes that are introduced into one plant. However, there is an alternative type that includes two or three
genes on to two plants that are later to be cross-pollinated (Oliver and Velten, 2001; Gupta, 1998). But the
final result of both the types is a sterile seed in the succeeding generation. Several other modifications have
been done in the technology as per the requirement. In the vegetative reproducing crops, Syngenta in 2001
patented the terminator technology that was designed to increase the shelf life of the product through
storage. In transgenics, RNA interference was used for specific termination (Lin et. al., 2008). The
technology is regulated at the plant variety level, so it is known as V-GURT.
Traitor Technology
Traitor technology has alike or near to similar mode of action and is considered as the second generation
of terminator technology (Fisher, 2002).The traitor technology is developed with special reference to switch
on or off a trait without any loss to the embryo development (FAO, 2001). It may work either by omitting
gene of interest (transgene) that results in second generation plant deprived of the trait under consideration
or by transferring the transgene to succeeding generation in inactive form (Shi, 2006) and that trait can
further be triggered by application of specific chemical inducer. The T-GURTs are designed to obtain seeds
for planting with a condition that the fresh plants would not express traits of interest without the external
Advantages
1. More emphasis on research and development in the area of crop research and development through a
healthy competition between private and public sectors.
2. Increased productivity by using new, healthy and improved version of seeds every year that ultimately
gives benefit to the farmers.
3. Helps in increasing the agricultural productivity and reducing the food costs.
Disadvantages
1. Every year, farmers have to buy the seed that may lead to increase in input costs.
2. Increased cost and reduced access of genetic material for breeders and researchers.
3. Reduction in genetic diversity due to the loss of landraces.
4. Monopoly risks.
5. Genetic vulnerability to pest and diseases due to use of specific genotypes across the country.
6. Chemicals used in the technology may prove hazardous for animal and human health.
Conclusion
With potential benefits and risks associated with GURTs, it is challenging to envisage the progress and
commercialization of GURTs in the near future. Lack of adequate testing, openly available peer-reviewed
publication on the theme, adequate economical assessment and little real data may be considered as
drawbacks that create hurdles in the wide adoption of GURTs. Between V- GURTs and T-GURTs, T-GURTs
seem to appear more beneficial and commercial for farmers because it allows the activation of valuable
trait of interest. T-GURTs offer a solution without hampering plant sustainability and the traditional
conservation practices. In contrast, the moral concerns against V-GURTs play a well-known part in the
forthcoming dispute to resolve the issue of adapting this technology. However, major dependency on
agriculture of countries like India, is also one of the main concern for decision making of adoption of this
technology; for example this technology is better adapted in America where only two per cent of people are
engaged in agricultural activities.
References
1. FAO., (2001). Potential Impacts of Genetic Use Restriction Technologies (GURTs) on Agricultural Biodiversity and
Agricultural Production Systems. Wageningen University Research Centre. The Netherlands.
2. Fisher W.W., (2002). The impact of terminator gene technologies on developing countries. In: Biotechnology, Agriculture, and
the Developing World (Swanson T, eds), Edward Elgar Publishing. P. 137–149.
3. Gupta P.K., (1998). The terminator technology for seed production and protection: why and how? Current Science. 75: 1319–
1323.
4. Lin C., Fang J., Xu X., Zhao T., Cheng J., Tu J., Ye G. and Shen Z., (2008). A built-in strategy for containment of transgenic
plants: creation of selectively terminable transgenic rice. Plos One. 3: e1818.
5. Oliver M.J. and Velten J., (2001). Development of a genetically based seed technology protection system. In: Dealing with
Genetically Modified Crops (Wilson RF, Hou CT and Hildebrand DF, eds), Champaign, IL: AOCS Press. P. 110–114.
6. Shi G., (2006). Intellectual property rights, genetic use restriction technologies (GURTs), and strategic behavior. American
Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting. Long Beach, California.
7. Visser B., Van der Meer I., Louwaars N., Beekwilder J. and Eaton D., (2001). The impact of ‘terminator’ technology.
Biotechnology and Development Monitor. 48: 9–12.
8. Van Acker R.C., Szumgalski A.R. and Friesen L.F., (2007). The potential benefits, risks and costs of genetic use restriction
technologies. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 87: 753–762.
Introduction
Disease is a malfunctioning process in the plant body due to continuous irritation which results in some
suffering. The synchronous interaction between host, pathogen, and environment governs the development
of disease when three conditions occur simultaneously (a virulent pathogen, a susceptible host plant and
favourable environment). The epidemiology is the study of the spread of disease in time and space with the
objective to trace factor that are responsible for/or contribute epidemic occurrence or it is the study of factors
affecting the outbreak and spread of infectious diseases (Vanderplank, 1963). Plant disease is governed by
a number of factors, some of which can be controlled by farmers.
Forecasting is the prediction of disease outbreak or increase in disease intensity, important for crop
production, protection and loss assessment. Crop diseases can be considered as an important cause of crop
yield loss, so modelling and predicting these diseases accurately can help in providing prior knowledge of
the time and severity of the outbreak of diseases. The plant disease forecasting has been developed to help
grower make economic decision about disease management (Agrios, 2004). The prediction of plant diseases
has arisen as a firm constituent of epidemiology that is utilized as one of the important disease
management tools.
The disease forecasting models have been developed on the basis of amount of initial inoculum (EPIVEN –
Apple scab), weather conditions within the cropping season (e.g. Stewart wilt of corn), on the basis of
weather (BLITECAST-late blight of potato) and on the basis of amount of initial and secondary inoculum
(e.g. leaf and stem rust).
Two types of forecasting system are Fundamental and empirical in which fundamental forecasting system
are based on one of disease cyclic component e.g. BLITECAST (Krause et. al., 1975) and in case of empirical
forecasting system it is further classified on the basis of single season prediction (Venturia inaequalis,
stripe rust of winter wheat) and multiple season prediction (potato late blight forecast, leaf spot of peanut
(Cercospora spp.).
Forecasting Model is an integral part of science, weather physical or biological as they have become
valuable tools applied for benefit of humanity. They provide the opportunity for better understanding of
the disease for its management. Kranz, (1974) stated that model might be a verbal statement, a hypothesis,
a theory or a law and give important information to assess the seriousness of the situation. This activity
precedes the choice of an appropriate action to be implemented for reducing the economic damage due to
the disease.
Two methods can be utilized to forecast the disease viz., computer modelling and empirical correlations.
Computer modelling of plant diseases uses systems analysis to accumulate all the factors that affect the
development of a certain disease into a computer-based model, and make predictions of disease under
different environmental conditions.
Conclusion
At present, with the increasing population, plant disease management is of major concern and disease
forecasting is one of the preventive measures to cope with this problem. Forecasting helps in prediction of
disease outbreak or increase in disease intensity. Effective forecasting system requires deep knowledge of
interactions of pathogen populations with various environmental factors, including soil and plant hosts.
Knowledge of amount of initial inoculum, weather conditions between the cropping seasons, weather
conditions (late blight of potato) and amount of initial and secondary inoculum is the basis for developing
forecasting models. The forecasting of exact and timely infectious diseases can assist the public in resolving
the epidemic issues.
References
1. Agrios G.N., (2004). Plant Pathology, 5th Ed. Academic Press, New York, London.
2. Knudsen G.R., Spurr H.W.Jr. and Johnson C.S., (1987). A computer simulation model for Cercospora leaf spot of peanut.
Phytopathology.77:1118-1121.
3. Kranz J., Mogk M. and Stumpf A., (1973). EPIVEN – a simulator for apple scab. Zeitschrift fûr Pflanzenkrankheiten. 80: 181–
187.
4. Kranz, J., (1974).Comparison of epidemics. Annual Review of Phytopathol. 12: 355-374.
5. Krause R.A., Masie L.B. and Hyre R.A., (1975). Blitecast: a computerized forecast of potato late blight. Plant Disease Reporter.
59:95-8.
6. Madden L., Pennypacker S.P. and Mac nab A.A., (1978). FAST, A forecast system for Alternaria solani on tomato.
Phytopathology. 68: 1354-1358.
7. Vanderplank J.E., (1963). Plant Disease: Epidemics and Control, Academic press, New York. 349 pp.
8. Waggoners P.E., Horsfall J.G. and Lukens R.J., (1972). EPIMAY, a simulator of southern corn leaf blight. Conn. Agr. Exp.
Stn. Bull. 729. 84 pp.
Introduction
The Decision Support System for Agro-technology Transfer (DSSAT) is a software application program that
comprises crop simulation models for over 42 crops (as of Version 4.7.5). The software package that contains
crop-soil simulation models, databases that describe weather, soil, crops and genotype information for
applying the models to different situations and strategy evaluation programs.
The DSSAT is the model based on crop processes i.e. understanding of plants, soil, weather, management.
It needs precise and daily data (inputs). It integrates the interaction of weather, soil, management and
genetic factors and predicts the plant growth, yield, phonologic stages, plant weight, harvest date, water
soil quantity, fertilizer & water requirements, etc.
The DSSAT is developed by an international team of scientists and that facilitates the application of crop
simulation models in Research, Teaching, Decision making, Outreach & service, Policy and planning.
DSSAT Applications
DSSAT and its crop simulation models have been used for many applications which include climate change
impact assessment, crop improvement, diagnose problems (Yield Gap Analysis), precision agriculture,
diagnose factors causing yield variations, prescribe spatially variable management, fertilizer and irrigation
management, soil fertility management, yield prediction for crop management, adaptive management
using climate forecasts, soil carbon sequestration, land use change analysis, targeting aid (Early Warning),
risk insurance (rainfall), investment potential risks, food security, biofuel production, on-farm and
precision management, gene-based modelling and breeding selection, water use, greenhouse gas emissions,
and long-term sustainability through the soil organic carbon and nitrogen balances. DSSAT has been used
by more than 16,500 researchers, policy and decision-makers in over 174 countries globally.
For applications, DSSAT combines crop, soil, and weather databases with crop models and application
programs to simulate multi-year outcomes of crop management strategies. DSSAT integrates the effects of
soil, crop phenotype, weather and management options, and allows users to ask “what if” questions by
conducting virtual simulation experiments on a desktop computer in minutes which would consume a
significant part of an agronomist’s career if conducted as real experiments (https://dssat.net/).
DSSAT also provides the evaluation of crop model outputs with experimental data, hence allowing users
to compare simulated outcomes with observed results. This is critical prior to any application of a crop
model, especially if real-world decisions or recommendations are based on modelled results.
Crop model evaluation is accomplished by inputting the user’s minimum data, running the model, and
comparing outputs with observed data. By simulating probable outcomes of crop management strategies,
DSSAT offers users information with which to rapidly appraise new crops, products, and practices for
adoption.
Conclusion
The DSSAT is useful to farmers regarding optimal crop selection, irrigation, and fertilization, and should
institute strong incentives to avoid excessive water use. One can use the DSSAT models to evaluate the
References
1. https://dssat.net/
2. Jones J. W., Hoogenboom G., Porter C. H., Boote K. J., Batchelor W. D., Hunt L. A., Wilkens P. W., Singh U., Gijsman A. J.,
and Ritchie J. T., (2003). The DSSAT Cropping System Model. European Journal of Agronomy 18:235-265.
Introduction
During the process of circulate plant virus transmission by insect vectors, viruses interact with different
insect vector tissues prior to transmission to a new host plant. The relationship among plant viruses, insect
vectors and plant hosts are hypothesized to involve a fourth party, bacterial symbionts harboured within
the body of the insect vector. An intense debate in the field of bacterial symbionts of insect vectors are
known to be involved in the virus transmission process. Primary bacterial symbionts are obligate and
remain confined in specialized cells called bacteriocytes. Non-vital, secondary symbionts reside either in
bacteriocytes or in other tissues such as the gut, fat body and reproductive tissues. The primary symbiont
contributes mainly to the nutritional needs of the insect, providing the essential amino acids that the insect
is unable to synthesize or obtain from its diet in sufficient amounts. Without the primary symbiont, the
insects grow poorly and have essentially no reproductive output. The interaction of symbionts and vectors
are here under depicted for the successful transmission of plant viruses.
References
1. Poliakov, A., Russell, C.W., Ponnala, L., Hoops, H.J., Sun, Q., Douglas, A.E. and van Wijk, K.J., 2011, Large-scale label-free
quantitative proteomics of the pea aphid-Buchnera symbiosis. Molecular and Cellular Proteomics, 10(6).
2. Jiang, Z.F., Xia, F., Johnson, K.W., Brown, C.D., Bartom, E., Tuteja, J.H., Stevens, R., Grossman, R.L., Brumin, M., White,
K.P. and Ghanim, M., 2013, Comparative genome sequences of the primary endosymbiont Candidatus Portiera aleyrodidarum
from the whitefly Bemisia tabaci B and Q biotypes. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, pp.AEM-02976.
3. Kliot, A., Cilia, M., Czosnek, H. and Ghanim, M., 2014, Implication of the bacterial endosymbiont Rickettsia spp. in
interactions of the whitefly Bemisia tabaci with tomato yellow leaf curl virus. Journal of virology, 88(10), pp.5652-5660.
4. Pinheiro, P.V., Kliot, A., Ghanim, M. and Cilia, M., 2015. Is there a role for symbiotic bacteria in plant virus transmission by
insects. Current Opinion in Insect Science, 8, pp.69-78.
5. Ishii, Y., Matsuura, Y., Kakizawa, S., Nikoh, N. and Fukatsu, T., 2013, Diversity of bacterial endosymbionts associated with
Macrosteles leafhoppers vectoring phytopathogenic phytoplasmas. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 79(16), pp.5013-5022.
6. De Vries, E.J., Vos, R.A., Jacobs, G. and Breeuwer, H.A., 2006, Western flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) preference
for thrips-damaged leaves over fresh leaves enables uptake of symbiotic gut bacteria. European Journal of Entomology, 103(4),
p.779.
Introduction
The basic primary difference between RNAi (INTERFERENCE) and CRISPR Clustered regularly
interspaced short palindromic repeats is that RNAi reduces, lowers gene expression at the mRNA level
(knockdown), whereas CRISPR completely and permanently silences the gene at the DNA level (knockout).
There are ifs and buts in both the gene silencing methods where in Knockouts of essential genes are lethal,
providing only partial information regarding gene function where the gene of interest plays an important
role in survival of the organism. In such cases, incomplete gene knockdown can provide a far better
understanding of gene effect on phenotype because the effects and consequences of reducing protein levels
to different extents can be studied.
Moreover, the reversible nature of knockdowns makes it possible to verify the phenotypic effect by restoring
protein expression to normalcy in cells. Importantly, since a knockdown is a transient phenomenon it can
be a safer option than permanent genome editing. Thus, RNAi aids in ephemeral blocking of a gene
expression.
On the other hand, knockouts are effective in completely blocking protein expression, As CRISPR is well
known for its simple and ease of genetic editing like CRISPRi allows silencing of genes without
permanently knocking out the gene. This is achieved using a dead Cas9 nuclease that physically blocks
RNA polymerase and inhibits gene transcription or by editing gene regulators to modulate gene expression.
Conclusion
In combating the resistance mechanism developed against different insectides by the pests, gene editing
technologies like RNAi and CRISPR facilitate as novel next generation pest management strategies.
Parameter CRISPR RNAi
Function Knockout Knockdown
Transgenes Cas9 & sgRNA siRNA (~20 bp) or
(spCas9: ~4.2 kb, shRNA (~80 bp
saCas9: ~3.4 kb)
Ease of Experiment Easy to Moderate Easy
References
1. Applied biological materials(ABM).2020. https://old.abmgood.com/marketing/knowledge_base/Gene-Silencing-CRISPR-
TALEN-RNAi.php
2. Bai Z., Cong Ai, Z., Liu Yang, L., Ya She, L., Xing, G .and Xi Ling, C. ,(2020). Silencing of Cytochrome P450 in Spodoptera
frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) by RNA Interference Enhances Susceptibility to Chlorantraniliprole. Journal of Insect
Science.20(3).1-7.
3. Meenakshi P.,(2020). RNAi vs. CRISPR: Guide to Selecting the Best Gene Silencing Method.Synthego ,The bench
.https://www.synthego.com/blog/rnai-vs-crispr-guide.
4. Wu K., Shirk, D., Taylor, C E., Furlong R. B., Shirk B D., Pinheiro D H. and Siegfried B D., (2018). CRISPR/Cas9 mediated
knockout of the abdominal-A homeotic gene in fall armyworm moth (Spodoptera frugiperda). PLOS ONE.13(12):1-16.
Introduction
Sesamum indicum L., member of the family Pedaliaceae also known as sesamum, sesame, til, gingelly,
simsin, gergelim is the most ancient oilseed crop and one of the oldest cultivated plant in the world dating
back to 3050-3500 B.C. (Bedigian and Harlan, 1986). Known as “queen of oil seed crops” it is used worldwide
for nutritional, medicinal, and industrial purposes. It originated from tropical Africa and was taken to India
at an early stage where it was domesticated and became a crop of the new world (Faulsi, 2007). Being well
adapted to harsh environments and it can constitute an alternative cash crop for smallholders in developing
countries like India. The seeds are widely used in culinary as well as traditional medicines for their
nutritive, preventive, and curative properties. Whereas sesame oil substitute for olive oil, as a salad oil
even for cooking fish and vegetables. Roasted sesame seeds are used in the preparation of bread, cookies,
chocolates, ice creams, sweet wholesome tahini, sesame seed sauce, sesame pastries and hamburger buns
etc. It also has non-culinary application which includes its use as an ingredient in soap, cosmetics,
lubricants and medicines. The de-oiled meal is mainly utilized as cattle and poultry feed.
Sesame seeds contain 50 per cent oil and 20-25 per cent protein. The oil contains 47 per cent oleic acid, 39
per cent linoleic acid, 39 per cent mono unsaturated and 46 per cent poly unsaturated fatty acids (Toma
and Tabekhia, 1979). Sesame oil is adjudging as one of the healthiest oils, loaded with phytonutrients such
as omega-6 fatty acids, anti-oxidants, vitamins, and dietary fibres, potential antimicrobial and anti-cancer
properties. Sesamin and Sesamolin present in sesame seeds are known to have a cholesterol lowering effect
in humans and to prevent high blood pressure (Pal A et al., 2010). It even contains abundance of vitamin
E along with vitamin B complex and vitamin A which helps nourish and rejuvenate skin and cure and
prevent of acne due to its oil pulling properties. The resulting liquid extracted by boiling of both leaves and
roots has been found to be effective against measles and chicken pox. Sesame oil is also used as massaging
oil due to its warming property and ability to seep deep into the skin. Rubbing a little amount of sesame
oil into the soles of feet before bed can help you get a more restful sleep.
Conclusion
Though sesame has economic and nutritional importance, it is an orphan crop as it has received very little
attention from science, the crop has shown a decreasing trend both in area and production largely due to
lack of suitable improved varieties, cultivation on marginal and sub-marginal lands under poor
management and input starved conditions and occurrence of various diseases and pests due to which it
lags behind the other major oil crops as far as genetic improvement is concerned. Therefore, concerted and
systematic efforts are required to harness the potential of this extremely healthy crop through different
breeding methods along with much more modernized and updated agronomic practices.
References
1. Bedigian D and Harlan J.R., (1986). Evidence for cultivation of sesame in the ancient world. Economic Botany 40(2): 137-154.
2. Faulsi A., (2007). Segregation of genes controlling seed colour in sesame. African Journal of Biotechnology 6(24): 2780-2783.
3. Pal A., Khanum F and Bawa A., (2010). Nutritional, Medicinal and Industrial Uses of Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) Seeds -
An Overview. Agriculturae Conspectus Scientificus. 75(4):159-168.
4. Toma R.B. and Tabekhia M.M., (1979). Phytate and oxalate contents in sesame seed. Nutrition Reports Information 20: 25-
31.
India.
Abstract
Psidium guajava L. is high profile nutrient fruit crop it is used for medicinal purposes. At present scenario
the wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. psidii disease is common in cultivated areas and it initiates
diseases during August – September. In this paper, we shortly overlook on management practices like
chemical, cultural practices and also specific bioagents
Keywords: Guava, Wilt, Management.
Introduction
Common guava (Psidium guajava L.) belongs to Myrtle family, phylum Magnoliophyta, class
Magnoliopsida and within a family of over 140 plant genera and 3000 species were included (Ellshoff, et
al., 1995). Guava wilt it is a foremost fruit crop of subtropical countries and cultivated massively
throughout India. A current constraint on horticultural crops losses per annually 15 -30 %.
Symptoms
Disease arose mainly on onset of monsoon during high rainfall on August/September. Initially loss of
chlorophyll turns into light yellow colour epinasty, loss of turgidity. Eventually it leads premature shedding
and defoliation.
Next season its pitfalls with underdeveloped fruits, roots rotting at the basal region as well as light brown
discolouration in vascular tissues and older trees are more prone to disease attack.
Root injury inclines wilt disease, it spreads by stagnant water with short distance and also through sick
soils. It requires minimum and maximum temperature range 23-320C with 76% relative humidity.
References
1. Anonymous, 1949. Annual administrative report of the department of agriculture. United Provinces for the Year 1947, pp: 48-
89.
2. Ellshoff, Z.E., Gardner, D.E., Wikle, C., and Smith, C.W. (1995) Annotated bibliography of the genus Psidium, with emphasis
on P. cattleianum(strawberry guava) and P. guajava (common guava), forest weeds in Hawaii. Cooperative National Park
Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawai’i at Manoa, Department of Botany. Technical Report 95, p. 102.
3. Jain, S.S., 1956. A preliminary note on the inactivation of Fusarium oxysporum f. psidii in guava plants by chemotherapeutic
treatment. Indian J. Hort., 13: 102-104.
4. Suhag, L.S. and A.P. Khera, 1986. Studies on the variation in nutritional level of wilted, regenerated and healthy trees of
guava cultivar Banarasi-Surkha. Indian Phytopathol., 39: 90-92.
5. Misra, A.K. and B.K. Pandey, 1999. Pathogenicity and evaluation of fungicides against guava wilt pathogens. J. Mycol. Plant
Pathol., 29: 274-275.
6. Misra, A.K. and B.K. Pandey, 1994. Studies on Guava wilt. CIHNP, Lucknow, pp: 28.
7. Misra, A.K. and D. Prasad, 2004. Aspergillus niger strain AN 17 potent bioagent to control wilt disease and its easy
multiplication. Proceedings of the Symposium on Recent Advances in Fungal Bioagents and Their Social Benefits, Sept. 10-
10, NBRI, Lucknow, pp: 12-12.
Abstract
Out of several thousand genes in an organism, not all genes express themselves, which means such genes
are transcriptionally inactive. The phenotypes which arise in an organism are not only the sole result of
genes present in the DNA. This is clearly proved by the famous example of monozygotic twins, which
possess identical genotypes but they are not always fully phenotypically identical. A newly emerging field
of genetics, though known for so long known as epigenetics explains such variations. The term epigenetics
was coined by C.H. Waddington in 1940. Epigenetics is defined as the study of factors that affect gene
expression, but that does not alter the nucleotide sequence of the DNA. This branch of genetics explains
how heritable changes other than those present in DNA are affecting phenotypes.
Epigenetic components in eukaryotes mainly include DNA cytosine methylation, histone modifications, and
certain aspects of RNA interference (RNAi). It was evident after several types of research that many
diseases such as cancers are generally caused by epigenetic modifications in an organism.
Mechanisms of Epigenetics
1. Methylation: It is defined as the addition of methyl (-CH3) group to the base cytosine, this reaction is
catalyzed by methyltransferase enzyme. This methylation takes place in cytosine adjacent to guanine and
this combination is called CpG islands. These methyl groups attach to the major groove of DNA and thus
block the binding of transcription factors that are essential for transcription to occur. So, methylation
causes adjacent genes to get inactive and thus they cannot express themselves and are silenced. In short,
genes are switched off when methylated. Methylation is more prominent in the repetitive DNA region,
transposable elements that silence these regions in an organism.
2. Histone modifications: DNA is coiled around histone proteins to form nucleosomes and this is how it
is packed in eukaryotes. The amino acids in the N-terminal of these histones can be covalently modified in
various ways, either by methylation, phosphorylation or acetylation. These chemical modifications in
histones either make the genes accessible or inaccessible for transcription to be performed. For example,
during acetylation, the addition of the acetyl group, the chromatin structure becomes open and this makes
the genes available for transcription.
Conclusion
Epigenetics is a branch of genetics that deals with heritable changes that do not involve alterations in
DNA. They operate by several mechanisms such as methylation, histone modifications or RNA interference.
In-depth research in the field of epigenetic responses to various types of stresses has the potential to
increase our understanding of plant stress adaptation and underlying mechanisms which can be exploited
further for the development of improved varieties. The field of epigenetics has a unique ability to improve
crop stress tolerance, yield, uncover diversity and many important traits without tampering the genes
itself.
References
1. Abobatta W.F., (2018). Role of Epigenetics in Agriculture. Principle of Epigenetics Summit, At Cairo Egypt. Conference Paper.
2. Henderson I.R. and Jacobsen S.E., (2007). Epigenetic inheritance in plants. Nature. 447: 418 -424.
3. Klug W.S., Cummings M.R., Spencer C.A. and Palladino M.A., (2012). Concepts of Genetics, 10th ed. California: Pearson: 517.
4. Zhang X., (2008). The epigenetic landscape of plants. Science 320: 489-492.
Summary
Soil less cultivation of capsicum offers a way of control over soil-borne diseases and pests, which is
especially desirable in the tropics where the life cycles of these organisms continues uninterrupted and so
does the threat of infestation. Thus, the costly and time-consuming tasks of soil sterilization, soil
amelioration, etc. can be avoided with soilless cultivation system of capsicum. It also enables to cultivate
vegetables in area were soil fertility is very low and unfertile soil as well as soil with low or high pH
problems. It offers a clean working environment with good quality vegetables and thus hiring labour is
easy.
Introduction
Capsicum is also known as bell pepper or sweet pepper and is one of the most popular and highly
remunerative annual herbaceous vegetable crops. It is belonging to the family solanaceae and different
from chilli (hot pepper). In other language it is also called shimla mirch, green pepper and capsicum.
Capsicum is cultivated in most parts of the world, especially in temperate regions of Central and South
America and European countries, tropical and subtropical regions of Asian continent mainly in India and
China.
In India, capsicum is extensively cultivated in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu,
Himachal Pradesh, and hilly areas of Uttar Pradesh (Sreedhara et al., 2013). In India, capsicum is grown
for its mature fruits and is widely used in stuffing and baking.
It is also used in salad, noodles and soup preparation. It is a very rich source of vitamins A and C (ascorbic
acid). It has been found that every 100 grams of edible portion of capsicum provides 24 kcal of energy, gram
of protein, 4.3 gram of carbohydrate and 0.3 gram of fat.
In recent years a great deal of research work has been reported on the uses of soilless culture in vegetable
crops. Soilless cultivation leads to ability to produce higher yields than traditional, soil-based agriculture
and nutrient solution may be recycle or reuse in other areas such as potted plants and turf management.
So, to evaluate the effect of different concentration of N, P and K on growth, yield and quality of capsicum
in soilless media was conducted in Prayagraj, U.P. India.
Conclusion
1. Efficient use of inputs.
2. No soil borne diseases and pests.
3. An alternative of soil fumigation.
4. No need to depend on farm land.
5. The production of vegetables can be increased manifold.
6. The capsicum and fruit vegetable in a soilless media should meets the quality of international standards
7. It is possible to produce high value horticultural crops on a sustainable source.
References
1. Abad, M., Noguera, P., Puchades, R., Maquieira, A., and Noguera, V., (2002). Physicochemical and chemical properties of some
coconut coir dusts for use as a peat substitute for containerised ornamental plants. Bio-resource Technology, 82(3): 241- 245.
2. Anonymous (2010). Statistical data on Horticultural Crops in Karnataka. Government of Karnataka, Department of
Horticulture, Lalbaugh, Bangalore, 8-13.
3. Carmassi, G., Incrocci, L., Maggini, R., Malorgio, F., Tognoni, F., and Pardossi, A., (2007). An aggregated model for water
requirements of greenhouse tomato grown in closed rockwool culture with saline water.Agricultural water management, 88(1):
73-82.
4. Della Costa, L. and Gianquinto, G., (2002). Water Stress and Watertable Depth Influence Yield, Water Use Efficiency, and
Nitrogen Recovery in Bell Pepper: Lysimeter Studies. Aust. J. Agric. Res., 53: 201-210.
5. Grubben, G. J. H. (1977). Tropical Vegetable and their Genetic Resources. IBPGR, Rome. p. 51–52.
6. Hoyos, M., & Rodriguez-Delfin, A., (2007). Effect of two nutrient solution formulae in the nutritional diagnosis and yield of
tomato grown in soilless culture system. Acta horticulturae, 747: 471-475.
7. Hussain, A., Iqbal, K., Aziem, S., Mahato, P., and Negi. A. K., (2014). A Review on The Science of Growing Crops Without Soil
(Soilless Culture) A Novel Alternative For Growing Crops. International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences, 7(11): 833-
842.
8. Kalaivani, K. and Jawaharlal, M. (2019) Study on physical characterization of coco peat with different proportions of organic
amendments for soilless cultivation, Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 8(3): 2283-2286.
9. Mohammed Dahiru Toungos (2017) The effects of different levels of inorganic fertilizer (NPK 15:15:15,) on growth and yield
of sweet pepper (capsicum annum) in mubi.
Strategies of Biocontrol
1. Introduction: Generally, introduction refers to the bringing or importing a natural enemy into a new
locality to destroy or control a pest which is already introduced. One cannot find this introduced natural
enemy in the native place of targeting pest. Government authorities mostly do this introduction. In many
cases inadequacy may be found when the complex of natural enemies associated with an insect pest.
Especially this is evident when an insect pest is introduced accidentally into a new geographic area with
the absence of its associated natural enemies. These introduced pests are called as invasive or exotic pests.
Some ecological points to be considered for successful introduction of natural enemy:
a. The natural enemy should be imported from a place with similar type of climate.
b. It should be free from alternate host.
c. Hyperparasitoids and biological competitors for host should not be present within it.
d. Low dispersal of natural enemy is essential.
e. Physiological suitability of the natural enemy to its host is also important.
2. Colonization: Process or mechanism of multiplication of introduced natural enemy to set up in a new
geographic location is called colonization. It is the most complicated strategy of biocontrol and to make it
easier in a successful way the following considerations are made.
a. Application of pesticides and cultural practices should not be followed at the site of colonization.
b. For successful storing of natural enemy a low temperature (16˚c) should be maintained.
c. Adult stages are more appropriate than immature stages because adults can easily cope up with
in the new locality and less affected by biotic and abiotic stresses.
d. Relative humidity should be appropriate for transporting natural enemies.
e. Natural enemies should be released either early in the morning or in the late evening to avoid
direct heat from sunlight.
f. Before the release, the natural enemies should be fed and mated.
g. After the initial release recovery attempts are undertaken if the released natural enemies are
surviving and control is being provided.
Augmentation
All the activities are designed here to increase the population of existing natural enemies. Here to increase
its population mass culturing and release of natural enemies are important. Natural enemies that are
unable to survive or persist in a new locality can be reared sometimes in huge numbers and periodically
released to suppress a pest population. So, here more numbers of natural enemies used to release into an
agroecosystem and greater numbers or effectiveness of natural enemies is to be promoted where
modification of environment is done.
In augmentation releases differ from introduction in that these have to be repeated periodically. Two types
of periodical releases are there:
1. Inoculative release: To suppress local pest outbreaks very small numbers of natural enemies are
released in various critical locations. Here control of pests is expected only from the progeny and subsequent
generations of the release natural enemies. Only one-time release of natural enemy to re-establish the
population of natural enemy.
2. Inundate release: Here mass culture and release of natural enemies is done directly to suppress pest
population. To destroy the pest population larger numbers of natural enemies are released in a single
location e.g. Bracon sp. (larval parasitoid) and Coccinella sp. (predator).
Conservation
It is the preservation of those introduced natural enemies in a controlled laboratory condition. It is achieved
by:
1. Cognitive use of pesticides: Pesticides always exert a bad effect on natural enemies by reducing the
longevity, fecundity and searching ability and decimating the population of flying adults. These can be
avoided by:
a. Safe and selective pesticides should be used.
b. Minimum recommended dose should be used.
c. Use of non-persistent pesticides.
d. Application should be in a specific time in a limited area.
e. Microbial pesticides should be used instead of synthetic pesticides.
2. Selection of proper food and shelter:
a. Nesting boxes and bird perches act suitable sites and encourage build-up of predator.
b. Plantation of pollen and nectar bearing flowering plants on the bunds to provide supplementary
food to predator.
3. Appropriate management practices:
a. Chisel ploughing make easy to suppress the soil pest as it conserves natural enemies.
b. To enhance the efficacy of entomopathogenic fungus manipulation of relative humidity and
wetting periods should be done by cultural practices.
c. Application of organic manures to conserve predaceous arthropods and soil borne microbial
antagonists of insect pests.
d. Parasitoids should be released at a time when the activity of hyperparasitoids is least.
e. To maintain predator population, retention of crop stubble as well as grass weed heaps is needed.
f. Keep a part of refuge in net mesh cages to allow emergence of parasitoids in the field.
4. Ants suppression: Suppression of ants or their physical exclusion increase the effectiveness or working
ability of predators.
5. Determining the need for action:
a. Suitable life stage of natural enemy and its effectiveness should synchronize with the availability
of suitable stage of the pest.
b. Based on population of the natural enemies and their feeding of parasitized potential; the need of
action has to be determined for each crop ecosystem.
Further Readings
1. Omkar, Bhupendra Kumar. “Biocontrol of Insect Pests”, Elsevier BV, 2016.
2. Chandish R. Ballal, Abraham Verghese. “Chapter 28 Role of Parasitoids and Predators in the
Management of Insect Pests”, Springer Science and Business Media LLC, 2015.
3. Satoru Urano, “A simple criterion for successful biological control on annual crops”, Popu;aion Ecology,
08/01/2003.
4. Johnson Stanley, Gnanadhas Preetha. “Pesticide Toxicity of Non-target Organisms”, Springer Nature,
2016.
Pradesh, India.
*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected]
Introduction
Legumes are sustaining soil health of natural ecosystem such as forest, grassland as well as managed
ecosystem. Legumes play pivotal role in food security and in achieving human health. The legumes hold
special significance in agriculture sector due to their scientifically proven role in nitrogen fixation and
resultant improvement in soil fertility status.
Legume-based systems improve the soil organic carbon and humus content, nitrogen and phosphorus
availability (Jensen et al., 2012). Thus, inclusion of the legumes in cropping systems is of paramount
importance in achieving better soil health and productivity (Binder et al., 2010; Dhakal et al., 2016).
Role of Legumes
1. Crop diversification, food and nutritional security: Legumes are important component in crop
diversification because it ensures breaking of pests and diseases cycles, improve the soil fertility status and
soil health.
Crop diversification of monocrop cereals with legumes particularly the pulses helps in achieving nutritional
security. Thus, to achieve soil sustainability and balanced food and nutritional security legumes need to be
incorporated in cropping systems (Nees et al., 2010).
2. Reduction in external inputs use: Inclusion of legumes and pulses in the cropping systems
significantly decreases reliance on external inputs use particularly the nitrogen fertilizers use. Thus,
legumes and pulses considerably save the costly inputs i.e., fertilizers and chemicals, and also reduced
environmental pollution.
A food legume may save about 170-220 kg/ha of N fertilizer besides saving about 40-70 kg of N to the
following crop (Fustec et al., 2010; Varma et al., 2017). Clovers, for example save 160-310 kg/ha of N
fertilizer through biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) capacity even without any fertilizer application (Bues
et al., 2013), and also supply 30-60 kg/ha N for the succeeding crop.
3. Soil sustainability: Soil sustainability implies the ecological balance, enhancement of soil functions,
and biodiversity. Role of legumes in soil health improvement is widely studied and known to have positive
impacts in terms of BNF, and in weed suppression and erosion control as cover crop.
However, increasing threats of soil degradation, pollution, global warming, declining soil fertility,
industrialization, urbanization, and the rising price of fertilizers severely undermines the soil
sustainability.
Thus, under such conditions, legumes play crucial role in soil sustainability (Dhakal et al., 2016), and thus
inclusion of legumes in cropping system is inevitable due to their role in sustaining soil health and long-
term sustainability as well as quality of soil (Padilla and Pugnaire, 2006).
4. Improved productivity potentials: Legumes are promising options due to their positive effects on soil
processes such as benefiting agro ecosystems, agricultural productivity, soil conservation, soil biology, soil
organic carbon (SOC) and nitrogen stocks.
Thus, incorporating legumes as a part of cropping systems is pertinent to better soil health and productivity
(Binder et al. 2010; Dhakal et al., 2016). Legume-based crop rotation also proven effective in reducing the
Conclusion
Legumes as important constituents of crop rotation ensure soil sustainability through restoration of soil
health by improving biological, chemical, and physical properties of soils. Besides, improving the soil
health, legumes also ensures food and nutritional security as well as environmental sustainability.
References
1. Binder CR, Feola G, Steinberger JK (2010). Considering the normative, systemic and procedural dimensions in indicator based
sustainability assessments in agriculture. Environ Impact Assess Rev 30(2):71-81.
2. Bues A, Preissel S, Reckling M, Zander P, Kuhlman T, Topp K, Watson CA, Lindström K, Stoddard FL, Murphy-Bokern D
(2013). The environmental role of protein crops in the new Common Agricultural Policy. European Parliament, Directorate
General for Internal Policies, Policy Department B: Structural and Cohesion Policies, Agricultural and Rural Development
IP/B/AGRI/IC/2012–067, 112 pp.
3. Deutsch B, Kahle P, Voss M (2006). Assessing the source of nitrate pollution in water using stable N and O isotopes. Agron
Sustain Dev 26:263-267.
4. Dhakal Y, Meena RS, Kumar S (2016). Effect of INM on nodulation, yield, quality and available nutrient status in soil after
harvest of green gram. Legum Res 39(4):590-594.
5. Fustec J, Lesuffleur F, Mahieu S, Cliquet JB (2010). Nitrogen rhizodeposition of legumes: a review. Agron Sustain Dev 30:57-
66.
6. Jensen ES, Peoples MB, Boddey RM, Gresshoff PM, Hauggaard-Nielsen H, Alves BJ, Morrison MJ (2012). Legumes for
mitigation of climate change and the provision of feedstock for biofuels and biorefineries. A review. Agron Sustain Dev. 32:329-
64.
7. Knight TR, Dick RP (2004).Differentiating microbial and stabilized β-glucosidase activity relative to soil quality. Soil
BiolBiochem 36:2089-2096.
Introduction
Let’s sit back and think about how many smart things we are surrounded by; we have a smartphone in our
pocket, a smartwatch on our wrist, drive in a smart car to the smart cities. ‘Internet of Things (IoT)’
technology has taken the world by storm. The IoT is about connecting everyday things embedded with
electronics, software, and sensors to the internet, enabling them to collect and exchange data. It is expected
that by 2025, 75.44 billion devices will be part of IoT . IoT applications are almost available in every
industry from Smart Homes, Wearables, Connected Cars, Industrial Internet, Smart Cities to Agriculture,
Smart Retail, Smart grids, Healthcare, Poultry and Farming.
Fisheries and aquaculture are one of the wildest-growing subsectors of agriculture. It plays an essential
role in meeting out the food and nutritional security of the rising population. The sector also makes vital
contributions to global food production. In the past five decades, the global supply of fish for human
consumption has outpaced population growth. Amongst all the countries, India ranks second in
aquaculture production and second in total fish production. During the financial year 2017-18, the total
fish production in India is estimated at 12.61 Million Metric tonnes. Fish production increment was
observed from 5.66 Million Metric tonnes in 2000-01 to 12.61 Million Metric tonnes in 2017-18 . In the 2020
budget, it has been announced that fish production is to be raised to 200 lakh tonnes by the year 2022.
According to the National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB), the future of aquaculture depends on the
implementation of new and innovative production technologies, management and utilisation of unutilised
water resources and suitable market tie-ups. At the same time, the budget of 2020, has also announced tax
benefits for start-ups in the AI, deep technologies, ML and big data. There is a high potential for IoT in
fisheries and aquaculture, and fishers/farmers can have an edge in a competitive market.
The Internet of Things (IoT) has been producing buzz in the aquaculture business for its capability to
upgrade ranch of the board procedures and increment productivity. Innovation and aquaculture are two
distinct orders, but the knowledge needed for developing a sustainable aquaculture system under a blue
growth paradigm requires innovations in monitoring. High-tech and big-data approaches have the
potential to improve sustainability and working conditions for fish farmers and help society to understand
better the interdependences that aquaculture has with the environment. In line with the vision of the
SDGs, which anticipates benefits from innovation in information technologies, the aquaculture sector is
rapidly introducing these technologies to improve economic, social and environmental sustainability along
value chains. This alliance will result in fully monitored and precision aquaculture, with farms connected
to multiple-sensor networks generating big datasets that can be used for all management purposes.
Conclusion
In aquaculture, sensors increasingly collect optical (e.g. by video camera) and physical data to monitor, for
example, fish growth, health and feed loss reduction. While the past innovations focused on hardware and
data collection, the problem faced now is the pressure on farmers to interpret a large amount of data
consistently. Here, AI and data processing can help by identifying patterns in feeding activities and
presenting strategies to farmers, ranging from cost-efficient use of feed to maintaining fish welfare. The
Government of India has given this sector enormous importance, and now there is an established Ministry
of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying. Now is the time that this sector should take advantage of
the Government’s focus on Digital India, by embracing new technologies like blockchain, AI, IoT and mobile
apps, this industry can grow further. There is an immense scope of all these new technologies in the
industry with the fruitful collaboration of engineers, data scientists, aquaculture experts and technologists.
Introduction
Soil and water are two most important natural resources to agriculture. Due to the enormous use of
synthetic fertilizers, plant protection chemicals and growth regulators these natural resources are getting
polluted and becoming less efficient. The inherent fertility of the soil is reducing and it is becoming barren.
The main reason behind all these problems is higher demand of food to feed the increasing human
population. Due to increase in population, demand for food is increasing but the natural resources for
production like area of land is limited and fixed, which can’t be increased. So, from the fixed area the
production is to be increased and for to solve this problem the only solution is to improve the productivity.
The productivity can be increased by using improved crop varieties, use of agrochemicals and synthetic
fertilizers. Therefore, global population growth is a major threat to the sustainability of the agricultural
production system. To save the agricultural production system and retain the fertility of the soil, organic
farming is one of the best remedies. Through organic farming the productivity can be optimised without
use of the harmful chemicals in agriculture. Ecologically and economically sustainable organic farming is
the required for enabling wider adoptability, secured livelihoods and ensuring affordability of the common
men (Barik, 2017). The practice of organic farming in India is from the ancient period, but due to the
development of science and technology in agriculture, mainly due to green revolution most of the farmers
have adopted the intensive farming practices by using different chemicals and synthetic fertilisers in last
century.
Conclusion
Organic farming is the best option, in which quality food can be produced by maintaining the soil health in
a sustainable way. It is eco-friendly and doesn’t deteriorate the soil quality rather improves it by adding
different macro and micro nutrients to the soil nutrient pool along with beneficial micro-organisms. Due to
the slow release of nutrients from the sources in organic farming, it improves the use efficiency and reduces
loss of different nutrients.
References
1. Balasubramanian, A., Siddaramappa, R., & Rangaswami, G. (1972). Effect of organic manuring on the activities of the enzymes
hydrolysing sucrose and urea and on soil aggregation. Plant and Soil, 37(2), 319–328.
2. Barik, A. K. (2017). Organic Farming in India: Present Status, Challenges and Technological Break Through. International
Journal of Economic Plants, 4(4), 182–189.
3. Bulluck Iii, L. R., Brosius, M., Evanylo, G. K., & Ristaino, J. B. (2002). Organic and synthetic fertility amendments influence
soil microbial, physical and chemical properties on organic and conventional farms. Applied Soil Ecology, 19(2), 147–160.
4. Chhonkar, P. K. (2002). Organic farming myth and reality. Fertilizer News, 1–9.
5. Clark, M. S., Horwath, W. R., Shennan, C., & Scow, K. M. (1998). Changes in soil chemical properties resulting from organic
and low-input farming practices. Agronomy Journal, 90(5), 662–671.
6. Minhas, R. S., & Sood, A. (1994). Effect of inorganics and organics on the yield and nutrient uptake by three crops in a rotation
on an acid alfisol. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 42(2), 257–260.
7. Singh, S. P., Kumar, R. M., & Subbaiah, S. V. (2002). Effect of nitrogen and potassium application on grain yield of hybrid rice
(Oryza sativa). Proceedings of the 2nd International Agronomy Congress, 1.
8. Subbiah, S., Kumaraswamy, K., & others. (2000). Effect of different manure-fertiliser schedules on the yield and quality of
rice and on soil fertility. Fertiliser News, 45(10), 61–67.
9. Timsina, J., & Connor, D. J. (2001). Productivity and management of rice--wheat cropping systems: issues and challenges.
Field Crops Research, 69(2), 93–132.
10. Yadav, R. L., Dwivedi, B. S., & Pandey, P. S. (2000). Rice-wheat cropping system: assessment of sustainability under green
manuring and chemical fertilizer inputs. Field Crops Research, 65(1), 15–30.
Bacterial Diseases
1. Amaranthus:
a. Bacterial Leaf Spot: Causal Organism: Xanthomonas campestris pv. Amaranthicola
b. Symptoms: A few waters soaked translucent spots on the lower surface of the leaves with pale
brown, round areas surrounded with yellowish halo appear on the upper surface. Later the spots
become deep brown and depressed on the lower surface of the leaves and the upper surface spots
are raised at margin and parched in centre. These eye spots often coalesce and form irregular
lesions. The spots start from the margin of the leaves and in the centre, there may be bacterial ooze.
In advance stages, the sides of the stem get cracked and become deep black in colour with the grey
central portion.
c. Control: Field sanitation. Use of resistance cultivar. Seed treatment with Carbendazim. Spray
crop with Bavistin @ 0.1%.
2. Spinach:
a. Soft Rot: Causal Organism: Erwinia carotovora
b. Symptoms: It is a post-harvest disease occurring in transit. Water soaked areas followed by
rotting in the packed leaves, mainly due to lack of aeration and sanitation.
c. Control: Remove all brown leaves at harvest. Pack leaves lightly. Proper cleaning of leaves before
packing. Use properly cleaned packaging material and clean storage place. Do not allow leaves to
be stored for longer time after harvesting.
3. Lettuce:
a. Bacterial Rot: Causal Organism: Erwinia carotovora, Pseudomonas viridilivida
b. Symptoms: Slimy decay of large internal leaves, decaying tissues become brown. It is common
only in head lettuce and not in leaf lettuce.
c. Control: Select only healthy leaves for packing. Avoid long storage. Avoid tip burn. Exposure to
high temperature to be avoided.
Viral Diseases
1. Amaranthus:
a. Amaranthus Mosaic-1:
i. Transmission: By sap and grafting.
ii. Symptoms: Mosaic molting on leaves, both young and old, severe yellowing of veins to
large, irregular chlorotic patches alternating with dark green areas over the entire lamina.
iii. Control: No much contol measures available. Spray of Monocrotophos (0.05%) or
Dimethoate (0.05%).
b. Amaranthus Mosaic-1I:
i. Transmission: By sap and aphid vector (Aphis gossypii)
ii. Symptoms: Plants stunted. Reduced leaf size, crinkling and mosaic mottling of dark
green areas interspersed with light green patches.
iii. Control: Foliar spray of Monocrotophos (0.05%) or Dimethoate (0.05%), 3-4 sprays at
weekly intervals. Stop spraying at least 20 days before first harvest.
c. Amaranthus Mosaic-1I:
i. Transmission: By mechanical sap inoculation.
ii. Symptoms: Mosaic mottling of light and dark green patches on young as well as old
leaves. In young and old leaves, veins and veinlets turn yellow. Leaves crinckled and
puckered. Plants stunted.
Introduction
Soil carbon sequestration is the process of transferring carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the soil
through crop residues and other organic solids, and in a form that is not immediately reemitted. This
transfer or “sequestering” of carbon helps off-set emissions from fossil fuel combustion and other carbon-
emitting activities while enhancing soil quality and long-term agronomic productivity.
Conclusion
Soil carbon sequestration can be accomplished by management systems that add high amounts of biomass
to the soil, cause minimal soil disturbance, conserve soil and water, improve soil structure, and enhance
soil fauna activity. The amount of carbon sequestered at a site reflects the long-term balance between
carbon uptake and release mechanisms.
Abstract
The world population reaches above 9 billion by the 2050, feeding this growing world population with
decreasing arable land for cultivation under the pressure of climate change scenario predictably increases
the pressure on already inadequate resources such as land, water energy and fertilizers, which leads to
deforestation and environmental degradation and increases in greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. To fulfil
need of such a large population, insect is a best alternative for livestock as it requires low investment and
simple technology. Also, insect-based products can provide income to both rural and urban people through
production, processing and marketing.
Introduction
Entomophagy is a Greek word, 'entomon' means insect and 'phagein' means to eat. The practice of eating
insects is known as entomophagy. . People throughout the world have been eating insects as a regular part
of their diets for millennia. Although this practice should be specified as human entomophagy. Insect
consumption is not a new concept in many parts of the world. From ants to beetle larvae – eaten by tribes
in Africa and Australia as part of their subsistence diets – to the popular, crispy-fried locusts and beetles
enjoyed in Thailand, it is estimated that insect-eating is practised regularly by at least 2 billion people
worldwide. More than 1900 insect species have been documented in literature as edible, most of them in
tropical countries.(FAO 2013) The most commonly eaten insect groups are beetles, caterpillars, bees,
wasps, ants, grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, cicadas, leaf and plant hoppers, scale insects and true bugs,
termites, dragonflies and flies. Major edible insects documented in India are Termite, Dragonfly,
Grasshopper, Ants, Eri and Mulberry silkworm, Honey bee and Cricket.
Per cent of insect species consumed in India:
Order Per cent consumption
Coleoptera 34
Orthoptera 24
Hemiptera 17
Hymenoptera 10
Odonata 8
Lepidoptera 4
Isoptera 2
Ephemeroptera 1
(Chakravorty, 2014).
Fried termites
Roasted grasshoppers
Disadvantage
One concern with eating insects is the current use of pesticides. Since insects eat plant, pesticides and
herbicides can build up inside the insects through bioaccumulation. Another concern with eating insects is
possibility of people having allergic reaction.
Conclusion
India being tropical country, the diversity and abundance of insects are greater. Therefore, India can be a
potential land for insect bio-resource. While many get nervous at the thought of insect-tasting, they are the
future of protein and there is a need to develop effective means to glamorize the consumption of these
often-undervalued bio-resources. Edible insects can constitute an important part of the diet of Indians and
other developing nations and help combat various global issues, predominantly malnutrition and food
insecurity.
References
1. Chakravorty, J.(2014).Diversity of edible insects and practices of entomophagy in India: an overview. Journal of Biodiversity
,Bio prospecting and Development 1(3):1000124.
2. FAO. (2012b). State of the world fisheries. Rome.
3. FAO.(2013).Edibleinsects:Future prospects for food and feed security.Forestrypaper171:1-154.
4. Kumar, P.V., Mandala, R., Ramya, N., Saini, V. and Shahanaz (2017). Entomophagy: a viable opportunity for food security.
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci 6(10): 1135-1143.
5. Oonincx, D.G.A.B., and de Boer, I.J.M. (2012). Environmental impact of the production of mealworms as a protein source for
humans: a life cycle assessment. PLoS ONE, 7(12):e51145.
6. Van Huis, A., Potential of insects in food and feed in assuring food security(2013). Annu. Rev. Ent., 58(1), 563–583.
Elephant foot yam (Amorphophallus paeonaiifolius Blume), commonly known as “Ole”, an underground
stem tuber, is one of the most popular tuber crops, extensively used as a subsidiary vegetable crop till
decades back by millions of people in India. In West Bengal elephant foot yam and taro is one of the most
important cash crops and is cultivated as vegetable. Several biotic stresses constrain viz. collar rot
(Sivaprakasam et al., 1982) and leaf blight (Roy and Hong, 2007), anthracnose and mosaic (Pandit et al.,
2001) hamper the cultivation of these crops and pose serious yield loss and reduce the quality of the
harvested load during storage as well as transit.
Collar Rot
1. Causal agent: Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.
Infection and Symptoms: The pathogen, Sclerotium rolfsii is a facultative saprophyte and very
opportunistic fungus. Collar rot is both soil born and seed corm transmitted disease. The fungus survives
in soil for several years and can infect the elephant foot yam plant during favourable condition.
a. Once the plant is infected, it grows very fast and cause rotting of the collar region of the EFY.
b. In advance condition the fungus produces profuse sclerotia at the base of the pseudo-stem and
progress very quickly in to the plant and basal portion of the plant during intercultural operation
and irrigation water.
c. During heavy rains the sclerotia float to the field and infect the new plant upon germination. In
severe condition the crops are infected and cases huge damage. The corms from infected plant
become unsuitable for transit and storage.
2. Favourable condition:
a. Heavy rains and high relative humidity and accumulation of water at base of the plant.
b. Heavy soil, high organic matter and poor drainage condition in the field.
c. Excessive nitrogenous fertilizer aggravates the disease.
Leaf Blight
1. Causal agent: Phytophthora colocasiae
The blight pathogen, Phytophthora colocasiae, has a complex life cycle and can attack taro and other aroids
in several ways. The assault usually begins when airborne spores land on the foliage and either germinate
directly or release swimming zoospores.
2. Favourable condition: The Phytophthora blight is predisposed with continuous high humidity (90 –
95%) and temperature (30 – 35°C) during July to October and heavy rainfall with high temperature. In
either case, the pathogen penetrates the leaf or stem and grows into a dark lesion that releases thousands
of new spores. Carried by wind or rain-splash, the spores can infect the same or other plants, sometimes
miles away.
3. Symptoms:
a. The disease appears in the form of small dark roundish spot on the upper leaf surface.
b. The single spot enlarge itself rapidly, coalesce to latter stage and become circular in the leaf
surface.
c. Later stage the entire leaf dies in case of heavy infection.
d. The boundary between the healthy and diseased tissues is usually indistinct and soft.
e. Drops of yellow liquid ooze from the infected area.
f. After harvest grey-brown to dark bluish lesion appears on undamaged corms.
g. Affected corms are almost completely decayed at one week after harvest in wet condition.
Anthracnose of EFY
1. Causal agent: Colletotrichum gleosproides
Anthracnose is very common in many fields of EFY in West Bengal and causes premature crop damage of
EFY. During hot summer period the disease is more and infects the leaves showing brown –black lesions
and the leaves become dry. It is caused by Colletotrichum gleosproides and infects all stage of the crop.
2. Symptoms:
a. Due to anthracnose the whole leaf is scorched with black colour lesions. It also infects the branches
and pseudo-stem of EFY.
b. The infection in the pseudo stem is manifested with dark brown to black colour sunken lesions
which gradually enlarges in size and the infected plants are toppled down from the point of infection
in pseudostem.
c. The severely infected plants shed off the leaflets keeping the mid ribs of the leaves.
References
1. Pandit, M. K., Nath, P. S., Mukhopadhyay, S., Devonshire, B. J., & Jones, P. (2001). First report of Dasheen mosaic virus in
elephant foot yam in India. Plant Pathology, 50(6): 802.
Introduction
The traditional agricultural in environment has developed into a closely connected social ecological system
that supports a high level of biodiversity. Traditional farming is very similar to organic farming where
farmers have a mixed farm of cattle, fruits and grains.
Today, there are very few farmers in cutting-edge and developing countries, and most countries use modern
technology, chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Modern agriculture does a lot of harm to the environment
and human health.
An efficient traditional cultivation system is still very important. It is minimizing health and
environmental risks; farmers engage in organic farming and grow food without harming the environment.
The traditional agricultural environment has a long history of agricultural practices.
Conclusion
Traditional agriculture is an extractable process, in which all resources (people, water and land) are
immediately extracted and used. Modern agriculture emphasizes management practices for using planning
techniques and conserving and updating resources. Modernization forces infrastructure and rural
development, urbanization and industry to grow simultaneously. Overall economic development depends
on the effective use of people and the protection of water and land resources as important environmental
resources.
Introduction
1. Past strategy - for development of the agriculture sector in India: Focused primarily on raising
agricultural output, improving food and nutrition security, did not explicitly recognise the need to raise
farmers' income and did not mention any direct measure to promote farmers' welfare.
2. Strategy involved: Increase in productivity through better technology and varieties, increased use of
quality seed, fertiliser, irrigation and agro chemicals, incentive structure in the form of remunerative prices
for some crops, subsidies on farm inputs, public investments in and for agriculture; and facilitating
institutions.
3. Key Findings: 45 per cent increase in per person food production: Last 50 years – food production
multiplied by 3.7 times. Made India food self-sufficient at aggregate level, also a net food exporting country.
Farmers' income remained low in relation to income of those working in the non-farm sector.
4. Impact of low level of farmers’ income: Low level of farmers’ income and disparity between income
of a farmer and non-agriculture work. Agrarian distress and sharp increase in number of farmer’s suicides
(1995-2004) due to: Losses from farming, Shocks in farm income low farm income .Government constituted
“National Commission of farmers” 5 reports & “Draft National Policy for farmers”, “Success in agricultural
progress should be measured by the growth of farmer’s incomes and not just by production figures”.
5. Doubling of Farmers’ Income: “I wish to double the income of farmers by 2022 when India will
celebrate 75 years of its Independence” Prime Minister while addressing farmers rally at Bareilly (Feb 28,
2016) Budget (2016-17). “We are grateful to our farmers for being the backbone of the country’s food
security. We need to think beyond food security and give back to our farmers a sense of income security.
Government will, therefore, reorient its interventions in the farm and non-farm sectors to double the
income of the farmers by 2022.” Finance Minister Budget Speech, February 29, (2016).
6. DFI Vision - The concept and Time Frame: Time period 2015-16 to 2022 (2022-23), Annual growth
rate of 10.4% required. What is to be doubled, Income of farmers, not farm incomes only, not the output or
the income of the sector or the value added or GDP of agriculture sector. Real or nominal income, Real
incomes. (Inflation adjusted).
a. Sources of Growth in Farmers' Income: 10.4% annual growth rate required, on-going and
previously achieved rate of growth in farm income needs acceleration.
b. Major sources of growth: improvement in productivity, resource use efficiency or Total Factor
Productivity, saving in cost of production, increase in cropping intensity, diversification towards
high value crops, The sources outside agriculture include shifting cultivators from farm to non-farm
occupations, and improvement in terms of trade for farmers or real prices received by farmers.
7. Strategies for Improving Farmers' Income (Production Centric): Need to raise output through
concerted efforts on increasing productivity, TFP, input management, resource conservation. Major
contributors: Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana; Soil health card, Neem Coated Urea; Prampragat
Krishi Vikas Yojana. Focus on zonal planning in bigger states like UP : Regional crop plans essential as
per the resource endowments and demand situation, Promoting “Niche Agriculture” and regionally
important and suitable commodities like horticulture in NWH Integrated farming systems important: Like
paddy-cum-fish culture in eastern India and NE, Investment and subsidies in few technologies like poly-
houses may help multiply the returns. Need for Risk Mitigation: insurance against crop and income loss:
Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana, Climate Smart Agriculture. Role of ICAR and SAUs crucial: Need for
SAUs in certain states like Arunachal Pradesh.
Marketing Related
Essential to ensure whether the increased production is converted to money? Need for integrated and value
chain approach, e-NAM would prove to be game changer, Market linkages and reforms essential. Price
uncertainty needs to be given due priority, “Consumer should not become the king over farmers’ welfare”
Effective procurement strategies like UP: Estimation of regional, national and international demand to
avoid the glut situations preventing the situation of price crash. Need for stable commodity trade policies,
Abrupt policy changes do not allow harnessing the lucrative market situation.
Success Mantras
Certain states have the potential to more than double provided effective plans and strategies are made e.g.
Arunachal Pradesh, States like Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh very proactive in finalizing the
strategic framework of their states, Other states need to follow such path, Prioritization of strategic
framework, clearly bringing out the expected contribution of each strategy. Breaking-up the required
interventions into short term, medium term and long term, Preparing the Investment plan and feasibility
of financial resources.
Conclusion
1. Most of the development initiatives and policies for agriculture are implemented by the states.
2. States invest much more than the outlay by the Centre on many development activities, like irrigation.
3. Reform related to Agriculture Marketing, Contract Farming, Agro-forestry and land leasing: state
subject.
4. Essential for states to frame suitable policy/strategy for DFI.
5. Concerted and well-coordinated effort by Centre and all the States: Country can achieve the goal of
doubling farmers' income.
Prayagraj.
3Ph. D. Scholar, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Sciences and Technology, Prayagraj.
Introduction
India is the second-most populous country in the world with a population of 1.35 billion where 50% of them
lives in urban areas for income and better livelihood. Population explosion and migration of people towards
urban area increased in the demand for food, shelter, and basic necessities. Because of this most of the
agricultural lands are converted into residential areas, resulted decreased availability of land for
production of agriculture products. Due to the construction of buildings in urban areas led to shortage of
space for cultivation of vegetables, fruits, spices, and other agricultural products. However, the space
available in the roof top, balconies, corridors and terrace can be effectively utilized for growing fruit plants,
vegetables, spices, medicinal plants, flower and ornamental plants. The fine art of creating and maintaining
the greenery at the roof top is known as “roof gardening” or “terrace gardening”. Growing our own
vegetables is important because we have to ensure that we and our next generation should get absolutely
without chemicals, pesticides, insecticides and fungicides and grown naturally.
References
1. M. Siva, B.V.G. Prasad, R. Thirupathi and T.S.K.K. Kiran patro. Terrace gardening for vegetable cultivation. International
journal of Advances in Science Engineering and Technology, ISSN (p): 2321-8991, ISSN (e): 2321-9009. 5(4).
2. P. J. Vazhacharickal., 2014. Balcony and terrace Gardens in urban greening and local food production: scenarios from Mumbai
Metropolitan Region(MMR), India. International journal of food, Agriculture and veterinary sciences ISSN: 2277-209X. 4(2)
149-162.
3. Patel. A., Yadav. R. and Bhagirathi Singh. Study on Terrace Garden. International journal of Trend in Research and
Development, 6(1), ISSN: 2394-9333.
The cultivation of crops in the greenhouse is nothing but protected cultivation is the most intensive form
of horticultural production. Greenhouse climatic conditions provide an ideal condition for the development
of many foliar, stem and soil-borne plant diseases. Diseases are a major limiting factor for vegetable that
cause serious yield reduction leading to severe economic losses. Fungi enter plants through natural
openings such as stomata and through wounds caused by pruning, harvesting, hail, insects, other diseases,
and mechanical damage. Integrated disease management is the practice of using a range of measures to
prevent and manage diseases in crops.
Hazard analysis is used to identify the potential for infection so that preventative or curative measures can
be put in place to minimize the risk of disease infection and spread. During the cropping cycle, regular crop
monitoring is used to decide if and what action is needed. Today, the term integrated pest management
(IPM) is used to describe the use of integrated practices to manage any kind of pest including diseases. IPM
is fundamentally a subset of the good agricultural practices needed to produce profitable and productive
crops in a sustainable way.
Abstract
Sericulture is the study of silkworms with an objective of commercial silk production. It is the main industry
that contribute maximum to the textile world. Among all the problems faced by silk industry, pebrine
disease is the most potent one. The popular name ‘Pebrine’ was given by De Quadrefagues in 1860. The
transovarial transmission of this disease was innovated for the first time by Pasteur during 1865-70 and
hence, he suggested the mother-moth examination for diagnosis of this disease. The most frequent source
of infection is through ingestion food (mulberry leaves) contaminated with spores of the parasite by
silkworm larvae. The growth and rapid multiplication of the spores can be terminated by the integrated
control measures. Starting from disinfection of rearing room to the detection of infestation to adult moths
by mother moth examination, the whole process needs holistic approach.
Introduction
Sericulture is the study of silkworms with an objective of commercial silk production. It is the main industry
that contribute maximum to the textile world. Silkworm is the pioneer organ to produce commercial silk.
The growth and development of silkworm is a cumbersome process that focuses on the feeding, rearing and
proper silk production processes. Among all the problems, pebrine disease is the most potent one. Pebrine
is a protozoan disease of the silkworm, Bombyx mori L. caused by Nosema bombycis Naegeli (Protozoa;
Microsporidia). It was first recorded in 1845 in France. The damage of cocoon crops in Europe in the middle
of the nineteenth century was so great and extensive that the cocoon production declined sharply and the
sericultural industry of the world suffered heavily. The menace of the disease was so intense that the total
annual cocoon production of 2, 10,00,000kg during 1846- 52 was reduced to 1/3 of the production
(75,00,000kg) during 1856 in short span of four years.
History
The pebrine disease is an extreme problem from the time immemorial for sericultural industry. However,
it came to lime-light during the second half of 18th century when the silk industry in France got
exterminated by its havoc. In 1849, Guerin - Meneville of France named the pebrine pathogen as
"Hematozoid" i.e. a microorganism living in haemolymph of silkworm. The present name of the pathogen,
Nosema bombycis was given by Naegeli in the year 1857. The popular name ‘Pebrine’ was given by De
Quadrefagues in 1860. The transovarial transmission of this disease was innovated for the first time by
Pasteur during 1865-70 and hence, he suggested the mother-moth examination for diagnosis of this disease
in his book entitled "ElUDES SUR, LA MALADIE DES VERS A SOIE". In India, pebrine was first noticed
during the late 1860s when it was wrongly interpreted as a sort of atrophy. Pebrine epidemic swept through
Kashmir in 1878.
Source of Infection
The most frequent source of infection is through ingestion food (mulberry leaves) contaminated with spores
of the parasite by silkworm larvae. The second common method and route of infection i.e. through the
mother moth (transovarial transmission) known since Pasteur's time. Also, the disease into some extent
transmitted from one generation to the next through the external contamination of eggs by spores (Trans-
ovum transmission).
Infected worms lose appetite, become sluggish, opaque Diseased worms may spin cocoons which are flimsy
and poor in silk content. In coloured cocoon races, the intensity of the colour comes down and look dull. The
fast spreading nature of the disease through secondary contamination has been established, the extent of
contamination being in proportion to the initial density of infected larvae in the batch.
Conclusion
Pebrine is a disease of immense importance from sericulture industry and silk production point of view. It
is a transovarial disease thereby, create a problem for multiple generations. Hence, it needs to be curtailed
at the initial stages of infection. The growth and rapid multiplication of the spores can be terminated by
the integrated control measures. Starting from disinfection of rearing room to the detection of infestation
to adult moths by mother moth examination, the whole process needs holistic approach. The sericulture
farmers need to be equipped with knowledge to detect and prevent the spread of pebrine disease at the
ground level. The technical know-how must be conveyed to the farmers in order to control the disease.
References
1. Govindan R, Narayanaswamy TK and Devaiah MC. (1997). Pebrine disease of silkworm. Published by the University of
Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore.
2. Ganga, G. & Chetty, J. S. (2019). Introduction. In: An introduction to sericulture. CBS publishers and distributors Pvt. Ltd.
Introduction
Moong is an excellent source of high-quality protein. Moong is consumed as grains, sprouted form as well
as in a variety of ways in homes. It can also be used as green manuring crop. Moong can be used as a feed
for cattle. Summer moong can be grown after harvesting of pea, gram, potato, mustard, linseed. Cultivation
of summer moong is important to increase the soil fertility in those areas where the main cropping system
is paddy—wheat. Moong is one of the best off-season crops of the summer months (March-June) both under
irrigated and unirrigated areas. Its cultivation enables the farmers to put their land and other resources
which otherwise mostly remain idle during these months to a highly profitable use. This crop can be grown
both as a pure as well as mixed stand.
Preparation of Land
1. For Rice fallow: One deep ploughing followed by two to three times by desi plough are sufficient to
bring desire tilth.
2. After wheat harvest: One deep ploughing followed by cross ploughing by cultivator.
3. After potato or sweet potato: One discing or one cross ploughing by cultivator is sufficient to bring
good tilth.
Varieties Use
Only recommended varieties for the areas should be taken to get good yield.
States Kharif Summer
Andhra Madhira 429, Puaa -9072, WGG-2, IPM -02-
Pradesh 14,OUM 11-5, CoGG 912
Assam IPM 2 -3, Pant Mung 4, Pant Mung 2, HUM—16, PDM—139,Meha, Pant
Narendra Mung 1, SG 1, Mung-5, HUM-12, Pusa vishal,
Bihar & IPM 2 -3, MH 2 -l5, Pant Mung-4, HUM -1, HUM 16, PDM 139, Meha, Pant Mung
Narendra Mugg 1 , Paint 5, Pusa vishal, TBM-37, HUM -12
Jharkhand Mung 2, Sunaina, PDM - 139
Gujrat Gujarat Mung 3, Gujarat Mung 4,
K -851, PKVAKM 4
Haryana IPM 2-3, MH 2-I5, Muskan SML 668, Pant Mung 5
H.P, J & K Pusa 672, KM-2241, Shalimar Mung 1 SML 1115
Karnataka IPM 02-14 & 2-3, HUM 1, PVAKM-4, CoGG
912, KKM 3, LGG 460,
TARM—1. OBGG 52,
M.P. & HUM 1, TJM 721, BM 4, Meha Virat (IPM 205-7)
Chhattisgarh
Maharashtra HUM 1, BM 2002 -1, PKVAKM -4, BM 4,
TARM 2
Odisha. PDM 139, OUM 11 -5, CoGG 912, IPM 2-3
Seed Rate
For optimum plant population, following seed rates should be adopted:
1. For smaller grain varieties such as Samrat, a seed rate of 18-20 kg/ha.
2. For bold/bigger grain varieties like-SML 668, HUM 16 etc; a seed rate of 25-30 kg/ha.
Seed Treatment
Before sowing the seed should be treated with the mixture of thiram @ 2.0 + Carnendazim (1 g) per kg seed
to control soil and seed borne diseases. Thereafter, to control against sucking pests the same seed should
be treated with Imidacloprid 70 WP @ 7-8 g/kg. then after 24 hours, the same seed should be treated with
suitable rhizobium strain and PSB culture.
Sowing Time
Most suitable time for sowing of Moong is from 10th of March to 10th April.
Spacing
25-30 cm x 10 cm
Sowing Depth
Treated seeds should be placed at a soil depth of 3-5 cm having sufficient soil moisture.
Thinning
To maintain optimum plant population, thinning is necessary and it should be done in between second-
third week of sowing.
Weed Management
To keep the field weed free, one hoeing or hand weeding during third-fourth week of sowing must be done
for better plant growth and yield. Or by using herbicides like-pre emergence application of Pendimethalin
@ 3.0 litres per hectare under irrigated condition or 2.5 litres per hectare under rainfed condition within
three days after sowing in 500 litres of water for spraying one ha. After this, one hand weeding at 30 days
after sowing will provide weed free environment or post-emergence application of quizalofop-p-ethyl @ 50
g ai/ha or imazethapyr @ 50 g ai/ha in third week of sowing will do the work.
Irrigation
For irrigated condition, following irrigation arrangement should be done:
1. Pre sowing irrigation: One light irrigation will provide sufficient moisture for good seed germination.
2. Post sowing irrigation: Two to three irrigation are sufficient as per the soil and climatic condition of
the field.
Leaf Curl
The symptoms are visible first in third leaf after three to four weeks of sowing. These are characterized by
enlargement of leaves followed by their crinkling. Later the leaves become thicker and leathery. The
affected plants, however, do not die till the harvest of the crop.
Control measures:
a. Trcat the seeds with imidacloprid 70 WS@ 5ml/kg.
b. Foliar spray of insecticide (dimethoate 30 EC @ 1.7ml/ha) at 30 days after sowing.
c. Rogue out the infected plants and keep these plants away from the field.
d. Use resistant varieties like D-3-9, K 12, ML26, RI 59, T-44.
Insect-pest management: Some of the most common insect-pest of moong are-white fly, stem fly
and bihar hairy caterpillar and the crop loss in severe cases may reach up to 70 %.
White Fly
The infested plants become very weak showing downward cupping of the leaves giving a sickly look and
the plants may die. Insect secretes honey dew on leaves results blackening of leaves, drastically reducing
pholosynthetic site and drying of leaves. White fly is a vector of number of viral diseases especially
mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV).
Control measures:
1. Seed treated with Dimelhoate 30 EC @ 5 ml/kg.
2. Foliar spray of Triazophos 40 EC @ 2.0 ml/l or Malathion 50 EC @ 2.0 ml/l at 10-15 days intervals
if required.
3. Grow cotton as a trap crop one month earlier between the moong rows.
4. Grow maize, sorghum or pearl millet as a barrier crop to minimize the incidence of white flies.
5. Install Sticky map.
6. Grow resistant varieties like- ML 1256, ML 1260 and ML 1191.
Stem Fly
Stem fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli) maggots mine the leaf petiole or tender stem resulting in withering/death
of plant. The characteristic symptoms are - drooping of the first two leaves and yellowing of plants resulting
in about 20 per cent loss of moong yield.
Control measures:
1. Follow clean cultivation, crop rotation, earthing up, growing trap crop, destroying alternative host
like Solanum nigrum to minimize the stem fly incidence.
2. Opt for resistant varieties (Mungbean: CoGG 912 & CoGG 917).
3. Seed soaking either in Imidacloprid 17.8 SL @ 5.0 ml/kg seed in 100 ml water for one hour or
Thiomethoxam 25 WG @ 5.0 g/kg seed in 100 ml water to avoid early incidence of stem fly.
4. Spray either Imidacloprid 17.8 SL @ 0.2ml/l or Thiomethoxam 25 WG @ 0.3 ml/l at 15 days after
sowing.
Introduction
The human induced land degradation is actual woeful as adulterated agronomical practices created ample
accident of soil fertility. A fertile and healthy soil is the basis for healthy plants, animals, and humans. The
soil organic carbon is the very foundation for healthy and productive soils.
The soil organic matter positively influences and modifies almost all the soil properties. Maintaining
healthy soils is a huge task due to high input–cost relationships, costly fertilizers, and issue of soil
degradation. Under such situation green/organic manures are considered as the cheap and good source for
plant nutrients and soil amendment.
Therefore, integration of green manuring crops into cropping systems brings not only positive influence on
the soil properties but also enhances crop productivity, conserve soil moisture, and check weed infestations.
Green manures can play a cardinal role as it has able impacts on physical, actinic and biological superior
of the soil and appropriately apology of soil fertility. The use of green manure in crop production is recorded
in China as early as 1134 BC.
“The practice of ploughing or turning into the soil undecomposed green plant tissue for the purpose of
improving physical condition as well as fertility of soil is referred to as green manuring and the manures
obtained by this method is known as green manures”.
Green manuring not alone improves soil quality, but as well fixes atmospheric nitrogen in the soil if
legumes are considered. The most important green manure crops are sunnhemp, dhaincha, pillipesara,
cluster beans and Sesbania sp. Among the green-manuring manures Sesbania aculata accumulated the
largest amount of biomass and nitrogen contribution and among the grain legumes, cowpea ranks first both
in terms of grain yield and biomass addition.
The application of green manure (incorporation of sole sunhemp) showed 13-15%, 21-36%, 4-5% and 3-14%
higher soil available N, P, K and S after harvest of crops indicating increase in the soil available nutrient
status.
Sustainable crop production depends upon the rational use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides along with
organic manures for better soil health. Owing to the constant production of crops from the soil, the latter
are being depleted gradually of its nitrogenous and other nutrients. Green manuring has been known for
its improvement on the soil fertility.
The benefits of green manuring are multifold. Green manure crops ensure ecological sustainability by
maintaining the productivity of the soil over a long period by protecting soil from erosion.
Depending upon the species and locations, green manure crops supply 40 to 120 kg N ha-1. This amount
would equal an application of three to ten tonnes of FYM on the basis of organic matter and its N
contribution.
Plant nutrients are provided in a better form and over a longer period for the crops grown after green
manuring. However, the choice of green manuring crops has to be made in relation to soil, climate and time
available to raise the green manure crop and the facilities for irrigation. Leguminous green manuring crop
fixes the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil in available form, improves the soil health, physical structure,
prevents leaching and conserve more soil moisture.
Green manuring being a low-cost practice, is an alternate way to improve soil fertility status. It has received
a new impetus in recent years with an urgent need for increased food production in the country (Virdi et
al., 2005).
Method of Incorporation
Proper incorporation of the green manure into soil containing sufficient moisture is important for rapid
decomposition. Green manure crops as high as 2 m can be readily buried by a soil-inverting plough after
the standing crop has been planked down. The soil-inverting plough is run in the direction the crop has
been laid flat in the field and again planked to compact the soil. Standard tractor drawn disc harrows can
also be used.
Benefits
Green manure crops will offer a huge range of benefits to your soil and future crops. They are grown
exclusively for the benefits and not for harvest or grazing. They are commonly used to improve the soil, for
organic matter, nutrients or to control weeds.
1. Building of organic matter and improved soil structure.
2. Enhanced soil microbial activities.
3. Improvement in soil physical properties.
4. Weed suppression.
5. Nitrogen fixation.
6. Enhanced crop yields.
7. Disease suppression/control.
8. Soil and water conservation.
9. Enhanced availability of native soil nutrients.
Constraints
1. No obvious or immediate return in cash or kind, except for dual-purpose.
2. Cropping, and hence labour input considered unproductive.
3. Narrow window period between the two crops for growing and incorporating.
4. Green manure crop, if not incorporated at proper growth stage and time, may lead to immobilization of
N on a temporary basis.
5. Direct costs of seed and extra cultivations.
6. Lost opportunities for cash cropping.
7. Extra work at busy times of the year.
8. Exacerbated pest and disease problems (due to the ‘green bridge’ effect).
Conclusion
The green manure enhanced soil organic carbon and improves soil physical and chemical properties,
increase nutrient uptake, microbial activities, suppress the growth of weeds, check soil erosion and increase
the yield. It proves by researcher that green manuring is appropriate and essential to achieve sustainable
agricultural production by feeding soil ecologically and ultimately end benefits to crop.
References
1. Shinde, R., Sarkar, P.K., Bishnoi, S. and Naik, S.K. (2017). Vartman krishi paridrishya me mrida sanrakshan ki mahatti
avashyakta evam upay. Rashtriya Krishi (Hindi), 12 (1&2): 29-31
2. Virdi Kamal, Singh D, Neha J, Sarvjeet S. (2005). Green manuring an alternate way to improve soil fertility. Indian Farming,
43(4):19-21.
Jaipur.
3Rajasthan State Seed & Organic Certification Agency.
Introduction
1. Silk is the most elegant textile in the world with unparalleled grandeur, natural sheen, and inherent
affinity for dyes, high absorbance, light weight, soft touch and high durability and known as the “Queen of
Textiles” the world over. On the other hand, it stands for livelihood opportunity for millions owing to high
employment oriented, low capital intensive and remunerative nature of its production. The very nature of
this industry with its rural based on-farm and off-farm activities and enormous employment generation
potential has attracted the attention of the planners and policy makers to recognize the industry among
one of the most appropriate avenues for socio-economic development of a largely agrarian economy like
India.
2. Silk has been intermingled with the life and culture of the Indians. India has a rich and complex history
in silk production and its silk trade dates back to 15th century. Sericulture industry provides employment
to approximately 8.25 million persons in rural and semi-urban areas in India during 2015-16. Of these, a
sizeable number of workers belong to the economically weaker sections of society, including women. India’s
traditional and culture bound domestic market and an amazing diversity of silk garments that reflect
geographic specificity has helped the country to achieve a leading position in silk industry. Green manuring
being a low-cost practice, is an alternate way to improve soil fertility status. It has received a new impetus
in recent years with an urgent need for increased food production in the country (Virdi et al., 2005).
Why Sericulture?
1. Provides vibrancy to village economies. Share of income to various groups are as follows:
a. 56.8 % to cocoon growers (Silkworm rearers)
b. 6.8% to reelers.
c. 9.1% to twisters.
d. 10.7% to weavers.
e. 16.6% to traders.
Properties of Silk
1. Silk is crystalline.
2. Homogenous in structure.
3. Hygroscopic in nature.
4. Light in weight.
5. Longest and strongest in all-natural fibres.
6. Soft, lustrous and hygienic.
7. Excellent affinity for dyes-takes colours.
8. Does not catch fire easily/quickly as nylon or wool.
9. It is elastic and has elongation of 20%.
By-Product Utilization
1. Mulberry:
a. Neutraceutical compounds in leaves: Tea made from mulberry leaves that are beneficial for
diabetic and hypertensive patients.
b. Antioxidants are found in mulberry fruits.
c. Mushroom cultivation from mulberry shoots.
d. Waste from silkworm rearing and harvest can be used for biogas, compost and fuel production.
e. Mulberry waste wood is a good source of cellulose for paper and chipboard industries.
f. Hard wood used for making sports goods.
2. Silkworm larva:
a. In India chlorophyll, phytol, carotene, triacontinol, pectin is extracted from the silkworm faeces
and used in food, chemical.
b. Silkworm byproducts are used in pharmaceutical industries.
c. Silkworm litter is used as fodder compost material and biogas preparation.
Economics of Sericulture
Mulberry area: 2.00 acres
1. Mulberry cultivation and maintenance expenditure:
SI. No. Particulars Amount(Rs.)
1 Ploughing 1,000.00
2 FYM 16 tons/ Rs. 450 / tonne) 7,200.00
3 Forming Ridges and Furrows 1,600.00
4 Mulberry cuttings/ Seedlings (@Rs. 1) per 10,000.00 Nos 10,000.00
5 Transplanting (Labour charges) 1,000.00
6 Weeding 3,000.00
7 Fertilizers cost 1,500.00
8 Foliar spray of nutrients 500.00
9 Irrigation 800.00
Total 26,600.00
2. Silkworm rearing shed:
a. Silkworm rearing shed size (60’ x 20’): 1200 Sq. ft.
b. Walls with Hallow blocks (7’ to 8’).
c. Coconut fronds for top.
d. Door - 6’ to 4’ (one number).
e. Windows - 6’ to 3’ - 13 numbers.
f. Cement floor.
g. Total cost of building construction Rs. 1, 25,000.
3. Expenditure on Silkworm Rearing Materials:
Sl. No. Particulars Amount (Rs.)
1 Shoot harvesting 1500 Sq.ft. (1 Sq.ft. = Rs.7/-) 10,500.00
2 Chandrike 300 Nos (@Rs. 40/- chandrike) 12,000.00
3 Bed cleaning net s (100 m) (Rs. 2. Per/m) 2,000.00
Total 24,500.00
4. Silkworm rearing and cocoon production / Annum:
a. No. of silkworm rearing per annum: 10
b. No. of dfls required (10 rearing x 2000 dfls): 20,000 dfls
5. Silkworm Rearing Expenses:
SI. No. Particulars Amount(Rs.)
1 Cost of eggs for 20000 dfls 5,000.00
2 Spraying for mulberry (10 crops @ Rs.500/ crop) 5,000.00
3 Labour charges 30,000.00
4 Chemical fertilizers for 10 crops 5,000.00
5 Weeding (10 times @ Rs. 500/ weeding) 5,000.00
6 Cost of pesticides and foliar nutrients 2,500.00
7 Irrigation 2,500.00
8 Transport charges to cocoon market 5,600.00
Total 60,100
References
1. Sericulture in India – Vikaspedia
2. Sericulture in India - Wikipedia
3. Csb.gov.on
4. www.inserco.org, 2020.
5. TNAU Agriportal, 2020.
6. Silk industry in India,2013.
7. www.notesonzoology.com – sericulture.
Integrated pest management (IPM) has undergone a series of paradigm shifts ranging from ecological-
based approaches to chemical focused principles since first being described by entomologists in the latter
part of the 20th century. Despite these shifts, an integral component of IPM throughout the years has been
biological control, the use of living predators, pathogens, and parasitoids to reduce the population density
or impact of pests. Certain insect species such as lady beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and green
lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) are often recognized and appreciated as natural enemies of insect
pests in agro ecosystems. This level of recognition, however, has not been granted to avian natural enemies.
In fact, the presence of wild birds in agro ecosystems is often perceived as an economically important threat
to crops, often disproportionate to the levels of damage actually incurred.
Beginning in the late 19th century and ending in the 1930s, hundreds of studies explored the role of birds
as biological control agents and pests in agriculture. Proponents of economic ornithology claimed that
indiscriminately killing birds was economically unwise because birds provided important services to
farmers, including the consumption of insect pests. Within the last few decades, studying the benefits of
birds in agriculture has resurged high.
Fruit crops present a concentrated and energy-rich food source for birds and fruits are particularly
susceptible to bird damage. Frugivorous birds can inflict costly damage to fruit crops through consumption
(reducing yield) or by rendering them unmarketable (reducing quality). Beyond fruit, birds can also reduce
oilseed crop yields such as sunflower, and grain crop yields such as corn Indeed, found that most studies
pertaining to the costs of birds focused on annual seed, grain, and cereal crops. In particular, sunflower
seeds are high in oil content and often used for birdseed, making them highly attractive to birds. Birds may
also provide a disservice to farmers through intraguild predation. In the case of birds in agro ecosystems,
intraguild predation may occur when birds consume arthropod natural enemies, resulting in dampened
pest control services. In recent years, concerns about birds in agriculture has extended beyond their impacts
on crop yields to focus on their role in transmitting food-borne pathogens such as Salmonella enterica and
pathogenic E. coli. Though pathogen prevalence rates are often quite low, some bird species have been
shown to occasionally carry these enteric pathogens. Numerous bird deterrent and control methods are
available for pest birds. These include visual (mylar strips), auditory (sound canons), tactile (spikes, sticky
substances), exclusion (netting), and olfactory approaches (bird repellent chemicals such as methyl
anthranilate), as well as more recent technology-based (drones) and ‘natural’ methods (falconry)
Birds can both improve and depress crop yields, understanding their net impacts on production is essential
to inform policies, land-use planning, and farm management practices that achieve net positives for
agricultural production. Growers who wish to employ strategies to promote beneficial birds and deter
harmful birds at the farm or landscape level should consider potential trade-offs. For example, nest boxes
installed for predatory birds and some pose a threat because of their fruit-eating diet preferences, but also
due to negative ecological impacts such as aggressive competition with native cavity-nesting birds.
Abstract
Hydroponics (Greek words “hydro” water and “ponos” work) is a method of plant developing without soil
utilizing with mineral supplement arrangements. It will offer development to the plants under controlled
climate. Over the most recent couple of years because of the shirking of methyl bromide in the dirt culture
the hydroponic framework has developed. The root and shoot length were fundamentally impeded because
of the convergence of contaminated water and term of the plant introduction to it. In this procedure water
culture researchers found that when contrasted with soil-based development, hydroponic plant framework
needs just modest number of inorganic components notwithstanding water, oxygen, and daylight to develop
the plant Hydroponics cultivating can be a significant favourable position for Indian farming; it can possibly
deliver crops in each season without soil. Such practices can assist Indian ranchers with increasing their
harvest efficiency indeed, even in little divided terrains. Later on, hydroponics could be rising strategies
for the providing of food to the overall population.
Keywords: Hydroponics, methyl bromide, oxygen, population etc.
Introduction
Soil contains all the significant segments for the development of plants. It gives supplements; water and so
on for fruitful development of plants. All the significant helpful procedure, for example, nitrogen obsession,
giving dampness and entire plants age occur because of essence of soil. Plants, regardless needs a far-
reaching space and open field to grow however inside the urban areas space is one of the constraining
variables for such an agriculture age. To defeat this obstacle, hydroponics was made by plant researchers
starting late. The term hydroponics was surmised from Greek word “hydro” suggests water and “ponos”
implies work. This framework is generally suitable to help go up against difficulties of atmosphere changes
furthermore has any kind of effect in age of yields and vegetable which is 100% increasingly secure to eat.
For hydroponics innovation, no dirt is required to build up some chosen mentioned crops. It is furthermore
named as (soil less culture) method where yields are created in liquid-based supplement well off courses of
action underneath green house. As it is notable hydroponics doesn't require any dirt, where root framework
is upheld utilizing dormant medium such as dirt pellets, pertile, rock and so on. The reason behind this is
to permit the plants roots to come in direct contact with supplements arrangements, while approaching
oxygen, which is fundamental for legitimate development.
Techniques of Hydroponics
It is otherwise called Liquid Hydroponics technique. Plants developed in arrangement culture have their
underlying foundations suspended legitimately in a supplement arrangement. It can additionally be
arranged into:
1. Circulating strategies (shut framework) / Continuous stream arrangement culture:
a. Nutrient film strategy (NFT).
b. Deep stream strategy (DFT).
Media Culture
The media culture strategy has a strong vehicle for the roots and is named for the sort of dormant medium,
for example sand culture, rock culture or rock fleece culture. There are two primary varieties for every
medium, sub-water system and top-water system.
In any case, it is named follows:
1. Hanging sack procedure.
2. Develop pack procedure.
3. Channel or trough strategy.
4. Pot strategy.
Methods of Aeroponics
Aeroponics is a strategy for developing plants where they are tied down in openings in Styrofoam boards
and their foundations are suspended in air underneath the board. The aeroponics culture is generally
rehearsed in ensured structures and is reasonable for low verdant vegetables like lettuce, spinach, and so
forth.
There are two procedures under this gathering:
1. Root mist procedure.
2. Fog feed procedure.
Advantages of Hydroponics
1. Soil less culture gives natural food and there is no utilization of pesticides and destructive toxics as well.
2. It needs less space in utilization to soil garden, as plant with little root can be developed nearer to one
another.
3. No concerns of evolving seasons, harvests can be developed the entire year around.
4. Hydroponic techniques produce sound harvests with high return, no way of soil borne creepy crawlies
and nuisances; ailments assault or weed invasion as well.
5. Crops grow multiple times quicker in hydroponics and yield is multiplied prompting more creation from
same sum of space.
6. No wastage of water as water is turned around utilized in this method utilizes just 1/twentieth of water
to crops contrast with conventional cultivating.
7. Requires less work.
8. Environment benevolent practice, no damage to nature.
9. Hydroponics is abiotic stress less free cultivating procedure.
Potential Outcomes
1. For hydroponics urban zones ought to be anticipated to fabricate hydroponic food park in each city.
2. Providing increasingly number of preparing to ranchers.
3. Providing them hydroponics framework at moderate rates.
4. Farming should give most regarded calling in Nation with the goal that youthful ranchers could see
his/her future in fields in agribusiness working with most recent rural methods
5. Agricultural colleges and Research organization should work in co-activity with Government of India to
6. perform study and attempt to bring this procedure everywhere scale with the goal that ranchers could
take in something from it.
References
1. Sardare M.D., Shraddha V., Admane2 A review on plant without soil – Hydrophonics. Journal International.
2. Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology (02): 03 Mar-2013.299-304.
3. Cramer, G.R. (2002) Sodium-calcium interactions under salinity stress. In: Salinity: Environment-Plants-Molecules, A.
Lauchli & U. Luttge:205-227, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
4. Anuragputra, P., Yuliando, H., ( 2015): Soil less culture system to support water use efficiency and product.
5. quality: A review Agriculture and Agriculture science Procedia, 3: (283-288).
6. Sonneveld C (2000). Effects of salinity on substrate grown vegetables and ornamentals in greenhouse horticulture. PhD.
Thesis, University of Wageningen, The Netherlands.
7. Van Os E A; Gieling Th H; Ruijs M N A (2002). Equipment for hydroponic installations. In: Hydroponic Production of
Vegetables and Ornamentals (Savvas D; Passam H C, eds),pp 103–141. Embryo Publications, Athens, Greece.
8. Butler, J.D. and Oebker, N.F. ,―Hydroponics as a Hobby— Growing Plants Without Soil‖. Circular 844. Information Office,
College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801.( 2006.).
Introduction
A living organism unsurprisingly gets pretentious by geomagnetism of Earth (MF, about 50 μT) for its
optimum survival. Consequence of magnetic fields with regards to plant efficiency considering germination
to its yield is premeditated in relation to growth parameters affected by static or pulse magnetic field with
pertinent duration. In vitro generation of plants through tissue culture assist in sympathetic magnetic
effects on varied explants at regulated stages such as growth-related parameters of in vitro shoots, roots,
somatic embryos, callus, on the photosynthetic pigment contour, level of stress-induced alanine production,
activity of stress-related enzymes, and endogenous levels of cytokines and auxins.
Conclusion
Magnetic field can enhance the productivity to an extent when we prefer Pulse magnetic field for dry tissue
and static magnetic field for wet tissue at optimum intensity and time. This can relief plant from any stress
and can enhance quality of crop. Magnetic field treatment is helpful in reducing dormancy and enhancing
germination related parameters such as water uptake, alacrity of germination, seedling length, fresh
weight, dry weight, vigour indices and enhanced production of ROS arbitrated by cell wall peroxidase
although ascorbic acid content, superoxide dismutase and acerbate peroxidase activity decreased in the
hypocotyls of soybean germinating seeds under controlled laboratory conditions. MF treatment of 200mT
(60min) and 150mT (60min) resulted in the effective seedling and further exploration of studies depicted
exclusive plant growth, leaf photosynthetic efficiency and leaf protein content under field conditions. This
exhibits a great biomass accumulation; seed germination enhancement and many more beneficial growth
parameters can be exclusively enhanced via the treatment of magnetic field.
In laboratory condition the growth and development has been engineered in number of of plant species,
including soybean, alfalfa, wheat, mojito mint, peppermint, spearmint, Calendula officinalis, potato, sugar
beet, wild Solanum spp, beach plum, hybrid Cymbidium, hybrid Phalaenopsis, duckweed, Krainzia
longiflora, Spathiphyllum, Haplopappus gracilis and trees cork oak, Paulownia sp. The magnetic or
electromagnetic fields have shown the relevant effects on morphogenesis and development of the plant.
References
1. Cakmak T, Dumlupinar R, Erdal S. (2010). Acceleration of germination and early growth of wheat and bean seedlings grown
under various magnetic field and osmotic conditions, Bioelectromagnetics. 31(2):120-129. doi:10.1002/bem.20537.
2. Teixeira da Silva J., Dobránszki J. (2015). How do magnetic fields affect plants in vitro? In Vitro Cell.Dev.Biol.-Plant. 51: 233–
240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11627-015-9675-z.
3. Maffei ME, (2014). Magnetic field effects on plant growth, development, and evolution, Front. Plant Sci. 5: 445. doi:
10.3389/fpls.2014.00445
4. Pittman UJ., (1963). Effects of Magnetism of seedling growth of Cereal, Biomed Sci Instrum. 1: 117-122.
5. Baghel L, Kataria S, Guruprasad KN (2016). Static magnetic field treatment of seeds improves carbon and nitrogen
metabolism under salinity stress in soybean, Bioelectromagnetics. 37(7): 455-470. doi:10.1002/bem.21988.
6. Novitskii YI, Novitskaya GV, Serdyukov YA (2014). Lipid utilization in radish seedlings as affected by weak horizontal
extremely low frequency magnetic field, Bioelectromagnetics. 35(2): 91-99. doi:10.1002/bem.21818.
7. Bhardwaj J, Anand A, Pandita VK, Nagarajan S (2016). Pulsed magnetic field improves seed quality of aged green pea seeds
by homeostasis of free radical content, J Food Sci Technol. 53(11): 3969-3977. doi:10.1007/s13197-016-2392-8.
8. Shine MB, Guruprasad KN, Anand A, (2011). Enhancement of germination, growth, and photosynthesis in soybean by pre-
treatment of seeds with magnetic field, Bioelectromagnetics. 32(6): 474-484. doi:10.1002/bem.20656.
9. Shine MB, Guruprasad KN, Anand A, (2012). Effect of stationary magnetic field strengths of 150 and 200 mT on reactive
oxygen species production in soybean, Bioelectromagnetics. 33(5): 428-437. doi:10.1002/bem.21702.
Naini Agricultural Institute, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences,
Prayagraj 211007 (UP), India.
Introduction
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is most important vegetable and grown throughout the year in all over
India. As we know that crop generally attack lots of pest which is shoot and fruit borer, leafhopper, whitefly,
red spider, mites, sclenopsis mealy bug and root knot nematodes are most serious causing substantial
reduction in crop growth and yield. In the present document the identification, nature of damage,
management has been discussed to save the crop from pest damages. The productivity of okra in India is
low compared to other countries due to yield losses caused by insect pest, diseases and nematodes. The crop
is attacked by more than 72 insect pests and infects the crop from seedling to harvest stage. Three most
important pest of okra have been discussed below.
a. Identification: The E. vittella moths measures about 2.5 cm across the wings and have a narrow
light longitudinal green band in the middle forewing.
b. Nature of damage: the female moth lay 200-400 eggs at night, singly on flower buds and tender
leaves of okra.
c. Management: Spraying with quinalphos 25 EC (2 ml/liter of water) pest. Before spraying all the
affected plant parts should be removed.
2. Fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera)
a. Identification: Adult are winged, they are 1.05-1.5 mm long and their yellowish bodies are
slightly dusted with white waxy powder.
b. Nature of damage: The milky white minute whiteflies and nymphs such the cell sap from the
leaves. The affected leaves curl and dry.
c. Management: 4-5 foliar sprays of imidacloprid 17.5 SL (0.02%) or dimethoate (0.05%) or
metasystox (0.02%) at an interval of 10 days effectively controls the whitefly population.
4. Leaf roller (Syllepta derogate)
a. Identification: Moths yellowish-white in colour as well as brown spot on the head and the
thorax. It measures about 28-40 mm across the spread of wings and have a series of dark brown
wavy lines on the wings.
b. Nature of damage: The larvae feed on okra leaves. In severe infestation, plants may be
completely defoliated. Young larvae feed on the lower epidermis of leaves.
c. Management: Control measures adopted for shoot and fruit borer will take care of the infestation
of leaf roller.
a. Identification: Adults are small having wedged shaped body about 3 mm long colour somewhat
greenish yellow with black spot.
b. Nature of damage: This attack pest at its early stage of growth. Small, greenish leaf hoppers;
nymphs and adults are found on the under sides of leaves. as a results leaf curl upwards along the
margins and have a burnt look over the entire leaf area
c. Management: Spary 750 ml oxydemeton methyl 25EC or 625 ml of dimethoate 30EC or 100ml
of imadacloprid 17.5SL in 500 liters of water per ha.
Conclusion
As we know pest attack serve as a limiting factor in the yield of any crop. Therefore, regular intervention
is required to manage threshold level of pest population because the insect-pest may become prominent
constraints to the okra production. To manage the above pests of okra we should use of chemical insecticides
but in a judicious way. Integrated management is best for management in this high value vegetable crop.
References
1. Singh, R. and Joshi, A.K. (2003).Pests of okra (Ablemoschus esculentus Moench.) in Paonta Valley, Himachal Pradesh.Insect
Environment 9:173-174.
2. Sumathi, E. (2007). Seasonal incidence of sucking pests and fruit borers of bhendi.Journal of Ecobiology 19:15-8.
Introduction
Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) was commercially urbanized as a powerful
technique for the assessment of isotopic and multielement analysis in food, agriculture, and other matrixes.
It is accomplished by counting the number of ions at a certain mass of the element. It has been to the fore
good deed with laboratories in the world as the piece of equipment of choice for performing trace metal
exploration (Aceto, 2016). This analytical approach is being used to address specific issues in various areas
of food and nutrition research. The ICP-MS is also used to examine the elemental evaluation in the field of
food quality assurance at the analytical level, evaluation of food contact with various metal and non-metals
and also for food contamination. ICP-MS also works at low-concentrations (ppb=µg/l) and ultra-low-
concentrations of elements (ptt=ng/l). Plasma is used to lead the atomic elements by ionizing them and
after ionization; these ions are sorted according to their mass. Automization, ionization, and removal of the
solution from the sample occurs inside the plasma torch. The further penetrance of a small amount of the
ions produced in the plasma occurs into the mass-spectrometric part.
ICP-MS Workings
An ICP-MS combines a towering temperature ICP (Inductively Coupled Plasma) spring with a mass
spectrometer. The ICP resource converts the atoms of the elements in the taster to ions. All of these
elements are examined by the mass spectrometric data. Argon gas flows inside the concentric channels of
Conclusion
ICP-MS is a analytical grade approach to determine the trace elements of interest present in the biological
sample. ICP-MS provides various features including its elevated sensitivity, wide coverage for elements,
ability to detect multielement, high throughput for sample range and easy sample groundwork. Due to high
specificity of mass spectrometry, researchers should be aware about the prospective interfering, and other
analytical factors for the accuracy of outcomes.
References
1. Aceto, M. (2016). The use of ICP-MS in food traceability. In Advances in Food Traceability Techniques and Technologies (pp.
137-164). Woodhead Publishing.
2. Jackson, B. P., Liba, A., & Nelson, J. (2015). Advantages of reaction cell ICP-MS on doubly charged interferences for arsenic
and selenium analysis in foods. Journal of analytical atomic spectrometry, 30(5), 1179-1183.
3. Geophysics, U. C. (2011). Geochemistry Science Center: Denver. CO, USA.
4. www.perkinelmer.com
5. Stefansson A, Gunnarsson I, Giroud N (2007). "New methods for the direct determination of dissolved inorganic, organic and
total carbon in natural waters by Reagent Free Ion Chromatography and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission
spectrometry". Anal. Chim. Acta 582 (1): 69–74.
6. Mermet, J. M. (2005). "Is it still possible, necessary and beneficial to perform research in ICP atomic emission spectrometry".
J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 20: 11–16.
7. Lin, Q. B., Li, B., Song, H., & Wu, H. J. (2011). Determination of silver in nano-plastic food packaging by microwave digestion
coupled with inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry or inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Food
additives & contaminants: Part A, 28(8), 1123-1128.
Introduction
Doubled haploidy (DH) breeding is one of emerging science that plays an important role in crop
improvement by developing homozygous lines instantly or by shortening the breeding cycle. Doubled
haploids (DHs) are haploid plants (gametic chromosome number) that consist of double number of
chromosomes through spontaneous or induced chromosome duplication. There are many methods of
haploids production and at present chromosome elimination approach is widely adopted because of its
advantages over other techniques.
Chromosome Elimination
Wide hybridization results in uni-parental chromosome elimination due to ploidy difference and
incompatibility between their chromosomes. In the process of chromosome elimination, although initially
zygotes contain one complete haploid chromosome set from each parent but in the later division cycles due
to ploidy differences e.g. in case of wheat x maize cross, maize chromosomes are lost to produce haploid
embryos containing only haploid complement of wheat chromosomes. This happens during the first few cell
division cycles.
Conclusion
At present, with increasing population and food shortage, there is dire need of developing new and different
varieties and for this purpose speed and efficiency are becoming increasingly important features for plant
improvement. Haploid technology is a rapid system for developing homozygous lines, which are important
biotechnological tools in breeding programmes, as well as in genetic and developmental studies. Although
in vitro methods have been used since long time for haploid and doubled haploids production but their
drawbacks put in vivo method i.e. chromosome elimination approaches on a better front.
References
1. Barclay I.R., (1975). High frequencies of haploid production in wheat (Triticum aestivum) by chromosome elimination. Nature.
256: 410—411.
2. Chaudhary H.K., Sethi G.S., Singh S., Pratap A. and Sharma S., (2005). Efficient haploid induction in wheat by using pollen
of Imperata cylindrica. Plant Breeding. 124: 96-98.
3. Kasha K.J. and Kao K.N. (1970). High frequency haploid production in barley (H. vulgare L.). Nature. 225: 874–6.
4. Laurie D.A. and Bennett M.D., (1986). Wheat x maize hybridization. Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology. 28: 313-316.
Introduction
Biofortification is the idea of breeding crops to increase their nutritional value. This can be done either
through conventional selective breeding, or through genetic engineering. Biofortification differs from
ordinary fortification because it focuses on making plant foods more nutritious as the plants are growing,
rather than having nutrients added to the foods when they are being processed. This is an important
improvement on ordinary fortification when it comes to providing nutrients for the rural poor, who rarely
have access to commercially fortified foods. As such, biofortification is seen as an upcoming strategy for
dealing with deficiencies of micronutrients in low and middle-income countries. In the case of iron, WHO
estimated that biofortification could help curing the 2 billion people suffering from iron deficiency-induced
anemia.
Biofortification
Is the idea of breeding crops to increase their nutritional value. This can be done either through
conventional selective breeding or through genetic engineering. Increasing nutritional requirements of
growing population has increased the need for biofortification.
Importance of Biofortification
1. Selective addition of nutrition: Biofortification allows selected nutrition to be added into a particular
crop through either selectively breeding or altering it genetically. This reduces the need for multiple food
to be consumed because most of the required nutrient are incorporated in a single crop. Ex: Golden rice
was fortified with vitamin A for consumption by poor people who could not afford more nutritious food.
2. Reduces need for overspending on food: In poor countries where most of them cannot afford to
spend more resources on nutritious food, biofortification comes to rescue. Since nutrition is concentrated
on a single source, there is no need to spend on multiple food. The saved money can be used for educational
and health needs.
3. Enhances human productivity: Lack of proper nutrients is a major concern that reduces efficiency of
working humans. Provision of nutrients in an efficient manner can increase productivity drastically.
Increasing productivity will contribute towards economic and social growth of population.
Objectives
1. To improve the nutritional margin that helps the people who are suffering from malnutrition.
2. To improve the protein and mineral content in the foods.
3. Help the people who are suffering from disease like anaemia, deficiency of minerals etc.
4. It is a modern technique to produce high production of crops which will make up the demand in
population.
Introduction
RFID or Radio-Frequency Identification technology uses digital data, which is encoded in RFID tags and
read by a reader via radio waves. RFID is comparable to barcoding in that data from a tag is acquired by a
device that stores the data in a database. RFID has the advantage over barcodes in that the RFID tag data
can be read without being seen, whereas barcodes must be seen so that an optical scanner can read it. By
placing RFID tags into agricultural products’ packages, farmers can determine the health condition of the
product, making it convenient for processing companies to concurrently add information on the tag, such
as enterprise codes, the processing date, batch processing, and package weight. Radio frequency
identification (RFID) transmits product information using radio waves. The agri-food industry is beginning
to use this technology to enhance food quality, safety and traceability.
RFID is part of a technology that is referred to as Automatic Identification and Data Capture (AIDC). AIDC
automatically identifies an object, collects data about the object, and enters that data directly into computer
systems without human intervention. Basically, RFID systems consist of three parts: an RFID tag, an RFID
reader, and an antenna. A RFID tag contains an integrated circuit and an antenna, which is used to
transmit data to the RFID reader, which then converts the radio waves into a practical form of data. This
information is transferred through a communications interface to a main computer system, where the data
is stored in a database and analysed later. Items that are barcoded can easily be upgraded to a RFID
system. RFID offers many improvements over the barcode. An RFID tag can hold much more data about
an item than a barcode. Also, RFID tags are not susceptible to damages that often happen to barcode labels,
like tearing and smudging. RFID labels are used in inventory management, asset tracking, controlling
access to restricted areas, ID Badging, and supply chain management. Radio Frequency Identification
(RFID) technology identifies an object by radio frequency without any contact. It has been successfully
applied in many industries like supply chain management, retail management, logistics management,
security supervising, traffic supervising, and more.
RFID in Agriculture
There are many uses for RFID technology in agriculture. Bales of hay can be tagged, capturing the date
harvested, the field where it was harvested, the temperature, weight, moisture level and the nutritional
information to be captured and stored. RFID has many potentials that busy farmers are seeking. RFID is
non-contact. It has a high identification rate, mass memory, secure access, and can be integrated into an
existing system without difficulty. Data collection in greenhouses is also doable with specialized RFID tags
and readers, which are designed for warm and humid conditions.
The employment of RFID makes it possible to monitor the chain of perishable food and the expansion of
new applications in fields like environmental monitoring, irrigation, specialty crops and farm machinery.
RFID technology constitute a farm monitoring system whereby farmers can now protect their crops from
pests. Also, livestock such as cattle can be monitored using wireless sensor networks. One common
Similarly, livestock management has already made many strides by using RFID systems to help with
remote monitoring of animals using dedicated hardware and software systems. The Taiwanese fruit
producer Je-Nong Cooperative Farm is using a RFID solution to track the receipt and processing of its fresh
fruit at its facility. By using passive ultrahigh frequency RFID tags attached to plastic crates, the company
can monitor every phase that the fruit goes through, and the conditions within the coolers before the fruit
is transported to stores throughout Taiwan, China, Japan and Korea.
A big-data capable IoT software platform can collect, filter, store and analyse the collected data. Growers
can use state-of-the-art methods to deliver multiple crops a year by meticulously tracking growing
conditions, such as light level, humidity, temperature and soil chemistry. The right IoT platform affords
growers the ability to track these variables to supply real-time notification of changes and yield analytics
to control and improve growing techniques. RFID has limitations, just as bar codes do. A hundred bar codes
on items within a box cannot be read, but RFID tags can be read as long as the items are not in a metal
box as the RF waves will bounce off the metal. RFID tags can’t be always read with perfect accuracy since
radio waves might be blocked or cancel each other out. Many RFID tags can be detected and read remotely
and at the same time, making the adoption of the latest technology innovations being the difference
between profit and loss for farmers.
References
https://www.farmpally.com/rfid-technology-in-agriculture
Summary
Peoples are too busy in work; they can’t manage time for shopping. E-commerce is a platform that creates
an online market. Now a day’s it is a growing day by day. E-commerce is facing many challenges in India.
It will have many opportunities in future. It is changing the daily life. Consumer and business organization
both can be benefited from e-commerce.
Introduction
The number of internet users in India is on rise. As of June 2019, 665.31 million people have subscribed to
the internet in India (TRAI). People’s daily life has changed radically since the advent of the internet. With
the change in technology, the type of work has also changed. A big percentage of people now don’t want to
go to the market for shopping, they want to shop online. The demand for e-commerce is increasing in India
because it allows us to shop very easily. E-commerce is a simple medium through which we can easily buy
or sell goods and services. Wholesalers can sell goods directly to their buyers at low prices with the help of
e-commerce and buyers are also attracted for the low price, for which the popularity of e-commerce is
increasing day by day. E-commerce reduce the cost of transactions and improves transactions and help to
spread their products across a wide range of people. In agriculture, e-commerce reduces the gap between
farmer and buyer and giving farmer the opportunity to make more profit.
Conclusion
E-commerce Is a growing sector in India. In present time it has great opportunity to reach out to everyone.
It is benefited for farmers, traders and also for a buyer. It can make our daily life easy and save our valuable
time. E-commerce become an important part in our daily life.
References
1. https://trai.gov.in/sites/default/files/PR_No.85of2019.pdf [Accessed on 7th july,2020]
2. Avais, M. E-COMMERCE IN INDIA: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES.
3. Panigrahi, C. M. A., Upadhyaya, R., & Raichurkar, P. P. (2016). E-Commerce Services in India: Prospects and Problems.
International Journal on Textile Engineering and Processes, 2(1).
4. Gupta, R., & Sharma, P. K. Scope of E-Commerce in Agri-Business in India: An Overview.
5. Shahjee, R. (2016). The impact of electronic commerce on business organization. Scholarly Research Journal for
interdisciplinary studies, 4(27), 3130-3140.
6. Baourakis, G., Kourgiantakis, M., & Migdalas, A. (2002). The impact of e‐commerce on agro‐food marketing. British Food
Journal.
7. Dhaka, S. S. (2016). Impact of growing e-commerce on Indian farmers.
8. Shettar MS (2019). A STUDY ON IMPACT OF E-COMMERCE. IOSR Journal of Business and Management 21(11):2319-
7668.
9. Jairath, M. S., & Purohit, P. (2011). ICT Application in Agricultural Marketing-A Case of AGMARKNET. Indian Journal of
Agricultural Economics, 66(3), 541.
10. Chand, R. (2016). e-Platform for national agricultural market. Economic and Political Weekly, 51(28), 15-18.
11. Sen, P. G. (2015). www. bigbasket. com. FIIB Business Review, 4(3), 38-43.
12. https://www.iffcobazar.in/en/aboutus [Accessed on 20th July, 2020].
13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature%27s_Basket [accesed on 21th July, 2020].
14. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JioMart [Accessed on 22th July, 2020].
15. https://agribegri.com/about_us.php [Accessed on 22th July, 2020].
16. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grofers [Accessed on 20th July, 2020].
17. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_(company) [Accessed on 22th July, 2020].
18. Rajasekar, D., & Agarwal, S. (2016). A study on Impact of e-commerce on India's Commerce. International Journal of
Development Research, 6(3), 7253-7256.
References
1. Harada Y. and Whitlow T.H., (2020). Urban Rooftop Agriculture: Challenges to Science and Practice. Frontiers in
Sustainability Food System 4:76-81.
2. Cartera T. and Keeler A., (2008). Life-cycle cost-benefit analysis of extensive vegetated roof systems. Journal of Environment
Management. 87: 350–363.
3. Jaal I., Ouldboukhitine S.E, and Belarbi R. A., (2012). comprehensive study of the impact of green roofs on building energy
performance. Renewable Energy. 43: 157–164.
4. Li Y. and Babcock R., (2014). Green roofs against pollution and climate change. A review. Agronomy Sustainable and
Development. 34: 695–705.
5. Dariusz S. and Alicja K. W., (2019) The Impact of Green Roofs on the Parameters of the Environment in Urban Areas—
Review. Atmosphere. 10: 792-797.
Introduction
For crop growth, development and to obtain high yield with good quality providing proper amount of
nutrient is very much important. Nutrients are supplied through both organic & inorganically. Inorganic
supply of nutrients i.e. use of chemical fertilizers increases the crop production but declines the soil fertility
and productivity. Physical, chemical and biological properties of soil are declining due to long term use of
chemical fertilizers. So, this problem can be overcome by following integrated nutrient management which
plays a vital role in supply of nutrients to the plants for their better growth and development. In medicinal
plants INM is important as they are used directly or indirectly to treat many health issues.
Crop Residues
There are two types of agricultural crop residues. Field residues are materials left in an agricultural field
or orchard after the crop has been harvested. These residues include stalks and stubble (stems), leaves,
and seed pods. The residue can be ploughed directly into the ground, or burned first. Good management of
field residues can increase efficiency of irrigation and control of erosion. Simple line transect measurements
can be used to estimate residue coverage. Process residues are materials left after the crop is processed into
a usable resource. These residues include husks, seeds, bagasse, molasses and roots. They can be used as
animal fodder and soil amendment, fertilizers and in manufacturing.
Bio Fertilizers
Bio fertilizers are defined as preparations containing living cells or latent cells of efficient strains of
microorganisms that help crop plants uptake of nutrients by their interactions in the rhizosphere when
applied through seed or soil. They accelerate certain microbial processes in the soil which augment the
extent of availability of nutrients in a form easily assimilated by plants. Use of bio fertilizers is one of the
important components of integrated nutrient management, as they are cost effective and renewable source
of plant nutrients to supplement the chemical fertilizers for sustainable agriculture. Several
microorganisms and their association with crop plants are being exploited in the production of bio
fertilizers. They can be grouped in different ways based on their nature and function.
1. N2 fixers:
a. Free living:
i. Aerobic – Azotobacter, Beijerinckia, Anabaena.
ii. Anaerobic – Clostridium, Faultative anaerobic – Klebsiella.
b. Symbiotic: Rhizobium, Frankia, Anabaena, azolla
c. Associative symbiotic: Azospirillum
2. Phosphorus solubilizers:
a. Bacteria: Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas striata, Pseudomonas flouresense
b. Fungi: Penicillium sp. Aspergillus awamori
3. Phosphorus mobilizers:
a. AM fungi
b. Ectomycorrhizal fungi
c. Ericoid Mycorrhiza
d. Orchid mycorrhiza
4. Silicate and Zinc solubilizers: Bacillus sp.
Conclusion
Now a day, reducing soil fertility, soil structure degradation, vulnerating beneficial microbes and insects,
ground water pollution, soil erosion, atmospheric pollution and agriculture produce having chemical
residues, supply of poor-quality produce all pose a greater challenge. Hence, we can overcome these
problems by using Integrated Nutrient Management
References
1. GUPTA, L. M., KUMAR, S., GUPTA, M. AND SHARMA, V., 2013, Integrated nutrient management for growth and yield in
glory lily (Gloriosa superbaL.). J. Med. Plants Res., 43(7): 3197-3201.
2. SINGARAVEL,R., ELAYARAJA, D. AND VISWANATHAN, K., 2016, Effect of integrated nutrient management on the growth
and yield of senna in coastal sandy soil, An Asian J. Soil Sci.,11(1): 187-190.
3. UMESHA, K., SOUMYA, S. P., SMITHA, G. R. AND SREERAMU, B. S., 2011, Influence of organic manures on growth, yield
and quality of makoi (Solanum nigrum L.). Indian J. Hort., 68(2): 235-239.
Introduction
Ripening is the process by which fruits attain their desirable flavour, quality, colour, palatable nature and
other textural properties. From a scientific point of view, fruit ripening is seen as a process in which the
biochemistry and physiology of the organ are developmentally altered to influence appearance, texture,
flavour, and aroma. Ripening is a term applied to fruit that describes the transition from physiological
maturity to senescence. Ripening is associated with change in skin colour, internal flesh softening, aroma
development, changes in composition i.e. conversion of starch to sugar, etc. It begins after fruit has reached
maximum size and is physiologically mature.
Conclusion
Fruit ripening is an important phenomenon in the life cycle of the fruit. After the maturity stage, fruit
transits towards the ripening phase followed by senescence. There are several factors which are responsible
for the deterioration of the fruits after harvesting, Through the chemical regulation of fruit ripening or by
adopting novel technologies, one can prolong the shelf life of fruits with maintained quality which can fetch
premium price in off season.
Burgeoning population with a blend of varied socioeconomic cult has always focused on diet to combat their
energy demand. Feeding the mushrooming people has been priority of every farmer. Dug their life like soil
and nourished the crops with toil. Grinding a way into and out of every catastrophe which could have cease
the food to reach the stomach, our scientists and farmers have put an equal and combined effort dispensing
all golden solutions.
Green revolution during 1960s feeding the mankind had entirely converted the scenario of food demand
and supply. Needless to say, hungry population is now fed sufficiently but the hidden hunger is still
unmarked. Hidden hunger is a situation when food eaten by people are severely lacking vitamins and
minerals and inefficient to meet the nutritional requirement. Essential nutrients are nutrients which are
not synthesized by human body but play a vital role for growth and development and are briefly composed
of vitamins and minerals. Deficiency of various essential nutrients like vit A, zinc and iron are common.
This leads to weaker immune system, impaired eye sight, stunted growth etc. The golden solution to beat
hidden hunger rendered by scientist from lab to land is biofortification.
Biofortification or biologically fortification is defined as the process by which the nutritional quality of food
crops i.e. vitamins and minerals is improved through agronomic practices, conventional plant breeding or
modern biotechnology. On contrary to ordinary fortification, biofortification aims at improving
micronutrients and other essential minerals in plant produce. Thus, this idea of breeding crops enriches
the nutritional value of crops. The plants bred for biofortification follows two main methods.
Selective Breeding
Selective breeding involves selecting a plant identified with good genes combining for desired trait and the
plant is then grown where self-fertilization or cross fertilization is carried out with other plants of similar
phenotype of interest. The plants expressing the phenotype of interest in the F1 generation is chosen to be
parents for the following generation. In this way biofortified seed are collected for large scale production.
This method is mostly accepted at present defeating all controversies regarding genetically engineered
crops. Plant breeders and agricultural scientist toil hard to search seed or germ-plasm banks for persisting
crop varieties to breed them with crops naturally high in nutrients. The crossbreeding is done between
high-nutritional varieties with high yielding ones, to produce a seed with high yielding and enriched
nutritional value.
A concern from nutritionist is important to come out with beneficial produce. The nutritionist corroborates
the efficiency of produce in being absorbed by the consumers, the extent of availability of nutrients affected
by storage, processing and cooking.
Examples:
1. Pro-vitamin-A biofortified- sweet potato(orange sweet potato).
2. Zinc- biofortified – rice (zinc rice).
3. Iron – biofortified – beans.
4. Iron, beta-carotene biofortified- carrot (madhuvan gajar).
Genetic Modification
This technology involves inserting the desirable gene into the genome of an organism. GM plant is produced
when new DNA is inculcated into plant cell to get a desirable trait. GM could involve change in growth and
development of plant, making it disease resistance, changing its traits, making it adoptive to abiotic stress
etc. The new genotype developed through GM restores the desired quality through seeds to be used at
farmer’s field.
Advantages of Biofortification
1. Biofortification crops are rich in essential nutrients, vitamins and minerals to enhance the overall health
of people.
2. These crops are generally high yielding and resilient to pests, diseases and other abiotic stresses.
3. This method of breeding crop can bridge up between food-based, sustainable and low-dose alternative to
nutritional supplementation.
4. The biofortified crops can reach out to poorest of society and local farmers.
5. Nutritional quality doesn’t deteriorate rather restores them throughout making it cost- effective and
sustainable.
6. This can be easily carried out through non-genetically modified method.
7. Bio-Fortified crops can always be accepted as it doesn’t go unethical.
8. Not only for human food but are also highly practiced for fodder crops to nourish animals under animal
husbandry.
Future Perspectives
1. Owing to diversity in food practices and geographical conditions, the prevalence of biofortification needs
to have higher adaptation and consumption rate.
2. Biologically fortified crops need to justify nutritional content of staple crops.
3. Several ways adopted for delivery of biofortified crops must be in easy reach of local farmer for early
adaptation.
4. It has to be more cost effective, playing a pivotal role to offer an alternative to supplementation and
commercial fortification.
5. Government schemes focusing on eradication of malnutrition should be attached and acknowledged by
scientists and bureaucrats to bring up biofortification as alternative solution.
6. The government and private organization should be duly funded and encouraged to carry out the very
breeding methods for scaling up food fortification.
7. Initiatives by individuals and local farmers to be reached out.
8. Biofortification can become a partial solution in efforts to reduce poverty, food insecurity, disease etc.
World Health Organisation (WHO) has issued statistics where near about 2 billion of people worldwide are
suffering owing to malnutrition. Deficiency even after providing with enough food is not only altering the
economy but also affecting the national strength in round. The stink less and rampant adversity behind
curtain i.e. “Hidden hunger” has spread its root deep beneath. To rinse out such problems, a partial but an
effective technique widely accepted is biologically fortifying the agricultural produce or staple crops.
Mankind urging the link for better feed has always been at their doorstep. And to surprise this breeding
technique i.e. biofortification is a joint effort of both scientists at lab and farmers in field.
Soil salinity is one of the most brutal environmental stresses that hamper growth, yield and productivity
of crops in many areas of the world. Worldwide, more than 20% of total cultivated and 33% of irrigated
agricultural lands are afflicted by high salinity stress and the amount is increasing day by day and
increasing @ of 10% annually (Shrivastava and Kumar 2015). Some recent estimates were proved that the
more than 50% of total arable land would be salinized at year 2050 (Jamil et. al., 2011). In India, soil
salinity stress for agriculture crops also a major abiotic stress in different states of country. Gujarat, Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Rajasthan Madhya Pradesh states are most affected to salinity
stress problem due to highest areas of under saline and sodic soils in the country.
Introduction
Salt stress is the accumulation of excessive salt contents in the soil which eventually results in the
inhibition of crop growth and leads to crop death.
Salinity
Salinity is caused due to high accumulation of calcium, Magnesium as well as sodium and then anions such
as SO4-2, NO3-, CO3-2 and HCO3-, Cl- etc. The process of increasing the salt content in soil is known
as salinization.
Conclusion
In India agriculture, salinity stress for agriculture crops also a major abiotic stress in different states of
country. Salinity stress is big problem in India due to high concentration of salts present in irrigation water,
poor agronomic practices and uncertainty of Indian monsoon. Use physiological mechanisms that helps of
plant to survive in salinity stress condition and appropriate use of plant growth hormones also activate
stress tolerance in plants.
References
1. Shrivastava P. and Kumar R. 2015. Soil salinity: A serious environmental issue and plant growth promoting bacteria as one
of the tools for its alleviation. Sau. J. Biol. Sci., 2015, 22, 123–131.
2. Jamil A., Riaz S., Ashraf M., Foolad MR. 2011. Gene expression profiling of plants under salt stress. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci.
2011;30(5):435–458.
“Nothing will benefit human health and increase the chances for survival of life on Earth as much as the
evolution to a vegetarian diet.”
― Albert Einstein
Background
As the world's population increases, the need for reliable protein sources is growing. Meat is considered a
good source of high biological value protein, but meat is not sustainable. In Western countries, the shift
toward a diet with reduced meat consumption demands healthy and tasteful meat-free food products.
Following this trend, the market turned toward vegetable proteins, such as pulses, wheat gluten and soy
protein, which are processed into meat-like products, also known as meat analogues. These products
approximate certain aesthetic qualities, such as texture, flavour, and colour, and nutritional characteristics
of specific types of meat. The development of new, attractive food products is a challenge already, but this
challenge becomes even greater considering that these products are meant as a substitute for meat.
Introduction
Researchers from the University of Bath, the Good Food Institute, and the Center for Long Term Priorities
collaborated on the first quantitative comparison of consumer attitudes towards plant-based and cultivated
meat across China, India, and the U.S. The open-access, peer-reviewed research was recently published in
Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. With over 3,000 participants surveyed, this exploration of market
demand is also the most extensive to date. Here’s what they learned:
There’s a Big Big Big Consumer Base for New Methods of Meat Production
1. The observation: 33 percent of U.S. consumers, 62 percent of Chinese consumers, and 63 percent of
Indian consumers were “very or extremely likely to purchase plant-based meat regularly.” Cultivated meat
clocked in at 30, 59, and 56 percent, respectively.
2. The takeaway: The three most populous countries in the world have robust consumer interest in plant-
based and cultivated meat. Interest in cultivated meat is expected to grow once there is a product on the
market and consumers are more familiar with it.
Are Plant-Based Meat and Fish Healthier than the Real Thing?
With the heightened focus on eating plant-based foods, food manufacturers have been developing plant-
based animal foods. Now, you can find foods like beef, tuna, shrimp and eggs in plant-based form on
supermarket shelves. But are these foods really a healthier alternative to their animal counterparts? Here’s
a comparison between the animal and plant-based alternative these foods.
Beef
1. The Real Thing: Because of increased trimming practices, there are many more cuts of lean beef
available at the market. When a cut is labelled as “lean,” it contains less than 10 grams of fat, 4.5 grams
or less of saturated fat and less than 95 milligrams of cholesterol per 3.5 ounces.
You can tell a steak is lean if you see the words “round” or “loin” in the name such as top sirloin steak, top
loin steak, and tenderloin steak. Beef also provides a healthy dose of 10 nutrients. It’s an excellent source
of protein, vitamin B12, zinc, selenium, niacin, vitamin B6 and phosphorus, and it’s a good source of
riboflavin, iron and choline.
2. Plant-Based Alternative: Two companies, Impossible Foods and Beyond Burgers, sell plant-based beef
that has become popular in supermarkets and in restaurants. Impossible Foods created a plant-based beef
made from soy protein that has the taste and texture like beef. The scientists at Impossible Foods created
a plant-based heme through the fermentation of genetically engineered yeast that helps create that feel of
traditional beef. Beyond Burgers also looks and tastes like a beef burger and even “bleeds” like one.
The protein comes from peas, rice and mung bean, while the fat comes from canola oil, coconut oil, and
cocoa butter. Both Impossible Burger and Beyond Burger have a rather long list of ingredients and vitamins
and minerals that were added in order to have a similar nutrient composition of traditional beef.
Eggs
1. The Real Thing: One egg provides 72 calories and 14 essential nutrients, many of which many Indians
do not get enough of. It also provides 5 grams of fat, 1.5 grams of saturated fat, and 10 grams of protein.
Eggs are known to be the “perfect” protein providing all your essential amino acids.
They are full of vitamins A and D and provide the antioxidant lutein, which helps promote healthy eyes
and skin. Many folks toss the nutrient-packed yolk, but that’s a big no-no. The yolk contains almost half
the protein of the entire egg. It also contains the saturated fat, which has been shown to increase blood
cholesterol. But the small amount of saturated fat found in the yolk can certainly fit into a healthy eating
plan.
2. Plant-Based Alternative: JUST Egg is a plant-based egg that comes in a squeeze bottle. It scrambles
and tastes like eggs. Three tablespoons of JUST egg contain 70 calories, 5 grams of fat and 5 grams of
protein. It’s free of saturated fat, cholesterol and sugar and contains 4% the daily recommended amount of
iron (and 0% of vitamins A and C, and calcium). No other vitamins or minerals are listed on the label.
The ingredient list includes mung bean protein isolate, expeller-pressed canola oil, dehydrated onion, gellan
gum, soy lecithin, sugar, tapioca syrup, tetrasodium pyrophosphate, transglutaminase and nisin.
Introduction
Stress is an altered physiological response of living organisms caused by physical, chemical or biotic
environmental factors that tend to shift their equilibrium away from its optimal thermodynamic state
(Gaspar et al., 2002).
Drought, flooding, high temperature, cold, salinity, and nutrient availability are abiotic factors that have
a significant impact on world agriculture and account for more than 50% reduction in average potential
yields for most major food and fodder crops. These comprise mostly of high temperature (40%), salinity
(20%), drought (17%), low temperature (15%) and other forms of stresses (Ashraf, 2008).
The demand for food and livestock production will continue to rise with the increase in global population.
Therefore, improving production and productivity to ensure sustainable yields under changing
environmental conditions is essential. To achieve this predicted global food security, we need to increase
our understanding of plant responses to abiotic stress. Knowledge of natural selection, stress breeding and
genetic manipulation of plants that can maintain higher photosynthetic rates, better foliage growth and
improved yield under stress conditions are must for achieving this goal.
An appropriate experimental design with a selection of the most sensitive parameters to be measured is a
prerequisite for an effective and time efficient study. Several groups of quantitative or qualitative
parameters exist which have been applied to characterize plant development and growth, physiological
status, symbiotic interactions, stress symptoms, photosynthesis, etc. during or at the end of an
experimental growth period.
1. The simplest and most obvious parameters are: fresh and dry weight, root and shoot biomass production,
root to shoot ratio, leaf area, grain yield, reproductive index. Most of them can be measured by using optical
imaging techniques, e.g., plant height, shoot diameter, leaf number, number of nodes, colour of leaves, the
state of flowering, potting or grain filling, as well as observations of growth morphological dynamics, visible
impacts of stress-based wilting symptoms, senescence, leaf necrosis, and phenotypical variations.
Chlorophyll Stability Index (CSI) and Carotenoids Stability Index (CSI), Relative Water Content (RWC),
Membrane Stability Index (MSI), Water Use Efficiency (WUE), Abscisic acid and proline content,
Photosynthesis (stomatal conductance), Canopy Temperature Depression (CTD), High K+ / Na+ ratio or
low Na+ / K + ratio -for tolerant genotypes. Root aerenchyma formation (RAF), Root volume and Root
length, Antioxidant enzymes, Seedling Vigour Index (SVI), Relative growth rate (RGR). Root to shoot ratio,
Leaf area ratio (LAR), Flag leaf area, Leaf area per plant, leaf Area Index, Net assimilation rate (NAR),
Plant water content. Plant responses characterized by the nutritional status of plant shoots, roots or yield.
Water relations of the plant: leaf water potential, relative water content in leaves, absolute and relative
transpiration rates.
2. Parameters related to photosynthesis measured by destructive methods, such as chlorophyll
concentration or intracellular CO2 concentration in leaves, whereas they are already determined mostly
non-destructively and can be measured several times during an experiment, e.g., chlorophyll fluorescence
measurements SPAD (Soil Plant Analysis Development) units, stomatal conductance or photosynthetic
water use efficiency.
3. Protein, free amino acid, proline, glycin-betaine, soluble sugar and endogenous abscisic acid content of
plant tissues or metabolic fingerprinting values describe plant biochemical processes, and they are
potential stress indicators.
Conclusion
Early detection of stress is critical for precision farming for improving crop productivity and fruit quality.
Sensitivity Analysis for Early Stress Detection, water stress symptoms in the early stage are not visible.
To avoid yield loss, the stress factor must be removed before irreversible damage occurs. Therefore, it is
Reference
1. Ashraf, M., H.R. Athar, P.J.C. Harris and T.R Kwon. 2008. Some prospective strategies for improving crop salt tolerance.
Advantages of Agronomy. 97: 45-110.
2. Chaves MM, Flexas J, Pinheiro C. 2009. Photosynthesis under drought and salt stress: regulation mechanisms from whole
plant to cell. Ann Bot. 103:551–560.
3. Gaspar T, Franck T, Bisbis B, Kevers C, Jouve L, Hausman JF, Dommes J. 2002. Concepts in plant stress physiology.
Application to plant tissue cultures. Plant Growth Regul 37:263–285.
4. Gerhards, Martin Schlerf , Kaniska Mallick and Thomas Udelhoven. 2019. Challenges and Future Perspectives of Multi-
/Hyperspectral Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing for Crop Water-Stress Detection: A Review. Remote Sense.11:2-24.
Introduction
Greenhouses are frames of inflated structure covered with a transparent material in which crops are grown
under controlled environment conditions. Greenhouse cultivation as well as other modes of controlled
environment cultivation have been evolved to create favourable micro-climates, which favours the crop
production could be possible all through the year or part of the year as required. Greenhouses and other
technologies for controlled environment plant production are associated with the off-season production of
ornamentals and foods of high value in cold climate areas where outdoor production is not possible. The
primary environmental parameter traditionally controlled is temperature, usually providing heat to
overcome extreme cold conditions. However, environmental control can also include cooling to mitigate
excessive temperatures, light control either shading or adding supplemental light, carbon dioxide levels,
relative humidity, water, plant nutrients and pest control.
Pest Management
Pest management is an integral part of any greenhouse operation. Pests can include weeds, nematodes,
algae, insects, spiders, diseases, or any unwanted organism that directly or indirectly damages plants.
Many greenhouses use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies to manage their pest problems. In
greenhouse production, the objective is usually to produce undamaged pest-free plants. This allows for
some tolerance of minor insect or mite pest damage. There also may be a preference for the use of nontoxic
or low-toxicity pesticides. This is particularly important in regard to the potential contamination of surface
and groundwater. Financial constraints also play a role in determining the overall objective. All of these
factors significantly affect the selection of pest management tactics.
4. Slugs and Snails: Slugs and snails can become greenhouse pests when the humidity is high. Slugs are
fleshy, slimy animals that feed mainly at night. They prefer cool, moist hiding places during the day. Slugs
rasp on leaves, stems, flowers and roots. They produce holes in the leaves or just scar the leaf surface.
Small seedlings are especially vulnerable to these creatures. Silvery slime trails are evidence of snail and
slug infestations.
Conclusion
Pest management technology under protected environment with emphasis on avoidance and selective use
of pesticides. Safe waiting intervals based on harvest time pesticide residues needed to be established for
the crops under protected environment as this information is lacking completely. Apart from this, emphasis
to improve the awareness level of the growers for timely diagnosis and judicious use of insecticides needs
to be taken up on priority.
Reference
1. Gullino, M.L., Albajes, R. and Nicot, P.C. eds., 2020. Integrated pest and disease management in greenhouse crops. Springer
International Publishing.
2. Pilkington, L.J., Messelink, G., van Lenteren, J.C. and Le Mottee, K., 2010. “Protected Biological Control”–Biological pest
management in the greenhouse industry. Biological Control, 52(3), pp.216-220.
3. Yang, N.W., Zang, L.S., Wang, S., Guo, J.Y., Xu, H.X., Zhang, F. and Wan, F.H., 2014. Biological pest management by predators
and parasitoids in the greenhouse vegetables in China. Biological Control, 68, pp.92-102.
Prayagraj.
3M. Sc. in Agronomy, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Sciences and Technology, Prayagraj.
Introduction
Hydroponics is the farming technique that uses up to 95% less water than traditional agriculture and yet
water is what it relies on instead of soil. Hydroponics does not relay on soil, instead of growing in the earth,
the plants are placed afloat circulating nutrient rich water. The nutrient content in the water is adapted
to the plants need. By changing the nutrient formula, you can grow almost any plant in hydroponics while
using 20 times less water than traditional agriculture. Agricultural flood irrigation in large field loses water
to simple evaporation, runoff, and dispersion beyond the reach of plant roots. The agricultural industry is
changing its practices to be more water-wise, but even the best drip irrigation only cuts flood irrigation
losses by about one-fourth, nothing close to hydroponics and the second resource that is used effectively is
space because all the plants need is provided and maintained in a system, you can grow in your small
apartments or houses as long as you have the spaces.
In the early 1930s, W.F. Gericke of the University of California put laboratory experiments in plant
nutrition on a commercial scale. In doing so, he termed these nutrient culture systems as hydroponics. The
word was derived from two Greek words hydro (“water”) and ponos (“labor”)—literally “water working.”
Hydroponics can be defined as the science of growing plants without the use of soil, but by the use of an
inert medium, such as gravel, sand, peat, vermiculite, pumice, perlite, coco coir, sawdust, rice hulls, or
other substrates, to which is added a nutrient solution containing all the essential elements needed by a
plant for its normal growth and development. Since many hydroponic methods employ some type of medium
it is often termed “soilless culture,” while water culture alone would be true hydroponics.
In future this hydroponic gardening will be very much useful, because population explosion and migration
of people towards urban area increased in the demand for food, shelter, and basic necessities. Because of
this most of the agricultural lands are converted into residential areas, resulted decreased availability of
land for production of agriculture products. Due to the construction of buildings in urban areas led to
shortage of space for cultivation of vegetables, fruits, spices, and other agricultural products. So, using this
hydroponics we can produce more yield in less space. Water is also almost reducing on the earth due to
population and wastage so by using less water also we can produce more. Even labour cost is also increasing
now a days, and in future we may not able to pay labour cost, so hydroponic system will be the best adaption
for growing plants in so many ways as this does not even require too much labour.
Advantage of Hydroponics
1. No soil is required. Your plants will grow in water-based system.
2. Requires less space. In soil the roots have to extend in search of nutrients and water. But in hydroponics
there are no such problems. Since roots don’t have to expand in search for nutrients and oxygen, you can
grow your crops much closer to each other.
3. You can grow your plants anywhere, anytime of the year, regardless of the climate.
4. Nutrients and fertilizers are used in lesser quantities when compared to soil culture.
5. Less labour is required.
6. Can be grown everything in all the locations all over the world. because of this we can eliminate the need
to import many fruits and vegetables from far away countries.
7. No weeding and no herbicides required. As there is no competition the growth of the plant is faster and
healthier too.
8. Another yield increasing factor is lack of pests and diseases. Many diseases are soil borne, so are many
organisms that potentially feed on the plants. No pesticides are used.
Reference
1. HYDROPONICS. How to pick the Best Hydroponic System and Crops for Homegrown Food year – round by Richard Bray.
2. Mamta D. Sardare and Shraddha V. Admane 2013. A review on plant without soil – Hydroponics. International journal of
Research in Engineering and Technology, ISSN: 2319-1163. 2(3), 299-304.
Introduction
Farm mechanization at every stage of crop production is playing a pivotal role in agriculture. Due to which,
there is an augmented yield and labour productivity over conventional agriculture. Skilled drivers are
needed to operate the tractor efficiently with farm machinery. The requirements placed on farm equipment
operators have changed drastically with increase in equipment size, power, multiple functions and speeds
well as monitors reporting on specific system performance involving agricultural operations. These
increasing demands on the operator can result in increased errors in different functions, costs,
environmental problems, and operator fatigue. Automated guidance of agricultural vehicles (tractors,
combines, sprayers, spreaders) by Global positioning systems (GPS) has come up the ranks to relieve the
operator from continuously making steering adjustments while striving to maintain field implement
performance at an acceptable level.
Differential GPS
In agricultural applications, the most common way to counteract GPS errors is by using Differential GPS
(DGPS). In DGPS system, a GPS receiver is placed at an accurately known location on rover. The base
station receiver will calculate the error between its actual location and location computed from GPS signals.
The error information is communicated to the rover receiver being used in the field, which is then able to
correct the position information it computes from the GPS signals. Differential corrections may be used in
real-time or later, with post-processing techniques. Real-time corrections can be transmitted by radio link
or satellite signal. Corrections can be recorded for post processing. A number of public and private agencies
record DGPS corrections for distribution by electronic means.
An improvement over the standard DGPS is Kinematic DGPS or Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS. An RTK
system counts the number of wavelengths of the carrier frequency radio signal between the satellite and
receiver, thereby achieving accuracies of less than one foot. These systems are expensive and require users
to set up and maintain their own base stations; therefore, they are not commonly used in agricultural
applications except for topographic map generation, tractor guidance and accurate placement of crop beds
and drip tubing.
Conclusion
GPS navigation has advantages over conventional marking devices like foam markers and over visual
estimation method for spinner spreaders. GPS with yield monitoring, field mapping, soil sampling etc.
increases efficiency of farm or agribusiness while minimizing adverse environmental impacts associated
with overlapping. GPS also reduces operator fatigue and anxiety during different agricultural operations.
Finally, use of this technology can demonstrate to agricultural community that advanced technology can
be used to farm efficiently and safely. The as-applied maps provided by advanced GPS systems, is the
documentation that applications make at appropriate location and rate. The map enables farmers to look
at field as a group of small zones and determine if the field is uniform or not. This information can improve
efficiency and profitability of the farm.
Reference
1. Pfost, D., Casady, W., and Shannon, K., (1998). Pre¬cision Agriculture: Global Positioning System, WQ-452, University
Extension, University of Mis¬souri-System, Columbia, Mo., http://muextension.mis¬souri.edu/xplor/envqual/wq0452.htm.
2. Precision farming tools: Global positioning system., (2003). VCE publication. 442-503. http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/442-503/.
3. Precision farming tools: GPS Navigation, Virginia Cooperative Extension publication. 442-501. http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/442-501/.
4. Trimble Navigation Limited. (1999). GPS vs. foam mark¬ers: 18 reasons to replace foam markers with AgGPS Parallel
Swathing. http://trl.trimble.com/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-3370/.
Summary
MAGIC population create novel challenges and opportunities in crops because of their complex pedigree
structure. MAGIC population is a good genetic resource population with large phenotypic diversity suitable
for high-resolution trait mapping as this was developed through several generations of intercrossing of
multiple parents.
Multi-parent Advanced Generation Inter-Cross (MAGIC) is a simple extension of the advanced intercross
(Darvasi and soller, 1995). This method was first proposed and applied in mice by Mott et al. (2000). Kover
et al, 2009 first developed and described MAGIC population in Arabidopsis. Multi-parent Advanced
Generation Inter-Cross allows the identification of genes controlling quantitative traits by crossing
different combinations of multiple parents. Multi-parent Advanced Generation Inter-Cross combines high
diversity (from multiple parents) with high recombination. The increased recombination and diversity of
MAGIC population gives greater precision in QTL location and greater opportunity to detect more QTLs.
MAGIC lines derived from early generation can be used for QTL detection and coarse mapping.
Conclusion
Genetic analysis of MAGIC Population is a powerful method to increase the precision of genetic markers
linked to the QTLs. MAGIC populations are likely to bring major changes QTL analysis, gene mapping and
variety development through Marker Assisted Selection in plant breeding.
Fig. 1 Stages in the development of MAGIC Populations for eight founders. A. Founder
selection, B. Mixing of parents, C. Advanced crossing, D. Inbreeding. (Source: Huang et al.,
2015)
Reference
1. Darvasi A, Soller M (1995) Advanced intercross lines, an experimental population for fine genetic mapping. Genetics 141:1199–
1207
2. Huang, B.E., Verbyla, K.L., Verbyla, A.P. et al. (2015) MAGIC populations in crops: current status and future prospects.
Theoretical and Appiled Genetics 128, 999–1017.
3. Kover PX, Valdar W, Trakalo J, Scarcelli N, Ehrenreich IM et al (2009) A multiparent advanced generation inter-cross to
finemap quantitative traits in Arabidopsis thaliana. PLoS Genetics. 5(7):e1000551.
4. Mott R, Talbot CJ, Turri MG, Collins AC, Flint J (2000) A new method for fine-mapping quantitative trait loci in outbred
animal stocks. Proc Natlional Acadamy of Sciences USA .97:12649–12654.
5. Yamamoto E, Iwata H, Tanabata T, Mizobuchi R, Yonemaru J et al (2014) Effect of advanced intercrossing on genome structure
and on the power to detect linked quantitative trait loci in a multiparent population: a simulation study in rice. BMC Genetics.
15:50.
Introduction
To meet the challenges of climate change, ever increasing population, scarce resources and food wastage;
the digitization of agriculture is necessary to attain optimal operations of farm, supply chain, post-harvest
management etc., in India. Digitization or E-agriculture opens up opportunities for non-traditional players
in the agriculture value chain. It provides reliable data for research and policy-making, and the fill the
current information gap. Better data will allow government as well as non-government organisations to
design farmer-friendly policies and planned interventions. It also brings transparency in agricultural
supply chains, removing the huge inequality that exists and guaranteeing adequate income to the farmers.
Digitization Tools
1. Artificial Intelligence.
2. Internet of Things.
3. Big data analytics.
4. Block chain.
5. Cloud computing etc.,
Benefits
1. Improved crop health.
2. Nutritious food products.
3. Better support price for crop.
4. Easiness of production, supply and marketing.
5. Comfort in operation.
6. Retained soil fertility.
7. Forecasts of climate.
8. Boots agriculture finance.
9. Enables real time decision making.
10. Assured credit for farmers and industry.
11. Hassle free marketing.
12. Conservation of ecosystem.
13. Disease resistance of crops.
14. Real time analysis of farming problems.
15. Increased profit.
Conclusion
It requires planning, capacity building, identification of right stakeholders, mechanisms for
implementation and monitoring of digital tools for farms. This technology creates a platform for farmers,
sellers and consumers which reduces costs, improves productivity and quality, reduces risks and creates a
sustainable ecosystem. Digital technologies offer the potential to achieve necessary conditions for scale,
Reference
1. H. Saini, A. Thakur, S. Ahuja, N. Sabharwal and N. kumar, "Arduino base automatic wireless weather station with remote
graphical application and alerts", SPIN,2016 3rd InternationalConference, pp. 978-1-4673-9197-9.
2. Field estimation of soil water content:A Practical guide to methods, Instrumentation and sensor technology,Printed by the
IAEA in Austria,February 2008.
3. N.Putjaika, S.Phusae, A.Shen-Im, P.Phunchongharn, K.Akkarajitsakul,"A control system in an intelligent farming by using
Arduino Technology", ICT-ISPC, 2016 Fifth ICT International, pp.978-1-5090-1125-4, July 2016.
4. Viswanath Naik.S, S.Pushpa Bai, Rajesh.P and Mallik arjuna Naik.B, IOT Based Green House Monitoring System,
International Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering & Technology (IJECET), 6(6), 2015, pp.45-47.
5. Dr. Kavitha, C. Ramesh Gorrepotu and Narendra Swaro op, Advanced Domestic Alarms with IOT,
6. International Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering and Technology, 7(5), 2016, pp. 77–85.
Introduction
Rice is one of the world's most important cereals and more than 50% of the population worldwide consume
it as a staple food. Rice is a Semi-aquatic plant and its productivity is strongly affected by low soil moisture
and drought-like situations. In Asia alone, about 34 million ha of rainfed lowland and 8 million ha of
upland rice are subject to frequent drought stress (Vikram et al., 2011).
The term 'drought' refers to a lack of moisture for an extended period which in turn causes a deficit of
moisture in the soil. It can be defined as the inadequacy of water availability, including precipitation and
soil moisture, in quantity and distribution during the life cycle of a crop plant, which restricts the
expression of the full genetic potential of the plant. Drought is a complex quantitative trait physiologically,
biochemically, and genetically. Shoot and root traits are important determinants to impart drought
tolerance in plants.
The possession of a deep and thick root system, which allows access to water deep in the soil profile, is
considered crucially important in determining drought tolerance in rice. In O. sativa, the growth and
development of the plant are greatly affected by a series of morphological, biochemical, and physiological
changes caused by drought stress (Quinones et al., 2017).
Drought stress restricts rice productivity and generally inhibits its growth by adversely affecting water
absorption and nutrient uptake. However, various management strategies have been proposed to cope with
drought stress.
Conclusion
Drought stress results in lower rice production by altering morphological, biochemical, physiological, and
molecular responses by regulating stress-induced genes and protein functions. As mention above various
strategies can be adopted to combat the drought stress and generate plants having high adaptability along
with high yield. High -throughput tools and techniques including studies in proteomics, transcriptomic,
and metabolomic have been promising to identify drought-regulated genes, transcriptions factors, and
cellular signalling components whose functions are critical in providing stress tolerance to rice. However,
more attention is needed to understand the responses of O. Sativa L to drought stress and its interaction
with other environmental stress for the development of a climate-resilient crop in the future.
Reference
1. Fu, J., Wu, H., Ma, S., Xiang, D., Liu, R. and Xiong L.(2017). Osjaz1 attenuates drought resistance by regulating JA and
ABA signaling in rice. Frontier Plant Science 8 : 2108.
2. Dixit,S., Singh, A., Sandhu, N., Bhandari, A., Vikram,P. And Kumar A.(2017). Combining drought and submergence tolerance
in rice: marker-assisted breeding and QTL combination effects. Molecular Breeding, 37 (12): 143.
3. Fard, E.M., Bakhshi, B., Farsi, M., . Kakhki, A.M., Nikpay, N., and. Ebrahimi, M.A. (2017).micrornas regulate the main
events in rice drought stress response by manipulating the water supply to shoots. Molecular biolsystem,13: 2289-2302.
4. Quinones, C., Mattes, N., Faronilo, J. And Jagadish K.S. (2017). Drought stress reduces grain yield by altering floral meristem
development and sink size under dry-seeded rice cultivation. Crop Science, 4 :2098-2108.
5. Ravikumar, G.,Manimaran, P., Voleti, S.R., Subrahmanyam, D., Sundaram, R.M. and Bansal, K.C. (2014).Stress-inducible
expression of atdreb1a transcription factor greatly improves drought stress tolerance in transgenic Indica Rice. Transgenic
Research, 23 (3): 421-439
6. Vikram, P., Mallikarjuna Swamy, B.P., Dixit, S., Ahmed, H.U., Sta Cruz, M.T., Singh, A.K. and Kumar A. (2011) qdty1.1, a
major QTL for rice grain yield under reproductive-stage drought stress with a consistent effect in multiple elite genetic
backgrounds. BMC Genetics, 12: 89
7. Zhang, Z.F., Li, Y.Y. and Xiao B.Z.(2016). Comparative transcriptome analysis highlights the crucial roles of photosynthetic
system in drought stress adaptation in upland rice. Science Report , 6.
8. Zhong, C., Cao, X., Hu, J.,. Zhu, L., Zhang, J. And Huang, J.(2017). Nitrogen metabolism in adaptation of photosynthesis to
water stress in rice grown under different nitrogen levels. Frontier Plant Scienc.
Introduction
Crop Diversification and Intensification is the third principle of Conservation Agriculture based
Sustainable Intensification. Generally, Crop diversification is to alternatively sow different crops in a
sequence in the same piece of land in the same year to next year. Crop intensification is that instead of
sowing one crop, two crops are sown and instead of two crops, three crops are sown in a sequence in same
year.
Conclusion
Lastly, the community of food can be increased. If rice is grown year after year, problems get increased but
with diversification of crop there would be no storage problem and better-quality food and security is
obtained. So, these are the benefits of Crop diversification and adopting this is the only sustainable option
for Indian agriculture. The linkage of Crop diversification with Conservation Agriculture based Sustainable
Intensification is that it is an integral part and principle of Conservation Agriculture based Sustainable
Intensification. If all the three aspects of Conservation Agriculture based Sustainable Intensification like
Zero Tillage Technology, Crop Residue Retention and Crop Diversification are followed then the overall
holistic benefits derived out of this would have a large-scale impact on soil, environment, system, crop
productivity, natural resources and more importantly our farmers get benefitted immensely.
Reference
1. Ali, M. 2004. Role of pulses in crop diversification In: Pulses in New Perspective, Edits: Ali, M. Singh, B. B., Kumar, S. and
Dhar, V.) ISPRD, Kanpur Pp 245-259.
2. Eskanda, H. and Kazemi, K. 2011.Weed control in maize-cowpea intercropping system related to environmental resources
consumption. NotulaeScientiaBiologicae 3(1):57-60.
3. Gangwar, B. and Singh, A. K. 2011.Efficient alternative cropping systems. Project Directorate for Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut, India, Pp. 339.
4. Jha, B., Kumar, N. and Mohanty, B. 2009. Pattern of agricultural diversification in India. Institute of Economic Growth
University of Delhi. Working Paper Series, Pp. 302.
5. Kar, S.K., Handa, A.K. and Uma. 20. Area under agroforestry in India: An Assessment for present status and future
perspective. Indian Journal of Agroforestry 15(1): 164–187.
6. Palsaniya, D.R., Kumar, S. and Chaudhary, M. 2013. Crop planning and management in agroforestry. pp. 206– 209. In:
Agroforestry, theory and practices Raj, A.J. and Lal, S.B. (Eds), Scientific Publishers, India.
7. Swami, S. L. and Puri S. 2005.Biomass production and C-sequestration of Gmelinaarborea in plantation and agroforestry
system in India. Agroforestry systems 64(3):181-195.
Introduction
India is the second-largest producer of fruits in the world after china. Due to diverse agro-climatic
conditions, many tropical, subtropical and temperate fruits are being cultivated in India. Large-scale
cultivation of some important fruit crops has been impeded due to the unavailability of quality planting
material. Thus, the micropropagation is a proven means of producing millions of clonal, true-to-type quality
plants through a variety of tissue and cell culture methods. Micropropagation implies the aseptic culture
of small sections of plant tissues and organs such as leaf, stem, seed, etc., in a closed vessel with defined
culture medium and under controlled environmental conditions. The technique has been referred to as
micropropagation because of the size of the tissue in culture medium is smaller than the conventional
method. The size of meristem tissue used for in vitro raised plants is about 0.1-0.5 mm, having only one or
two leaf primordia. Micropropagation is the most popular and widely commercialized global application of
plant biotechnology in horticulture for production of disease-free elite planting material. A large number
of plants are being cloned and exploited commercially worldwide through micropropagation.
Types of Micropropagation
1. Regeneration from existing meristems: This is also termed as axillary shoot proliferation. The
existing meristems including shoot tip or nodal bud are cultured on the various types of media fortified
with different plant hormones, alone or in combination. Generally, shoot proliferation depends on the kind
of growth regulator used. For axillary shoot proliferation, the mostly used plant hormones are kinetin,
benzyl aminopurine (BAP) and 2-isopentenyl adenine (2-ip). The regenerants are considered to be
genetically stable. Normally, the process of shoot tip culture is more successful in banana
micropropagation.
2. Regeneration from adventitious meristems: Shoot multiplication (either directly or via callus
formation) can be obtained through inducing adventitious shoot production on mature plant organs like
leaves, stems, and roots. For the initiation of adventitious meristems, a proper combination of hormones is
required in the culture medium. In general, shoots are formed when a high ratio of cytokinin to auxin is
present, and the reverse is true for root formation. The plants regenerated through this method are not
always genetically stable, because of the formation of mixoploids.
3. Regeneration by Somatic Embryogenesis: The somatic embryos are bipolar structures that possess
both shoot and root meristem and originate from somatic or/and vegetative cells. It requires a high level of
auxin in culture medium for induction, followed by low auxin and cytokinin concentration in the culture
medium. Somatic embryos may arise directly on explants or liquid suspension cultures or through callus
formation. The somatic embryos may act as synthetic seeds after encapsulation, which is an attractive
alternative for the propagation of plants. Embryos developed via tissue culture techniques are mixed with
sodium alginate and dropped with a pipette into a calcium salt like calcium chloride solution to form
calcium alginate capsules. The capsules are washed with the help of water and then placed on a culture
medium for germination. Artificial seeds have been produced in some fruit crops like kiwi fruit banana,
mango, citrus, olive, and apple.
Advantages of Micropropagation
1. It may produce disease-free plant material with the possibility of eliminating viral, fungal, and bacterial
contamination.
2. The ability to safely transport or store large quantities of plant material quickly, efficiently and relatively
inexpensively.
3. Round the year availability of plants irrespective of seasonal constraints.
4. Fast and large-scale multiplication of true-to-type planting material in a short time period.
5. It may help in the conservation of plant diversity
6. It is highly beneficial in dioecious fruit plants such as date palm and papaya, where the production of
female plants in a large scale is possible.
7. Very small pieces of plant tissues and organs are needed to initiate aseptic cultures.
8. It is applicable to many such plant genotypes for which in vivo vegetative propagation is difficult or
impossible.
Disadvantage of Micropropagation
1. Its facilities are very costly.
2. It required highly technical skills to carry out different procedures.
3. If once pathogens appear in the system, multiply at a very fast rate and deteriorate the entire culture.
4. Some plants such as mango, date palm, coconut, etc. having high levels of phenols which usually do not
respond to micropropagation.
5. The establishment of in vitro raised plants in the field is a very difficult and challenging task.
Conclusion
In the very fast developing scenario of biological science, the in vitro propagation has taken lead as the
most promising areas of application of biotechnological tools in horticulture. The rapid production of
uniform, high quality and disease-free elite planting material is only possible through micropropagation.
Plant production can be carried out throughout the year irrespective of seasonal constraints. Shoot culture
with the proliferation of axillary shoots is a reliable and simple method of in vitro propagation to maintain
the genetic integrity of clones. Meristem culture is widely used to obtain virus- and disease-free plants.
Recently, methods of regenerating adventitious shoots or embryos from explants, callus or protoplasts have
met with increasing success with fruit crops and may have the potential for rapid propagation, provided
genetic integrity of the micro propagated plants with respect to the mother plants is retained.
Reference
1. Bhojwani S.S., Dantu P.K. (2013). Micropropagation, (In) Plant Tissue Culture: An Introductory Text. Springer, India, 245-
274.
2. Debnath S.C. (2003). Micropropagation of small fruits, (In) Micropropagation of Woody Trees and Fruits, (eds.) Jain S.M. and
Ishii K. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 465-506.
3. Kajla S., Poonia A.K., Kharb P. and Duhan J.S. (2013). R ole of Biotechnology for Commercial Production of Fruit Crops, (In)
Biotechnology: Prospects and Applications (ed.) Salar R.K., Gahlawat S.K. Siwach P. and Duhan J.S. Springer, 27-37.
4. Loberant B. and Altman A. (2010). Micropropagation of plants, (In) Encyclopedia of Industrial Biotechnology: Bioprocess,
Bioseparation, and Cell Technology (ed.) Michael C. Flickinger. John Wiley & Sons, 1-17.
5. Mishra M., Chandra R., Tiwari R.K., Pati R. and Pathak R.K. (2005). Micropropagation of Certain Underutilized Fruit Crops:
A Review. The Haworth Press, 4(4): 1-13.
Introduction
Difference between Locusts and Grasshoppers: Locusts are members of the grasshopper family
Acrididae, which includes most of the short-horned grasshoppers. Locusts differ from grasshoppers because
they have the ability to change their behaviour and physiology, in particular their colour and shape
(morphology) in response to changes in density. Adult locusts can form swarms which may contain
thousands of millions of individuals and which behave as a unit. The non-flying nymphal or hopper stage
can form bands. A band is a cohesive mass of hoppers that persists and moves as a unit. In general, most
grasshoppers do not form bands or true swarms.
Tree locust have never been known to form bands and some of the grasshoppers do form bands (e.g.
Melanoplus, Acridoderes, Hieroglyphus sp.) or small loose swarms (e.g. Oedaleus senegalensis). At high
densities, Senegalese grasshoppers show incipient gregarious behaviour, with a clear tendency to form
hopper bands and swarms. This gregarious behaviour has been reported several times, with respect to
hopper instars, by (Joyce ,1952).
During December, 2019 numerous immature swarms continued to form in west Rajasthan, Bikaner,
Jodhpur, Nagaur, Suratgarh districts of Rajasthan and Bhuj, Rann of Kutch of Gujarat area and treated
1,60,228 ha. Total 3,08,802 ha area has been treated in SDA of India up to 30th December, 2019 (FAO,
2020).
Swarm Formation
The first swarms usually form some tens or even hundreds of kilometres downwind from the main laying
area. Swarms can occur as low-flying sheets (stratiform) or the locusts may pile high in the air
(cumuliform), similar to hanging curtains, with the top level as much as 1500 m above ground. Stratiform
swarms are flat, usually tens metres deep, and often occur during cool, overcast weather or in the late
afternoon.
Cumuliform swarms are associated with convective updrafts on hot afternoons, especially common during
the warmer and drier months of the year. Swarm densities vary considerably. The generally accepted figure
for an average medium-density settled swarm is about 50 million locusts/km2 (50 locusts/m2) whereas the
range is 20-150 million/km2. Swarms spend the night roosting in vegetation. At sunrise, they descend to
the ground and warm up by basking in the sun.
By mid-morning, swarms take off and will often continue flying until just before sunset when they land
and feed. If the weather is unusually hot, swarms may settle at midday before flying off again in the
afternoon. A 1 km² size swarm contains about 40 million locusts, which eat the same amount of food in one
day as about 35,000 people, 20 camels or 6 elephants (Zhang et.al., 2019).
Conclusion
Locusts are not dangerous as long as they are individual hoppers or small isolated groups of insects, what
is call as solitary phase as all Locusts are grasshopper but not all grasshoppers are Locusts , a transition
in their behavioural ethology is observed based on number of factors like grazing, serotonin level, presence
of fatty acids as energy sources etc.
Phytoplasma
Phytoplasmas are obligate parasites of plant phloem tissues. Phytoplasmas are cell wall less organism. size
of the phytoplasma is ranges from 0.1µm to 0.8 µm diameter. It has pleomorphic or filamentous shape.
Phytoplasmas are very difficult to identify because of their erratic distribution and low concentration in
the phloem of infected plant.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 24 April 2020, Friday (On the occasion of Panchayati-raj day) launch of
e-Gram Swaraj and Swamitva App. A portal for the e-Gram Swaraj has also been launched by the
government of India. Purpose of this portal to strengthen e-Governance in Panchayati Raj Institutions
(PRIs) across the country, Ministry of Panchayati Raj (MoPR) has launched e-Gram Swaraj, a user-friendly
web-based portal. E-Gram Swaraj aims to bring in better transparency in the decentralised planning,
progress reporting and work-based accounting. The scheme is to be initially launched in six states namely
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Uttarakhand and Madhya Pradesh.
Introduction
Goat is considered as the first ruminant to be domesticated by human beings between 10000 and 6000
years before Christ (BC) in South-western Asia. Goat significantly contributed to the national economy by
providing, meat, milk, skin, fibres, manure etc. Goats also contributed appreciably to nutritional security
of rural livelihood by providing animal protein through meat and milk. In India, about 24 breeds of goats
have been identified phenotypically and registered at National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources,
Karnal.
Goats are generally managed under extensive production system followed by semi intensive production
system, where only night shelter is provided. However, now-a-days farmers are taking more interest for
rearing under intensive production system for commercial purposes.
Goat rearing in India has certain limitations such as lack of genetic improvement programme, lack of
health care facilities, limited feed and fodder resources and marketing problems etc. In addition, inefficient
and inappropriate production systems along with poor strategies for improved natural resource
management and inadequate support have led to low productivity of small ruminants. The level of adaption
of breeding, feeding and nutrition and health related techniques by the farmers are not satisfactory.
Goat Manure
Manure are the excreta of the animals and bedding materials of the animals. Goat manure is great for
fertilizing to the fields. An average goat produces over a ton of manure every year, and the feces are in
pellet form, which makes them easy to handle. Goat manure is a good source of NPK possibly other minerals
as well. Goat manure helps maintain the soil fertility. Goat urine is equally rich in both nitrogen and
potash, and is more valuable than that of any other animal. Goat manure fetches ready cash to the owner.
He usually leaves the goat to graze on stubbles in the field and is paid by the farmer for his field being
thereby manured. It is said that one hectare of land receives a sufficient dressing of manure if 4800 goats
are folded there for a night. Goat manure is 2.5 times richer in nitrogen and phosphoric acid than cow
manure.
Goat Skin
The outer coverings of small domestic animals and wild animals are called skins. Skins are smaller in size,
thinner in substance and lighter in weight than hides. The maximum numbers of goat skins are produced
in India due to an annual removal of goat of approx. 45%. The finest quality skins for the leather industry
are obtained from the Black Bengal goat, and are exported to many countries, particularly to the USA,
where they are mostly used in the shoe industry.
Goat skins are of two types viz. Amritsar and Calcutta. The former is used as lining for shoes and the latter
are used for shoe uppers. The importance of goat leather is well known in spite of the fact that their
availability is less than 10% of total leather production. The classic glazed kid leather is among the best in
Harvesting of Pashmina
Pashmina fibres can be collected during spring moulting season when animals naturally shed their winter
coat. On the basis of weather conditions and region, the goats start moulting over a period from Feb to late
May. In India combing is the major way of harvesting Pashmina. Since combing and manual separation is
labour intensive so combing is sometimes replaced by shearing. Shearing followed by mechanical dehairing
has become a common practice in Australia and New Zealand but in Iran the process of shearing was
combined with laborious manual dehairing. In India combing/shearing followed by laborious manual
dehairing was a common practice but has now changed to combing/ shearing followed by machine dehairing
on the modified cotton cards.
Utilization of Pashmina
Pashmina is utilized for the development of aesthetic products like Knitwear in Scotland, woven fabrics as
blends in Italy and Switzerland. After spun into yarns, pure Pashmina can be knitted into jumpers, hats,
gloves, socks and other clothing or woven into fabrics than cut and assembled into garments such as outer
coats, jackets, pants, pajamas, scarves, blankets and other items. However, in India, majority of Pashmina
is utilized for preparation of shawls in Kashmir valley. The shawl preparation is hand woven only and
involving labour in sorting, spinning and weaving on specified handlooms.
Goat Mohair
It is produced by Angora goat and similar to the wool in chemical composition, but differ in mohair fibre
are smoother surface and non-insulating used for summer cloth. It is more lustre than wool and also 2 to
2.5 times stronger than wool. Mohair is also known as Diamond fibre. Mohair is warm in winter as it has
excellent insulating properties, while remaining cool in summer due to its moisture wicking properties. It
is durable, naturally elastic, flame resistant and crease resistant.
Utilization of Mohair
Mohair is used in scarves, winter hats, suits, sweaters, coats, socks and home furnishing. Mohair fibre is
also found in carpets, wall fabrics, craft yarns, and many other fabrics, and may be used as a substitute for
fur. Mohair is a very soft yarn when compared with other natural and synthetic fibres.
Conclusion
Sheep & Goat farming has huge scope and demand in India as purchasing power of majority of people is
increasing. Goat provides nutritious milk, meat, mohair, pashmina with good fertilizing manure, whereas
sheep provides meat, wool, pelt & faeces with high fertilizing capacity. Hence small ruminant rearing has
a great promise as source of income and employment and livelihood security of resource poor rural people
throughout the country in general and the arid and semi-arid regions in a particular. However, there is a
need for appropriate policy and institution for transfer of need based technologies, linking with
smallholders with the market, value addition and safeguards mechanism in face of increased competition
due to globalization and climate change.
Introduction
Pasteuria penetrans is an endospore-forming bacterium that persists in the soil until a suitable nematode
host encounters the spore (Bekal et al., 2001). The Pasteuria spores adhere to the nematode cuticle (outer
surface), infect the nematode and develop inside of the nematode body. The endospores produced by
Pasteuria spp. are both a resting propagule, highly resistant to adverse conditions such as high
temperature or desiccation, and an infective stage responsible for the parasite horizontal transmission
(Aurelio 2018). Pasteuria spp. are probably the best characterized endosymbionts of plant-parasitic
nematodes against which shown a great potential as biological control agent.
Mass Multiplication
The most common method of mass multiplying was developed by Stirling and Wachtel (1980).
1. J2 of Meloidogyne spp. encumbered with at least 4-5 spores per J2 are inoculated on tomato plants.
2. The roots are harvested after 45-50 days and air dried for at least 2 days.
3. The dried roots are then ground in a willey mill to obtain root powder containing spores, which is then
used as inoculum.
References
1. Aurelio C., (2018). Biocontrol potential of Pasteuria spp. for the management of plant parasitic nematodes CAB International.
2. Bekal, S., Borneaman, J., Springer, M., S., Giblin-Davis, R., M. and Becker, J. O., (2001). Phenotypic and molecular analysis
of a Pasteuria strain parasitic to the sting nematode. J. Nematol., 33: 110–115.
3. Mankau, R., Imbriani, J., L. and Bell, A. H., (1976). SEM observations on nematode cuticle penetration by Bacillus penetrans.
J. Nematol., 8: 179–181.
4. Stirling, G., R., Bird, A., F. and Cakurs., A., B., (1986). Attachment of Pasteuria panetrans spores to the cuticle of root-knot
nematodes. Revue. Nematol ., 9: 251–260.
5. Swarnakumari, N., Umamaheswari, R. and Sivakumar, C. V., (2016). An in-vivo method for mass multiplication of bacterial
parasite, Pasteuria penetrans of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne sp. Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems., 22(1):
80-83.
Introduction
Rhizoctonia solani described by Julius Kuhn on potato in 1858. It is a basidiomycete fungus that does not
produce any asexual spores (called conidia) and occasionally produce sexual spores (basidiospores). It
reproduces asexually and exists primarily as vegetative mycelium and/or sclerotia. Cells lack clamp
connections, but possess a complex dolipore septum and multinucleate. It does not produce conidial
structure, and produce ellipsoid to globose barrel shaped cells named moilioid cells produced in chains and
can give rise to sclerotia. Sclerotia are irregularly shaped, and light to dark brown in colour. It is a
heterogeneous species, with different anastomosis group varying in cultural, morphology and
pathogenicity.
R. solani is a soil borne pathogen having broad host range, causing diseases of cereals, pulses, vegetables,
turf grasses, ornamentals, and fruit and forest trees. It causes 20% yield loss in India and 50% in Asia
solely due to sheath blight (Sridevi et. al., 2009). Yield loss in China due to sheath blight 1.092 × 106 tonnes
(Huang et al, 2009. The Mutinucleate Rhizoctonia spp. included 14 AG of which AG 1-4 were strong
pathogen and AG 6-10 were orchid mycorrhizae. Binucleate Rhizoctonia spp. divided into 19 AGs named
as AG-A to AG-S (Ogoshi et. al., 1983; Sneh et. al., 1991).
Symptoms
R. solani primarily attacks underground plant parts such as the seeds, hypocotyls, and roots, but is also
capable of infecting above ground plant parts (e.g. pods, fruits, leaves and stems).The most common
symptoms are damping-off of seedlings, but the pathogen can also cause seedling stem canker ('soreshin'
in tobacco and cotton); root lesions (brown patch in lawns and turf); affect tubers (potato – 'black scurf'),
bulbs, and corms; and rots on fruits and pods lying on or close to the soil (tomatoes, eggplant, and beans).
Microscopic Identification
For microscopic identification pathogen Isolate on a suitable nutrient medium and microscopically
examined the hyphal structures. For isolation of Rhizoctonia solani 3 different methods used:
1. Plant debris particles isolation method.
2. Colonization method using stem segments of Flax, buckwheat and table beet seeds.
3. Soil-pellet method.
Fluorescence Microscopy
The number of nuclei present in each cell of Rhizoctonia spp. used for identification and differentiation
through fluorescence microscopy, using the DNA-binding dye 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) used
to determine number of nuclei / hyphal cell. Differentiate R. solani, from R. cerealis as R. solani is
multinucleate and R. cerealis is binucleate. Lacuna associated with this is time required to induce sufficient
mycelial growth for staining. Advantages of microscopic identification is simple and disadvantages is
accurate identification of R. solani is difficult due to absence of spores.
Immuno-Detection
Dunsunceli & Fox (1992) developed ELISA for detecting range of AG. Then mouse monoclonal antibodies
(mAbs) and rabbit (polyclonal) antiserum were used to develop DIAGNOSTIC-ELISA, double-antibody-
sandwich-ELISA (DAS-ELISA), DIP STICK and immunofluorescence colony staining immunoassays for
the specific detection of Rhizoctonia solani in soil by Thoronton et.al 1999.mAbs were raised against AG 4
isolate of R,solani. The advantage is DIP-STICK techniques useful in R.solani detection under field
conditions and disadvantage is monoclonal antibodies raised against an AG-4 isolate of R.solani also
recognized AG-3 isolates and teleomorph T.cucumeris and it cross-react by ELISA, with antigens from
R.cerealis.
Soil where pathogen is at low or dormant, earlier immunoassays ineffective and it does not allow recovery
of fungus for further analyses so Thoronton et.al 1999 developed method for detection and recovery of R
solani in naturally infested glasshouse soils using a combined baiting double monoclonal antibody ELISA.
Advantage is detecting only live propagules of fungus, and inclusion of baiting step allowed accumulation
of fungus to a level detectable by ELISA.
Conclusions
Microscopic methods are simple and cost effective, but cumbersome and require taxonomic expertise.
Immunological techniques demonstrated to be sensitive, simple, rapid and cost-effective and can be
automated for large scale applications. The nucleic acid-based test such as PCR, Real time PCR are
reliable, specific and sensitive for detection and quantification of pathogen. Spectroscopy and imaging-
based techniques indirectly detect pathogen but detects at advanced stages.
References
1. Bounou, S., Jabaji-Hare, S. H., Hogue, R., & Charest, P. M. (1999). Polymerase chain reaction-based assay for specific detection
of Rhizoctonia solani AG-3 isolates. Mycological Research. 103(1), 1-8.
2. Hillnhutter C, Mahlein AK, Sikora RA, Oerke EC (2012).Use of imaging spectroscopy to discriminate symptoms caused by
Heterodera schachtii and Rhizoctonia solani on sugar beet. Precision Agriculture. 13:17–32.
3. Lees AK, Cullen DW, Sulliva L, & Nicolson MJ (2002). Development of conventional and quantitative real time PCR assays
for the detection and identification of Rhizoctonia solani AG3 in potato and soil. Plant Pathology, 51, 293–302.
4. Thornton CR, Deweya FM, Gilligan A (1993).Development of monoclonal antibody-based immunological assays for the
detection of live propagules of Rhizoctonia solani in soil. Plant Pathology. 42:763-773.
5. Woodhall JW, Adams IP, Peters JC (2013). A new quantitative real-time PCR assay for Rhizoctonia solani AG3-PT and the
detection of AGs of Rhizoctonia solani associated with potato in soil and tuber samples in Great Britain. Eur J Plant Pathol.
136:273–280.
Introduction
In past few decades, the gaseous composition of earth’s atmosphere is undergoing a significant change,
mainly due to increase in emissions from energy, industry and agriculture sectors and widespread
deforestation practices. These anthropogenic activities have increased the concentration of the atmospheric
‘greenhouse gases’ (GHGs) viz. carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) (Table 1).
Table 1: Sources and Concentrations of Major Greenhouse Gases Source: IPCC (2007)
Greenhouse gas Major sources Pre- Current Global Atmospheric
industrial concentration Warming Lifetime
concentration (ppb) Potential, (years)
(ppb) 100-year
time
horizon
Carbon Dioxide Fossil fuel 290,000 380,000 1 100
(CO2) combustion;
Deforestation;
Cement
production
These greenhouse gases (GHGs) trap the outgoing infrared radiations from the earth’s surface. Thus, raises
the atmosphere temperature. According to Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the
global mean annual temperature was observed higher by 0.40 -0.76°C at the end of the 20th century than
that of the end of the 19th century due to increased concentration of greenhouse gases (IPCC, 2007). The
global mean annual temperature will likely be higher by 0.3-0.7°C for the period 2016-2035 relative to
1986-2005 due to the greenhouse effect (IPCC, 2014).
Increase in GHG concentration will lead to global changes in the climate-related parameters such as
rainfall, soil moisture, and sea level. Recent observations have shown an increase in number of hot days,
hot nights and heat wave events. Changing climate will certainly have impact on agricultural production.
Conclusions
Global climate change and increasing climatic variability are likely to aggravate the problems of future
food security by exerting pressure on agriculture. If not managed properly, climate change could seriously
compromise the ability of the agriculture sectors to feed the world, and severely undermine progress toward
eradicating hunger, malnutrition and poverty.
References
1. Aggarwal, P.K., Singh, A.K., Samra, J.S., Singh, G., Gogoi, A.K., Rao, G.G.S.N. and Ramakrishna, Y.S., 2009. Introduction-In
Global Climate Change and Indian Agriculture. Ed: PK Aggarwal, ICAR, New Delhi, pp.1-5.
2. IPCC (2014) ‘Summary for policymakers. In Climate change, mitigation of climate change. Contribution of Working Group III
to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. pp. 1–31. (Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA).
3. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2007) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution
of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Eds: S Solomon, D Qin, M Manning, Z Chen, M Marquis,
KB Averyt, M Tignor, HL Miller. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 996 p.
4. Pathak, H., Ladha, J.K., Aggarwal, P.K., Peng, S., Das, S., Singh, Y., Singh, B., Kamra, S.K., Mishra, B., Sastri, A.S.R.A.S.
and Aggarwal, H.P., 2003. Trends of climatic potential and on-farm yields of rice and wheat in the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Field
Crops Research, 80(3), pp.223-234.
Conclusions
Fungi are eukaryotic highly diverged important organism for evolutionary studies. The mating type is
important for fungi to evolve and reproduce through sexual reproduction. Mating type locus known to have
highly conserved domain throughout fungal kingdom and these will help in understanding few questions
to answer.
Why primitive lower fungi are mostly homothallic, whereas higher ascomycetes and basidiomycetes are
heterothallic? How fungi transit from saprophytic to pathogenic upon interaction with host plant?
Morphological changes are critical for plant pathogenic fungi for penetration, infection and host
colonisation. In response to environmental signals morphological changes occur at specific stages of their
pathogenic cycle and are mediated by transcription factors.
Histone deacetylases play crucial roles in regulating gene expression and has been reported that play
important roles in the virulence of plant fungi. Recently, reported that Hos2 one of the histone deacetylase
is required for the dimorphic switch and pathogenic development in U. maydis. This will help in managing
the disease by deactivation of Hos 2 leads to termination of dimorphic switch from saprobic to pathogenic
development in U. maydis.
References
1. Alberto, E. V., Alfonso, F. Á. and Ismael, M. S. (2015). The Hos2 Histone Deacetylase Controls Ustilago maydis virulence
through direct regulation of Mating-Type Genes. PLOS Pathogens.11:228-236.
2. Banuett, F. (2007). History of the mating types in Ustilago maydis. ASM Press, Washington, DC. p. 351–375.
3. Banuett, F., and Herskowitz, I. (1989). Different a alleles of Ustilago maydis are necessary for maintenance of filamentous
growth but not for meiosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 86:5878- 5882
4. Bortfeld, M., Auffarth, K. and Basse, C. W. (2004). The Ustilago maydis a2 mating-type locus genes lga2 and rga2 compromise
pathogenicity in the absence of the mitochondrial p32 family protein Mrb1. Plant Cell. 16:2233–2248.
5. Fedler, M., Luh, K.S., and Basse, C.W. (2009). The a2 mating-type locus genes lga2 and rga2 direct uniparental mitochondrial
DNA (mtDNA) inheritance and constrain mtDNA recombination during sexual development of Ustilago maydis. Genetics.
181:847–860.
6. Galgoczy, D. J., Cassidy-Stone, A., Llinas, M., O’Rourke, S. M., Herskowitz, I., DeRisi, J. L. and Johnson. A. D. (2004). Genomic
dissection of the cell-type-specification circuit in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 101:18069–18074.
7. Galitski, T., Saldanha, A. J., Styles, C. A., Lander, E. S. and Fink, G. R. (1999). Ploidy regulation of gene expression. Science.
285:251–254.
8. Haber, J. E. (2003). Mating-type gene switching in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Annu. Rev. Genet. 32:561–599.
9. Hanna, W. F. (1929). Studies in the physiology and cytology of Ustilago zeae and Sorosporium reilianum. Phytophathology.
19:415–443.
Introduction
Among temperate fruits, apple (Malus × domestica Borkh., family Rosaceae) is the most important and
nutritious fruit crops in the world. According to FAOSTAT of the United Nations, in 2018 about 86 million
tonnes of apple were produced worldwide. India ranks seventh in total apple production (2.37 million
tonnes) with a productivity of about 7.7 MT/Ha.
According to National Horticultural Board of Department of Agriculture Cooperation and farmer’s Welfare,
Govt. of India, in 2017-18 in India, among the major apple producing regions, Jammu & Kashmir is by far
the largest producer of apple, contributing 77.71% of total apple production in India, followed by Himachal
Pradesh (19.19%) and Uttarakhand (2.52%). But due to the prevalent agricultural practices, healthy apple
trees are being infected by a number of viral and sub-viral pathogens like Apple mosaic virus (ApMV),
Apple stem pitting virus (ASPV), Apple chlorotic leafspot virus (ACLSV), Apple stem grooving virus (ASGV)
and Apple scar skin viroid (ASSVd). Among these, Apple stem pitting virus (ASPV) is a major constraint
for apple production, causing latent infection alone or mixed infection with other latent viruses of apple
such as Apple chlorotic leafspot virus (ACLSV).
Need of Detection
1. Symptomless infection: It is very difficult to detect the ASPV infection at the very early stage as many
commercial apple cultivars remain symptomless, though susceptible cultivars of different pome fruit
species (apple, quince, pear) and indicator plants exhibit various kinds of symptoms such as xylem pitting,
epinasty and decline in apple, chlorotic veinal bending, red mottling, stony pit in pear, chlorotic spots on
leaves, epinasty and deformation of leaves along with longitudinal grooving on the xylem in Pyronia
veitchii, black sooty lines and rings around veins, chlorotic spots on leaves, and fruit malformation having
depressions and bumps in quince (Desvignes et. al., 1999; Paunovic, 1995).
Small localized necrotic lesions can be seen on N. occidentalis plants 4-7 days after inoculation followed by
systemic vein yellowing, veinal necrosis, and necrosis of leaf partly or as a whole.
2. Geographical Distribution: ASPV occurs throughout the world wherever its infected hosts apple,
pear, quince etc. are grown.
3. Diseases: ASPV causes many diseases either alone or in association with other latent viruses such as
apple stem pitting disease, apple green crinkle disease, star crack disease of apple, pear stony pit, pear
vein yellowing disease, quince fruit deformation and top working disease of apple.
Detection Techniques
1. Biological Indexing: For indexing of ASPV, field inoculation of indicator plants such as 'Virginia crab'
and 'Spy 227' (Malus pumila), 'Jules d' Airolles', 'Beurrre Bosc' and 'Doyenne du Comice' (Pyrus communis)
and Pyronia veitchii is still the standard procedure. But since field indexing requires lot of time and space,
and also shows variable or no symptoms from year to year due to uncontrolled environmental conditions,
it is advised to conduct indexing under controlled conditions in a greenhouse as it can considerably increase
the accuracy, efficiency, and economy.
2. Laboratory techniques:
a. Electron microscopy: Hibino and Schneider (1971) demonstrated the presence of filamentous
virus particles in the leaves of pear trees with vein yellows by electron microscopy. Later on, Yanase
et. al., (1989) detected a sap-transmissible, 800 nm x 12-15 nm flexuous particles in pear necrotic
spot, pear vein yellows, and apple stem pitting diseased plants.
b. Serological techniques: After the development of polyclonal antibodies, a number of detection
techniques such as ISEM, PTA-ELISA, western blot and dot blot analysis could be possible
(Jelkmann et. al., 1992; Jelkmann and Keim-Konrad, 1997; Paunovic et. al., 1999). Now monoclonal
antibodies have also been developed for accurate detection of ASPV in DAS-ELISA (Gugerli and
Ramel, 2004). The advantages are fast, reliable and specific with a sensitivity of 1-10 ng/ml. The
limitations are it is less sensitive than RT-PCR and antibody production is required which is
laborious and time consuming.
c. Nucleic acid based techniques: RT-PCR based methods are proving to be more reliable and
superior tools than woody indexing for virus detection in woody tissues/plants due to the easy access
of commercial RNA extraction kits, methods preventing enzyme reaction-interfering components
such as polyphenols and polysaccharides, more and more studies on variability of ASPV strains.
Jelkmann (1994) successfully sequenced the whole genome of ASPV which led to the development
of numerous RT-PCR based methods for specific, quick, reliable and sensitive detection of ASPV.
Further Klerks et. al. (2001), through RNA amplification and probing with fluorescent molecular
beacons developed a quick, reliable and sensitive system (AmpliDet RNA) which avoids the use of
gel for ASPV detection. Several real-time RT-PCR assays which use fluorogenic-3' minor groove
binder DNA probes have been designed to detect ASPV in dormant wood bark tissues (Roussel et
al., 2005). Multiplex and one-tube pentaplex RT-PCR have been developed to detect ASPV along
with other pome fruit viruses: ASGV, ACLSY, and ApMV (Menzel et. al., 2003; Hassan et. al., 2006).
d. Sero-nucleo detection (Aptamer / biosensor-based techniques): Aptamers are single-
stranded small nucleotide sequences which bind to a variety of target molecules by an in-vitro
procedure called SELEX (systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment). The targeted
molecules can be even small organic molecules, macromolecules or whole cells. The basic SELEX
protocol includes mining of a DNA or RNA library of 1012 to 1015 different sequences to select specific
target binding sequences. Aptamers, after being folded into a well-defined spatial structure, bind
with their targets much like of antibody-antigen interactions, but they are easy to reproduce as well
as chemically modify.
DOS-ELONA
This approach was developed by Zsofia Balogh et. al., in 2010. It is an excellent approach for quick, sensitive
and precise detection of ASPV. In Double oligonucleotide sandwich-enzyme-linked oligonucleotide assay
(DOS-ELONA), aptamers are used for determining protein concentration thus avoiding use of antibody.
Through DOS-ELONA, Zsofia et. al., 2010, could detect virus coat protein accurately in a complex protein
matrix with general instrumentation.
SPR Imaging
This method was also demonstrated by Zsofia Balogh and co-workers (2010). This is a direct and label-free
method with a sensitivity of as low as 10 pg/ml. Zsofia et. al., 2010, selectively detected the ASPV coat
proteins (PSA-H, MT32) through original DNA aptamers. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) imaging in
combination with aptamer-based sensor chips was used for optimizing the aptamer immobilization for
higher sensitivity and for characterization aptamer-virus coat protein binding. Thus, it shows the
potentiality of aptamers as receptor molecules for numerous virus detection and identification methods in
raw samples, and a number of simple, cost-effective virus diagnostic systems can be developed in future
using this valuable tool.
References
1. Martelli G. P. and Jelkmann W., (1998). Foveavirus, a new plant virus genus. Archives of virology. 143(6):1245-1249.
2. Adams M. J., Antoniw J. F., Bar-Joseph M., Brunt A. A., Candresse T., Foster G. D., Martelli G. P., Milne R. G. and Fauquet
C. M., (2004). Virology Division News: The new plant virus family Flexiviridae and assessment of molecular criteria for species
demarcation. Archives of virology. 149(5):1045-1060.
3. Martelli G. P., Adams M. J., Kreuze J. F. and Dolja V. V., (2007). Family Flexiviridae: a case study in virion and genome
plasticity. Annual review of Phytopathology. 45.
4. Grasseau N., Macquaire G., Boye R., Cornaggia, D. and Desvignes, J., (1999). Peach red marbling and peach sooty ringspot,
two new virus-like degenerative diseases of Prunus. Plant pathology. 48(3):395-401.
5. Paunovic S., (1995). Double-stranded RNA associated with fruit deformation of quince. Acta Horticulture. 386:45–50
6. Hibino H. and Schneider H., (1971). Virus-like flexuous rods associated with pear vein yellows. Archiv für die gesamte
Virusforschung. 33(3-4):347-355.
7. Yanase H., Koganezawa H. and Fridlund P. R., (1988, June). Correlation of pear necrotic spot with pear vein yellows and apple
stem pitting, and a flexuous filamentous virus associated with them. In XIV International Symposium on Fruit Tree Virus
Diseases. 235 (pp. 157-158).
8. Jelkmann W., Kunze L., Vetten H. J. and Lesemann D. E., (1991, July). cDNA cloning of dsRNA associated with apple stem
pitting disease and evidence for the relationship of the virus-like agents associated with apple stem pitting and pear vein
yellows. In XV International Symposium on Fruit Tree Diseases. 309 (pp. 55-62).
9. Jelkmann W. and Keim‐Konrad R., (1997). Immuno‐capture polymerase chain reaction and plate‐trapped ELISA for the
detection of apple stem pitting virus. Journal of Phytopathology. 145(11‐12):499-503.
10. Paunović S., Maksimović V., Ranković M. and Radović S., (1999). Characterization of a virus associated with pear stony pit in
cv. Württemberg. Journal of Phytopathology. 147:695-700.
11. Ramel M. E., Gugerli P., Bourquin L. and Meyer J. D., (2004). Immuno-enzymatic diagnosis of the apple stem pitting and pear
yellow vein diseases by means of monoclonal antibodies. Revue Suisse de Viticulture, Arboriculture et Horticulture. 36(4):207-
214.
India is a country with a population of over 1.25 billion. The growing middle class has a net income that
provides 1.25 billion opportunities in the domestic market segment. India's food industry is estimated at $
130 billion on average. This is expected from this will attract local and foreign investors. The increase in
demand for processed meals in the coming years is one of the key factors in the growth potential of the food
processing industry. Due to the urgency of the city, the eating habits associated with added food change
from day to day. The main reason for this change is that more than 65% of the population of India is 35 or
younger than this and this category prefers processed and ready to cook foods. India is one of the fastest-
growing economies in the world after China. World Bank Ease of Doing Business rankings from 100 to 130
show a good business situation in India and also show the potential to attract foreign investment in the
region. On an average, about 40 percent of all food waste products are wasted annually by insufficient
methods of transportation, storage, processing, and marketing resources. If these shortcomings are
overcome, then there is great potential for growth in this area.
To take benefit of the above discussed points, Indian government has introduced the following steps to
improve the food processing phase:
1. Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana (PMKSY): In August 2017, the CCEA (CCEA) granted its
approval to PMKSY. It includes many schemes such as Mega Food Park, Cold chain Integration, Extension
Infrastructure, Food Security, and Ensuring Infrastructure, Agro-processing Cluster Infrastructure, Back-
to-Referral Construction, and Processing, and ongoing food processing and expansion programs included.
2. Scheme for Mega Food Park: Its purpose is to connect farmers, processors, and retailers together to
link agricultural production and market, increase value and reduce waste, increase farmers' income, and
especially in rural areas. Provide job opportunities mainly to the youth of rural areas. Mega Food Park has
an area of at least 50 hectares and operates under a cluster-based approach based on the harp and speaker
model.
3. Schemes related to Cold chain, Value Addition of products, and Protection Infrastructure for
products: The purpose of this scheme is to provide integrated cold chain and infrastructure construction
sites to the consumer without any form of obstruction. This scheme includes products pre-cooling chambers,
reefer vans, mobile cooling units, and value-adding centers.
4. Modern Slaughterhouse Scheme: The main purpose of this program is to increase and improve skills
efficiency, conservation, and available food depletion facilities to reduce waste and maximize print value
additions by providing modern methods.
The food processing sector has been identified as one of 25 areas of focus as part of the Make in India
campaign. Therefore, the policy ecosystem was revitalized to attract financial, technical, and human
resources to the region. An important step was taken in this area to allow 100% FDI by default. To provide
cheap credit to food units in mega parks and designated, a special Rs 2000 crore NABARD fund was
designated as a food preparation fund at FY 2014-15.
In addition to the above programs and measures, the food processing sector faces the following challenges:
1. Lack of adequate infrastructure: Although the government has introduced a number of measures to
improve food-related infrastructure, it is not sufficient to address the growing needs of the sector. Lack of
cold storage, road, and rail connections remain a major problem.
Conclusion
According to estimates, the consumption of food grains in India currently stands at USD 370 billion and is
expected to reach the US 1 trillion by 2025. The development of the food processing industry is necessary
as it leads to an increase in the revenue of medium-sized food. Changes in city practices and rapid growth
and popularity of targeted and mixed food products, a well-known food processing category with a high
level of processing, reduces spoilage, improves value, promotes crop flexibility, ensures better farmer
returns, increased productivity, and increased sales revenue. The region is able to solve major food security
problems, food shortages, and provide the community with healthy food.
References
1. Tripathy, S., & Shaik, A. (2020). Leverage and firm performance: Empirical evidence from Indian food processing industry.
Management Science Letters, 10(6), 1233-1240.
2. Satyasai, K. J. S., & Singh, A. Food Processing Industry in India: Regional Spread, Linkages and Space for FPOs.
3. RATHORE, R., & MATHUR, A. Food Processing in India: A New Horizon in Agribusiness Entrepreneurship. BUSINESS,
ECONOMICS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, 145.
4. Singh, T. S., & Akoijam, S. L. Supply Chain Management in Food Processing Industry: Evidences from the State of Manipur,
India.
5. Saxena, D., Deep, V., Sawalkar, D., & Suresh, R. (2020). A Study to Understand the Enterprise Challenges in Small Scale
Agro-Food Processing Firms. International Journal of Management (IJM), 11(3).
Introduction
Over the years, increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) (≥370 ppm) and other active green-house
gasses (CFCs, CH4, N2O, etc.) have headed to global warming. The report of Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) has showed a strong evidence of global climate change and projected that the
average global temperature of the earth’s atmosphere would rise by 1.4-4.8 ºC by the end of this century.
According to Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the global mean annual temperature
was observed higher by 0.40-0.76°C at the end of the 20th century than that of the end of the 19th century
due to increased concentration of greenhouse gases (IPCC, 2007). The temperature increase during the
winter seasons is likely to be much higher than rainy seasons. Rainfall is likely to increase by 15-40% by
the end of the century. Agriculture will be adversely affected by the increase or decrease in temperature
and also by an overall increase or decrease in rainfall at different growth stages of crops. Several initiatives
have been undertaken to mitigate the possible impact of climatic change on agriculture. These include
selection of better adaptable genotypes, genetic manipulation to overcome extreme climatic stresses,
measures to improve water and nutrient-use efficiency and exploiting the beneficial effects of CO2
enhancement on crop growth.
References
1. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2007) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution
of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Eds: S Solomon, D Qin, M Manning, Z Chen, M Marquis,
KB Averyt, M Tignor, HL Miller. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 996 p.
2. Pathak, H., 2010. Mitigating greenhouse gas and nitrogen loss with improved fertilizer management in rice: quantification
and economic assessment. Nutrient cycling in agroecosystems, 87(3), pp.443-454.
3. Pathak, H. and Wassmann, R., 2007. Introducing greenhouse gas mitigation as a development objective in rice-based
agriculture: I. Generation of technical coefficients. Agricultural Systems, 94(3), pp.807-825.
785013.
Introduction
Biofortification is the process of increasing the contents of vitamins and minerals through plant breeding
or biotechnology of food crops. Micronutrients play an important role in human health and its deficiency
may cause many serious diseases in human. Rice (Oryzasativa L.) is considered as staple food by more than
half of the world’s population.
Micronutrient transportation in rice is controlled at several stages including up takes from soil, transport
from root to shoot, subcellular micronutrient transport and most importantly, transport to seeds. To
improve micronutrient build-up in rice seeds, it is necessary to get well about the regulatory mechanism of
these processes.
Many attempts have been done in this matter such as increasing the expression of genes coding metal
chelators and transporters, Festorage protein ferritin and phytase which were effectively undertaken to
considerably boosting up the micronutrient content of rice. Here, it will be briefly reviewed the
biofortification of rice for micronutrient elements especially Iron and Zinc.
Future Prospects
The definitive purpose of rising biofortified crops is to develop these crops in the field; however, no serious
efforts have been reported for the commercialization of biofortified rice. Thus far, transgenic rice varieties
have not been commercialized yet. Therefore, the hope will be possible after the initial commercialization
of golden rice; commercialization of micronutrient-biofortified rice will proceed at a faster rate and also
depend upon its recognition by farmers for field.
References
1. Bashir, K., Ishimaru, Y., &Nishizawa, N. K. (2010). Iron uptake and loading into rice grains. Rice, 3(2-3), 122-130.
2. Distelfeld, A., Cakmak, I., Peleg, Z., Ozturk, L., Yazici, A. M., Budak, H., ...&Fahima, T. (2007). Multiple QTL‐effects of wheat
Gpc‐B1 locus on grain protein and micronutrient concentrations. PhysiologiaPlantarum, 129(3), 635-643.
3. Farooq, M., Wahid, A., & Siddique, K. H. (2012). Micronutrient application through seed treatments: a review. Journal of soil
science and plant nutrition, 12(1), 125-142.
4. Goto, F., Yoshihara, T., Shigemoto, N., Toki, S., &Takaiwa, F. (1999). Iron fortification of rice seed by the soybean ferritin
gene. Nature biotechnology, 17(3), 282-286.
5. Juliano, B. O. (1993). Rice in human nutrition (No. 26). Int. Rice Res. Inst...
Introduction
Nanotechnology came into existence in 1981, when the scanning tunnelling microscope allowed scientists
and engineers to see and manipulate individuals’ atoms. IBM scientists Gred Binning and Heinrich Rohrer
won the 1986 Nobel Prize in physics for inventing the scanning tunnelling microscope. Nanotechnology is
science and engineering at the scale of atom and molecules. It is the manipulation and use of materials and
devices so tiny that nothing can be built any smaller. The term Nanotechnology was coined by Professor
Norio Tangiguchi. Physicists Richard Feynman is known as the father of nanotechnology.
What Exactly Nanotechnology is and what are its Areas or Fields of Application?
Nanotechnology (or “nanotech") is manipulation of matter on an atomic molecular and super molecular
scale. “Nanotechnology is the design, fabrication and utilization of materials and devices through the
control of matter at nanometre length scale and exploitation of novel phenomena and properties (physical
,chemical, biological) at that length for the benefit of human population“.
The areas or fields in which nanotechnology has its application are as follows:
1. Agriculture
2. Physics
3. Chemistry
4. Imaging Tech.
5. Mechanical Engg.
6. Info. Tech.
7. Mat Science
8. Chemistry
9. Biology
Conclusion
The above detailed description can prove that applications of Nanotechnology can prove helpful for growth
and expansion of agriculture and its allied sectors in India. Thus, it can also be helpful in economic growth
and development of the country in long run.
Introduction
Previously packaging was used to facilitate trade and transportation of goods but nowadays packaging has
various functions like to protect the product, to increase the shelf life of the product, to preserve the product
etc. Traditionally, the basic functions of packaging have been classified into 4 categories: protection,
communication, convenience, and containment (Paine 1991). Food packaging exists to make our lives
easier. We need packaging to contain foods, protect foods from the outside environment, for convenience,
and to communicate information to consumers about the food inside the package. Packaging provides
protection of food from adulteration by water, gases, microorganisms, dust, and punctures, to name a few.
A food package communicates important information about the product, how to prepare it, and information
about the nutritional content. Packaging also allows for consumers to enjoy food the way they want, at
their convenience. Nowadays consumers are more aware about the quality of the products, they are ready
to pay for quality this type of consumer behaviour results in innovative or creative packaging. Such foods
are "quality convenience foods" that offer the consumer great quality and appearance - better than typical
packaged foods. A good example of an innovation is active packaging of food in which the package, the
product and its environment interact to extend the shelf life of food or to improve its safety or sensory
properties, while maintaining the quality of the packed food. Intelligent packaging provides information
about the status of the food or its surrounding environment to the processor, retailer and/or consumer of
the (Kerry, O'Grady, and Hogan 2006).
Sensors
Sensors are considered the most promising and innovative technology for future intelligent packaging
systems (Bagchi, 2012). A sensor is a device or system with control and processing electronics, an
interconnection network, and software. A sensor is used to detect, locate, or quantify energy or matter, by
giving a signal for the detection or measurement of a physical or chemical property to which the device
responds. Sensors incorporated with dedicated signal processing functions are called intelligent sensors or
Indicators
In contrast with sensors, indicators cannot provide quantitative information like concentrations,
temperature etc. and cannot store the data of measurement and time. Indicators provide immediate visual,
qualitative (or semi-quantitative) information about the packaged food by means of a colour change, an
increase in colour intensity or diffusion of a dye along a straight path. In most of the cases, the basic
requirement of an indicator is that the colour or intensity changes or diffusions are irreversible. If not, this
may cause possible false information (Pavelkov, 2012). All indicators can be categories in three sub sections:
time-temperature indicators, freshness indicators and gas indicators.
Time-Temperature Indicators
Temperature is the most important factor which is responsible for most of the deteriorative changes
including physical, chemical and microbiological changes in the food products. A time-temperature
indicator (TTI) may be defined as a device used to show a measurable, time temperature dependent change
that reflects the full or partial temperature history of a food product to which it is attached (Taoukis and
Labuza 1989). They provide visual information of temperature history during distribution and storage,
which is particularly useful for warning of temperature abuse for chilled or frozen food products (Pavelkov
2012). Applications of TTIs are particularly seen in chilled or frozen foods, where the cold storage during
transportation and distribution are important for food quality and safety. TTI’s works on the basis of
biological, chemical and physical mechanism. There are various commercially used time-temperature
indicators discuss briefly as follows:
1. 3M Monitor Mark: It is based on a special substance having a selected melting point and blue dye. The
heart of the indicator is a porous wick layer over a reservoir pad containing the blue dye. A film strip
separates the wick from the reservoir that is removed at the activation stage. At this point, the porous wick,
white in color, is shown in the window. Upon exposure to a temperature exceeding the critical temperature,
the substance melts and begins to diffuse through the porous wick, causing a blue coloring to appear. The
working principle is based, as above, on the melting and diffusion of a dye (Fig 1).
Freshness Indicators
Freshness indicators monitor the freshness of the food product in different ways such as microbial growth
or metabolism. (Smolander, 2008). Most of these concepts are based on a color change of the indicator tag
due to the presence of microbial metabolites produced during spoilage. Chemical changes occurring in meat
during storage are indicators of the freshness of muscle-based food products.
Changes in the concentration of metabolites such as glucose, organic acids (e.g. L-lactic acid), ethanol,
carbon dioxide, biogenic amines, volatile nitrogen compounds or sulphuric compounds during storage
indicate microbial growth and therefore present the possibility of using them as freshness indicators for
meat products.
By integrating the indicator into the food package, the freshness indicators can be realized as visible
indicator tags going through a color change in the presence of the analyte (Pavelkov 2012). COX
Technologies' "FreshTag" color-indicating tags consist of a small label attached to the outside of the
packaging film. It is used to monitor the freshness of seafood products, and consists of a reagent-containing
wick contained within a plastic chip. As the seafood ages, spoils, and generates volatile amines in the
headspace, these are allowed to contact the reagent, causing the wick in the tag to turn bright pink.
Gas Indicators
Gas concentration indicators, in the form of labels, are placed inside the package to monitor changes in the
inside atmosphere due to permeation phenomena across the packaging material, microorganism’s
metabolism, and enzymatic or chemical reactions on the food matrix (Yam et. al., 2005). Examples of
commercially available dual action combined carbon dioxide generators/oxygen scavengers are Ageless G
(Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co., Japan) and FreshPaxM (Multisorb Technologies Inc., USA).
Carbon dioxide emitting sachets or labels can also be used alone. The Verifraise package, manufactured by
SARL Codimer (Paris, France) has been used to extend the shelf life of fresh meats. There are also some
other companies producing commercial O2 indicators to confirm proper O2 removal by O2 absorbers. A
typical oxygen indicator consists of a redox-dye (such as methylene blue), an alkaline compound (such as
sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide) and a reducing compound (such as reducing sugars). Carbon
dioxide indicators are also used in modified atmosphere packages (MAP) in which high carbon dioxide levels
are desired.
Conclusion
Intelligent packaging is emerging as a new branch of packaging science and technology that offers exciting
opportunities for enhancing food safety, quality, and convenience. Assuming intelligent packaging can
effectively provide solutions to current producer and consumer problems, it appears likely that intelligent
packaging systems for food products will become more commercially viable and common-place in the years
to come. Anyway, despite the hurdles that have to be overcome in the near future, there is a strong view
that intelligent packaging will be a technical tool in the market with a high potential, covering both more
transparent communication to consumers and the need for the retail and food industry to better control the
food production chain.
References
1. Bagchi, A. (2012). Intelligent sensing and packaging of foods for enhancement of shelf life: concepts and applications.
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 3(10).
2. EC. (2009). EU guidance to the commission regulation on active and intelligent materials and articles intended to come into
contact with food. European Commission.
3. Ghaani, M., Cozzolino, C.A., Castelli, G. and Farris, S. (2016). An overview of the intelligent packaging technologies in the
food sector. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 51: 1–11
Introduction
Minimization of crop loss has been in the central of the era of burgeoning human population. Every year
30% crop loss occurs due to plant pathogens. Use of chemical pesticides remained as one of the cheap
methods of plant disease management. Beside development of resistance against chemicals they have a
harmful effect on human and environment. During the time of green revolution exploitation of resistance
genes against major pathogens through conventional breeding (back cross breeding) gained its importance.
But as plants and pathogens coevolved, with time pathogen also developed the mechanisms of breaking the
resistance provided by major and minor resistance genes. With the advent of biotechnology recently
transgenics for disease and pest resistance came into the scenario. But due to the complexity of regulations
most of the transgenics didn’t released. In this situation RNAi (RNA interference), as an alternative to
transgenics, emerged as a novel tool for engineering the target plant trait.
What is RNAi?
RNA interference is the RNA based processes found almost in all the eukaryotes that inhibits the
expression of a gene through homology-based sequence specific interaction at transcription or post
transcription level.
Simply it can be said that RNAi is associated with production of some short dsRNA oligonucleotide
processed by a RNase enzyme called dicer. That with some protein form complex and regulate the
expression of sequence specific site.
Components of RNAi
1. Small interfering RNA (siRNA): 20-25 base pairs long non-coding dsRNA which interfere the
expression of specific gene.
2. Micro RNA (miRNA): a class of endogenous RNA molecule processed from single stranded RNA and
contains hairpin like structure.
3. Dicer: it is an enzyme member of RNase III family which has the ability to cleave dsRNA molecule into
siRNA or miRNA.
4. Argonaute: it is an endonuclease protein that form the core in association with RISC complex. Small
RNA guided argonaute protein plays a key role in degradation of complementary target RNA molecule.
5. RNA Induced Silencing Complex (RISC).
Mechanism of RNAi
1. Gene silencing or inactivation of a particular gene in plant is associated with mainly three mechanisms.
2. siRNA directed epigenetic regulations (transcription level gene silencing).
3. si or mi RNAs associated with developmental gene regulations.
4. Sequence specific inactivation of target mRNAs by RISC. 21 nt dsRNA duplex guide this complex.
Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) belonging to the family Gramineae is the staple food for one third world’s population
and occupies almost one fifth of the total land area covered under cereals. Rice is a high energy or high
calories food and of high biological value of the proteins. More than 100 species of insect have been recorded
to infest the paddy crop but out of these 20 insect pests are of major economic significance. The most
damaging pest is brown plant hopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stal.) suck the plant sap from the phloem vessels
through their proboscis, due to this plant starts wilting with outer most leaves drying first and then the
entire plant dries up. Under severe cases field gives a burnt appearance in concentric circles known as
“hopper burn”. Botanical pesticides are the important alternatives to minimize or replace the use of
synthetic pesticides as they possess an array of properties including toxicity to the pest, repellency,
antifeedance, insect growth regulatory activities against pests of agricultural importance. In fact, botanical
pesticides are in use in Indian agriculture for over a century to minimize losses caused by pests and
diseases. (Prakash et al., 1997 and Parmar and Devkumar,1993).
Treatment Details
Tr. No. Treatments
T1 Metarrhizium anisopliae (1x108 cfu/ml) (dose 4 gm/lit of water)
T2 5 % neem oil (dose 5ml/lit of water)
T3 5 % NSKE
T4 5 % bitter gourd (Momrdica charantia) leaf extract
T5 5 % custard apple (Annona squamosa) leaf extract
T6 5 % garadi (Cleistanthus collinus) leaf extract
T7 5 % bitter gourd leaf extract + 5 % garadi leaf extract + 5 % custard apple leaf extract
T8 Control (water spray)
Preparation of Bitter Gourd Leaf Extract, Custard Apple Leaf Extract and Garadi Leaf
Extract
Freshly collected tender leaves (50 g/litre) were washed thoroughly under tap water. The washed leaves
were rewashed with distilled water and drained out excess water and the excess moisture on leaves was
removed by using muslin cloth which further allows to shade dry. The leaves were completely dried without
any trace of moisture. These dried leaves were taken and prepared into fine powder by means of mixture
and kept for 16 hours in water. The crude extract slurry was prepared and the concentrated pure leaf
extract thus obtained through a sterilized a Whatman no.1. filter paper was used for spraying of required
dose (Fiaz et al., 2012).
Methodology
Blanket application of all treatments except M. anisopliae was undertaken at 15 DAT, subsequently all
treatments application was applied on 30, 50, 70 and 90 DAT. The knapsack sprayer was used for spraying
operations. After every treatment, sprayer nozzles, pipes were washed twice thoroughly with clean water.
In case of hoppers populations, number a hopper one day before (1DB) and 3 days after each application
(3DAA) on ten random hills were recorded.
Conclusion
5 % bitter gourd leaf extract + 5 % garadi leaf extract + 5 % custard apple leaf extract was found effective
in management of brown plant hopper.
References
1. Fiaz, M., A. Hameed, M. Hasan and W. Wakil, (2012). Efficacy of plant extract on some cotton pests: Amrasca bigutulla
bigutulla Ishida and Thrips tabaci Lindeman. Pakistan J. Zool., 44(1): 277-283.
2. Parmar, B. S. and C. D. Kumar, (1993). Botanical and biopesticides. Westvill Publishing House, New Delhi, 199p.
3. Prakash A. and J. Rao,(1997). Botanical pesticides in agriculture. CRC Lewis Publs.
BocaRaton,USA.481p.Publishedonline:https://doi/org/10.1080/09670878709371115,pp-
Jharkhand-834006, India.
2Research Scholar, Department of Extension Education, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural
Introduction
At present-day, from corner to corner of the world, industrialized and industrializing countries are
consuming the earth’s resources at a distressing rate. Farmers used this method for agriculture that after
the transitory of many generations soil would static be fertile as ever, while recent agricultural practices
have started the process of agricultural pollution and this causes the degradation of land, environment,
and ecosystem due to by-products of agriculture. No specific cause can be credited to the extensive
agricultural pollution we face today. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
standards advised that by using the minimal tillage, crop choice criteria, care of soil-plant cover, and other
methods that decrease the soil erosion, organic farmers should reduce the loss of topsoil cover for superior
production of crops. Conservation tillage should be adopted by organic farmers particularly if they are
located in areas susceptible to erosion (IFOAM, 2000). "Organic agriculture is a holistic production
management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity,
biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It emphasises the use of management practices in preference
to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems.
This is accomplished by using, where possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed
to using synthetic materials, to fulfil any specific function within the system." (FAO/WHO Codex
Alimentarius Commission, 1999).
Crop Rotation
Crop rotation helps to break the build-up phase in the cycles of weeds, insects and diseases, thus removing
the need for pesticide application. Fallow periods, where ground is left uncultivated for a prolonged period
of time (a few months to one and only year), allow a limited amount of secondary succession to advance and
hence, the recovery of the diversity of both terrestrial and below-ground species.
Minimum Tillage
The minimization of tillage will often lead to improved earthworm richness and activity, greater than before
populations and diversity of decomposer organisms and a related increase in the organic matter content
and aggregate stability of soils. Farming systems using no and low-till approaches are also less likely to
incur soil erosion and need less inputs of energy.
Conclusion
Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro-
ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity when farmers used
this method for agriculture that after the transitory of many generations soil would static be fertile as ever
with reduction of soil erosion, runoff, improved earthworm richness, improving the biodiversity and
productive capacity, increase the rate of nutrient cycling, improve soil aggregation and aggregate stability
and improve the disease suppression thus removing the need for pesticide application. O.A lifetime supply
nutrients cost effective for farmers and eco-friendly and reduces environmental, soil and water pollution.
References
1. Codex Alimentarius Commission, Joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission, & Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards
Programme. (1999). Codex alimentarius (Vol. 9). Bernan Assoc.
2. https://www.planetnatural.com/soil-amendments/
3. Scialabba, N. (2000, August). Factors influencing organic agriculture policies with a focus on developing countries. In IFOAM
2000 Scientific Conference, Basel, Switzerland (pp. 28-31).
Gujarat.
Introduction
Maize is third most important cereal crop after rice and wheat which is grown in all the three seasons. It
provides food, feed and biofuel. It has been attacked by many pest and diseases. Although maize production
has steadily increased over the past decades, the disease is still a worldwide concern that causes enormous
yield losses. And reduces the grain quality. In maize, the diseases are controlled by adopting certain
techniques like cultural practices, application of chemicals and most importantly development of disease
resistant varieties. Eventhough chemical management is considered to be effective, we cannot recommend
it to certain disease like post flowering stalk rot of maize. Among the six principles of disease management,
the resistance is considered to be the most important principle as it is economical. (Clair, et. al., 2010).
Abbreviations used.
MAGIC: Multiparent advanced generation intercross population.
NAM: nested association mapping population.
CSSL’s: Chromosome segment substitution lines.
Conclusion
Quantitative disease resistances (QDRs) can be characterized with the genetic analysis method of
quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping. A QRL contains causal gene(s) and causal quantitative trait
nucleotides (QTN) that are responsible for the phenotypic effect on QDR. Maize geneticists and pathologists
need to work together to screen the most resistant varieties. Although a huge number of QTL’s have been
mapped only a few of the underlying genes have been identified to date. Study and discovery of QDR would
help in better exploitation of host resistance.
References
1. Codex Alimentarius Commission, Joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission, & Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards
Programme. (1999). Codex alimentarius (Vol. 9). Bernan Assoc.
2. https://www.planetnatural.com/soil-amendments/
3. Scialabba, N. (2000, August). Factors influencing organic agriculture policies with a focus on developing countries. In IFOAM
2000 Scientific Conference, Basel, Switzerland (pp. 28-31).
Introduction
Wheat (Triticum species) is a crop of global significance. It is grown in diversified environments. It is a
staple food of millions of people. Approximately one-sixth of the total arable land in the world is cultivated
with wheat. India is the second largest producer of wheat after China. Wheat has a distinct place among
the food grain crops. Carbohydrate and protein are two main constituents of wheat. On average wheat
contains 11-12% protein.
One of the major constraints in boosting up the wheat production is the prevalence of number of diseases.
In recent decade, among the fungal diseases Fusarium head blight (FHB), powdery mildew (PM) and blast
of wheat causing severe damage to wheat crop.
Emerging Diseases
1. Powdery mildew:
a. Causal organism: Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici
b. Symptoms: Powdery mildew produces white to grey cottony fungal growth on the upper leaf
surface. This disease may occur on any above ground plant part, but it is usually most prevalent on
the upper surface of the lower leaves. The white powdery patches or pustules produce large
quantities of small asexual conidia in long chains, which are easily dislodged by wind or rain. When
powdery mildew is severe, the entire leaf turns yellow and dies. Small, black fungal fruiting bodies
(chasmothecia) may be seen immersed in the grey fungal tissue later in the season. Powdery mildew
can cause severe blighting of the upper leaves and can attack the head of susceptible varieties.
Bleaching of some or all the Pink to orange mass of Infected kernels are
spikelets spores commonly
visible on infected spikelets called ‘Tombstones’.
c. Epidemiology:
i. Prolonged wet conditions
ii. Warm weather during anthesis
iii. Rainfall during 1-3-week period prior to anthesis
iv. Pathogen is predominant at 25 ºC and grows well up to 30 °C.
d. Management:
i. Follow crop rotation: Corn – Wheat, Non cereals – Wheat, Soybean - Wheat
ii. Irrigation should be avoided from flowering to emergence of spikes.
iii. Application of recommended dose of nitrogen fertilizers
iv. Use of resistant variety UP 2825 and moderately resistant variety HP 1940.
v. Avoid cultivation of highly susceptible varieties like Sonalika, HD 29 and PBW 222.
vi. Spray tebuconazole @ 0.1 per cent.
3. Blast:
a. Causal organism: Pyricularia oryzae
b. Symptoms: Wheat blast infects all above ground parts of plant. The most conspicuous symptom
is head/spike infection. Head infection can occur on the glumes, awns and rachis. Infected glumes
support elliptical lesions with reddish brown to dark grey margins and white to light brown centre.
Blackening of the rachis, lower nodes, shrivelling of grains, low test weight has also been observed.
Since infection on spike blocks the translocation of photosynthates and nutrients to spike, therefore,
results in partial or total spike sterility. On leaves lesions vary in shape and size depending on the
stage of plants. Lesions with white centre and of reddish-brown margin on upper side, dark grey on
the underside of the leaf can be observed on both young and old infected leaves.
c. Epidemiology:
i. Wet years.
ii. Continuous rains.
iii. Temperature 18-20°C during flowering.
iv. Sunny hot and humid days.
d. Management:
i. Use of disease-free seeds for sowing
Introduction
Farm yard manure is one of the oldest forms of manure in India and readily available to the farmers. The
decomposition of mixture of cow dung, urine, leftover feed and litter material used in dairy farm is known
as farm yard manure. The residual materials of dairy farm comprise of excreta of the shade is daily collected
carefully and kept in trenches having dimensions 20-23 feet long, 5-6.5 feet broad and 3.5 feet deep. The
residual materials kept in trench up to height of approximately 2 feet from the ground level. It will be
taking 3-4 months for formation of farm yard manure. Well rotten farm yard manure is special type of
manure and having 0.5 to 2.0 per cent nitrogen, 0.3-0.9 % P2O5 and 0.3-1.9% K2O. Biogas produced from
waste product and excreta of animals and used for domestic purpose of human being.
Preparation
In India, farmer used the cow dung in the form of dung cake as fuel. Maximum portion of urine is soaked
into the mud floor of dairy shed. The sunrays exposed to the mixture of cow urine, dung and other waste
product soaked with water, so that the excreta of cow decomposed very rapidly into urea and ammonia.
On exposure of high temperatures or sun rays, on complex organic materials (cow dung) are converted to
simple inorganic materials and it is washed by high rainfall.
Benefits
Farm Yard Manure is enhancing along with restore the original properties of soil and other benefits of
FYM are mentioned below:
1. It increases the soil fertility and also helps in retention of water and nutrient.
2. It is rich of nitrogen and helps in breakdown of heavy soils.
3. Adds structure to light and sandy soils.
4. It is best for mulching and attracts earth worms to the soils.
What is the Difference Between Compost and Farm Yard Manure (FYM)?
1. Farm yard manure is the mixture of waste of farm animals or livestock and plants residues such as husk,
leaves or hay whereas in case of compost prepared it includes of mixture of wastes of livestock as well as
plants along with soil.
2. Farm yard manure is the semi- decomposed organic matter whereas in compost is the fully decomposed
organic matter.
Conclusion
It is best way for the utilization of livestock wastes and used as manures. It is rich in nitrogen and
phosphorus which enhances the crops production. It is cheaply available for the farmer. It also improves
the soil texture.
Introduction
With changing scenario of person income and awareness towards the health the interest in organic farming
has been increasing, particularly since sizeable opportunities to supply overseas markets with organic
produce have become apparent. At the same time, domestic consumption of organic food has arisen
dramatically. Whether producing for the domestic or international market. Milk and dairy products enjoy
a thoroughly positive image as regards naturalness, originality, good taste and product safety, regardless
of their method of production.
Nevertheless, according to a forecast, sales of organic milk as a whole are predicted to grow; there are
claims saying it will triple until 2005. Therefore, the milk industry is really interested in investigating the
modifications and risks induced by the conversion to organic farming. Studies have been undertaken to
investigate the reasons behind consumer’s purchases of organic products. Some points can be mentioned
as major reasons for buying organic milk and milk products, it seems to be healthier, help to protects nature
and less allergy with no chemical residue.
Definition
It is defined as the milk obtained from livestock which is reared under different organic practices. The
certification is allowing under NPOP in India (National Program for Organic Production). Certification
requires that livestock allowed to graze on fertilizer-free and pest-free pasture as well as be fed organic
feed which is certified, and drug are not used in treatment of livestock but in some cases it can be given for
specific purposes, like Aspirin may be given to reduce inflammations and Ethanol used as disinfectant/
sanitizers but not as feed additive.
Challenges
1. Conversion of conventional land into organic land is one of the most challenging aspects of the organic
farming. It requires three years to convert farm land from conventional to organic.
2. Detecting organic input sources (feed), higher costs of production, and stabilizing animal health will be
included in other challenges.
What is the Difference Between Compost and Farm Yard Manure (FYM)?
1. Farm yard manure is the mixture of waste of farm animals or livestock and plants residues such as husk,
leaves or hay whereas in case of compost prepared it includes of mixture of wastes of livestock as well as
plants along with soil.
2. Farm yard manure is the semi- decomposed organic matter whereas in compost is the fully decomposed
organic matter.
Organic Certification
Certification Agency given a written documentation indicates a clearly identified production or Processing
system has been methodically used and follows to the specified requirements. APEDA (Agriculture and
Processed Food Products Export Development Authority) and NSOP (National Standards for Organic
Products) are the important certifying agency. For Indian condition in case of small farmers, Group
Certification is convenient as this step is investment intensive and there are 20 Accredited Certification
Agencies (ISO-17011) in India.
Conclusion
Organic milk is changing the status or life style of human being; it is rich in omega 3 fatty acid, CLA and
other vitamin / minerals as compared to conventional milk. Organic milk free from all chemical and
pesticides. It is very useful against disorders such as cardiovascular disorder, arthritis, diabetes and
allergic condition.
Introduction
With the change in the time the needs, interest as well as taste of the peoples are changing. The new
product ‘Mango Ice-cream’ is attracting peoples of all age group. This is supposed to be the solution of the
problem where mango was over produced and glut was disposed off. For this purpose, Dashehari,
Amarapali, Malika and Totapari cultivars of mango is being utilized by the businesspersons. The pulp of
cultivars rich in beta carotene Dashehari (3.11 mg/100g), Amarapali (3.51mg/100g) and Totapari (1.86
mg/100g).
The technology was popularized by the Central Institute of Sub-tropical Horticulture in 2018. By this,
product may remain in the market for longer duration.
Mix the pulp, cream and stabilizer and keep the total soluble solids to 280 Brix
References
Grujar, P.S., Verma, A.K., Mishra, M. Jaiswal, R. Shukl, D.K. and Rajan, S. 2020. July-August, Phal Phool. pp. 66-67.
Sugarcane productivity has shown the increasing trend, a wide gap exists between potential (competition
crops) and existing (commercial plots) productivity levels. Ratooning constitutes around 50% of the total
area under cane and ratoon productivity and early maturity that the plant crop. Ratoon productivity has
been proved to increase with proper management involving timely Agricultural operations, proper nutrition
management, and integrated pest management and maintenance of adequate plant population.
Gap Filling
Normally while harvesting the plant crop due to the movement of labour, more gaps are found in the ratoon
crop. Therefore, it is very essential to fill the gaps so as to have a greater number of millable canes in ratoon
crop also. This can be done in the following ways:
1. With setts: Placement of either single/two/three budded setts in the gaps.
2. Pre-germinated settlings raised through “Polybag system”
3. Taking the clumps from thickly populated area and filling the gaps.
Trash Mulching
This should be done by applying 3 tonnes of trash per hectare and need to be spread on the field inbetween
the furrows. The advantages include the following:
1. Forms as a cover to the soil.
2. Prevents evaporation of soil moisture.
3. Conserves the soil moisture.
4. Keep the root zone moist.
Weed Management
In ratoon crops we should not apply any pre-emergence weedicide (Atrozin). The post emergence weedicides
Gramoxone (4.50 liters) and Femoxone (2.50 Kg) per hectare are to be used for the control of weeds. If
necessary one manual weedling may be done.
Water Management
Ratoon crops normally require 18-20 irrigations in their life span. Drip irrigation is also recommended in
the places of water scarcity. In certain cases, alternate furrow method is recommended. However, wherever
there is plenty of water, normal irrigations at regular intervals are recommended to get higher yields.
Advantages
1. No preparatory cultivation is required.
2. Saving in the cost of seed material.
3. Saving of labour since many operations such as collection of seed cane, cutting of the setts and planting
are not undertaken in rations.
4. The leftover in the field especially in the form of fallen leaves, trash, etc., in due course of time gets
converted in to organic matter.
5. Ratoon crops generally come to maturity at least one month early.
6. The expenditure involved in growing ratoon crops is less as compared to plant crop.
Disadvantages
1. Cane yields are generally lower than plant crop yields.
2. Nitrogenous fertilizer requirement is more.
3. In almost all the places, the ratoon crops receive neglected attention. Neglected cultivation makes the
ratoon crops more prone to pests and diseases.
4. Under some situations in certain varieties, flowering takes place and unusual delay in the harvest and
particular conditions might result in the increase of fibre content that might ultimately affect the sugar
recovery.
Abstract
CRISPER/Cas9 enables high efficiency gene editing using multiplex gene knockout, deletion, duplication
and over activation of gene fragments or chromosome. This technique can be successfully exploited in
improvement of industrially important microbial cultures and crop plants. It has also been tested for
therapeutic applications and clinical trials of various animal models making it a vigorous research
implement for almost all the biological systems.
Keywords: CRISPER, Multiplex genome editing, crRNAs, SpCas9.
Introduction
The aptitude of engineering biological systems and organisms clutches gigantic potential for applications
across basic science, medicine and biotechnology. The scientific community is always in a quest to alter the
genetic machinery of microbial systems in order to attain some desirable traits in the microbial factories.
The desire to alter the microbial machineries has led to the emergence of several genome editing
technologies, including zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs), transcription activator–like effector nucleases
(TALENs) and the RNA-guided CRISPR-Cas nuclease system. The CRISPR (Clustered Regularly
Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) system is an immune mechanism adapted by the majority of
characterized Bacteria, Archaea and many other microbes. Briefly, CRISPR represents a family of DNA
sequences present in the genome of prokaryotes. These fragments are originally derived from the DNA
fragments of bacteriophages that have previously infected the prokaryote in order to detect and destroy
DNA from similar bacteriophages during subsequent infections. When a bacteriophage invades, the DNA
fragments are acquired by CRISPR-containing organisms and transcribed into CRISPR RNAs (crRNAs)
which guides the cleavage of attacking RNA or DNA. The term Cas refers to an enzyme that uses CRISPR
sequences as a guide to recognize and cleave specific strands of DNA that are complementary to the
CRISPR sequence. The Cas enzymes together with CRISPR sequences form the basis of a technology known
as CRISPR-Cas. This CRISPR immune system was originally employed to knock out target genes but
modifications to work in association of many diverse Cas proteins have extended its ability for the
specificity to activate/repress target genes in various cell types, purify certain regions of genome, DNA
imagining in live cells and precise editing of DNA and RNA. The development of RNA-guided endonuclease,
SpCas9 from Streptococcus pyogenes has marked it the most extensively used endonuclease for genome
editing and transcription regulation.
Mechanism of Action
Based on differences in their mechanisms of action and components, CRISPR systems have been classified
into two major classes, class 1 in which RNA-guided target cleavage requires a large complex of effector
proteins, class 2 systems in which single RNA-guided endonuclease is required to enable the cleavage of
invading genetic material1. In general, a CRISPR system functions in three stages to execute a full immune
response against invading foreign DNA. In the first stage, mechanism starts with the incorporation of DNA
fragments from invading bacteriophages or plasmids (termed as protospacers) into the host locus between
CRSIPR RNA repeats. Second stage starts with the expression of Cas proteins, the transcription of CRISPR
array containing acquired spacers leads to the cleavage of pre crRNA and further processing into mature
crRNAs. The completely processed crRNA is a leader containing a spacer sequence which is a part of crRNA
repeat sequence act as a target sequence to the invading genome. It allows the recognition of the crRNA by
Cas proteins and other RNA components. In type II CRISPR systems, the processing of crRNA is dependent
on the presence of a noncoding trans-activating CRISPR RNA (tracrRNA) which hybridizes with the crRNA
repeat sequence. TracrRNA along with crRNA are also involved in Cas9 binding, and Cas9-mediated target
cleavage. In the third stage, crRNA guides the Cas proteins for recognizing the suitable target and further
mediates the cleavage of the invading genome, thus help in defending the host cells from infection. Any
Fig.1 Mechanism of action and components of CRISPER system: Guide RNA, spacer and Cas9
form a complex which directs the molecular machinery to alter the target gene.
Conclusion
This technology has been applied in various microbial industries, for instance, to engineer probiotic
microbial strains and to immunize the industrial microbial cultures against possible viral infections.
Furthermore, it has also been successfully used to edit the genome of various monocots and dicots to obtain
an improved yield. It has been tested successfully for therapeutic applications in various animal models
like fish, rat, rabbits, dogs even monkeys. It is anticipated that CRISPR/Cas9 technology will soon be
validated through ex-vivo clinical protocols to test against various types of cancer and other diseases. In
the time being, it is completely suitable for therapeutic experiments using diverse strategies that have been
developed for expression of gRNAs and editing multiple genomic targets and justified to be robustly
developed as a research tool in varying range of biological systems.
References
1. Koonin, E. V., Makarova, K. S. and Zhang, F., Diversity, classification and evolution of CRISPR-Cas systems. Current opinion
in microbiology, 2017, 37, 67–78.
2. Jeffry, D. and Keith, J., CRISPR-Cas systems for genome editing, regulation and targeting. Nature Biotechnology, 2014, 32(4),
347–355.
3. Rodríguez-Rodríguez, DR., Ramírez-Solís, R., Garza-Elizondo, M.A., Garza-Rodríguez, M.D.L. and Barrera-Saldaña, H.A.,
Genome editing: A perspective on the application of CRISPR/Cas9 to study human diseases (Review). International Journal
of Molecular Medicine, 2019, 43(4), 1559–1574.
4. Adiego-Pérez, B., Randazzo, P., Daran, J. M., Verwaal, R., Roubos, J. A., Daran-Lapujade, P. and van der Oost, J., Multiplex
genome editing of microorganisms using CRISPR-Cas. FEMS microbiology letters, 2019, 366(8), fnz086.
Introduction
Conservation tillage, a common term which infers that all tillage approach that reduces outpouring and
scrapping of soil surface in contrast with plow-based tillage, is known to enhance soil organic carbon (SOC)
content. The chief mechanisms of carbon sequestration with conservation tillage are increased micro-
aggregation and emplacement of SOC in the subsoil horizons. Adoption of suitable crop and soil
management systems accentuate humification and increase the passive fraction of SOC. Soil organic carbon
(SOC) sequestration is the predominant process to alleviate CO2 emissions including contributions to
ameliorate greenhouse gases. Tillage practices strongly influence carbon sequestration by physically
mixing soil and by disturbing crop residues in soil.
Agricultural practices affect soil C reserve by influencing at least two processes:
1. Increasing rate of biomass decomposition and mineralization releasing CO2 into the atmosphere.
2. Exposing SOC in the soil surface to the climatic elements thereby increasing mineralization of C. The
rates of these processes are governed by several exogenous and endogenous factors including inherent soil
properties, micro and meso-climate, and management practices (Lal et al. 1995).
Conclusion
Soil carbon sequestration can be significant cost-effective approach for mitigating unfavourable effect of
climate change. Conservation tillage practices such as reduced tillage, minimum tillage, zero tillage are
techniques through which atmospheric carbon can be sequestered into soil. Agriculture practices with or
without residue incorporation have positive impact on soil carbon sequestration and crop productivity.
References
1. Blair N, Faulkner RD, Till AR and Poulton, PR., (2006). Long-term management impacts on soil C, N and physical fertility:
Part I, Broadbalk experiment. Soil and Tillage Research 91: 30-38.
2. Lal R and Logan TJ., (1995). Agricultural activities and greenhouse gas emissions from soils of the tropics. In Lal R, Kimble
J, Levine E and Stewart BA (eds) “Soil Management and Greenhouse Effect”. CRC/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton l: 293 – 307.
3. Miller P, Engel R and Bricklemyer R., (2004). Soil carbon sequestration in Agriculture: Farm management practices can affect
greenhouse gas emissions. Montana State University Extension Service, Montguide.
Abstract
Fall armyworm is a notorious pestiferous insect with high dispersal ability, wide host range and high
fecundity that make it one of the most severe economic pests. India predominantly being a tropical country
favors high rate of multiplication round the year and its high pestiferous nature poses a formidable
challenge to India agriculture warranting immediate action before it assumes a serious proportion.
Introduction
Spodoptera frugiperda belongs to family Noctudae is commonly known as Fall armyworm (FAW). It is a
highly polyphagous migratory lepidopteron pest species that refers the invasive behaviour of larvae native
to tropical and subtropical region of America causing significant damage to crop. It was detected in Central
and Western Africa in early 2016. FAW is migratory in nature and moths fly for over 100km per night and
high fecundity with adult female laying 1000 egg producing 10 batch average of their 10-20 days lifespan.
The pest can persist in an area throughout the year where there is availability of alternative hosts and
favourable temperatures. In addition, it is reported to causes major damage to economically important
cultivated crops like maize, rice, sugarcane, cotton, soybean, millets, peanuts as well as horticultural crops
like cabbage, tomato, potato, beet and onion.
In India, incidence of this pest was first observed in Shivamogga district, Karnataka on 18th May 2018
and subsequently reported in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Kerala, and Uttar Pradesh at mild to alarming levels in
farmer’s fields. By January 2019, Chhattisgarh was the last state to report the pest. In northeast India,
this invasive pest was reported for the first time during late March 2019 in Lunglei district of Mizoram
and West Tripura district of Tripura. Subsequently, it has detected causing massive outbreaks during April
in Mizoram and Nagaland. Later, it was detected causing damage to maize crop during early May in
Meghalaya, Manipur, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh of northeast India. FAW was first detected in
Manipur on 7th May, 2019 in Chandanpokpi village of Chandel district and subsequently reported from all
the districts of Manipur. The pest is suspected to have arrived from Myanmar via Chandel district of
Manipur, which borders Myanmar.
Eggs are pale green or white Neonate larvae. There are 6 larvae stages.
at the beginning, get covered Young larvae are pale
in scales, and turn clear colored. They become brown
brown to brown before to pale green, then turn
Half-grown or fully grown The pupa is dark brown and The moth is 3 to 4 cm wide.
caterpillars are the easiest to hides in the soil, more rarely Its front wings are dark
identify. The larvae are in the stalk. Pupa lives 12-14 brown while the rear wings
generally characterized by 3 days before an adult are grey white. It will live 2
yellow stripes on the back, emerges. to 3 weeks before dying
followed by a black, then a
yellow stripe on the side.
Look out for four dark spots
forming a square on the
second to last segment
(photo). Each spot has a
short bristle (hair). The
headis dark; it shows a
typical upside down Y-
shaped pale marking on the
front.
Seed pelleting is the process where inert materials like clay or limestone are added to seeds for altering
their size and shape so as to improve the plantability. The technique of pelleting has been developed
commercially in past 40 to 50 years in which techniques from pharmaceuticals industries were applied.
Germans were the first inventors in creating a seed pellet of sugar beet plant. Pelleting commonly implies
for singling seeds in field. Seed pelleting can be combined with other important technologies such as
priming and seed health maintenance technology which contributes in attaining high crop yield. Pelleting
of seeds is known to be preferred in irregular shape of seeds such as of sugar beet. There are various types
of seed pelleting, in general. These are inoculants pelleting, protective coating, herbicide coating, nutrient
coating, hydrophilic coating and oxygen supplier coating. In sugar beet plant, protective coating is
preferred.
Introduction
Dragonflies are one of the fastest and efficient predators during nymphal as well as adult stage. The adult
preys on tiny flies, leafhoppers, mosquitoes and even insects larger than their body size such as robust
moths and butterflies, with the help of their acute tracking vision, maneuvering skills during flight and
spiny femora and tibia of legs. Dragonflies have a success catch rate of 97% (Olberg et al., 2000) which was
recorded with high speed filming in green house experiments and the result was obtained after proper
statistical analysis. Every predator uses different prey capturing kinametics and behavioral strategy
(Combes et al., 2013). Dragonfly uses ambush method to attack their prey from back while chasing them
to their death. Dragonfly wings move independent of each other that provides them with a unique ability
not only to fly forward but also to fly backwards, upwards, downwards, taking sharp turn and hover in air.
About 3012 species of dragonfly exists, which are classified in 348 genera in 11 families.
Pursuit Pathway
The pathway is discussed in steps (Fig. 1).
Step 1: The sitting DF and the approaching prey- after motion detection, the DF saccades to orient the
fovea, and lock the position of the prey, same as in the weapon locking system in jet fighter planes. While
the prey reaches the zenith of the DF, it sits tight and through foveation, monitors the overhead positioning,
angular speed and angular size of the prey.
Figure 1: Steps of prey capture in dragon fly. Modified diagram from Lin and Leonardo (2017)
Summary
The body part that is used as a weapon to catch the prey:
1. In adult: 3 pair of spinous legs. The leg in DF is rarely used for walking. When DF takes off after
calculating the velocity, angular position and the trajectory pathway of the prey, through the above said
strategy it becomes easy to stabilize its range vector and balance the body steers to attack the prey from
bottom and capture them in the basket formation of the 6 legs.
2. In naiads: the prehensile toothed labium provided with hook which is movable and is called mask.
References
1. Combes S.A., Rundle D.E., Iwasaki J.M., Crall. J.D.(2012). Linking biomechanics and ecology through predator–prey
interactions: flight performance of dragonflies and their prey, J Exp Biol. 215:903-12.
2. Dickinson M.H., (2015). Motor control: how dragonflies catch their Prey. Current Biology. 25(6):232-234.
3. Lin H. T and Leonardo A., (2017). Heuristic rules underlying dragonfly prey selection and interception. Current Biology.
27(8):1124-1137.
4. Olberg R, M., Worthington A. H and Venator K. R., (2000). Prey pursuit and interception in dragonflies. J. Comp. Physiol. A
18: 155-162.
5. Olberg R.M., Worthington A.H., Fox J.L., Bessette C.E., and Loosemore, M.P. (2005). Prey size selection and distance
estimation in foraging adult dragonflies. J. Comp. Physiol. A Neuroethol. Sens. Neural Behav. Physiol. 191: 791–797.
It is well known that the livestock and animal husbandry sector is critical for rural economy as it
contributes towards more than 25.75 per cent of value of the outturnas compared to agricultural and allied
sector. This sector plays an important role in Indian economy and about 20.5 million people depend upon
livestock for their livelihood as it contributes 16% to the income of small farm households as against an
average of 14% for all rural households. The forage resources are shrinking due to the need of various crops,
as well as climate change. Rural poor and small land holders were badly affected due to prolonged drought
and desertification especially in Africa and Asia. If people are to live in such inexorable conditions, it is
essential that the crops grown there are able to withstand drought, high temperature, unfertile poor soils
and water exertion etc. Thornless Cactus (Opuntia ficus indicus) commonly known as fodder cactus or
prickly pear is acquiring interest across the globe as a fodder crop because of its distinct nature to be able
to grow on the land where normally no other crop is able to survive.
Cactus pear farming is popular in Mexico, Morocco, Ethiopia, Kenya, Brazil, South Africa, Pakistan and
India as fodder in drought-prone area or arid to semi-arid climatic conditions, because farmer does not
require huge quantity of water for its cultivation and the cost of cultivation is low. It has higher water use
efficiency as well as rain water use efficiency as compared to any lineal fodder crop because it is a
Crassulacean acid metabolic (CAM) plant as explicated by nocturnal stomatal opening permitting net CO2
uptake and less water loss appeared during cooler part of day and night hours cycle, leading to high water
use efficiency, which is the most common feature of this xerophytic plant that has ability to surmount in
severe water deficit condition up to 5-7 meters in height. The cactus crowns beget 3 meters in width and
Cactus farming can be successfully practiced by vegetative propagation using cladodes or paddles planting
in rainy or post rainy seasons (June to March and July to November) in India. Traditionally it is propagated
through cutting of cladodes, but it is also suitable for saline soils and to check soil erosion and combat
deforestation. For planting in large areas, cactus saplings are established through tissue culture. Well
drained heavy sandy, sandy-loam soil, gravely and stony lands especially at the foot hill slopes are suitable
for cactus farming. The first harvest is done when plant attains one meter, height followed by regular
harvests at the interval of 5 to6 months and green fodder yield may vary from 40 to 50 metric ton per
hectare in a crop year. Cactus should not be allowed to be grazed directly by the animals as it decreases
their longevity. Cut and carry method is best for harvesting. Small cactus pieces should be mixed with some
Sciences, Uttarakhand-248011.
Introduction
Aquaculture sector has shown a promising increase in the recent years, the progressive exploitation of the
wild stock and increase in the world`s population and protein demand have further lay more emphasis on
aquaculture. Aquaculture have certain restraining factors such as diseases and mortality which decreases
the productivity .The excessive usage of antibiotics in shrimp culture have resulted in the development and
modification of the pathogen genome, which enable them to resist and infest on a large scale .
Parker (1974) has been attributed for his pioneering work on probiotics. In English literature probiotic is
define as bacteria which improve the quality of water or inhibit pathogens. In general probiotics are being
defined as one or more than one culture of certain bacteria which have been found to be of beneficial effects
.According to Fuller (1986) probiotic is live beneficial microbial feed supplement which would help in their
colonisation as well as proliferation in the gut of the host ,thus prevent the colonisation of harmful
microbes. They do so by secreting some inhibiting substance like hydrogen peroxide. . probiotics are of two
types: Feed probiotics; which is mixed with feed and improve the gut micro-flora of the cultured species.
water probiotic; which is added to the cultured water, they are used for bioremediation of various chemical
parameters in the pond (Nitrogen, phosphorus, Hydrogen sulphide). Control of; BOD, turbidity, pollution
at the pond Bottom, reduces pH, reduces Incidence of Obnoxious gases, algal Blooms, eliminates pathogens,
removes foul odour.
Sugar beet is a plant whose root is the most important part as it is grown as raw material of sucrose and
nowadays as ethanol potential crop. Sugar beet possesses tap root (white in color in particular for roots
having sucrose content) system that can reach up to a depth of 1 to 2 meters. Root of sugar beet contains
20 % sugar, 5% pulp, 2.6% non-sugars and rest 75% water. These roots are known to be processed not only
for white sugars but also for ethanol production. Furthermore, other parts such as pulp and molasses are
used for food and feed.
Sometimes morphological deviation in common root has been observed which is known as fangy roots.
These roots are also referred as forked roots or overdeveloped secondary roots along the side of tap root
(Fig. 1).
The United Nation (UN) has announced year 2020 as International Year of Plant Health (IYPH). A study
reports that worldwide 20 to 40% yield losses are due to pest and pathogen in five major staple crops (wheat,
rice, maize, potato and soybean). Plants provide 80% of food source for human feed. Plant resistance
through disease resistance gene is one of the most cost-effective and ecologically sound approach to manage
the diseases. Disease resistance genes encode defense related proteins which take part in resistance
pathway. According to a UN report, there will be a need of more food in future with more nutritive value
and food security to feed the population as world population is expected to increase up to 9.8 billion in 2050.
Disease resistance genes can play an important role by facilitating information about disease resistance
mechanism and interaction plant-pathogen-environment for maintaining of sound plant health as a
healthy plant is a source of healthy food with increased productivity. Each year the estimated economic
constraint for diseases and insects is around 220 billion dollar and 70 billion dollars respectively.
Application of Disease Resistance Gene in Crop Improvement with the Advent of New
Technologies
Conventional breeding approaches are being widely used in crop improvement from many years. Disease
resistance genes along with the application of biotechnological approaches (genetic engineering, gene
pyramiding, gene silencing and genome editing) have greatly revolutionized the development cultivars of
with desired traits in more specific way as compared to the conventional breeding approaches. In last two
20 years, numerous disease resistant transgenic crops have been developed and many are under trial.
Using R- gene transformation, a number of resistant crops have been developed (Table1). A range of genes
Introduction
The group of individuals that performs the same function is called ‘castes’. As like as in our ancient texts
mentioned caste system like Brahmins, kshatriyas, vyshayas and shudras , like as in insects especially
some social insects like termites, ants and honeybees there is presence of different cast system, they
performs theirs particular function in the colony of these insects.(Gordon,2002)We say these three insects
like termites, ants and honeybees are called social insects, because the individuals in the colony cooperates
with each other and they have well defined caste system with specific work.( Wilson and Kinne,1990).
Sociality has different types, like as Solitary: It exhibits no social behaviour most arthropods, Subsocial: In
this adults care for their own off springs, ex Aphids, Communal: It means without cooperative with each
other, Quasisocial: Members are cooperate with each other, Semisocial: In this workers are usually sisters
of the queen, Eusociality: In this, insects cooperative with brood care, have well distinct labour system and
presence of overlap of generations. Ants, Honeybees ants are belonging to this eusociality group. (Yan et
al., 2014).
Significance
Caste is a subset of individuals within a colony of insects, that they are having specialized or particular
work in the insect colony (Parker,2010).
Termite Castes
(Source:Google)
Soldiers
Two types of soldiers are present in termite colony.
Mandibulate: mandibles are well developed in these termites.
Nasute termites: in these termite’s head is modified as snout like structure and also, they have frontal
gland in this snout, this gland secretes defensive sticky fluid in these termites When they are engaged with
enemies. Soldier termites defend the termite colony.(Pervez,2018).
(Source Google)
(Source Google)
Honeybee Castes
Queen: There is presence of only one queen in a honeybee colony. It is larger than other castes. She lives
for three years. There is secretion from Mandibular gland of the queen honeybee called as ‘queens’
substance’. This substance helps to prevent absconding and swarming of colonies. After five to ten days of
emergence queen honeybee mates with drones, in one or more nuptial flights, when her sperm theca is
filled with sperms, she will start laying eggs and will mate any more.
Drones: These are the fertile males. These are stingless bee’s life span of drones is normally 57 days Drones
are produced by the unfertilized eggs of the queen. The only function of the drones is in honeybee colony is
to fertilize the queen. It also helps to maintain hive temperature.
Workers: These are the sterile female These are dominant in the honeybee colony Life span of worker
honeybee is four weeks normally Royal jelly produced from worker honeybees by the ‘hypo pharyngeal’
glands. Life span of worker honeybees divided into two phases as first three weeks for house hold duties-
nurse bees and rest of the life for outdoor duties – scout bees. (Plettner et al., 1997).
Conclusion
Social insects have well distinct castes, these different castes have specialized and performs particular
function, these each different castes of social insects strongly cooperate with each other, because of this
nature social insects inspires human beings to do work on the of ‘work is worship’ principle. And also, they
inspire human that we can get the success only by doing the work with collective manner with team work
and also with strong cooperation among the population.
References
1. Gordon, D. M. (2002). The organization of work in social insect colonies. Complexity, 8(1), 43-46.
2. Parker, J. D. (2010). What are social insects telling us about aging?. Myrmecological News, 13, 103-110.
3. Pervez, A. (2018). Termite biology and social behaviour. In Termites and Sustainable Management (pp. 119-143). Springer,
Cham.
4. Plettner, E., Otis, G. W., Wimalaratne, P. D. C., Winston, M. L., Slessor, K. N., Pankiw, T., & Punchihewa, P. W. K. (1997).
Species-and caste-determined mandibular gland signals in honeybees (Apis). Journal of Chemical Ecology, 23(2), 363-377.
5. Roisin, Y. (2006). Life history, life types and caste evolution in termites. Life cycles in social insects: behaviour, ecology and
evolution. St. Petersburg University Press, Saint Petersburg, 85-95
6. Trible, W., & Kronauer, D. J. (2017). Caste development and evolution in ants: it's all about size. Journal of Experimental
Biology, 220(1), 53-62.
7. Wilson, E. O., & Kinne, O. (1990). Success and dominance in ecosystems: the case of the social insects (Vol. 2, pp. I-XXI).
Oldendorf/Luhe: Ecology Institute.
8. Yan, H., Simola, D. F., Bonasio, R., Liebig, J., Berger, S. L., & Reinberg, D. (2014). Eusocial insects as emerging models for
behavioural epigenetics. Nature Reviews Genetics, 15(10), 677-688.
208002, India.
Introduction
Environmental pollution is a world-wide problem. With growing population and industrialization, the
concern about human health, hygiene and ecological balance has developed among natural as well as
ecological scientists. Pollution not only effect deterioration of environment and creates health hazards but
also effects loss to the national economy.
With increases in population pressure, urbanization, industrialization, mining and quarrying and other
development activities various pollutants are contaminating the natural environment. Now-a-days
industrialization is considered to be a barometer of economic development of any country. The prosperity
and position enjoyed by advanced countries is mainly due to industrialization. But unfortunately, it also
brings some undesirable effects at local, national and global environment.
Environment pollution in India arises from poor socio- economic living conditions as well as urbanization,
industrial growth and modernization of agricultural practices, mining and quarrying which have gained
momentum during, the last 25 years of planned modern economic era. There is a need to create an
awakening on the problems arising due to faulty agricultural practices, and other related consequences
and to suggest means to reduce the stress on environment in the rural areas as well as in urban areas
which had always been considered pollution free and safe for living. Increase in awareness and knowledge
can go a long way in minimizing the cause of environmental pollution to reduce harmful effect of
environment in general and health in particular. This is the only way to ensure a pollution free
environment for our generations to come.
Concept of Environment
Environment (from the French environner: to encircle or surround) can be defined as:
1. The circumstances or condition that surround an organism or group of organisms.
2. The complex social or cultural conditions that affect an individual or community.
Since humans inhabit the natural world as well as built or technological, social and cultural world, all
constitute important parts of our environment (Purohit et al 2018).
Concept of Pollution
Human’s increasing interference with nature beyond a certain limit creates environmental damage which
is harmful for all the organisms. Due to human induced environmental changes sometimes, harmful
products originate which creates unwanted contamination through toxic substances in the natural
environment, which often give rise to problems of pollution.
Pollution defines as a contamination of the environment by man-made substances or energy that have
adverse effects on living and non-living matter. This contamination of air, water or soil materials interferes
with human health, the quality of life or the natural functioning of ecosystems.
Kinds of Pollution
Environment pollution may broadly be classified into: (1) Natural pollution; (2) Man-made pollution.
1. Natural Pollution: Environment is polluted often by natural phenomenon, such as earthquakes, floods,
drought, cyclones etc.
2. Man-made pollution: Human activities.
The environmental pollution can also be classified further as, Air pollution, water pollution and soil
pollution etc.
Major Issues
Major environmental issues are forests and agricultural degradation of land, resource depletion (such as
water, mineral, forest, sand, and rocks), environmental degradation, public health, loss of biodiversity, loss
of resilience in ecosystems, livelihood security for the poor.
The major sources of pollution in India include the rapid burning of fuelwood and biomass such as dried
waste from livestock as the primary source of energy, lack of organized garbage and waste removal services,
lack of sewage treatment operations, lack of flood control and monsoon water drainage system, diversion
of consumer waste into rivers, cremation practices near major rivers, government mandated protection of
highly polluting old public transport, continued operation by Indian government of government-owned and
high emission plants built between 1950 and 1980.
India's population growth adds pressure to environmental issues and its resources. Rapid urbanization has
caused a build-up of heavy metals in the soil of the city of Ghaziabad, and these metals are being ingested
through contaminated vegetables. Heavy metals are hazardous to people's health and were known as
carcinogens.
Suggestion
For a happy, progressive and purposive living, the earth and its environment must not only be kept
pollution-free but also be protected from the hazards of pollution. It is the need of the hour to make people
aware of the effects of environmental pollution on health and provide them solution to combat the ill effects
of the same. Scientists are working on different adaptation strategies but its reach to the end users and its
adoption by them needs immediate action. The proposed research work is an attempt in this direction.
References
1. Anonymous (2019a) Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_in India on 28/08/19.
2. Anonymous (2019b) Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/environmental-
pollution on 1/09/19.
3. Anonymous (2019c) Retrieved from: https://www.who.int/airpollutionambient/health-impacts/en on 4/09/019.
4. Appannagari R R (2017) Environmental Pollution Causes and Consequences: A Case Study. North Asian Intl Res J Soc Sci
and Humanity 8: 151-61.
5. Purohit, Shammi and Agrawal (2018) Textbook of Environmental Sciences, Dr. Updesh Purohit Agrobios, Jodhpur (India).
6. Taofeek B, Olukayode S O, Samuei I O and Joshua O (2014) Hazards of Environmental Pollution: A Global Environmental
Challenges and Way Forward. Global Advance Res J Envt Sci Tech 1: 001-005.
Introduction
In developing countries, fertilizers have been used in adequate amount and in imbalanced manner. Also,
fertilizers are becoming a major constraint in agricultural production due to energy crisis particularly in
developing countries. General recommendation of NPK fertilizers has resulted in soil fatigue, proving their
decreased efficiency and thus requires upward refinement and proper balance among the macro and micro
nutrients. Balanced and efficient fertilizer application is essential to compensate for the increase yields
and hence greater removal of soil nutrients. Nitrogen is the key element in crop production, improper use
of nitrogenous fertilizer, instead of giving yield advantage, it reduces the yield. There are different
opportunities to improve nitrogen use efficiency out of which use of site-specific precision agriculture
technology is the most efficient one to be followed. Site specific nutrient management (SSNM) relies on
principles of “5R”, the right time, the amount, the right place, the right source, and the right manner. The
site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) is an approach for “feeding” crop with nutrients as and when
needed. The SSNM approach does not specifically aim to reduce or increase fertilizer use. Instead, it aims
to apply nutrients at optimal rates and times in order to achieve high yield and high efficiency of nutrient
use by the crop, leading to high cash value of the harvest per unit of fertilizer invested.
It provides two equally effective option:
1. Fixed time nutrient management
2. Real time nutrient management
Based on GIS
Remote sensing and GIS are important in site specific nutrient management and thereby can reduce the
cost of cultivation as well as increase the fertilizer use efficiency. Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
consist of data and software designed for spatial analysis of GPS-referenced data. Various databases in an
agricultural GIS system might include soil survey data, soil test information, pest infestations, yield data,
remote sensing imagery and other types of observations and records that can be collected and referenced
with their geographic position (by GPS). These data sets can then be converted to maps to illustrate their
spatial variability within the field and become additional layers in the field database. Soil fertility
investigations are necessary to confirm fertility status, which is also works as a guide for fertility
management practice to adopt. Out of several soil fertility investigation methods, application of geospatial
technology with involvement of GPS and GIS has improved the work process compared to other old
techniques. GIS technologies can simplify and assist in dealing with soil variability. While it may not
necessarily have a great impact on absolute amounts of inputs such as fertilizer applied it has the potential
to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the same and potentially increase yields and reduce adverse
impacts on soils.
Conclusion
Nitrogen fertilizer is an important nutrient for plant growth and unfortunately it is highly prone to
different kind of losses. The loss here is in terms of yield, soil health and economy. Higher yield, nutrient
use efficiency and net returns can be secured through real time application of Nitrogen. The above tools
can be used to schedule the N fertilization to provide a need and time-based balanced nutrition.
Reference
1. Furuya, S., 1987. Growth diagnosis of rice plant by means of leaf colour. Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly 20:147-53
2. Singh, V.K., Mishra, R.P., Ravishankar, N. and Rani, M.2016. Resource use efficiency. Modern concept of agronomy book.
pp37-61.
3. Gajera, K., Mathukia R.K. and Jat R.A. 2014. Real Time Nitrogen Management Improves Yield and Economic Returns in
Wheat in Vertisols of Gujarat. Indian Journal of Fertilizers, 10(2): 56-60.
Yours faithfully
Transaction id:
Payment date and time:
Mode of payment:
Details attached:
AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter
http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in
ISSN: 2581-8317
FORMAT OF ARTICLE
Articles which are sent to us without proper format would be automatically rejected
Maximum limit: 2-3 pages (If authors exceed page limit article may be rejected instantly)
Times New Roman, 12 font, 1 spacing
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Title of article (must be short and catchy)
Author’s (s) name
Author’s (s) affiliation
Corresponding author’s mail id
Summary of Article: 1 paragraph
Summary/ Conclusion:
References format:
[1]. Dutta R.N., (1984). Comparative ecological study of makhana in Darbangha region.
Ph.D. thesis. Ranchi University, Ranchi Bihar.
[2]. Ho H., Cheu Y. and Luo I., (1953). The detection of vitamin B, and C in Chinese drugs.
Journal of Taiwan Pharmacy Association. 5(1):5-20.