Cereals: Types and Composition

SO Serna Saldivar, Centro de Biotecnologı́a-FEMSA, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, México

ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction harsh winters and poor soils. In these regions, rye flour is
usually mixed with wheat flour for the production of many
Cereals belong to the Gramineae family commonly known as traditional breads and other bakery goods. Likewise, most of
grasses. Most of these plants are perennial; however, all com- the barley and oats are planted in United States, Canada, and
mercial cereal grains are annual. It is believed that prehistoric Europe for food and feed. Barley is used for malting, brewing,
men selected plants that yielded large kernels in a relatively and distilled alcohol spirits, whereas milled oats or groats are
short period of time. Since then, mankind has manipulated used for the production of composite breads and other bakery
cereals in order to increase their yield through a better adap- items.
tation to different ecosystems, climates, and soils. This con- Sorghum is currently the fifth cereal grain in terms of pro-
tinuous plant breeding effort has sustained the dramatic duction with a global production of 61.4 million tons in year
increase of the world population experienced since 1900 2013. It is directly used to produce a wide array of traditional
(from approximately 1.7 billion in 1900 to more than 7.3 foods in Africa and India and almost exclusively used for animal
billion in year 2014). feed in the United States, Mexico, and other Latin American
Cereals have a wide array of assets and advantages. They countries. Sorghum as feed competes strongly with maize
yield high amounts of food per surface area and mature grains although is considered to have a slightly lower nutritional value.
that are not perishable when properly stored. Furthermore, The millets are grown as subsistence crops because of their
these grains concentrate calories and other nutrients in a rela- hardiness and droughts resistance. These cereals are mainly
tively small package that has sustained mankind since they produced in developing countries of Africa and Asia. The main
became sedentary. Among the major food groups, cereals are producers are India, Nigeria, Niger, and China. The African
undoubtedly the largest supplier of calories and proteins for countries located south and west of the Saharan desert (Mali,
the average human being. Burkina Faso, Niger, and Nigeria) have traditionally depended
According to the Food Agriculture Organization, cereals are on millets and sorghum as the main source of nutrients.
by far the most important foods with an annual production The most relevant features of cereal plants are stems with
exceeding 2.78 billion tons in year 2013. Cereals are the staple nodes where buds and leaves originate, alternate spear-shaped
for the world inhabitants and the major source of feed for leaves, and an inflorescence that could be a spike or panicle.
animals that supply meats, eggs, and dairy products. These bear multiple flowers enclosed in glumes that upon
Among cereals, three contrasting grains, rice, wheat, and fertilization and maturation yield monocotyledon starchy
maize, yield approximately 89% of the total production. Rice fruits composed of pericarp, germ, and endosperm. The coty-
and wheat are almost exclusively channeled to human foods, ledon is located in the germ’s scutellum and is considered as the
whereas maize is widely used as feedstock for animals and fuel first reserve tissue, whereas the endosperm is the largest part
ethanol. Maize is the cereal with the highest production and where protein and starch are stored as secondary reserve tis-
yield followed closely by rough rice and wheat. The United sues. Cereals are divided according to the photosynthesis path-
States harvests 35% of the world production due to the use of way into two groups: C3 plants that form three-carbon
high-yielding hybrids including an increasing number of genet- compounds via the Calvin-Benson metabolic cycle where rice
ically modified organisms (GMOs). Wheat is still considered wheat, barley, rye, triticale, and oats are included and C4 plants
the icon of cereals because of its versatility to produce a wide such as maize, sorghum, and millets that form four-carbon
array of leavened foods, which is possible due to its unique compounds via the acidic Crassulacean metabolic pathway.
gluten properties. Wheat is the cereal that contributes the most C4 cereals generally grow in hot climates with a high light
in terms of human caloric intake. About 45.5% of the wheat is intensity and are more efficient in terms of CO2 utilization
produced in China, India, the United States, and Russia. and water and nutrient uptake.
In 2014, more than 75% of the paddy rice was harvested in The inflorescences of wheat, barley, rye, and triticale are
China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Myanmar. spikes, whereas rice, sorghum, oats, and all millets produce
The per capita consumption of rice in developing Asian coun- panicles. In the specific case of maize, the cob is classified as a
tries averages 80 kg year
1, with the people from Myanmar, fused panicle or central axis. Maize, rye, sorghum, and pearl
Vietnam, Bangladesh, Cambodia, and Indonesia being the millet cross-pollinate, whereas wheat, oats, barley, and rice
most dependent on this cereal grain with yearly consumptions self-pollinate.
of 195,167, 160, 147, and 140 kg per capita, respectively. The cereal fruit is botanically named caryopsis and consists
Barley is currently the fourth cereal grain in terms of pro- of three major anatomical parts: pericarp, endosperm, and
duction with a global production of 144.7 million tons in year germ. There are some species that loose the glumes or husks
2013. Rye, barley, and oats are mainly planted in Europe, during harvesting and others that tightly retain these protective
Russia, and the United States. These winter small grains are coats. Maize, sorghum, wheat, rye, triticale, and pearl millet are
also planted for forage or as dual-purpose crops. About 65% of examples of naked caryopses, whereas rice, oats, and barley are
the rye is harvested in Eastern Europe due to its adaptation to covered caryopses.

718 Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00128-8

 Cereals: Types and Composition 719

The pericarp or bran is the outer layer that covers the kernel nurseries. Three major groups of rice are widely recognized:
and contains most of the fiber, whereas the endosperm is the Japonica, Indica, and Javanica. The first two are the most
main anatomical part in terms of quantity and food utilization. relevant. Japonicas are usually high yielding and produce
It could constitute up to 75% of the total grain weight and is short caryopses that upon cooking yield sticky or glutinous
mainly composed of starch and protein and is practically rice. On the other hand, Indicas usually yield less compared
devoid of fiber. The starch is stored in granules that are classi- to Japonica counterparts and produce long caryopses that
fied as simple or compound. Among cereals, only rice and oats upon cooking yield drier and firmer rice. Commercially, rice
synthesize compound starch granules. The germ, which is classified as long, medium, and short. The main specialty
encloses the scutellum and embryo, contains most of the oil rices are glutinous, black or purple, red, Basmati, and Risotto.
and is also rich in protein and vitamins. The scutellum or
cotyledon and endosperm are considered as the first and sec-
ond reserve tissues, respectively. These anatomical parts store Wheat (Triticum sp.)
nutrients necessary for germination. Wheat was one of the first cultivated plants and is considered
as the most important cereal in terms of energy supply for
humans. It is planted in temperate regions and considered as
Adaptation and Cytogenetic Origin a winter crop. In the early part of the 1900s, taxonomists
recognized three species that possessed different chromosome
The various cereal genus and species are adapted to produce in numbers: diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploids, which contain
most of the ecosystems around the globe. 14, 28, and 42 chromosomes, respectively. Commercially, the
wheats planted nowadays are hexaploids and tetraploids. The
hexaploids are the most widely grown throughout the planet
Maize (Zea mays L.) and provide the hard and soft kernels suited for the production
Maize is the most produced cereal crop in the world and the of yeast-leavened breads and cookies/cakes and other related
most adapted to different ecosystems. Ancient Mesoamerican chemically leavened bakery items, respectively. The tetraploid
farmers started to select and manipulate teosinte (Zea mexi- durum (Triticum durum) is one of the most cultivated today to
cana) and in a couple of centuries transformed this native grass fulfill the pasta market. Wheat is the only cereal that possesses
into several pre-Columbian maize races. Today, plant breeders functional gluten. The flour upon hydration and the mechan-
recognize more than 300 races that evolved from these prehis- ical work of mixing forms a cohesive and elastic dough suited
toric ethnic groups. The Mesoamericans created maize by for the production of leavened bakery items and pasta prod-
transforming a tiny two-rowed ear of teosinte of about 3 cm ucts. Wheat is classified according to kernel hardness into hard,
long into the first small maize ears with four ranks of paired soft, or durum, color into red or white, and growth habit into
female spikelets. This transformation took perhaps only winter and spring. The main specialty types are waxy and the
100–200 years. The maize crop produces under irrigation and ancient types known as spelt, einkorn, and emmer.
in dryland conditions; however, the plant is highly susceptible
to frosts. Among commercial cereals, maize is the only one that
Barley (Hordeum vulgare)
has the male and female flowers separated. The staminate or
male inflorescence is borne in the tassel and the pistillate or Barley was one of the first crops cultivated by men since the
female inflorescence on the ears. These are located in the top origins of farming. Historically, barley preceded wheat as a
and middle parts of the plant, respectively. Maize is classified food grain in ancient Egypt and since then it has been con-
according to color into white or yellow and kernel configura- sumed in many cultures. Barley ranks fourth among cereals
tion into dent or corneous or flinty. The main specialty types and significantly contributes to the world’s food supply as
are popcorn, waxy, high-amylose or amylomaize, sweet, blue, human food, malt products, and livestock feed. Approximately
Cuzco, and quality protein. 64% of the world barley is channeled to the feed industry.
Cultivated barley is one of the 31 Hordeum species. Most are
diploids (2n ¼ 14 chromosomes) with about the other half
Rice (Oryza sativa) being tetraploids or hexaploids. Barley is a cool season crop
Rice is considered as a sacred plant in Asia and is still the most cultivated in the spring and summer at temperate latitudes. It is
important food for more than 50% of the world population. cold-tolerant and considered the most drought-resistant,
Archaeological evidence has proved that rice was planted and alkali, and salt-tolerant among the small grains. Barley is clas-
used at least 4000 years BC. In developing Asian countries, the sified into malting or feed and into two- or six-rowed types.
yearly per capita intake of rice is higher than 80 kg. Production The main specialty types are hull-less or naked, waxy, high-
data indicate that about 90% of the world rice production is amylose and hyproly, or high lysine.
harvested in Asia. Rice is planted in tropical and subtropical
regions of the world close or neighboring the equatorial line
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)
where there is high relative humidity and rainfalls. Rice is also
traditionally grown in some European countries such as Italy, Sorghum originated in equatorial Africa where it has been grown
Spain, and France. The agronomics of rice is different from for more than 2000 years. It is one of the cereals with the highest
other cereals because this plant is generally planted on flooded genetic variability because more than 30 000 selections are pre-
soils and by transplanting seedlings previously grown in served in the world collection bank located in India. Sorghum
720 Cereals: Types and Composition

continues to be a traditional crop in Africa and India and consti- Triticale (Triticum secale)
tute a major source of calories and protein for millions of people.
Triticale is the only plant species created by man who crossed
About half of the world production is processed into a wide array
wheat and rye. It was first deliberately produced in 1876
of traditional foods. In developed countries, sorghum has gained
although the first varieties emerged in the 1930s in Russia,
popularity because of its drought resistance and high productivity
but it was until the 1960s when it was commercially planted.
especially when planted under good agronomic practices and
Triticale is a hybrid resulting of the cross of wheat (mother)
inputs. Sorghum is the preferred cereal in semidesert areas of
and rye (father) with the aim of obtaining kernels with the best
the world or in areas where maize strives due to high tempera-
features of these cereals (gluten functional and better agro-
tures, poor soils, or lack of rainfall. Sorghum is classified as high-
nomic performance or hardiness and resistance to pests). Trit-
and low-tannin types. Brown, bird-resistant or high-tannin sor-
icale has regained popularity during the past 20 years. World
ghums have a reduced nutritional value and are grown because of
production in 2013 (14.6 million tons) was approximately
their agronomic advantages including bird resistance, decreased
three times greater than in 1993. However, most of the triticale
weathering, mold infestation, and sprouting. Most cultivated
currently grown does not meet gluten expectations and there-
sorghums do not contain condensed tannins and have similar
fore is mainly used as forage or feed. In 2013, the triticale
food and feed nutritional value when thermal treated compared
planted area was approximately 3.85 million hectare.
to maize. White sorghums are currently viewed as an excellent
source of gluten-free flours or meals suited for the production of
snacks, cookies, breads, and beer. Good-quality sorghums can
Millets
substitute maize in most of industrial applications including
bioethanol. The main specialty types of sorghum are waxy, pop- The grasses known collectively as millets are a set of highly
ping, black or Shawaya, high-lysine, and lemon. variable small-seeded cereal species indigenous to different
areas of the world. In some African countries such as Niger,
Mali, Burkina Faso, and Gambia, the yearly consumption of
Rye (Secale cereale)
millets amounts to 160, 71, 55, and 52 kg, respectively. In
Rye has a better resistance to harsh winters, cold weather, and 2012, about 29.9 million tons were directly used for the pro-
lack of water compared to wheat and is generally planted in duction of many African and Asian traditional foods. Similar to
less fertile soils under dryland conditions. It is primarily a sorghum, millets are mainly adapted to semidesert, tropical,
winter crop that is sown in the fall, becomes dormant during and subtropical areas of the world, but they are usually planted
the winter, and is harvested early in the spring. Occasionally, on barren and low-moisture soils and under hot environmen-
rye is sown in the spring and harvested during the summer. tal conditions. These cereals are of special value in semiarid
Most rye is harvested in Europe and Russia and is dry-milled regions because of their short growing cycle. Most millets are
and processed similarly to wheat. The grain has been tradition- viewed as either subsistence or cash crops in developing and
ally used for the production of flat breads and yeast-leavened developed countries, respectively. Average yields of millets
breads, which varies in crumb color from practically white to seldom exceeds 1 ton Ha
1.
dark-brown and in taste from a mildly sour to a strong distinc- The most relevant millet is pearl (Pennisetum americanum),
tive acidic. Rye flour is preferred for the production of sour which originated in the corridor from Western Sudan to Sene-
breads and is also used for the manufacture of crackers, gal. It is believed to be one of the earliest domesticated millets
cookies, and breakfast cereals. Compared with wheat flours, because kernels have been found in West African sites inhabited
rye flours deteriorate faster but contain higher levels of protein, 2000 BC. Pearl is the most productive millet and is used instead
pentosans, and minerals. of sorghum with the advantage that it possesses a better nutri-
tional value. Pearl millet produces a very unique cylindrical
panicle containing hundreds of oblong–round-shaped kernels.
Oats (Avena sativa)
After pearl millet, the most relevant are foxtail (Setaria
The origin of oats can be traced back to approximately 2000 BC italica), proso (Panicum miliaceum), and finger (Eleusine cora-
in the Middle East or surrounding Mediterranean areas. Avena cana). Foxtail millet is especially important in China, Japan,
sativa and Avena byzantine are the two most widely grown. Oats and India. Proso or common millet (Panicum miliaceum) orig-
are a cool season crop and ranks sixth in world cereal produc- inated in Manchuria and first appeared as a crop in Transcau-
tion. The demand for oats for human consumption has casia and China 5000 BC. It is considered as one of the most
steadily increased due to its nutritional health implications, drought-resistant millets. The kernels are small (2–3 mm) and
the best protein quality among cereals, and especially due to can be cream, yellow, orange-red, or brown in color. Kernels
the unique properties of its dietary fiber. In the processing of are usually traditionally milled into flours for preparation of a
oats for human foods, the hulls or glumes are removed and the wide array of traditional foods or used for birdseed. Finger or
naked caryopsis, named groats, is generally consumed as ragi millet originated in Ethiopia and reached India between
whole grain. The main drawback of whole oats and their 3000 and 4000 years ago. Its name is due to the digitally
milled fractions is the high fat content prone to oxidation. arranged panicle. Finger is among one of the most productive
That is the main reason the dry milling of oats is aimed toward millets with average yields of about 1.8 tons Ha
1. The two
the deactivation of lipolytic enzymes via thermal treatments. main races are the African highland, widely grown in the cooler
Flaked and milled oats are mainly used for the production of higher altitudes regions of East Africa and Asia, and the Afro-
breakfast cereals, nutrition bars, cookies, and composite Asiatic lowland. Finger millet is generally dry-milled into flour
breads. for the production of flatbreads, dosa and rotis.
 Cereals: Types and Composition 721

Kodo (Paspalum scrobiculatum) and barnyard (Echinochloa are composed of carbohydrates, protein, lipids, vitamins, and
frumentacea) millets are indigenous to the Indian subconti- minerals.
nent. Kodo kernels are enclosed in hard horny persistent All cereals are classified as starchy grains because they con-
husks that are difficult to remove. Barnyard is considered as tain at least 60% of this carbohydrate. The starch is a polymer
one of the fastest growing among all millets. of glucose units joined by a 1–4 and 1–6 glycosidic bonds that
Teff (Eragrostis tef) originated 4000 BC in northern Ethio- after digestion provide most of the energy consumed by
pia. Maximum production is achieved at high altitudes humans. The starch is an excellent source of energy because
(1800–2000 m), with rainfall of 450–500 mm and a tempera- in practical terms it is completely digested and utilized by a
ture range of 10–27  C. Today, teff accounts for about one normal human being. The starch has contrasting properties if it
quarter of the total cereal production in Ethiopia where it is is in its native, gelatinized, or retrograded stages. Most foods
mainly processed into the traditional fermented pancake processed are aimed toward the partial or total starch gelatini-
known as injera. Among millets, teff produces the smallest zation because the thermal-treated starch turns into molecules
kernels (< 1 mm in diameter), which are rich in dietary fiber with high affinity for water that yield viscous doughs, gels, or
and iron and contain a better protein quality and calcium slurries. The starch molecules are stored in granules, which are
compared to other cereals. packed with amylose and amylopectin molecules. The amylose
Fonio (Digitaria exilis) is an important subsistence crop in contains about 1500 glucose molecules in a linear chain joined
the savannas of West Africa where it has been planted because by a 1–4 glycosidic bonds. The amylopectin or branched starch
of its short growing cycle (2 months) and resistance to arid is composed of glucose molecules not only linked by a 1–4
conditions, scarce rainfalls, and poor soils. Fonio also yields glycosidic bonds but also containing branches that occur when
very small kernels that are milled into flours, which are mainly a 1–6 bonds form. Only about 4–5% of the total glycosidic
used for preparation of porridges, couscous, traditional breads, bonds are a 1-6. These glucose polymers have a molecular
and opaque beers. weight of 108  106 g mol
1 (600 000 glucose units/amylopec-
tin molecule) and structurally are divided in type A, B, and C
chains. The starch of most cereals contains 75% amylopectin
Physical and Chemical Properties and 25% amylose. However, some cereals such as maize,
wheat, rice, barley, and sorghum can contain from 95% up to
The grain physical properties of cereal grains are depicted in 100% amylopectin and therefore are almost amylose-free.
Table 1 and the chemical composition in Table 2. Cereal grains These cereals are named waxy because their endosperm

Table 1 Physical properties of cereal grains

Dimensions
Test weight 1000 kernel Density
Cereal (kg hl
1) weight (g) Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Length: width ratio (g cm
3)

Maize
Dent 68.5–78.0 240–370 8.0–17.0 5.0–9.8 – 1.1 1.20–1.36
Popcorn 82.0–83.0 130–151 8.0–8.6 5.3–6.0 4.0–4.4 1.4–1.5 1.37–1.39
Paddy rice
Long 56.0 21–24 8.9–9.6 2.3–2.5 1.8–1.9 3.8:1–3.9:1 –
Medium 58.5 23–25 7.9–8.2 3.0–3.2 1.9–2.1 2.5:1–2.6:1 –
Short 60.0 26–30 7.4–7.5 3.1–3.6 2.1–2.3 2.1:1–2.4:1 –
Wheat – – 4.0–10.0 2.5–4.5 – 2.0 –
Hard 80.9 20–32 – – – – –
Soft 77.8 30–40 – – – – –
Durum 74.0–80.0 20–60 – – – – –
Barley
Hulled 46.0–71.0 17–57 8.0–14.0 2.0–4.5 – 3.4 –
Sorghum 68.5–77.3 23–35 3.0–5.0 2.5 1.6 1.6 1.20–1.35
Rye 62.5–73.5 16–32 4.5–10.0 1.5–3.5 – 2.9 –
Oats
Hulled 41.3–52.9 24.7–35.8 9.3–11.1 2.9–3.0 – 3.5 –
Groats 75.9–80.1 16.5–26.0 5.3–6.5 2.1–2.3 – 2.7 –
Triticale 77–79 28–45 – – – – 1.44
Millets
Pearl 76.0–80.0 4–15 3.0–5.5 1.5–3.0 1.2–2.4 2.4 1.25–1.30
Foxtail – 5 2.0 2.0 – 1.0 –
Finger 1.8–3.8 1.0–1.8 1.0–1.5 1.0–1.5 1.0 1.24
Proso 72.7 – – – – – –
Fonio – 0.5 – – – – –
Tef – 0.13–0.4 1.0–1.5 0.8–1.0 – 1.4 –

Source: Serna Saldivar, S.O. (2010). Cereal grains: properties, processing and nutritional attributes. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group).
722 Cereals: Types and Composition

Table 2 Chemical composition of cereals grains

Cereal Protein (%) Fat (%) Crude fiber (%) Minerals (%) NFE (%)a

Maize
Dent 9.1 4.4 3.0 1.7 81.8
8.1–11.5 3.9–5.8 2.4–3.5 1.4–2.0 77.2–84.2
Popcorn 12.1 5.2 2.3 1.8 78.6
11.0–13.2 4.6–5.8 1.8–2.6 1.4–1.9 76.5–81.2
Rice
Paddy-Rough 7.5 2.4 10.2 4.7 75.2
6.7–9.0 1.7–2.7 8.4–12.1 3.4–6.0 70.2–79.8
Brown 9.2 2.5 0.9, 1.5 85.9 83.6–88.0
8.3–10.1 1.8–3.3 0.7–1.2 1.2–1.8
White 7.8 0.5 0.4 0.6 90.7
7.3–8.3 0.3–0.6 0.2–0.6 0.3–0.9 89.6–91.9
Wheat
Hard 14.4 2.3 2.9 1.9 78.5
11.5–17.0 1.8–2.8 2.8–3.0 1.8–2.0 75.2–82.1
Soft 9.9 2.8 2.7 1.7 82.9
8.0–12.0 2.6–2.9 2.5–2.8 1.8–1.9 80.4–85.1
Durum 13.2 2.8 2.8 2.0 79.2
12.0–15.6 1.8–3.8 2.4–3.1 1.8–2.1 75.4–82.0
Barley 11.5 2.2 5.6 2.9 77.8
7.5–15.6 1.8–2.6 5.3–5.9 2.6–3.1 72.8–82.8
Sorghum 11.0 3.2 2.7 1.8 81.3
7.3–15.6 0.5–5.2 1.2–6.6 1.1–4.5 68.1–89.9
Rye 13.4 1.8 2.1 2.0 80.7
12.6–14.5 1.6–2.2 1.6–2.6 1.7–2.2 78.5–82.5
Oats
Oats 17.1 6.4 11.3 3.2 62.0
12.4–24.4 4.5–10.3 10.4–14.3 2.9–3.4 47.6–69.8
Groats 16.9 7.4 1.6 2.1 72.0
13.8–22.5 5.9–8.4 1.0–3.3 1.9–2.4 63.4–77.4
Triticale 15.2 1.9 2.2 1.9 78.6
12.6–17.2 1.6–2.2 2.0–2.5 1.8–2.1 77.4–80.8
Millets
Pearl 14.5 5.1 2.0 2.0 76.4
8.6–19.4 1.5–6.8 1.4–7.3 1.6–3.6 62.9–86.9
Foxtail 11.7 3.9 7.0 3.2 74.2
6.0–14.0 1.2–5.2 2.6–8.9 1.5–3.6 68.3–88.7
Finger 8.0 1.5 3.0 3.0 75.0
6.0–10.9 1.0–4.6 2.0–6.8 2.3–3.9 73.8–88.7
Proso 11.0 3.5 9.0 3.6 72.9
6.4–12.8 2.9–4.9 4.6–12.0 1.4–5.0 65.3–84.7
Barnyard 11.8 4.9 14.3 4.9 64.1
11.2–12.7 2.5–6.3 13.9–14.7 4.7–5.0 61.3–68.0
Kodo 10.4 3.7 9.7 3.6 72.6
6.2–13.1 3.2–4.9 8.4–11.0 3.0–4.1 66.9–79.2
Teff 10.9 2.4 2.7 2.6 81.4
7.9–12.6 2.3–2.5 2.4–3.0 2.2–2.9 79.0–85.4
Fonio 8.7 2.8 8.5 3.8 73.6
5.1–10.4 2.1–5.2 4.6–11.3 1.8–6.0 62.7–80.0
a
Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) that gives an indication of nonfibrous carbohydrates (starch and sugars).
Source: Serna Saldivar, S.O. (2010). Cereal grains: properties, processing and nutritional attributes. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group).

acquires this appearance when viewed with the naked eye. globulins. The range of protein of cereals is from 8% to 16%
These waxy cereals and their starches have special industrial (Table 2). Proteins from cereals have good rate of digestibility
uses. but lack of an adequate essential amino acid balance or com-
The second most abundant chemical component is the position especially for preschool infants and children. The
various types of protein fractions distributed in the different most limiting amino acid is lysine followed by tryptophan in
anatomical parts of the cereal kernel. Those associated with the maize and threonine in most other cereals.
endosperm are commonly denominated gluten proteins, Cereals are considered as a good source of dietary fiber.
whereas those associated with the germ are the albumins and From the health viewpoint, the importance of dietary fiber
 Cereals: Types and Composition 723

and consumption of whole grains has greatly increased during The malnutrition problems still widely distributed throughout
the past years. The dietary fiber is viewed as therapeutic for the world are almost always observed in infants living in places
people with diabetes, high cholesterol, and gastrointestinal where cereals provide most of the daily food intake. The prob-
problems. Both insoluble and soluble dietary fibers have pos- lem worsens when diets lack of legumes and/or animal-based
itive health benefits. The insoluble fiber increases the peristaltic products.
movement, increases the fecal bulk, and prevents constipation, Cereals are considered a good source of all B vitamins
hemorrhoids, diverticulosis, and colon cancer. On the other except B12, but they are low in fat-soluble vitamins and devoid
hand, the soluble fiber reduces blood cholesterol and lowers of vitamin C. It is common to observe vitamin A deficiencies in
the sudden increase in blood glucose levels. Both types of fibers populations that depend on cereals. Scientists are trying to
have the ability to bind bile acids decreasing cholesterol. The develop high b-carotene varieties using molecular biology
insoluble fiber is mainly composed of cellulose and lignin, with the aim of reducing vitamin A deficiency and night and
whereas the soluble counterpart is composed of hemicellulose, permanent blindness endemic to some regions of Asia and
arabinoxylans, and b-glucans. other parts of the world.
Lipids are relatively minor constituents of cereal grains.
Cereal lipids are divided into polar and nonpolar and are
mainly located in the germ. In most cereals, the nonpolar See also: Barley; Biscuits, Cookies, and Crackers: Chemistry and
triglycerides constitute more than 95% of the total fraction. Manufacture; Bread: Types of Bread; Cereals: Dietary Importance;
Maize, sorghum, and pearl millet are the cereals that contain Dietary Fiber: Determination; Maize; Millets; Oats; Pasta: Manufacture
the highest amount of these compounds, whereas oat is con- and Composition; Protein: Food Sources; Rice: Role in Diet; Rice:
sidered the only cereal that contains significant quantities of Types and Composition; Sorghum: A Novel and Healthy Food; Starch:
lipids in the starchy endosperm. The ash or mineral fraction Sources and Processing; Starch: Structure, Property, and
material is mostly associated with the glumes, pericarp, and Determination; Wheat: Grain Structure of Wheat and Wheat-based
aleurone layer. The most abundant mineral is phosphorus that Products; Wheat: The Crop.
is generally bound to phytates. Unfortunately, cereals are low
in essential minerals iron and zinc.
Further Reading
Nutritional Value Bushuk W (2001) Rye: production, chemistry and technology, 2nd ed. St. Paul, MN:
American Association of Cereal Chemists.
Champagne ET (2004) Rice chemistry and technology, 3rd ed. St. Paul, MN: American
Cereals grains and their products provide most of the total
Association of Cereal Chemists.
food intake and nutrients that sustain mankind. According to Dendy DAV (1995) Sorghum and millets: chemistry and technology. St. Paul, MN:
the FAO in 2011, an average human being daily consumed American Association of Cereal Chemists.
more than 403 g of total cereals and obtained approximately Food Agriculture Organization (2014). Statistical database. Rome, Italy. http://faostat.
1296 kcal and 31.9 g protein. fao.org.
Kulp K and Ponte JG (2000) Handbook of cereal science & technology, 2nd ed.
Most of the calories are derived from the starch, which is New York: Marcel Dekker.
almost completely digested and utilized in a normal human McGregor AW and Bhatty RS (1993) Barley: chemistry and technology. St. Paul, MN:
system. Another advantage of starch is that it releases the American Association of Cereal Chemists.
glucose at a slower rate to the blood stream and therefore is National Research Council (1989) Triticale: a promising addition to the world’s cereal
grains. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
suited for diabetics. The consumption of whole cereals rich in
Newman RK and Newman CW (2008) Barley for food and health. Science, technology
dietary fiber is even better because of their lower glycemic and products. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
index. The consumption of whole grain foods lowers energy Serna Saldivar SO (2010) Cereal grains: properties, processing and nutritional
density, blood cholesterol, and glucose and reduces the inci- attributes. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group).
dence of several cancers, mainly colon. Oat-based products Taylor JRN, Schober TJ, and Bean SR (2006) Novel food and non-food uses for
sorghum and millets. Journal of Cereal Science 44: 252–271.
exert positive health effects because they contain significant White P and Johnson L (2003) Corn chemistry and technology, 2nd ed. St. Paul, MN:
quantities of both insoluble and soluble dietary fibers. The American Association of Cereal Chemists.
rest of the cereals have a higher ratio of insoluble to soluble
fiber and therefore do not exert the same positive effects as the
oat’s dietary fiber. Relevant Websites
The major drawback of cereals is their low protein quality.
Protein quality is affected by the digestibility rate and mainly www.aaccnet.org – American Association of Cereal Chemists.
by the essential amino acid balance. Cereals usually contain www.fao.org – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
www.grainmilling.org – Grain Milling & Processing: Cereal Foods.
from 8% to 12% protein (Table 2), have a good rate of protein www.postharvest.org – Extension Systems International.
digestibility (80–90%), but unfortunately lack lysine, the most www.usda.gov – U.S. Department of Agriculture.
important essential amino acid in practical human nutrition. www.worldbank.org – The World Bank.