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Chapter One-Introducion To Occupational Health and Safety
Chapter One-Introducion To Occupational Health and Safety
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
Occupational health and safety is one of the most important aspects of human concern. It aims an
adaptation of working environment to workers for the promotion and maintenance of the highest
degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations.
The question of occupational health and safety, as a global issue, is now taking a new turn. The
main contributory factors towards this idiocyncracy seem to be due to the rapid industrial and
agricultural development that are taking place in the developing countries, and the emergence
of new products and product processes from these p laces. Many of these countries are moving
from manual labor to service mechanization in the main productive sectors, such as
manufacturing, mining and agriculture, hence the potential occupational health ramifications
should be anticipated. Also the insatiable desire of these countries for technical advancement has
brought about the importation of sophisticated machinery and pieces of equipment not only into
the industrial production sector, but also to services and commerce. This invariably has been
associated with a change in the structure of the labor force as a whole including a rise in the
employment of women. As to be expected the health problems would also change. For example,
more emphasis on ergonomics and occupational psychosocial factors would be needed in the
services industry. This obviously would be a new challenge for occupational health and safety
practice in most of the African countries because the tool to deal with such a problems and the
expertise is not yet advanced when compared to the developed countries.
The benefit of occupational health service in developing countries is seen locally as well as on a
national level. The positive impact of occupational health service locally may be observed in
reducing morbidity and work-related injuries. In addition, this also means fewer losses to
employer and worker as there will be a reduction of wage losses and decreased compensation
costs. The reduction of absenteeism is of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e c o n c e r n i n g s k i l
l e d l a b o r , especially so in countries where there is a shortage of skilled labor.
Making working conditions healthy and safe is in the interest of workers, employers and
governments, as well as the public at large. Although it seems simple and obvious, this idea has
not yet gained meaningful universal recognition. Hundreds of millions of people throughout the
world are employed today in conditions that breed ill health and/or are unsafe.
Each year, work-related injuries and diseases kill an estimated 2 million people worldwide,
which is greater than the global annual number of deaths from malaria. Annually, an estimated
160 million new cases of work-related diseases occur worldwide, including respiratory and
cardiovascular diseases, cancer, hearing loss, musculoskeletal and reproductive disorders, mental
and neurological illnesses.
An increasing number of workers in industrial countries complain about psychological stress and
overwork. These psychological factors have been found to be strongly associated with insomnia,
depression and fatigue, and burn-out syndromes, as well as with elevated risks of cardiovascular
diseases. Only 5-10% of workers in developing countries and 20-50% of workers in industrial
countries (with a few exceptions) are estimated to have access to adequate occupational health
services. Even in advanced economies, a large proportion of work sites are not regularly
inspected for occupational Health and safety.
1.3. Definition of Terms
According to WHO (1995), occupational safety and health can be defined as a multidisciplinary
activity aiming at:
• Protection and promotion of the health of workers by eliminating occupational factors
and conditions hazardous to health and safety at work.
• Enhancement of p h y s i c a l , m e n t a l a n d s o c i a l w e l l -being of workers and
support for the development and maintenance of their working capacity, as well as professional
and social development at work.
• Development and promotion of sustainable work environments and work organizations
The ILO/WHO definition of occupational health is “The promotion and maintenance of the
highest degree of physical, mental social well- being of workers in all occupation” and the WHO
considers occupational health service to be responsible for the total of worker and, if possible,
his or her family.
According to a statement by occupational health institutes collaborating with the WHO (1995)
the most important challenges for occupational health for the future will be:
• Occupational health problems l inked to new information technologies and automation;
• New chemical substances and physical energies;
Interdisciplinary Relationships
Environmental Managers: are those trying to eliminate hazards from the workplace cause
many environmental problems.
Toxicology: is the science that studies poison and toxic substances and their mechanisms
and effects on living organisms. In other words toxicology is the study of adverse effects of
chemical on biologic systems, or when a substance has a capacity to produce undesirable
p h y s i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t w h e n t h e c h e m i c a l r e a c h e d a sufficient
concentration at a specific site in the body.
Toxicologists: are persons who study poisoning and responsible defining quantitatively the
level of exposure at which harm occurs and they also prescribe precautionary measures and
exposure limitations so that normal recommended use of chemical substance does not result in
excessive exposure and subsequent harm.
Chemical engineers are those who design process plant, they choose values, decide on how
access will be gained and how cleaning will take place.
Mechanical engineers are those who responsible for choosing materials handling systems or for
specifying noise levels on machinery.
Environmental health professionals: are those who apply their knowledge and experience,
understand the environmental health hazards, analyze the technical and social approaches and
reduce and eliminate human exposures and health impacts.
Industrial hygienists are scientists, engineers, and public health professionals committed to
protecting the health people in the workplace and the community
The health status of the workforce in every country has an immediate and direct impact on
national and world economies. Total economic losses due to occupational illnesses and injuries
are enormous (WHO 1999). The International Labor Organization (ILO) has estimated that in
1997, the overall economic losses resulting from work-related diseases and injuries were
approximately 4-5 % of the world’s Gross National Product.
Workplace
• Unsafe building
• Old machines
• Poor ventilation
• Noise
• Inaccessible to inspection
Workers
Limited education
Limited skill and training
Employers
Limited financial resources
In many developing nations, death rates due to occupational accident among workers are five to
six times higher than those in industrialized countries; yet, the situation in developing countries
is still largely undocumented due to poor recording system.
Table 1 -1: Estimated Global Burden of Disease from Selected Environmental Threats
Type of Burden from Reduction Burden Burden
transport(mot
All the above 473 - 50 10.0
Source: World Bank, 1993
In the middle Ages, guilds worked at assisting sick workers and their families. In 1556, the
German scholar, Agricola, advanced the science of industrial hygiene even further when, in his
book De Re Metallica, he described the diseases of miners and prescribed preventive measures.
The book included suggestions for mine ventilation and worker protection, discussed mining
accidents, and described diseases associated with mining occupations such as silicosis.
Industrial hygiene gained further respectability in 1700 when Bernardo Ramazzini, known as the
"father of industrial medicine," published in Italy the first comprehensive book on industrial
medicine, De Morbis Artificum Diatriba (The Diseases of Workmen). The book contained
accurate descriptions of the occupational diseases of most of the workers of his time. Ramazzini
greatly affected the future of industrial hygiene because he asserted that occupational diseases
should be studied in the work environment rather than in hospital wards.
Industrial hygiene received another major boost in 1743 when Ulrich Ellenborg p u b l i s h e d a
p a mp hl e t on o c c u p a t i o n a l diseases a n d injuries among gold miners. Ellensburg also
wrote about the toxicity of carbon monoxide, mercury, lead, and nitric acid.
In England in the 18th century, Percival Pott, as a result of his findings on the insidious effects of
soot on chimney sweepers, was a major force in getting the British Parliament to pass the
Chimney- Sweepers Act of 1788. The passage of the English Factory Acts beginning in 1833
marked the first effective legislative acts in the field of industrial safety. The Acts, however,
were intended to provide compensation for accidents rather than to control their causes. Later,
various other European nations developed workers' compensation acts, which stimulated the
adoption of increased factory safety precautions and the establishment of medical services within
industrial plants.
In the early 20th century in the U.S., Dr. Alice Hamilton led efforts to improve industrial
hygiene. She observed industrial conditions first hand and startled mine owners, factory
managers, and state officials with evidence that there was a correlation between worker illness
and exposure to toxins. She also presented definitive proposals for eliminating unhealthful
working conditions.
At about the same time, U.S. federal and state agencies began investigating health conditions in
industry. In 1908, public awareness of occupationally related diseases stimulated the passage of
compensation acts for certain civil employees. States passed the first workers' compensation
laws in 1911. And in 1913, the New York
Department of Labor and the Ohio Department of Health established the first state industrial
hygiene programs. All states enacted such legislation by 1948. In most states, there is some
compensation coverage for workers contracting occupational diseases.
The U.S. Congress has passed three landmark pieces of legislation related to safeguarding
workers' health: (1) the Metal and Nonmetallic Mines Safety Act of 1966, (2) the Federal
Coal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1969, and (3) the Occupational Safety and Health Act of
1970 (OSH Act). Today, nearly every employer is required to implement the elements of an
industrial hygiene and safety, occupational health, or hazard communication program and to be
responsive to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and its regulations.
However, concrete approach to the control of occupational diseases became valid in most
countries after the twentieth century. Emphasis was then given to the control of working
hazards, and multidisciplinary approach to such effective measures in which at least triparty: the
employer, the employee, and the competent authority are together participating in the problem
solution. Much improvement in the workers’ health protection has been made in developed
countries in the field of industrial hygiene and safety, and occupational medicine. There is still
a long distance ahead for developing countries.
Industrial hygienists analyze, identify, and measure workplace hazards or stresses that can cause
sickness, impaired health, or significant discomfort in workers through chemical, physical,
ergonomic, o r b i o l o g i c a l e x p o s u r e s . Two r o l e s o f t h e O S H A industrial
hygienist are to spot those conditions and help eliminate or control them through appropriate
measures.
1. Labor regulation
Talking about labor Law in Ethiopia means to basically review the history of the last 40-50
years. Present-day labor law, as a specialized law designed to protect employees' welfare, only
came into
existence as a result of the modern industrial development and with the rise of the status of the
employee as wage earner. Until recently, the main source of labor law, the Labor Proclamation,
Proclamation No. 42/1993, was developed in the post-socialist time, marking the overcoming of
the centralized state-economy towards a market oriented, pluralistic society.
Ethiopia was criticized for several years by the ILO Committee of Experts, which noted serious
discrepancies between the national legislation and the Freedom of Association and Protection
of the Right to Organize Convention, 1948 (No. 87). It was partly in response to the
observations made by the House of People’ s Representatives adopted Labor
Proclamation No. 377/2003, effective since 26 February 2004. This text repealed Labor
Proclamation No. 42/1993 (as amended by Proclamation 88/1994). It has become the principal
source of labor law in Ethiopia. So far the Committee of Experts has not published its
comments on the new law.
The new statute represents an important tool for unions and employers to participate in all labor
matters. The innovation concerns the right of workers, without distinction whatsoever, to form
organizations of their own choosing and the right of these organizations to organize their
activities without interference by the public authorities and not to be dissolved by administrative
authority (Article 114 (1), (2) and (7)).
Labor Proclamation 377/2003 amends the previous Labor Proclamation on the following
points:
It clarifies regulations on severance pay and compensation, disablement payment and dependents
benefits (Arts. 39, 40, 109, 110);
It creates the full guarantee of freedom of association by abolishing trade union monopoly
(Article 114), provided that the number of members of the union is not less than ten;
It clarifies the cancellation of a union to be effective only after a court decision (new Article
120 (1));
It introduces a simpler system of collective bargaining and labor dispute settlement, with
specified time limits to speed up the resolution of conflict (Articles 130 (2), 142 (3), 143 and
151);
It intends to improve the efficiency of the Labor Relation Boards (Articles 145, 1474 (4), 149
(6), 150, 153 and 154);
It restricts the definition of “essential services” (Article 136 (2)), excluding railway and inter-
urban bus services, filling stations and banks, thereby entitling workers or employers of these
undertakings to the right to strike or lockout.
Working time
Hours of work
Normal working hours are 8 hours a day or 48 hours a week (Article 61). They should be
distributed evenly, but may be even calculated over a longer period of time (Articles 63 and 64).
Overtime
Any work exceeding the normal working time of 48 hours a week is overtime. Overtime is only
permissible for up to 2 hours a day, or 20 hours a month, or 100 hours a year, in the following
cases (Article 67):
Night work
Pursuant to Article 68 (1) b), night work is work realized between 10 PM and 6 AM.
Paid leave
Annual, uninterrupted leave with pay shall be a minimum of 14 working days, plus one working
day for every additional year of service (Article 77). Additional leave is granted for employees
engaged in particularly hazardous or unhealthy work. It is forbidden to pay wages in lieu of the
annual leave (Article 76).
Public holidays
Ethiopia for example has twelve public holidays – historical memorial days and holidays of
Christian and Moslem origin - described by law.
Furthermore, the Ethiopian Labor Proclamation provides one part (Part Six) to the Working
conditions of Women and Young Workers. Maternity leave and maternity protection are
regulated in Articles 87 and 88.
Articles 85 to 86 provide for an entitlement to sick leave after the completion of the probation
period. An employee is entitled to a maximum of 6 months of sick leave within 1 year of service.
An employer will only be obligated to grant paid sick leave for the first months, whereas the
wage is reduced to 50 % for the second and third month, and reduced to zero for the third to the
sixth month of sick leave within a year. For any absence for longer than one day the
employee has the obligation to produce a valid medical certificate.
Moreover, Article 81 to 84 of the Proclamation provide for special leave for family events, union
activities and other special purposes, such as for hearings before bodies competent to hear
labor disputes, to exercise civil rights, and for training purposes according to collective
agreements or working rules.
Under Article 89 of the Labor Proclamation the statutory minimum age for young workers is
14 years. Beyond the age of 14 years, no person may employ a child for work that is
inappropriate or that endangers his or her life or health (Article 89 (2) and (3)). Special measures
of protection of young workers (e.g. work in transport, night work, work in arduous, hazardous
or unhealthy activities, such as mining) may be taken by the Minister. Work performed under the
regime of a vocational training course is exempted from this protection (Article 89 (5)).
As shown above, the Ethiopian Constitution gives children general protection from exploitative
labor practices – Article 36 – Rights of Children. Ethiopia ratified the ILO Worst Forms of
Child Labor Convention, 1999 (No. 182), in September 2003.
Equality
The Constitution guarantees the right to equality in employment, promotion, pay and the transfer
of pension entitlement (Article 35 (8) of the Constitution).
Pay issues
Ethiopian law does not prescribe minimum wages through statute. Usually wages are fixed by
the employer or by collective agreements or by the employee's contract of employment.
Article 3 of the Proclamation provides for a list of protections pertaining to the rights of disabled
persons. Under this article it is stated that:
1. Disabled person having the necessary qualifications shall, unless the nature or the work
dictates otherwise, have the right to compete and to be selected for.
a. a vacant post in any office or undertaking through recruitment, promotion, placement or
transfer procedures;
Model of Disability.
Where disability is understood as a ‘moral’ matter, associated with shame or guilt, the policy
response is generally one of care by the family or by religious institutions, and solutions often
involve charity. The legal approach associated with this understanding of disability has been
described as ‘Charity Law (c.f. Degener and Quinn, 2000). This type of law (often called ‘Poor
Law’) aims to alleviate complete destitution and provides for basic services, in segregated settings
which are often stigmatized. The working group conclusions on this topic are listed below:
• Disability should be regarded as a human rights issue
• Medical provision should be required at the workplace
• Provision should be made for social security benefits
• Enforcement mechanisms are essential
• Anti-discrimination provisions should be made
• Measures to promote employment opportunities should be introduced
• Equality should be the basic principle
• People with disabilities should be encouraged to be independent
• People with disabilities should be represented in workers’ and employers’ organizations
• ILO Convention No. 159 should be ratified and adapted to the specificity of each country
• All disability-related laws should be reviewed and amended in line with modern law.
Implementation should be persuasive at the beginning
• ‘Disability’ should be clearly defined
• Quota schemes should be provided for
• Equal opportunities should be promoted
• Registration of employers/registration of persons with disabilities seeking employment is
required
• Incentives to employers should be introduced
• Accessibility/reasonable accommodation to buildings /information/labor market/technical
devices should be provided for
• Personal support service to ease communication barriers should be provided for
• Measures to promote job retention should be introduced
• A national multi-sectoral mechanism -a Council or Committee- should be established.
• Reservation of posts should be provided for
Session 2: What are the strengths and weaknesses of existing laws concerning the employment
of people with disabilities, and their implementation measures?
The conclusions of the three working groups on this topic are listed below:
Strengths
• Laws have been introduced
• Provision for the rights of people with disabilities is made in some national constitutions
• Laws put forward a human rights approach to disability
• Laws are flexible
• Laws make provision for formal, integrative employment
• Specific provisions are made for training
• Some provision is made for social security
• Provision is made for data collection, registration of people with disabilities, in some cases
• Disabled persons’ organizations are involved in the development of laws, in some cases.
Weaknesses
In the laws themselves
• Laws too general, vague, specific
• No enforcement/implementation mechanisms specified
• No provision for affirmative action
• No provision for reasonable accommodation
• No provision for equal opportunities
• Definition of disability too narrow
• No provision for representation of people with disabilities
• No consideration of financial implications
• No provisions for coordination mechanisms, in some cases
• Lack of constitutional provision, in some cases
• Narrow scope – only apply to public sector in some cases
• No specific provision for civil service, in some
cases In the wider context
• No policy framework
• Lack of programmes to support laws
• Lack of supportive services and facilities
• Lack of labor market information
• Inability to c o p e w i t h t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of g l o b a l i z a t i o n , liberalization
Session 3: What needs to be done to improve the existing national laws and their
implementation? Working Groups were formed for each country to identify what needs to be
done in each case to improve the impact of national laws.
The basic principles for the development of occupational health and safety services are as
follows:
1) The service must optimally be preventive oriented and multidisciplinary.
2) The service provided should integrate and complement the existing public health service.
3) The service should address environmental considerations.
4) The service should involve, participation of social partners and other stakeholders
5) The service should be delivered on panned approach.
6) The service should base up to date information, education, training, consultancy,
advisory services and research findings
7) The service should be considered as an investment contributing positively
towards ensuring productivity and profitability.
1 The worker
In developing countries like Ethiopia, the work force has several distinct characteristics:-
1. Most people who are employed to work in the informal sectors, mainly in agriculture, or in
small-scale industries, such as garages, tannery and pottery.
2. There are high rates of unemployment, some- times reaching
25% or higher. In many developing countries the rates of unemployment and under employment
is increasing each year.
3. In general, workers are at greater risk of occupational hazards for a variety of reasons because
of low education and literacy rates; unfamiliarity with work processes and exposures, inadequate
training, predisposition not to complain about working conditions or exposures because of jobs,
whether or not they are hazardous, are relatively scarce; high prevalence of endemic (mainly
infections) diseases and malnutrition; inadequate infrastructure and human resources to diagnose,
treat, and prevent work - related diseases and injuries.
4. The annual per capita income for Ethiopia is about $ 120 (USD) or less per year which
makes it one of the lowest in the world. Daily wage for all Ethiopian daily laborers is less
than
$1 US dollar.
5. Vulnerable populations in any country are at even greater risks.
Industrial workers constitute only a segment of the general population and the factors
that influence the health of the population also apply equally to industrial workers, i.e., housing,
water, sewage and refuse disposal, nutrition, and education. In addition to these factors, the
health of industrial worker, in a large measure, will also be influenced by conditions prevailing
in their workplace. One of the declared aims of occupational hygiene is to provide a safe
occupational environment in order to safeguard the health of the workers and to set up industrial
production.
The employee plays a major role in the occupational hygiene program. They are excellent
sources of information on work processes, procedures and the perceived hazards of their daily
operations or activities. The industrial hygienist will benefit from this source of information and
often obtain innovative suggestions for controlling hazards.
Obviously there is wide variation among workers in genetic inheritance, constitutions, and
susceptibility to disease. Regardless of the industrial hygienist will start his or her activities in
sorting all those aspects of hazards including the worker himself?
2 The Tool
Tools can range from very primitive tools like a hammer, chisel, and needle, to automated
equipment.
Figure.1-1.Simple hand tools are the causes of many accidents. Source: Deglaville
et.al. Occupational Health, a manual for health
Workers in developing countries
3 The process
In the process, materials used can be toxic. The process itself can affect the potential harmfulness
of the materials. For example, the particle size or physical state (solid, liquid and gas) of
potentially harmful substances can determine to a large extent what ill effects in workers may
develop from those substances.
4 The work environment.
Occupational environment means the sum of external conditions and influences
which prevail at the place of work and which have a bearing on the health of the
working population. The industrial worker today is placed in a highly complicated
environment and the work e n v i r o n m e n t i s getting more complicated as
human is becoming more innovative or inventive.
The occupational environment of the worker cannot be considered apart from his domestic
environment. Both are complementary to each other. The worker takes his worries to his/her
home and bring to his work disturbances that has arisen in his/her home. Stress at work may
disturb his sleep, just as stress at home may affect his work.
1.8. Review Questions
1. Define the following terms:
a. A n t i c i p a t i o n b. Recognition c. Evaluation d. Control.
2. What are the challenges for the development of occupational health and safety?
3. Why is occupational health considered as one part of preventive medicine?
4. What are the three types of interaction in the working environment?
5. How can work affect health and health affect work? Give practical examples
6. Mention the main roles of Environmental Health Officers in occupational health and
safety programs