CHEMISTRY: UNIT 1 NOTES

Part 2

Old Syllabus
1.2 (B) Mole conversion & Molar Mass
Intro
- Different units are used to count groups of items:
- A pair means two items, a dozen contains 12 items, a gross contains 144 items
and a ream contains 500 items
- A pair will always represent two items, whether it represents the number of eggs,
test tubes or people.
- Counting a large quantity of items arranged into groups allows for the process to
be manageable: more practical for counting such large quantities.

Mole (usually shortened to “mol”)

- The SI base unit that is used to measure the amount of a substance (n)
- Represents the number of particles in in exactly 12 g of carbon-12
- One mole: 6. 022142 𝑥 1023 Particles
- One mole contains exactly the number of elementary entities given by the Avogadro
constant (6.02 x 1023)
- It was named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro, and its value is given as
6.02 × 1023 mol–1.
- One mole is used to represent the number of elementary entities, but it could also be used
to represent 6.02 × 1023 of anything.
- Represents an amount of chemical particles, known as elementary entities
- Elementary entities can be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons or any other chemical
particle, such as a formula unit.

Avogadro Constant (NA) = 6. 02 𝑥 1023

- Avogadro constant is used to calculate the number of atoms, molecules, ions or electrons.
Since the unit for it is mol–1, this quantity allows for the units to vary, depending on type
of elementary entity being calculated

Why use “moles” instead of number of atoms or molecules?

- Simplification
- 1 mole is easy to deal with
- In 12g of Carbon-12, 6. 02 𝑥 1023 is difficult to deal with
Calculations with moles
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 6.02 𝑥 10²³ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
- Need to use conversion factor: 6.02 𝑥 10²³ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
OR 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
- Numerator and Denominator mean the same thing, but are in different units
- If you’re not using conversion factor, use this triangle

Example #1: Calculate the number of atoms in 5.5 mol of sodium atoms
Method 1: 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 5. 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 6. 02 𝑥 10²³
= 3. 311 𝑥 1024 atoms
= 3. 3 𝑥 1024 atoms

6.02 𝑥 10²³ 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

Method 2: 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 5. 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 x 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
6.02 𝑥 10²³ 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
- Cancel out mol → = 5. 5 𝑥 1
= 3. 3 𝑥 1024 atoms

Example #2: How many moles are in 3.10 x 1024 atoms of carbon?
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Method 2: 𝑁𝑐 = 3. 10 𝑥 1024 atoms x 6.02 𝑥 10²³ 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(𝑁𝑐: Number of moles in carbon)
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
- Cancel out atoms → = 3. 10 𝑥 1024 x 6.02 𝑥 10²³
= 5. 149 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 5. 15 𝑚𝑜𝑙₂

Example #3: How many oxygen atoms are in 6.0 moles of carbon dioxide?
Method 1:𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
= 6. 0𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 6. 02 𝑥 10²³
= 3. 612 𝑥 10²⁴
Dioxide: 2 atoms of oxygen = 3. 612 𝑥 10²⁴ x 2
= 7. 2 𝑥 10²⁴ oxygen atoms
 6.02 𝑥 10²³ 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜₂ 2 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂
Method 2:𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 6𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂₂ x 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑜₂
𝑥 1 𝑐𝑜₂
- Cancel out mol of 𝐶𝑂₂ → = 6. 0 𝑥 6. 02 𝑥 10²³ 𝑥 2
- Cancel out molecules of 𝐶𝑂₂
= 7. 2 𝑥 10²⁴ oxygen atoms

Practice: How many atoms are there in 3.40 moles of methane?

Method 1:𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
= 3. 40 𝑥 6. 02 𝑥 10²³
= 3. 4 𝑥 10²³
= 3. 4 𝑥 10²³ 𝑥 4

Practice: Hydrazine, N2H4(l) is a versatile compound that is used in pharmaceuticals, rocket

fuels, and airbags. Suppose that a chemical sample in an airbag contains 3.65 mol of
hydrazine. How many atoms are in the sample?

1.2 (C) Molar Mass

- The mass of one mole of an element, in grams
- Is numerically the same as the atomic mass of the the element expressed in atomic mass
units (u)
- Is used as a conversion factor to convert between moles and mass
- Since each element has a different number of subatomic particles affecting its mass, the
relative atomic masses are used to determine the mass of one mole of a substance, known
as the molar mass
- Calculations with molar mass allow us to convert the number of particles or moles of a
substance into its mass in grams
- For instance, carbon, C, has a relative atomic mass of 12.01 and its molar mass is 12.01 g
mol−1.

Example 1:
- Mass on one carbon atom: 12u
- Mass of one mole of carbon atoms: 12g

Example 2:
- Average atomic mass of Boron: 10.81u
- Mass of one mole of Boron: 10.81g
Example 3: Find the molar masses of the following
1. Sodium
Average atomic mass of Sodium: 22.99u
Mass of one mole of Sodium(MNa): 22.99g

2. Iron
Average atomic mass of Iron: 55.85u
Mass of one mole of Iron(MFe): 55.85g

3. Hydrogen Gas
Average atomic mass of Hydrogen: 1.01u
Mass of one mole of Hydrogen Gas (MH2): 1.01 x 2= 2.02g

4. Water
Average atomic mass of Hydrogen: 1.01u
Average atomic mass of Oxygen: 16.00u
Mass of one mole of Water (MH2o): 1.01 (2) + 16.00= 18.02g

5. Aluminum Nitrate
Average atomic mass of Aluminum: 26.99u
Average atomic mass of Nitrogen: 14.01u
Average atomic mass of Oxygen: 16.00u
Mass of one mole of Aluminum Nitrate: (MAl(NO3)3): 26.99 + 14.01(3) + 16.00(9)=
213.02g

Converting Amount In Moles to Mass

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

Example 1: Mass of 3.2 mol of Carbon

(MCO2) 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 3. 2 𝑥 12. 01
(MCO2) 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 38. 43

Example 2: Mass of 0.245 mol of Silver Chloride

(MAgCl) 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 0. 245 𝑥 (107. 87 + 35. 45)
(MAgCl) 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 0. 245 𝑥 143. 32
(MAgCl) 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 35.1g

Method 2: Using Conversion factor. (Molar mass is already a conversion factor)

143.32
(MAgCl) 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 0. 245 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
(Cancel out mol)
(MAgCl) 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 35. 1𝑔

Converting Mass to Amount In Moles

𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ÷ 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Example 1: 10.21g of Calcium
Average atomic mass of Calcium: 40.08
(nCa) 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 10. 21 ÷ 40. 08𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
(nCa) 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 0. 2547 𝑚𝑜𝑙

Example 2: 15.7g of Carbon Dioxide

Average atomic mass of Carbon: 12.01
Average atomic mass of Oxygen: 16.00
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 15. 7 ÷ (12. 01 + 16. 00(2))
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 15. 7 ÷ (44. 01)
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 0. 3567 𝑚𝑜𝑙

Using Conversion Factor

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛CO2= 15. 7𝑔 𝑥 44.01
𝑛CO2= 0. 357 𝑚𝑜𝑙

Example 3: 865 mg of Fluorine Gas

Average atomic mass of Fluorine: 19.00
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 0. 865 ÷ (19. 00(2))
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 0. 865 ÷ (38)
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 0. 0228 𝑚𝑜𝑙

Using Conversion Factor

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛F2= 0. 865𝑔 𝑥 38.00𝑔
(Cancel out grams)
𝑛F2= 0. 0228 𝑚𝑜𝑙

1.2 (D) Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula

Empirical:
- Represents the smallest ratio of atoms present in a compound.
 - In other words, the empirical formula is the simplest formula
Molecular:
- Gives the total number of atoms of each element present in one of a compound
- In other words, the molecular formula is the simplest formula

Molecular Formula eeEmpirical Formula (Family)

C4H8 (Butene) CH2

C3H6 (Propene) CH2

C6H12 (Hexene) CH2

C8H18 (Octane) C4H9

C7H12 C7H12

CH3COOH (Vinegar, Acetic Acid)

H2O2 (Hydrogen Peroxide) HO

Note: Some formulas such as the one for Carbon Dioxide (CO2) are already empirical formulas
without being reduced.
FOR ALL IONIC COMPOUNDS: Empirical formula = Molecular Forumla

How to calculate the empirical formula:

1. If given the % composition, assume a 100g sample then convert % to grams
2. Use the atomic masses to convert grams to moles
3. Divide the moles of each element by the smallest mole fraction
4. The results from step 3 should be a whole number. If not, make it so by multiplying by a
common factor

Example 1: Calculate the empirical formula from a sample containing 43.4% Na, 11.3% C,
and 45.3% O. Assume 100g of sample
Element Percent Mass in 100g Molar Mass Moles (mol) Molar
Composition (%) sample (g) (g/mol) mass/molar mass Ratio

Na 43.4% 4.34g 22.99g/mol 01.88mol 1.88/0.94=2

C 11.3% 11.3g 12.01g/mol 0.94mol 0.94/0.94=1

O 45.3% 45.3g 16.00g/mol 2.83mol 2.83/0.94=3

Take the lowest amount of moles and divide each of them by that number
Sodium, Carbon, and Oxygen are in a 2;1;3 ratio. Meaning that the empirical formula is Na2CO3

Example 2: When 8.00g of calcium metal is heated in air, 11.20g of metal oxide is formed.
Calculate the empirical formula
Element Percent Mass in 100g Molar Moles (mol) Molar
Composition sample (g) Mass mass/molar Ratio
(%) (g/mol) mass

Ca Already in g 8.00g 40.08 0.1996mol 0.1996/0.1996 =1

O Already in g 11.20g - 8g = 3.20g 16.00 0.2mol 0.2/0.1996=1

Take the lowest amount of moles and divide each of them by that number. 0.1996 is the lowest.
Calcium and Oxygen are in a 1;1 ratio. Meaning that the empirical formula is CaO

Example 3: A compound is 2.46% H, 39.1% S, and 58.5% O. What is the empirical

formula for this compound?
Element Percent Mass in 100g Molar Mass Moles (mol) Molar
Composition (%) sample (g) (g/mol) mass/molar Ratio
mass

H 2.46% 2.46g 1.01g/mol 2.436mol 2.436/1.219=2

S 39.1% 32.07g 32.07g/mol 1.219mol 1.219/1.219=1

O 58.5% 58.5g 16.00g/mol 3.656mol 3.656/1.219=3

Hydrogen, Sulfur, and Oxygen are in a 2;1;3 ratio. Meaning that the empirical formula is H2SO3

Molecular Formula
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 = (𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)multiplier
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒
Multiplier = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
Molecular formula may be determined from empirical formula and relative molecular mass. This
is because a molecular formula is a whole number multiple of empirical formula.

Example 1: A compound has an empirical formula CH2 and a molecular mass of 42g/mol.
Find its molecular formula.
Molar mass of molecule: 42g/mol
Molar mass of empirical formula: CH2
Molar Mass= 12.01 + 1.01(2)
= 14.03g/mol

42
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟 = 14.03
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟 = 3
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 = (𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)multiplier

Empirical Formula x 3 = Molecular Formula

CH2 x 3
= C3H6
The Molecular Formula is C3H6

Example 2: Compound X was found to contain carbon and hydrogen only. Experiments
showed that it contains 80% carbon and 20% hydrogen by mass. If its molecular mass was
given 30.0 g/mol, find its empirical formula and molecular formula.

Element Percent Mass in 100g Molar Mass Moles (mol) Molar

Composition (%) sample (g) (g/mol) mass/molar Ratio
mass

C 80% 80 12.01g/mol 6.661.mol 6.661/6.661=1

H 20% 20 1.01g/mol 19.8mol 19.8/6.661=3

Carbon and Hydrogen are in a 1;3; ratio. Meaning that the empirical formula is CH3
Molecular Formula:
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒
Multiplier = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
Molar Mass of Molecule: 30g/mol
Molar Mass of Empirical Formula:
12.01 + 1.01(3) = 15.04
30
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟 = 15.04
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟 = 2

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 = (𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)multiplier

CH3 x 2
= C2H6
The Molecular Formula is C2H6
Example 3: A compound containing only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen gave the following
results on analysis: 0.81g of the substance gave 1.32g of carbon dioxide and 0.45g of water
on complete combustion. Find the empirical formula of the compound. If the molecular
mass was 320g/mol, find also its molecular formula.
CxHy + O2 → CO2 + H2O
0.81g → 1.32g + 0.45g

1.32
Number of moles of CO2= 44.01
= 0.02999mol CO2

1.3 (E1) Concentration of a solution

Molar Concentration
When using various solutions, or carrying out reactions using solutions, it is often important to
know the concentration of the solution. Certain concentrations may be needed in order for a
chemical reaction to even be able to talk place. Also, there may be safety considerations that
need to be made when working with certain concentrations of some solutions. For example, high
concentrations of certain solutions may mean that the solution is very corrosive

The most useful unit of concentration in chemistry is molar concentration.

Molar concentration or Molarity (M) is defined as mol/L.

Molarity= mol/volume (L)

The higher the molarity of a solution, the more concentrated the solution is. For example a 0.50
M solution of NAOH is more concentrated than a 0.10 M solution

Important: Always convery your volumes to L, when working through molarity calculations