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IoT Innovations in Sustainable Water and Wastewater Management and Water

Quality Monitoring: A Comprehensive Review of Advancements, Implications,
and Future Directions.

Article in IEEE Access · April 2024

DOI: 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3392573

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IoT Innovations in Sustainable Water and

Wastewater Management and Water
Quality Monitoring: A Comprehensive
Review of Advancements, Implications,
and Future Directions.
Ahmad Alshami 1, Eslam Ali 2,3*, Moustafa Elsayed 4, Abdelrahman E. E. Eltoukhy 5 AND
Tarek Zayed 2

1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA.

2
Department of Building and Real Estate (BRE), The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
3
School of Geomatics, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, 12613, Egypt.
4
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, USA.
5
Management Science and Engineering Department, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, UAE

Correspondence: Eslam Ali ([email protected])

ABSTRACT This comprehensive review explores IoT innovations in water, wastewater management, and
water quality monitoring, emphasizing the transformative potential of these technologies. Combining
sociometric and systematic review (SR) techniques, the study analyzes scientometric trends and co-occurrence
networks linked to review topics. Research primarily centers on these aspects, averaging 15 articles annually
since 2017, peaking at 24 in 2021. The SR unveils the widespread use of multiple sensors in monitoring,
particularly water level, flow, and pH sensors. Common wireless technologies are emphasized for their role in
advancing real-time monitoring. Innovative protocols such as Sigfox and Zigbee enhance sensor-IoT
connectivity, improving communication in infrastructure management. Common challenges hindering system
efficiency and data flow include sensor accuracy, energy optimization, communication reliability,
interdisciplinary collaboration, and sensor coverage. Addressing these gaps is crucial for advancing IoT-driven
water systems and enhancing decision-making. This study guides IoT practitioners in integrating automation
and sustainability in water and wastewater management.

INDEX TERMS IoT, Internet of things, Monitoring systems, Water management, Wastewater
management, Water quality, Real-time, Flow Sensors, Level Sensors, Wireless sensors

I. INTRODUCTION water management practices [4], [9], [10], [11]. These

Water is essential for human survival and various activities practices aim to balance the competing economic development
such as industry, agriculture, and household usage [1]. needs and environmental conservation while ensuring access
Efficient water and wastewater infrastructure, including dams, to clean and safe water resources for future generations.
reservoirs, pipelines, and treatment facilities, is essential to As part of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
ensure adequate and reliable water supply while minimizing related to water and sanitation, a paradigm shift is needed in
wastage, especially in regions with water scarcity [2], [3], [4], managing water and wastewater infrastructure [12], [13], [14].
[5], [6], [7], [8]. The increasing demand for water resources Sustainable water management practices, such as smart
due to economic development and population growth, coupled metering, water loss management, and demand-side
with the negative impact of human activities on the management, can significantly contribute to reducing water
environment, has heightened the importance of sustainable wastage and promoting sustainability in the management and
VOLUME XX, 2017
1
monitoring of water distribution networks [15], [16], [17], [41], [42], [43], [44], the demand for a more all-encompassing
[18]. On the other hand, sustainable wastewater treatment, review is discernible. Such a comprehensive examination
such as nutrient removal, resource recovery, and advanced should encompass a broader spectrum of IoT applications,
treatment technologies, can reduce pollution and promote spanning water conservation, wastewater infrastructure
sustainability in smart cities [19], [20], [21]. Additionally, supervision, water quality monitoring, and the broader scope
efficient drainage network management practices, supported of environmental sustainability. It is also imperative to
by smart technologies and innovative approaches, can intricately explore the harmonization of emergent
optimize the performance of the network, reduce energy technologies, such as AI and robust big data analytics, with
consumption, minimize environmental impacts, and enhance IoT methodologies in the scope of water and wastewater
overall sustainability [22], [23], [24], [25]. Therefore, management. Through a comprehensive review, the gaps in
adopting sustainable water and wastewater management the literature can be effectively addressed, thereby
practices is critical to ensure water resources' long-term highlighting the transformative potential of IoT in water and
availability and quality and achieve the SDGs related to water wastewater infrastructure while simultaneously promoting
and sanitation. sustainable practices for smart cities and beyond.
Recently, the integration of Internet of Things (IoT) Therefore, the primary goal of this research is to provide a
technologies in WWM-WQM has revolutionized comprehensive understanding of the latest developments
infrastructure management and has the potential to improve within IoT technologies, concentrating specifically on their
the effectiveness, efficiency, and sustainability of water and applications within three distinct dimensions: water
wastewater systems. IoT-enabled sensors and data analytics infrastructure management, wastewater infrastructure
play a vital role in smart water management, allowing real- management, and water quality monitoring. Beyond a mere
time monitoring of water quality, quantity, distribution, and literature survey, this research holds two fundamental goals:
data-driven decision-making [26], [27], [28]. With the help of firstly, to bridge existing knowledge gaps through an all-
IoT sensors, monitoring of real-time water consumption and encompassing review, exploring the multifaceted applications
usage can be afforded, detecting leaks or inefficiencies in the of IoT in these areas. Secondly, the study aims to distill
water supply system, and providing valuable insights into prevailing trends, identify research gaps, and chart future
consumption patterns for water conservation efforts [29]. IoT directions for leveraging IoT technologies in effective water
sensors can also be utilized to monitor water quality and wastewater management practices. The specific objectives
parameters in real-time, including pH, temperature, and of this study are as follows: 1) to explore the diverse sensing
turbidity, enabling prompt detection of abnormalities or technologies and communication mechanisms that are
contamination, and facilitating timely corrective action [30]. employed and developed within these three dimensions; 2) to
In wastewater management, IoT technologies can provide emphasize the diverse applications where IoT sensors, data
real-time monitoring of effluent quality and treatment collection systems, and real-time monitoring add value; 3) to
efficiency in wastewater treatment plants, allowing for early review various real-world case studies and identify obstacles
detection of inefficiencies or malfunctions and helping to hindering the rapid advancement of these technologies; and 4)
prevent potential health and environmental risks. Moreover, to discuss research gaps and limitations introduced by
IoT technologies enable remote and autonomous operations, previous studies and outline proposed solutions and future
allowing for remote monitoring and control of water and research directions, considering all limitations that may hinder
wastewater infrastructure components, such as pipes, pumps, practical implementation.
manholes, and valves, leading to improved system efficiency To comprehensively synthesize existing research, this study
and reduced human intervention [31]. Advances in IoT adopts a mixed-method approach that combines quantitative
technologies, including edge computing, machine learning scientometric analysis (SA) with qualitative systematic review
(ML), and artificial intelligence (AI), have further enhanced (SR)techniques. In utilizing the scientometric review, we
the collection and analysis of data from infrastructure systems, employ conventional software tools, namely Vosviewer and
leading to improved management and decision-making in Citespace. Our analytical focus encompasses exploring annual
water and wastewater management [32], [33]. publication trends, co-occurrence keyword networks, and
Despite the growing importance and progress of IoT citation burst maps. Concurrently, our SR methodology builds
technologies and the high demand for smart cities that require upon the approach introduced by Alshami et al. [47],
IoT applications in managing infrastructure, systematic extending and enhancing their work. It is worth mentioning
reviews (SR) about using IoT applications in infrastructure that the study by Alshami et al. [47] mainly sought to
management are few and far between [34], [35], [36], [37], streamline the conventional SR process by leveraging
[38], [39], [40], [41], [42], [43], [44], [45], [46]. While existing ChatGPT. For an intricate understanding of their
reviews have concentrated on specific dimensions of IoT methodological implementation, readers are encouraged to
applications in water management, such as IoT's role in refer to Alshami et al. [47].
stormwater management [45], leakage monitoring [36], and The subsequent sections are structured as follows: Section
the implementation of intelligent utilities in urban contexts 2 outlines a concise overview of the methodological

2 VOLUME XX, 2017

framework encompassing systematic and scientometric at encompassing the main areas of emphasis in our research.
techniques. In Section 3, we present the results of the This approach was intended to effectively narrow the filtration
scientometric review, followed by the related discussions. process to articles most pertinent to these particular domains.
Section 4 encompasses the findings of the SR, structured under Thus, papers that align with one or more of these categories
three main headings. Finally, the conclusion is drawn, are included and classified accordingly, while those that do not
synthesizing insights from systematic and scientometric pertain to any of these categories are excluded [47].
reviews.

II. Materials and Methods

This study employs a hybrid methodology that combines the
utilization of ChatGPT, an AI language model, with manual
processes, particularly in the systematic analysis component.
By adopting this hybrid approach, we aim to harness the
complementary strengths of human expertise and AI
capabilities, thereby optimizing the systematic review process,
enhancing efficiency, and ensuring the precision of our
findings. The methodology employed in this study has been
previously developed and evaluated in a comprehensive work
by Alshami et al. [47]. We direct readers to the aforementioned
study for a thorough explanation and evaluation of this
methodology. This paper focuses on spotlighting the
methodology and presenting the detailed outcomes of
implementing this hybrid approach. The hybrid methodology
encompasses three pivotal phases, as depicted in Fig.1. The
following subsections provide concise descriptions of the
flowchart's primary components. FIGURE 1. The workflow methodology for the scientometric and
systematic review approaches.
A. Article Selection and In-depth Data Extraction
This phase encompasses several processes, the first involving Following the identification of 145 relevant articles within
searching the databases. To ensure comprehensive coverage of the aforementioned categories, the subsequent step involves
scientific publications, Scopus and Google Scholar databases conducting a comprehensive assessment of the full texts and
are chosen as the primary sources of information. To generate extracting in-depth information. The primary objective of this
a thorough list of appropriate keywords pertaining to the phase is to assess the appropriateness of the remaining articles
utilization of IoT in water and wastewater management, a concerning their inclusion in the study. Additionally, the phase
systematic approach was employed, utilizing a gradual involves extracting insightful and valuable information from
strategy of input questions on ChatGPT, as detailed in Alshami these articles. To make the most of ChatGPT in this regard, as
et al. [47]. The keyword set utilized in our search query is as detailed in Alshami et al. [47], five subcategories were initially
follows: "TITLE-ABS-KEY (("internet of things" or "IoT") identified under each main category. This allowed us to
AND ("water" OR "wastewater" OR "sewer" OR "sewage" concentrate on specific areas of interest and thoroughly
OR "sanitation") AND ("infrastructure" OR explore various topics that are pertinent to our review. These
"infrastructures"))". Furthermore, the search process was subcategories were carefully chosen to cover different aspects
restricted to peer-reviewed journal and conference papers of implementing IoT in managing water and wastewater
published between 2010 and 2023. Consequently, technical infrastructure, such as sensors and sensing technology, data
reports, lecture notes, review articles, and any papers acquisition and transmission, data analytics and visualization,
published before 2010 were excluded from consideration. applications and case studies, and research gaps and
Subsequently, as illustrated in Fig.1, the aforementioned limitations.
search strategy yielded 496 records from Scopus, which were To facilitate the full-text evaluation and information
further refined to 145 records after thoroughly examining the extraction process, a set of 14 carefully crafted questions was
titles and abstracts using the methodology established by fully automated using ChatGPT [47]. These questions covered
Alshami et al. [47]. This methodology encompasses the and assessed all aspects of the studies, as depicted in Fig. 2.
screening process and categorizes the identified papers into Consequently, papers that did not address these aspects were
three main areas of interest: IoT-based wastewater excluded from further consideration, while all pertinent
infrastructure management, IoT-based water infrastructure information pertaining to these aspects was extracted from the
management, and IoT-based water quality monitoring. The included articles. As a result of this rigorous process, the
selection of these dimensions was a deliberate decision aimed

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number of included articles was decreased to 86, from which selection phase. By leveraging these tools, we analyze and
all relevant information was extracted. visually represent the interrelationships among keywords in a
To ensure comprehensive coverage and minimize the general context and across different categories. This analysis
possibility of missing relevant articles, a two-way snowballing provides valuable insights into the associations and
search was executed on the references and citations of the connections between research themes and areas within IoT
chosen articles [48]. The backward snowballing approach advancements in water and wastewater infrastructure
encompassed examining the references in the included management. Additionally, these network visualizations
articles, aiming to uncover additional relevant papers. On the facilitate the identification of clusters and subclusters of
other hand, the forward snowballing approach encompassed related keywords, shedding light on key research themes and
examining the articles that have cited the included ones [48]. the strength of keyword co-occurrence.
Through this iterative snowballing technique, we identified
and collected 52 additional articles. These newly identified C. Content Analysis of Extracted Data
articles underwent the same full-text filtration and information The content analysis phase thoroughly examines the
extraction process described earlier. As a result, 19 articles extracted data from the reviewed articles, specifically
were deemed irrelevant and subsequently excluded, while the emphasizing the subcategories outlined in Fig. 2. The primary
remaining 33 were found to meet the predetermined inclusion objective is to uncover and extract meaningful insights from
criteria, ultimately increasing the number of relevant articles the collected information. For instance, insights related to the
to 119. use of various sensor types and their benefits are derived from
the results of questions 1-1 and 1-2 (Fig. 2). Similarly, an
examination of trends in data transmission technologies is
conducted based on the answers to question 2-1.
Furthermore, the analysis stage encompasses a
comprehensive examination of the research gaps and
limitations addressed in prior research works, in addition to the
recommendations put forth by researchers. To achieve this, a
systematic approach using ChatGPT, as elucidated in the work
of [47], is adopted to identify and classify challenges and
limitations explored by various authors. This categorization is
facilitated by utilizing the outcomes derived from questions 5-
1 and 5-2 as depicted in Fig. 2. Subsequently, a comparative
analysis using ChatGPT is employed to assess the degree to
which the identified limitations and challenges are addressed
through suggested recommendations and solutions. This
comparative examination offers valuable perspectives on the
FIGURE 2. The taxonomy structure of the systematic review dimensions, current gaps in research and underscores the domains that
presenting the first level of categorization. Within each dimension,
subcategories are detailed in the second level, representing the specific merit deeper research and investigation.
areas to be covered. The black dot denotes that the five subcategorizes
in the second level are applied to the three dimensions. Additionally, the
figure showcases the questions utilized for automated full-text evaluation
III. Scientometric Analysis Results and Discussion
and information extraction, constituting the third level of the content In this section, we delve into the findings of our scientometric
analysis process. analysis, which encompasses an exploration of the annual
publication trends and a meticulous examination of the
B. Scientometric Examination of Publication analysis rooted in keywords.
Patterns and Citation Analysis
After obtaining studies that fulfilled the established criteria for
A. Annual Publications Trend
inclusion and exclusion, a scientometric analysis is conducted In Fig. 3 depicts the annual publication count for different
to delve deeper into the publication patterns and categories: IoT-based wastewater infrastructure management,
interrelationships among keywords in IoT advancements in IoT-based water infrastructure management, IoT-based water
wastewater and water infrastructure management (Fig.1). This quality monitoring, and the combined count for all three
analysis aimed to discern the annual publication trends and categories spanning the period from 2012 to 2023. Notably,
explore the interconnectedness of keywords within the we have aggregated the statistics for all these categories based
targeted categories: wastewater infrastructure management, on individual categorization, considering that some articles
water infrastructure management, and water quality cover more than one aspect. It is evident that articles
monitoring. emphasizing IoT applications in these domains began to
To achieve this objective, we utilize VOSviewer and
emerge in 2017. Interestingly, except for a solitary article in
CiteSpace, widely employed scientometric software [49],
2012 and two articles in 2016 focusing on IoT's role in water
[50], to analyze the 119 studies obtained during the data article

4 VOLUME XX, 2017

infrastructure management and water quality monitoring, no
substantial literature was available before 2017. Additionally,
the trend line indicates a rapid growth in the development and
accumulation of knowledge concerning IoT applications in
wastewater and water management and water quality
monitoring. This trend signifies a recent surge in research
attention dedicated to IoT's role in water and wastewater
management, especially since 2017.

FIGURE 4. Co-occurrence network of keywords in IoT applications in

WWM-WQM research.

FIGURE 3. Annual trend line of publication in IoT-based applications in The blue cluster predominantly focuses on IoT applications
wastewater and water infrastructure management and water quality in water management and conservation. Leading keywords
monitoring from 2012 to 2023.
within this cluster include "Internet of Things", "IoT", "water
management", "sensor network", "water level monitoring”,
Notably, the majority of research efforts have been directed
and "climate change". The primary emphasis of this category
towards the study of IoT applications in these three aspects,
revolves around utilizing IoT with various sensor networks for
with an average of 15 articles per year since 2017 and a peak
enhanced water management and infrastructure optimization.
of 24 articles in 2021. Further scrutiny reveals that the average
The red cluster encompasses 27 author keywords,
number of articles per year for IoT-based monitoring in water
concentrating on research related to IoT in water quality
infrastructure, wastewater infrastructure, and quality
monitoring and IoT-based monitoring systems in water and
monitoring were 6, 5, and 4 articles, respectively. The highest
wastewater treatment plants. Noteworthy keywords within this
counts were recorded in 2019, 2021, and 2022 for IoT-based
cluster include "water quality monitoring systems", "water
monitoring in water infrastructure (9 articles), wastewater
quality," and "monitoring systems".
infrastructure (10 articles), and quality monitoring (10
The green cluster centers around machine learning, artificial
articles), respectively. The rising trajectory in the annual
neural networks, optical fiber, and wireless sensors for
article count since 2017 underscores the paramount
predicting water leakage and achieving smart infrastructures.
significance of utilizing IoT-based sensors in diverse
To further elaborate on the author's keywords used in IoT-
infrastructure management schemes.
based wastewater and water management and quality
monitoring research, separate co-occurrence networks were
B. Co-Occurrence Network of Keywords
generated for each category, as depicted in Fig. 5-7. These
Keyword co-occurrence analysis is an effective bibliometric
individual networks reveal 4, 4, and 5 clusters for articles
approach that provides insights into the body of knowledge of
related to IoT-based wastewater management, IoT-based
a designated research domain, uncovering trends, frontiers,
water management, and IoT-based water quality monitoring,
and hotspots. Fig. 4 presents the keywords' co-occurrence
respectively.
network for all articles belonging to three categories,
illustrating the relationships between the defined author
keywords and the frequency of their appearance together.
Every node depicted in the diagram symbolizes a specific
keyword, its magnitude denoting the frequency of its
appearance across studies. The thickness of the lines
connecting two keywords mirrors the rate at which they tend
to appear together. A minimum of two occurrences were
specified for a keyword to be included in the analysis, resulting
in the retrieval of 232 keywords and the identification of 7
colored clusters.

FIGURE 5. Co-occurrence network of keywords of IoT applications in

wastewater infrastructure management.

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 attention over more extended periods, ranging from 3 to 5
years. "Acoustic sensor" (burst strength: 1.13; 2012–2017),
"monitoring system" (1.32; 2020–2023), and "smart city"
(1.19; 2017–2020) have been subjects of continued
investigation, indicating their enduring importance in the field.
Furthermore, recent years have witnessed an increased interest
in hot topics related to IoT-based applications in water and
wastewater management, including "water conservation",
"smart city", and "sensor network". These results suggest that
research efforts have been directed toward achieving water
conservation goals within the realm of smart cities by
harnessing the capabilities of sensor networks.

FIGURE 6. Co-occurrence network of keywords of IoT applications in

water infrastructure management.

FIGURE 7. Co-occurrence network of keywords of IoT applications in

water quality monitoring.

C. Citation Burst Analysis of Keywords

Citation burst analysis, as proposed by Chen et al. [51], offers
valuable insights into keywords that undergo sudden spikes in
citations within a specific timeframe, making it a powerful tool
for identifying trending research topics over time. Fig. 8 FIGURE 8. Top 28 keywords with the most substantial citation bursts on
IoT applications in WWM-WQM research.
displays the top 28 keywords with the most significant citation
bursts, arranged by the initial year of each burst. The analysis IV. Systematic Analysis Results and Discussion
was conducted using CiteSpace 5.7.R1. Each red line The SRs' results are presented, focusing on the five common
corresponds to a keyword and represents the magnitude of its subcategories across the three main categories. The taxonomy
citation burst, superimposed on the entire time span covered of the systematic review and its various subcategories are
by articles from 2010 to 2023 (Fig. 8). Additionally, the figure illustrated in Fig. 2.
illustrates the strength of each keyword's burst, indicating the
number of citations it received during its notable surge. A. IoT-based Water Infrastructure Management
Notably, the keywords "water quality" (burst strength: 2.55; IoT technology has emerged as a promising approach for
2022–2023), "sewers" (2.54; 2018–2019), "wireless sensor water infrastructure management by providing real-time data
network" (2.11; 2018–2019), and "water" (2.01; 2018–2019) on water quality and distribution through sensors and other
exhibit the most pronounced burst strength. These findings monitoring devices. This enables stakeholders to make
underscore the significance of these research topics in IoT- informed decisions about resource allocation and
based applications for wastewater and water infrastructure conservation. This section will review the key components of
management and quality monitoring. Additionally, Fig. 8 IoT-based water infrastructure management, including sensors
reveals keywords that have received sustained research

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and sensing technologies, data acquisition and transmission, sensors are applied around water pipes for leak and exfiltration
data analytics and visualization, applications, case studies, and detection, while humidity sensors monitor the atmospheric
limitations and gaps in current research. Our goal is to provide conditions within pipes and tanks, further illustrating the
a concise and comprehensive overview of this field while tailored application of sensor technology in water
highlighting opportunities for future research. infrastructure management.

1) Sensors and Sensing Technologies

Sensors have risen to paramount importance for the real-time
tracking of diverse parameters within water infrastructure. In
this subsection, we delve into a comprehensive analysis of the
existing literature that sheds light on the development and
usage of sensors in water infrastructure management.
Specifically, we explore research studies that discuss sensor
design, creation, and characterization. We also examine the
various sensors employed for effective water infrastructure
management and evaluate their performance in real-world
scenarios.
Based on the discussions on sensors for water infrastructure
management, we can group the reviewed studies into three FIGURE 9. Types of sensors used in reviewed studies for water
categories. The first category includes studies that mention infrastructure management.

using sensors without describing their design or fabrication.

For example, Ebi et al. [52] and Mohanasundaram et al. [53] Beyond the utilization of individual sensors, many studies
mentioned using sensors for monitoring various parameters. have integrated different sensor types to create more
Still, they did not provide detailed descriptions of their design comprehensive and effective water infrastructure management
or fabrication. The second category consists of studies that systems. These integrated systems offer a better understanding
describe the design and characterization of sensors. For of water consumption patterns and network operational
instance, Trinchero and Stefanelli [54] described the design efficiency. To demonstrate the frequency of different sensor
and fabrication of wireless sensors for water infrastructure usage in the reviewed studies, we have presented Fig. 10,
management using a hydrophone and a radio frequency or which depicts the distribution of studies based on the number
microwave radio as a sensing and transmitting unit, of sensors used, ranging from single-sensor studies to those
respectively. Sacoto-Cabrera et al. [55] mentioned the design employing four or more sensors.
and manufacture of smart water meters by TARPUQ, which According to Fig. 10, twenty-one studies utilized a single
uses ultrasonic flow measurement technology. The third type of sensor exclusively, while four studies did not specify
category comprises studies that mention commercial off-the- the types of sensors they employed. In contrast, the rest of the
shelf sensors or in-house designed wireless sensor nodes. Li et research articles incorporated a range of two to five different
al. [56] described using several sensors, including a C-class sensor types. These findings underscore the importance of
electromechanical integrated water meter and a low- sensor selection tailored to specific applications, given that
discharge-sensing instrument for detecting water leakage. each sensor type possesses unique strengths and limitations.
Mohanasundaram et al. [53] also described commercial off- Simultaneously, using multiple sensors tailored to the physical
the-shelf sensors and in-house designed wireless sensor nodes characteristics of the water network can offer a comprehensive
for water quality monitoring. perspective on its quantitative status, a critical consideration in
The literature review also shows that various sensors have managing complex water infrastructure systems. For example,
been employed for water infrastructure management. Fig. 9 in the study by Mohanasundaram et al. [53], they utilized five
provides an overview of the sensors used in the reviewed different types of sensors, including turbidity, free residual
studies. Flow sensors were the most frequently utilized, chlorine, pressure, and temperature sensors, to monitor their
appearing in 15 papers. These sensors are valuable for smart water distribution network. Similarly, Mekruksavanich
measuring water flow and volume, which is crucial for et al. [57] employed four sensor types to track floods within
monitoring water usage and detecting leaks. Pressure sensors the water infrastructure, including water level, water flow
ranked second in popularity, appearing in 11 papers. velocity, humidity, and GPS location sensors. These studies
Ultrasonic, water level, and temperature sensors were each effectively showcase the benefits of using multiple sensors for
used in six papers. Acoustic sensors were also used in three managing water infrastructure and emphasize the importance
papers to detect water leakage or infiltration. Conversely, of selecting the most suitable sensors for each specific
other sensors such as turbidity, pH, conductivity, humidity, application.
and soil moisture sensors found employment in a limited Furthermore, it is vital to evaluate the reliability and
number of research endeavors. Specifically, soil moisture accuracy of sensors used in water infrastructure management

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in real-world contexts and discuss their types and applications. reliability, broad coverage, and low power consumption [56],
The reviewed literature provides valuable insights into the while Wi-Fi and LoRaWAN have been used in 12 and 11
research trends of sensor evaluation in practical scenarios. For studies, respectively. Additionally, the figure indicates that
example, Xie et al. [58] evaluated the performance of soil some wireless communication technologies, such as Zigbee,
moisture sensors in terms of accuracy and reliability in an and IoT-specific technologies, including Sigfox and Narrow
urban green infrastructure (UGI) system, where they Band IoT, have limited research on their use in IoT-based
compared the soil moisture data collected from the UGI water infrastructure management, indicating potential research
system with the data collected from the control area. Similarly, directions.
Siek and Larry [59] evaluated the performance of a sensor
network in a real-world scenario by analyzing the accuracy
and reliability of the collected water-level data. Furthermore,
several studies have assessed the performance of ultrasonic
sensors in real-world settings, providing valuable insights into
their accuracy, resolution, and measurement success rate
under different supply voltage levels. For example,
Chinnusamy et al. [60] reported an accuracy of 0.5 cm and a
resolution of 0.1 cm for ultrasonic sensors. Correspondingly,
Shi et al. [61] documented that ultrasonic probes are designed
to prevent damage to pre-existing pipelines and the overall
system circuit and can operate for a long time.

FIGURE 11. Types of wireless communication technologies used in

reviewed studies for water infrastructure management.

The integration of different wireless communication

technologies has also been explored in several studies for
optimizing data acquisition and transmission in water
infrastructure management applications. For instance,
Mourtzios et al. (2021) discussed the integration of
LoRaWAN, wM-bus, GSM, and NB-IoT technologies in
FIGURE 10. Distribution of reviewed studies based on the number of
sensors used for water infrastructure management. hybrid telecommunication network nodes. Pindoriya et al. [63]
proposed the integration of wired Ethernet, powerline
2) Data Acquisition and Transmission communication, and wireless networks such as GSM, WiFi,
Once this data is collected, it must be transmitted to a central and Zigbee for transferring data from sensors to cloud-based
database or cloud-based platform for storage, analysis, and platforms. These studies demonstrated the benefits of
visualization. This subsection will review the methods integrating wireless communication technologies into water
described in the literature for collecting and transmitting infrastructure management applications, improving data
sensor data to a central database or cloud-based platform. We accuracy, higher efficiency, and cost savings.
will also examine whether the reviewed studies assess the In addition to the communication protocols detailed in Fig.
effectiveness of these communication technologies regarding 11, other communication protocols have also been utilized in
metrics such as data transfer speed, reliability, and/or cost. water infrastructure management applications. For instance, in
After conducting a systematic review, it has become evident one study by Purkovic et al. [64], the EnOcean long-range,
that researchers utilize various techniques to collect and low-power communication protocol was utilized to transmit
transmit data from sensors to a central database or cloud-based data over longer distances, allowing information collection
platform. To visually represent the trends in communication from sensors placed in remote locations. Another commonly
technology usage among the reviewed studies, Fig. 11 has used protocol for data transmission is the MQTT messaging
been generated. The figure unveils that cellular, Wi-Fi, and broker, where Arsene et al. [65] have employed this protocol
LoRaWAN are the most frequently employed wireless to transmit data from the NodeMCU development board to a
communication technologies among IoT-based water central database or cloud-based platform. Similarly, Afifi et al.
infrastructure management endeavors. Among these, cellular [66] leveraged the MQTT IoT protocol to transmit data from
technology has been used in 16 studies due to its high sensing nodes to a central web server, providing a reliable and
efficient method for data transmission. These research

8 VOLUME XX, 2017

endeavors underscore the efficacy of EnOcean and MQTT sub-surface nodes using the LoRaWAN standard suffered
protocols in enhancing data acquisition and transmission from an average five-fold higher data packet loss that
within water infrastructure management applications, increased with the distance from the gateway. In contrast,
culminating in improved efficiency, potential cost reductions, Purkovic et al. [64] did not assess the performance of different
and heightened data precision. communication technologies. Still, they provided insights into
Moreover, several research papers have proposed the advantages of using the EnOcean protocol for transmitting
innovative techniques to collect and transmit data. For data over longer distances.
instance, Teruhi et al. [33] introduced a combination of drive-
by and static data collection techniques to collect acoustic 3) Data Analytics and Visualization
sensor data effectively. Trinchero and Stefanelli [54] Efficient data analytics and visualization are crucial for IoT-
showcased wireless sensor nodes establishing communication based water infrastructure management systems. In this
with stationary ground-based stations, responsible for subsection, we examine the methods used to analyze and
aggregating measured data and forwarding them to an Internet visualize water data collected from IoT-based systems, paying
gateway. Additionally, blockchain technology has arisen as a particular attention to machine learning algorithms and
potential data management solution within the IoT framework. graphical and visual representations of data.
For example, Zeng et al. [67] proposed an efficient Based on the content analysis of the reviewed studies,
Blockchain-based monitoring architecture in IoT (EBMA- insights are provided into how data analytics are used for IoT-
IoT) tailored for water management, which includes a based water infrastructure management systems. As
monitoring node, a data-log engine, nodes clusters, and an summarized in Table 1, these methods can be grouped into two
analytics platform. main categories: ML techniques and other methods. ML
Another growing trend in these studies is using cloud-based methods were prevalent in the reviewed studies, with a total
platforms for data storage and management. Several frequency of 13 studies. Among the ML methods, deep
researchers, including Zeng et al. [68], Siek and Larry [59], learning was the most frequently used technique, with a
and Mourtzios et al. [62], have described the use of a central frequency of 3 studies, followed by Artificial Neural Networks
database or cloud-based platform for storing sensor data. (ANN), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Decision Trees
Similarly, Mohanasundaram et al. [53] and Narendrakumar (DT), which were also utilized in two studies each. Apart from
and Pillai [69] have employed wireless sensor nodes and ML, a diverse range of techniques was employed for data
gateways for data collection and transmission to central analysis, with a total frequency of 12 studies. Optimization and
servers. Furthermore, some studies have employed edge decision-making algorithms were the most frequently
computing to preprocess sensor data before transmitting it to employed techniques, with three studies utilizing these
the cloud. For instance, Li and Chen [70] integrated a local methods. Other examples of techniques used included a fusion
gateway to preprocess sensor data before dispatching it to the chart for analysis and visualization of water data collected
cloud for analysis. This approach reduces the amount of data from IoT-based water infrastructure management [72], a
transmitted to the cloud, thus reducing the load on the cloud- dynamic cloud-based knowledge-based system for storage and
based platform and improving the system's efficiency [71]. analysis of IoT sensor readings [73], and critical event
Lastly, assessing communication technologies is crucial to detection algorithms to deliver prompt user alerts regarding
managing IoT-based water infrastructure. Among the 47 emergency situations [66].
studies scrutinized, only five specifically evaluated the Utilizing graphical and visual representations emerges as a
performance of different communication technologies critical component of decision-making in IoT-based water
regarding data transfer speed, reliability, and cost. Siek and infrastructure management systems, as underscored by several
Larry [59] studied Wi-Fi and cellular networks, while reviewed papers. For example, Mekruksavanich et al. [57]
Mourtzios et al. [62] presented the hybrid gateway that proposed employing a web-based dashboard displato monitor
connects terminal devices through LoRa and wM-Bus local flooding and alert users through SMS or Line
wireless protocols to cloud-based servers via NB-IoT and notifications. Pérez-Padillo et al. [74] developed a system that
GSM cellular protocols. Meanwhile, Chinnusamy et al. [60] sends real-time alarms via SMS/email when anomalous
focused on the performance of LoRa in terms of its ability to pressure data are detected to enable water supply companies
communicate data over long distances and its low power to locate water leakage promptly and take appropriate
consumption. Ebi et al. [52] compared the performance of measures. Another study by Zeng et al. [67] utilized an
LoRaWAN with the proposed synchronous LoRa mesh Analytics Platform (AP) responsible for visualizing and
architecture. They revealed that the latter approach consuming IoT transactional information collected by nodes
outperformed the former regarding packet delivery reliability cluster, providing insights into Blockchain nodes and other
when transmitting from range-critical locations. However, network statistics.

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Table 1. Methods of data analytics in IoT-based water infrastructure management.

Method Frequency Reference

Deep Learning Techniques (Feedforward Networks,

3 [65], [75], [76]
LSTM, CNN, MLP, RNN)
Support Vector Machine (SVM) 2 [33], [77]
Artificial Neural Networks (ANNS) 2 [57], [78]
Machine Decision Trees (DT) 2 [65], [75]
Learning
Clustering Algorithms 1 [62]
Prediction Algorithms 1 [62]
Regression-Based Machine Learning Algorithms 1 [79]
Random Forests 1 [65]
Optimization and decision-making algorithms 3 [63], [80], [81]
Dynamic cloud-based knowledge-based system 1 [73]
Data fusion and analysis layer with hydraulic model 1 [82]
Big data analysis 1 [56]
Spectra correlation 1 [54]
Other
Fusion chart 1 [72]
Methods
Middleware for data storage and web application 1 [83]
Leak detection algorithm based on rules, context, and
1 [71]
location
REST API utilities for sensor control, data analysis, and
1 [81]
storage, and failure identification algorithm
Critical event detection algorithms 1 [66]

4) Applications and Case Studies Fig. 12 also highlights specific research projects and case
This subsection delves into the practical applications, case studies related to IoT-based water infrastructure management,
studies, and real-world examples of IoT-based water representing another notable trend. For instance, Amaxilatis et
infrastructure management, focusing on real-world instances al. [86] reported a practical implementation in which 48 water
and their outcomes. By analyzing these case studies meters were installed within a university campus. They
documented in previous research articles, we aim to provide employed commercially available WM-Bus water meters and
perspectives on the field's current state and how IoT-based an IoT architecture focused on edge processing for intelligent
water infrastructure management can help address critical meter networks. Another study by Ebi et al. [52] offered two
challenges in water resource management. real-world field tests as instances, demonstrating the
Recent literature on water infrastructure management utilization of a synchronized LoRa mesh network for
reveals several notable trends in IoT-based systems. Fig. 12 monitoring processes within the underground infrastructure.
presents a comprehensive overview of these trends and
provides some detailed insights. One of the most prominent is
using IoT-based monitoring and control, which has been
explored in various studies such as Kirar [68] for managing
water infrastructure, W. Li et al. [84] for underground pipeline
networks, Xie et al. [58] for urban green infrastructure
management, and Siek and Larry [59] for flood risk
mitigation. Another emerging trend involves the adoption of
computational frameworks. For instance,
Venkatasubramanian et al. [85] proposed computational
frameworks for water infrastructure management, while
Pindoriya et al. [63] introduced a conceptual framework for an
intelligent hardware-software platform in IoT-based water and FIGURE 12. IoT-based trends in water infrastructure management.
energy infrastructure management for smart cities.

10 VOLUME XX, 2017

 In addition to the presented case studies, implementing IoT wireless links and reducing data communication [86], [87].
in water infrastructure has the potential to bring numerous This approach can also reduce economic loss and prevent
benefits to real-world settings. These benefits can be broadly human injury [77] while enhancing the monitoring center's
grouped into five categories, as shown in Fig. 13: improving efficiency [87]. Another advantage of IoT-based water
efficiency and reliability, optimizing resource use, enhancing infrastructure management is its scalability and simplicity,
decision-making, reducing energy consumption and data which allow it to address multiple problems simultaneously
communication, and increasing scalability and simplicity. [53]. It provides an efficient means for data collection [33],
[69], [77], [78], accurate leak detection and localization
techniques [82], and optimization of water resource allocation
[54], [56]. The technology also facilitates the easy and
repeatable identification of the track and remote post-
processing of information [54].
Overall, the comprehensive exploration of IoT-based water
infrastructure management, depicted in Fig. 12 and Fig. 13,
features a range of case studies, models, and advanced
monitoring and control systems. A significant benefit from
these research endeavors would be to improve the efficiency,
resilience, and sustainability of water infrastructure
management systems. Furthermore, the collective findings
from these studies offer significant promise for IoT-based
FIGURE 13. Potential benefits of IoT in water infrastructure management.
solutions to optimize resource allocation and minimize impact
on the environment while reducing energy consumption.
According to Fig. 13, implementing IoT-based water
infrastructure management can bring numerous benefits to 5) Limitations and Gaps
water management systems. It can enhance system efficiency Despite the potential of IoT-based water infrastructure
and reliability by providing fault protection against various management, there are several challenges and limitations to
issues such as thermal overload, single-phasing, and voltage overcome to fully realize its potential. The content analysis of
imbalance [68]. Real-time data collection and management, the investigated literature revealed the challenges and
made possible by IoT, enables real-time fault detection and limitations faced by previous researchers. The findings can be
isolation of leaky pipes, further enhancing efficiency and categorized into seven major groups, as illustrated in Fig. 14.
reliability [85]. Moreover, Pérez-Padillo et al. [74] have These categories include challenges and limitations related to
reported that IoT-based monitoring systems can optimize various aspects such as implementation and operation,
resource use for maintenance and rehabilitation, improving network coverage, connectivity and stability, sensor
system efficiency. IoT-based monitoring systems can also reliability, accuracy and integration, data processing and
eliminate human intervention, reducing human errors and analysis, user interface and data visualization, data security
enhancing water management efficiency [78]. In addition to and privacy, as well as other challenges.
improving the infrastructure, IoT technology can improve the
efficiency of the monitoring center, resulting in reduced
economic loss associated with manual monitoring [87]. Also,
IoT-based water infrastructure management optimizes
resource use by enabling water resource management and
supply chain optimization [88], remote telemetry and control
of water consumption [62], and agricultural water
management and coordination [67]. Furthermore, IoT
technology facilitates objective data-based decision-making
[74] and enhances decision-making by enabling flood
forecasting and early warning [57], detecting water leaks [33],
[77], [82], predicting a water crisis in an organization or a FIGURE 14. Challenges and limitations of implementing IoT in water
infrastructure management.
community [72], and providing decision support for human
operators [75].
One of the significant challenges identified was the impact
In addition to the benefits mentioned earlier, IoT-based
of energy consumption on overall system performance in
water infrastructure management can also significantly reduce
specific scenarios [56], [59], [89]. Additionally, regulatory
environmental impact by minimizing energy consumption and
compliance is critical, with potential legal and financial
data communication. The implementation of IoT has been
consequences for non-compliance [90]. Furthermore,
found to decrease energy consumption by using reliable
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11
deploying and maintaining sensors can be a significant barrier
for many water utilities, particularly those operating on tight
budgets [80], [85]. Also, challenges with radio propagation in
underground water pipes [33] and radio transmission in
metallic pipes [54] may limit the effectiveness of IoT-based
smart water management systems.
Previous studies have highlighted various challenges and
limitations associated with IoT-based smart water
management systems. Notably, concerns have been raised
about the reliability of communication networks, which can
significantly affect the system's effectiveness, resulting in data
FIGURE 15. Proposed solutions for overcoming challenges in IoT-based
loss and poor decision-making [63]. Additionally, data water infrastructure management.
transmission and storage challenges in remote areas pose
significant barriers to implementing these systems [57], [67]. Fig. 15 showcases the proposed recommendations and
The accuracy and integration of sensors for measuring water potential solutions for challenges and limitations. Such
level and flow velocity are also essential for efficiently solutions include but are not limited to data management
monitoring water infrastructure [57]. However, environmental analytics, communication, and data transmission, energy-
factors such as humidity, temperature, and salinity can affect efficient solutions, utilizing low-cost hardware and open-
the sensors' accuracy [58]. Therefore, carefully selecting source software, and deploying top-notch technology. As seen
appropriate sensors that can provide precise and reliable data in Fig. 15, data management and analytics were some of the
in dynamic environments is paramount [71]. most widely recommended solutions in the reviewed
Another crucial aspect highlighted in Fig. 14 pertains to the literature. To make sense of complex data, user-friendly data
processing and analysis of data. Efficient processing and data analysis and visualization tools were recommended [58], as
analysis are essential for guaranteeing the precision and well as data compression techniques to reduce data volume.
reliability of the monitoring system. Nevertheless, challenges Efficient algorithms for processing and indexing data logs
within this category must be addressed to ensure an effective were also suggested to manage data effectively [67].
functioning system. One such challenge is to optimize the Additionally, ML algorithms were identified as a valuable tool
trade between data resolution and transmission rate, which is for identifying patterns, predicting outcomes, and providing
critical for optimizing data transmission technologies [82]. insights for decision-making [59], [62].
Additionally, developing effective data processing techniques As discussed in the reviewed literature, various solutions
is crucial for handling large volumes of data generated by are proposed to resolve the communication and data
sensors [67]. It is also essential to have efficient data analysis transmission challenges. It was recommended to implement
tools to identify patterns and trends in the data for predicting redundant systems to facilitate data transmission reliability
future events and making informed decisions [61]. and enhance connectivity [59], [90]. As well as LPWANs,
In terms of user interface and data visualization, the long-range wireless technologies, and low-power wireless
complexity of visualizing data can overwhelm non-experts, technologies have been suggested to decrease energy
leading to difficulties in interpreting and analyzing data [57]. consumption and increase transmission efficiency [52], [56],
Inadequate human-machine interfaces may also hinder remote [62], [82]. Furthermore, a modular architecture incorporating
operations and data visualization, ultimately limiting the sensors, actuators, and gateways can improve network
effectiveness and efficiency of the system [60]. Moreover, flexibility and fault tolerance [82]. Concerning sensor
data privacy and security concerns are significant challenges technology and its deployment, it's imperative to prioritize
that must be addressed in IoT-based energy systems [16], [59], accuracy and reliability as recommended by [60], [65], [78],
[71]. The lack of standardization of IoT hardware and cloud [81], [92]. According to the reviewed articles, ultrasonic
platforms also hinders the interoperability and scalability of sensors can provide more accurate water level measurements
these systems [91]. than float and board level gauges and dipsticks, and
To address the challenges discussed earlier, various electromagnetic meters can provide precise flow readings [16]
recommendations and potential solutions have been suggested Additional suggestions revolve around energy-conscious
in the reviewed literature. These solutions can be categorized strategies, such as adopting renewable energy sources and
into seven major groups, as illustrated in Fig. 15. These low-power sensors [67], on-site distributed clean energy
categories comprise data management and analytics, resources and energy storage devices, and integrating Battery
communication and data transmission, sensor technology and Energy Storage (BES) technology and renewable energy
deployment, energy-efficient solutions, interoperability and sources [63]. Additionally, interoperability and
standardization, security and encryption, and the use of low- standardization are also important categories to consider. This
cost hardware and open-source software. includes using open standards and interoperability to facilitate
system integration [62], [80], developing open data platforms

12 VOLUME XX, 2017

for interoperability and collaboration [71], and ensuring engineering, computer science, and environmental
effective collaboration among stakeholders [53], [93]. To science, previous studies did not provide any solution
enhance IoT-based system security and encryption, some for this challenge. A potential solution is to establish
researchers suggested the use of encryption and authentication interdisciplinary teams and partnerships between
mechanisms to improve security [59], blockchain technology academia, industry, and government agencies to foster
for data security and privacy [71], and developing secure collaboration and knowledge-sharing.
communication protocols to ensure network security [61]. • Combining diverse information sources to identify
In summary, the analysis of the challenges and limitations multiple concurrent failures: While there are
discussed in previous studies, as well as the potential solutions suggestions related to the use of redundancy in the
and recommendations, has revealed several gaps and system to improve connectivity and data transmission,
unexplored avenues for advancing IoT-driven water there is no specific mention of the need for combining
infrastructure systems. These gaps encompass, among other diverse information sources to identify multiple
aspects: concurrent failures, which is important for the early
• Development of more accurate and reliable sensors for detection and prevention of water loss and other issues.
various purposes: While previous studies have
mentioned challenges related to the accuracy and B. IoT-based Wastewater Infrastructure
reliability of sensors, there is a gap in the suggested Management
solutions list in addressing the need for sensors that can The emergence of IoT technology has provided new
detect water leakage and suspicious conditions. Future opportunities for wastewater infrastructure management
research should focus on developing accurate, reliable, through real-time monitoring and control. In this subsection,
and versatile sensors to detect various potential issues. we delve into a comprehensive analysis of the existing
• Integration of sensors with diverse communication literature that sheds light on the development and usage of
protocols and platforms: Although challenges are sensors in wastewater infrastructure management, including
associated with integrating sensors with various the following aspects: the development and utilization of
communication protocols and platforms, previous sensors and sensing technologies, data acquisition and
studies did not provide any solution for this problem. transmission methods, data analytics and visualization
• Integration of clean energy resources and energy storage techniques, real-world applications and case studies, and
devices: Although the recommendations of using limitations and gaps in current research.
renewable energy sources and low-power sensors, no
previous studies have paid attention to integrating clean 1) Sensors and Sensing Technologies
energy resources and energy storage devices, which In recent years, IoT sensors have gained traction as a method
could play a pivotal role in mitigating the energy for monitoring and controlling wastewater infrastructure
consumption challenges associated with water parameters. Sensors enable real-time monitoring and detection
management. of wastewater infrastructure issues, resulting in more efficient
• Reliable communication networks: While previous and effective management. This subsection presents an in-
research recommends strategies such as data depth analysis of the existing literature highlighting the use
compression, redundancy, and LPWAN technologies, and development of wastewater infrastructure sensors.
there is a notable lack of solutions to tackle the vital The reviewed literature can be categorized into two primary
issue of establishing specific recommendations for groups based on the use of sensors in wastewater management.
addressing the challenge of reliable communication The first set of studies primarily focuses on creating sensors
networks. This challenge is of utmost importance for specifically designed to monitor various wastewater
ensuring the accurate transmission of data and real-time parameters[94], [95], [96], [97]. For example, Depari et al.
monitoring. Further exploration is also required to apply [98] designed a gas-sensing probe to detect odors, while
IoT-specific technologies such as Sigfox and Narrow Dinesh Kumar et al. [99] developed a transmitter circuit that
Band IoT. Moreover, there should be an emphasis on amalgamates LDR, water level, gas, and flow rate sensors. On
developing hybrid telecommunication network nodes the other hand, the second category of research papers focuses
that harness multiple wireless communication on utilizing sensors for real-time monitoring of wastewater
technologies to surpass the limitations associated with infrastructure without explicitly addressing the development
individual technologies. and manufacturing of the sensors [100], [101]. For example,
• Multidisciplinary approach required for the previous studies [102], [103], [104] deployed a range of
implementation of IoT systems in real-world settings: sensors, including Dissolved Oxygen (DO) sensors, pH
While there are mentions of the need for a sensors, ultrasonic sensors, and flow meters, to monitor the
multidisciplinary approach for the employment of IoT state of the sewage system.
systems in real-world settings, which involves Our investigation shows that various sensors have been
collaboration between different fields such as used to monitor wastewater infrastructure management, as

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shown in Fig. 16. The most frequently used sensors are water pH sensors, and dissolved oxygen sensors. Some studies
level sensors and ultrasonic sensors (12), followed by focused on a specific sensor type, such as Oberascher et al.
temperature sensors (11), gas sensors (9), and flow sensors (8). [108], who developed smart rain barrels using a single type of
Other sensors, such as pH sensors, dissolved oxygen sensors, sensor.
humidity sensors, turbidity sensors, soil moisture sensors, Most of the reviewed literature addressed sensors used in
LDR sensors, conductivity sensors, force-sensitive resistors wastewater management and their performance in real-world
(FSR), capacitive probes, pressure sensors, and tilt sensors, are settings. These studies employed varying levels of
also crucial in monitoring wastewater infrastructure experimentation, validation, and reliability testing to assess
management parameters, but they are less commonly used. the accuracy and reliability of sensor readings [58], [98],
Apart from individual sensor applications, several studies [109], [110]. For example, Jeffery et al. [111] conducted
have incorporated multiple types of sensors to enhance the laboratory and field tests to evaluate the performance of water
efficacy of wastewater infrastructure management systems. level sensors, while Pérez-Padillo et al. [112] tested sensors in
These integrated systems facilitate a more comprehensive and the field at a wastewater treatment plant, where the device was
in-depth analysis of wastewater infrastructure performance. installed in a spillway. The authors found that sensors can
Fig. 17 illustrates the distribution of studies based on the accurately measure the occurrence, duration, and water level
number of sensors employed, ranging from single-sensor during discharge episodes.
studies to those utilizing four or more sensors.
2) Data Acquisition and Transmission
Effective control of wastewater infrastructure heavily relies on
accurate and timely data collection and transmission from
sensors to a central database or cloud-based platform. In this
subsection, we will analyze papers that describe the methods
used to collect and transmit data from sensors to a central
database or cloud-based platform, papers that discuss the use
of wireless communication technologies, and papers that
evaluate the performance of different communication
technologies in terms of data transfer speed, reliability, and/or
cost.
After conducting a comprehensive review of the literature,
FIGURE 16. Types of sensors used in reviewed studies for wastewater
infrastructure management. it has become evident that researchers utilize various
techniques to handle the data. To gain insight into the trends
in communication technology usage among the reviewed
studies, we have created Fig. 18. The figure reveals that
cellular technology, including GSM, GPRS, 3G, and 4G, is the
most commonly used wireless communication technology,
with a frequency of 14. This finding aligns with earlier
research documenting the widespread use of cellular
technology in IoT-based systems [95], [113]. LoRaWAN and
Wi-Fi emerged as the subsequent two most frequently
employed wireless communication technologies, making
appearances in the literature 6 and 12 times, respectively.
FIGURE 17. Distribution of reviewed studies based on the number of
sensors used for wastewater infrastructure management.
According to Fig. 17, 10 studies utilized only one type of
sensor, while eight studies used four. The remaining studies
employed 3 to 5 sensor types, with one study utilizing eight
different types of sensors. For instance, Ebi et al. [52]
implemented an IoT-based wastewater management and
monitoring system incorporating eight different sensors,
including rainfall, water level, dielectric conductivity, air
temperature, wastewater temperature, groundwater level,
groundwater temperature, and groundwater conductivity
sensors. In contrast, Dronavalli et al. [105], Samma et al.
[106], and Hasan et al. [107] used five different sensor types,
including gas sensors, temperature sensors, turbidity sensors, FIGURE 18. Types of wireless communication technologies used in
reviewed studies for wastewater infrastructure management.

14 VOLUME XX, 2017

 The use of cloud-based platforms is another trend observed popular approach for data analysis and visualization, as
in the reviewed papers. Various research works, including appeared in the studies by Dinesh Kumar et al. [99] and
those by Nair et al. [97], Xiu and Dong [117], and Kumar and Soetedjo et al. [101].
Hong [96], have implemented cloud-based platforms for tasks Furthermore, several studies have discussed using graphical
such as data storage, management, and processing. In addition, and visual data representations to enhance decision-making in
the reviewed studies have highlighted the development of IoT-based wastewater infrastructure management. Among
innovative technologies and models to enhance wastewater these studies, Depari et al. [98] and Rahman et al. [113] have
infrastructure's overall performance. For instance, Edmondson briefly mentioned using user-friendly dashboards without
et al. [94] employed smart sensors to facilitate real-time providing specific details on the use of graphical or visual
monitoring and immediate reporting of sewer system representations of data. On the other hand, other studies have
performance, where they developed a prototype, namely the explicitly discussed the use of graphical representations of
Smart Sewer Asset Information Model, which seamlessly data, such as scatter plots, histograms, and graphs, to facilitate
incorporates distributed intelligent sensors. decision-making [58], [99], [101], [108]. Additionally,
While the reviewed studies have paid significant attention Sasirekha et al. [116] and Islam et al. [121] have presented
to the integration of diverse communication technologies, graphical representations of real-time tracking and current
there has been a limited evaluation of their effectiveness environmental situations, respectively. On the other hand,
regarding speed, reliability, and cost. For example, Lorenz et al. [90] have introduced the use of a GIS-web-based
Drenoyanis et al. [118] evaluated the performance of the frontend to visualize processed sensor events on the water
LoRaWAN protocol, focusing on transmission distance and network map.
line-of-sight conditions. Similarly, Drenoyanis et al. [119], in
their extensive communication study conducted in Australia, 4) Sensors and Sensing Technologies
concluded that LPWAN utilizing the LoRaWAN protocol can This subsection will explore the practical applications of IoT-
achieve a maximum transmission distance of up to based wastewater infrastructure management by examining
approximately 20 km within urban settings and up to 35 km case studies and real-world examples. By analyzing the
under line-of-sight conditions. benefits and outcomes of implementing these systems in real-
world settings, our objective is to acquire a more profound
3) Data Analytics and Visualization comprehension of their capability to enhance the efficiency
Developing effective methods for analyzing and visualizing and efficacy of wastewater infrastructure.
this data is paramount in deriving substantial insights and According to analyzing the current literature, several
supporting informed decision-making processes. In this significant trends have been observed, as depicted in Fig. 19.
subsection, we will delve into the existing body of literature A notable trend is the emergence of real-time monitoring and
concerning the approaches employed for data analysis and control systems that employ IoT technologies for tracking and
visualization within IoT-driven wastewater infrastructure monitoring parameters such as water quality, pressure,
management. temperature, and flow rates. Several researchers have
The literature on IoT-based wastewater infrastructure proposed or developed such systems ranging from small-scale
management and monitoring systems proposes various data urban infrastructure, such as smart rain barrels [108], to large
analysis and visualization methodologies. Among the 38 communal wastewater treatment plants [101], [103], [122].
studies reviewed, only 14 furnished comprehensive These systems are often utilized for detecting and preventing
explanations and detailed descriptions of the methodologies overflows, which can cause environmental contamination and
they employed. A common trend among these studies is the the spread of waterborne diseases [102], [113], [116].
use of simulation models to analyze the performance of Furthermore, some studies have investigated implementing
wastewater systems under different scenarios. For instance, IoT-based sustainable stormwater management systems,
Alshami et al. [109] and Faris et al. [120]used data mining which address deficiencies typically encountered in drainage
techniques and simulation to model sewage networks' systems [58], [121], [123].
performance under blockage situations, while Oberascher et Fig. 19 provides further insights into the development of
al. [108] employed Python packages designed for SWMM5 IoT-based wastewater infrastructure management systems.
and EPANET2 to simulate runoff processes within urban The figure highlights the increasing deployment of smart
drainage and assess the consequences of altering water sewerage systems in real-world settings, as reported by
demands on the water supply system. previous studies [58], [97], [101], [103], [109]. These case
Moreover, some studies highlight data cleaning and studies showcase the deployment of IoT-based systems for
processing as crucial steps. Nair et al. [97] discussed the secure and efficient monitoring and control of wastewater
cleaning and processing of sensor data. Similarly, Hasan et al. treatment plants and sewage networks. Other studies [95],
[107] filtered the data by establishing specific upper and lower [113], [124], [125] investigated the implementation of IoT-
boundaries for the parameters. In addition, the use of web- based systems for odor detection and prevention in sewerage
based IoT platforms, such as ThingSpeak, has emerged as a systems as another emerging trend.

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 wastewater infrastructure management. For instance,
incorporating a forecasting mechanism in the smart sewerage
system enables proactive decision-making [98], [111].
Additionally, flood prediction and prevention can be achieved
by preventing system failures and overflows [100], [108],
[109] Some studies also mentioned the reduction of health
hazards, which is achieved by protecting water security and
public health [103], [124], [125].

5) Limitations and Gaps

Based The content analysis conducted on the literature has
FIGURE 19. IoT-based trends in wastewater infrastructure management.
highlighted the challenges and limitations faced by previous
researchers. The results can be classified into six main
In addition to the aforementioned case studies,
categories, as detailed in Fig. 21. The communication network
implementing IoT in wastewater infrastructure management
is one of the most reported challenges in IoT-based wastewater
systems can potentially provide significant benefits in real-
infrastructure management. The reviewed studies have
world settings. These benefits can be broadly categorized into
highlighted several limitations and difficulties, including the
six areas, as illustrated in Fig. 20, with each bubble's size
need to evaluate interface requirements, security threats
indicating the occurrence frequency. Real-time monitoring
associated with transmitting sensor data, range limitations of
and control, a commonly cited benefit, enables continuous
IoT communication technologies, and high costs and limited
monitoring of the system's condition, facilitating timely
coverage of traditional SCADA and telemetry systems [52],
detection and response to any anomalies or malfunctions. For [98], [103], [111].
instance, Rahman et al. [113] demonstrate how IoT-based Furthermore, other limitations in this field include the
wastewater infrastructure management can enable real-time limited range and speed of Wi-Fi connections, connectivity
flood prediction in the sewerage system of Bangladesh and issues between sensors and IoT systems, and the low
track underground tunnels efficiently. information transmission rate allowed by certain
communication systems [109], [123]. Another critical
challenge, as indicated by prior research, pertains to sensor-
related limitations and challenges. Prasath et al. [103], Lorenz
et al. [90], Pérez-Padillo et al. [112], and Nair et al. [97]
emphasized the limitations of available sensors and the need
for improved sensor devices that can be deployed in different
locations and harsh environments. Calibration and
maintenance of sensors also pose significant challenges, as
noted by Sasirekha et al. [116] and Dronavalli et al. [105].

FIGURE 20. Potential benefits of IoT in wastewater infrastructure

management.

Another significant benefit of IoT-based wastewater

infrastructure management is enhancing sustainability and
energy efficiency. These benefits include improved water
quality [96], [101], ecosystem tracking [113], reduction in
solid waste [114], reduction in potable water consumption for
irrigation [104], and optimization of water resources [58].
Similarly, cost reduction and improved efficiency were
mentioned in six papers, including those by Praveena et al.
[102], Jeffery et al. [111], Latif et al. [100], Sasirekha et al. FIGURE 21. Challenges and limitations of implementing IoT in wastewater
[116], Alshami et al. [109], and Pérez-Padillo et al. [112]. infrastructure management.
These studies suggested that IoT-based wastewater
infrastructure management can significantly decrease Implementing IoT-based wastewater infrastructure
operational costs and enhance overall efficiency, leading to management also faces significant technical and operational
better resource utilization and cost savings. Proactive limitations and challenges. Technical challenges include
decision-making, forecasting, flood prediction, and prevention battery life limitations, the need to manage multiple
were also identified as potential benefits of IoT-based transducers, and reliance on offline water analysis due to high

16 VOLUME XX, 2017

capital and maintenance costs [97], [98], [123]. On the other LoRa can be used for long-range and large-scale
hand, operational challenges involve managing a large number implementation, and versatile interface design can leverage
of sensors in a distributed scenario, complying with volt-amperometric and resistance-to-time (integral)
regulations, and ensuring system scalability, which are conversion methods to ensure comprehensive data acquisition
significant challenges that need to be addressed [90], [116], and transmission [98], [109], [111], [114].
[122]. Moreover, the data-related aspects of IoT-based Another critical aspect is energy management, which has
wastewater infrastructure management pose significant led to recommendations for the use of renewable energy
limitations and gaps that need to be addressed [97], [109]. sources such as solar panels and energy harvesting, the use of
Edmondson et al. [94] highlighted the lack of domain in IFC4 backup power sources, as well as advances in battery
for defining data concepts related to wastewater and the need technology [94], [102], [114]. System design and scalability
to integrate recognized existing data structures used by the are two main areas that can also be improved. Therefore,
industry. Infrastructure-related limitations and challenges also developing robust and scalable systems capable of handling
exist, such as the limitations in large-scale application large quantities of data and increased redundancy and
scenarios such as blocks and cities [58], [111], the need for additional parallelism has been highly recommended [90],
reliable communication infrastructure [111], and challenges in [116]. Moreover, the integration of socio-economic factors
data acquisition and transmission in remote areas [107], [115]. into the evaluation of IoT-based systems has been suggested
The literature suggests several solutions to overcome the [108], [116], [127].
limitations and challenges associated with IoT-based In summary, examining the challenges and constraints
wastewater infrastructure management, which can be discussed in prior research, as well as the prospective solutions
categorized into seven major groups. These categories include and recommendations, has highlighted various gaps and future
improving sensor development, data analytics and research avenues that can be conducted for advancing IoT-
management, network infrastructure, energy management, based wastewater infrastructure systems. Some of these gaps
system design and scalability, and integration and include, but are not limited to:
standardization, as shown in Fig. 22. • Lack of sensor coverage and distribution: Some studies
have recommended expanding sensor networks, but this
will not directly solve the problem. Therefore, Future
research should focus on new methods and technologies
to improve sensor coverage and distribution.
• Sensor Challenges in Sewerage Systems: While the
concept of precise soft-sensors for harsh environments
has been introduced, the persistent issue of sensor
components being obstructed by solid materials
remains. Future research endeavors should explore
innovative sensor designs and technologies to cope with
this hurdle and elevate sensor precision.
FIGURE 22. Proposed solutions for overcoming challenges in IoT-based
• Increasing demand for reliable, cost-effective sensors:
wastewater infrastructure management. However, several previous studies have acknowledged
the mere requirement for further research on developing
The reviewed papers highlight data management and reliable and cost-effective sensors, but none have
analytics as the most common areas for improvement in specifically addressed a definitive solution to this
developing IoT systems. Strategies recommended to improve problem. To tackle this concern, future research should
data management and analytics include integrating existing prioritize exploring novel sensor designs and
data structures, adopting device-to-server protocol (D2S) for technologies capable of addressing this challenge.
IoT architecture, and using location technologies to send data • Connectivity issues between sensors and IoT systems:
observations to web-based cloud servers [94], [111]. Better While most previous studies have recommended
data processing algorithms and technologies with exactly- establishing a robust technical connection between
once semantics are also suggested to enhance the accuracy and sensors and IoT systems via clouding, they fail to
reliability of IoT data analysis [90]. Other areas for provide a direct solution to connectivity issues between
improvement include the development of zero-power sensing sensors and IoT systems. To overcome this challenge,
for extended sensor lifetimes, soft-sensors for harsh future research should explore novel communication
conditions, and expanding sensor network coverage and protocols and technologies to enhance the connectivity
distribution [94], [97]. Using thermal sensors to monitor water between sensors and IoT systems such as Sigfox and
velocity and hydrodynamic models is also suggested as a Zigbee. For instance, Sigfox, a low-power, wide-area
promising approach [126]. In terms of network infrastructure network technology, has not been utilized in wastewater
and expanding sensor network coverage and distribution, management applications but could be a promising area
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17
 for exploration due to its long-range, low-power, and including temperature, pH, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen,
cost-effective connectivity solutions for remote and while the development of sensors for a broader range of
decentralized applications [98]. contaminants is an ongoing area of research. This subsection
• Need to optimize the use of energy resources: Although provides a comprehensive insight into the evolution and
some studies have suggested using renewable energy application of sensors for infrastructure management,
sources such as solar panels, energy harvesting, and covering various aspects, including sensor design,
backup power sources, more research is required to manufacturing, diverse sensor types, and their empirical
identify the most effective energy management assessment in practical, real-world scenarios.
strategies for IoT-based sewer monitoring systems. The literature reviewed on IoT-based water quality
Future research can explore new methods and monitoring is categorized into two main categories. The first
technologies, such as advances in battery technology category comprises studies detailing developing and
and zero-power sensing, for extended sensor lives. fabricating sensors explicitly designed to monitor water
• Managing many sensors and devices in a distributed quality [55], [128]. For instance, Blanco-Gómez et al. [129]
scenario: Researchers suggested developing robust and designed a low-cost prototype device capable of continuously
scalable systems to handle large amounts of data, but it measuring electrical conductivity (EC) and temperature, while
does not directly address the challenge of managing Abbas et al. [130] developed a suite of sensors, including a
numerous sensors and devices in a distributed scenario. water flow sensor, a waterproof ultrasonic sensor, and two
Future research could explore new system architectures temperature sensors, designed for the measurement of both
and management strategies that can effectively handle water and ambient temperatures. On the other hand, the second
the complexity of managing many sensors and devices category of studies focuses on utilizing commercially
in a distributed environment. available kits and commercial off-the-shelf sensors for water
• Advanced data analysis and visualization techniques: quality monitoring [131], [132], [133], [134]. For example,
However, researchers have suggested the application of Kumar et al. [135] utilized the Libelium smart water kit to
forecasting algorithms for anticipating potential issues, monitor various water quality parameters such as pH,
but there remains a requirement for more temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, and oxidation-
comprehensive research in data cleansing and analysis reduction potential, while Syrmos et al. [136] integrated
domains to enable informed decision-making. Future multiple water quality sensors to measure parameters such as
studies should investigate the potential of employing turbidity, pH, conductivity, and dissolved oxygen.
machine learning algorithms to analyze extensive sensor Furthermore, after analyzing the reviewed studies, it
data, discern patterns and irregularities, and forecast becomes evident that various sensors have been employed, as
future system performance. Additionally, developing shown in Fig. 23. Among the sensors, pH and temperature
more advanced data visualization tools can aid in were the most commonly utilized, featured in 17 and 15
simplifying the interpretation of complex data, thereby papers, respectively. Turbidity and EC sensors were employed
enhancing decision-making processes. in 12 and 9 studies to measure water quality, respectively.
Other sensors were less frequently used, such as dissolved
C. IoT-based Water Quality Monitoring oxygen, ultrasonic, water level, total dissolved solids (TDS),
Water quality monitoring is a pivotal aspect of water resources flow, and pressure sensors.
management, and IoT technologies have significantly
revolutionized it. Although traditional laboratory analyses
remain necessary for a comprehensive assessment of water
quality, the advent of sensor technologies presents an efficient
alternative for monitoring specific parameters, reducing the
reliance on time-intensive and costly manual sampling
methods. In the next subsections, we will delve into
conducting a comprehensive examination of the literature
about IoT-driven water quality monitoring. These
examinations will include several aspects, such as sensors and
sensing technologies, data acquisition and transmission, data
analytics and visualization, applications and case studies, and
FIGURE 23. Types of sensors used in reviewed studies for water quality
limitations and gaps. monitoring.
In addition to using individual sensors, integrating multiple
1) Sensors and Sensing Technologies types of sensors has also been explored in various studies to
Sensors and sensing technologies play a pivotal role in IoT- enhance the effectiveness of water quality monitoring
based water quality monitoring. These technologies facilitate systems. As shown in Fig. 24, most of the reviewed studies
real-time monitoring of key water quality parameters, utilized multiple sensors, with pH, temperature, and turbidity

18 VOLUME XX, 2017

sensors being the most commonly used in combination with cloud-based platform. To discern the patterns in the use of
other types of sensors [32], [136], [137], [138]. For instance, communication technologies among the studies, we created
Campagnaro et al. [128] employed six different sensors, Fig. 25. The figure indicates that Wi-Fi and LoRaWAN are
including temperature, pressure, pH, turbidity, dissolved the most commonly used wireless communication
oxygen, and EC sensors, while Kumar et al. [135] utilized five technologies in IoT-based water infrastructure management,
different types of sensors, including temperature, pH, with a frequency of 12 and 6, respectively. On the other hand,
conductivity, dissolved oxygen, and Eh potential sensors, to Zigbee technology has been used in only three studies. Also, a
measure different water quality parameters. Other frequently few studies have employed other technologies such as
used sensor combinations include dissolved oxygen, Cellular, NB-IoT, Wireless Smart Utility Networks (Wi-
conductivity, and water level sensors [128], [139]. However, SUN), and TV White Space (TVWS).
the choice of sensors used in these studies varies depending on
the specific application and variables being monitored.

FIGURE 25. Types of wireless communication technologies used in

reviewed studies for water quality monitoring.
FIGURE 24. Distribution of reviewed studies based on the number of
sensors used for water quality monitoring.
In addition to the communication protocols discussed in
The reviewed literature has also extensively covered the use Fig. 25, a noteworthy trend among the reviewed studies is the
of sensors and their performance in real-world settings. use of cloud-based platforms for data storage and
Researchers have utilized varying levels of experimentation, management. Several researchers, such as Al-Khashab et al.
validation, and reliability testing to evaluate the accuracy and [143] and Campagnaro et al. [128], have emphasized the
reliability of sensor readings [64], [134], [135], [138], [140]. benefits of utilizing cloud-based platforms for collecting and
In this regard, Wong et al. [141] conducted a calibration and analyzing sensor data. Additionally, various IoT platforms
validation study on turbidity and ultrasonic water level have been employed for data acquisition and transmission. For
sensors. Unlike the contact-type sensor, the non-contact sensor instance, Kabi and Maina [131] used a LoRa network server
consistently provided accurate measurements for at least two offered by The Things Network to relay data packets from
months without requiring monthly maintenance. Similarly, fixed-position nodes to an InfluxDB database in a Google
Malissovas et al. [142] evaluated the performance of sensors Cloud virtual machine instance. Similarly, Madhurima et al.
in harsh environmental conditions without periodic [132] and Pasika and Gandla [144] used the Wi-Fi module
maintenance for six months. These studies showcase the ESP8266 to connect the sensor hub to an IoT cloud and read
significance of reliability and calibration in using sensors for data back from ThingSpeak. Moreover, a noticeable trend is
water quality monitoring. emerging with the integration of cloud infrastructure for
database storage and the continuous upkeep of dashboards
2) Data Acquisition and Transmission presenting real-time measurements. As an illustration, Kumar
Efficient data acquisition and transmission are crucial for any et al. [145] and Pasika and Gandla [144] utilized a Node MCU
IoT-based water quality monitoring system. Reliable and for sensor data monitoring and value management, coupled
accurate data collected from a network of sensors must be with integrating cloud infrastructure for database storage and
transmitted to a central database or cloud-based platform for maintaining real-time dashboards.
analysis, storage, and visualization. In this subsection, we will Communication mechanisms' effectiveness in speed,
focus on the literature's methods for collecting and reliability, and cost has also been evaluated in some reviewed
transmitting sensor data and evaluate the studies for their studies [32], [130], [134], [142]. Researchers such as Abdullah
detailed descriptions of communication mechanisms used and et al. [146] and Ngom et al. [133] have evaluated the
their evaluations of the performance of these mechanisms. performance of LoRa transmission technology through signal
The content analysis identified various data collection and propagation, coverage tests, and packet error rates. On the
transmission methods from sensors to a central database or other hand, Wong et al. [141] evaluated the performance of

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19
Wi-Fi communication technology and concluded that it is a demonstrated IoT systems' effectiveness in monitoring water
reliable and cost-effective approach for transmitting data to a quality in rural and remote regions. Similarly, Oberascher et
cloud-based platform. al. [127] and Wong et al. [141] have exhibited IoT-driven
water quality monitoring systems deployed in industrial and
3) Sensors Data Analytics and Visualization agricultural contexts. Additionally, studies by Sacoto-Cabrera
In IoT-based water quality monitoring, effective methods for et al. [55] and Saravanan et al. [32] documented that IoT-based
data analysis are essential to obtain meaningful insights and water quality monitoring systems have improved water quality
make informed decisions. One prominent trend in recent years management in urban areas. The second categorization is
has been using ML algorithms to analyze and predict water rooted in the purpose of the IoT monitoring system, which
quality parameters. This includes clustering, classification, includes surface water quality monitoring [128], [129], [131],
predictive approaches, and artificial neural networks (ANNs), [138], drinking water quality monitoring [32], [135], [143],
described in several studies [57], [131], [136], [147]. For water quality monitoring during floods [146], agricultural
example, Ahmed et al. [139] compared 16 different ML water quality monitoring [133], [141], and method-oriented
algorithms for potability prediction and found that a one- water quality monitoring without any implementation [130],
dimensional convolutional neural network (CNN) performed [139].
significantly better than other classifiers. However, while ML
algorithms are gaining popularity, traditional statistical
methods remain prevalent in water quality monitoring
research [135], [148]. For instance, Al-Khashab et al. [143]
used MATLAB to analyze and display the collected data,
while Zakaria et al. [149] utilized statistical methods such as
coefficient of variation, standard deviation, and mean for data
analysis.
The reviewed studies have employed diverse graphical
representations depicting IoT sensor-derived water quality (a) (b)
data. These representations encompass line charts, bar charts,
FIGURE 26. IoT-based water quality monitoring trends by (a) setting (b)
scatter plots, heat maps, and time series plots. Real-time data purpose.
visualizations have been facilitated through various
dashboards, including platforms such as ThingSpeak display, The analyzed studies have also utilized various methods to
web-based user interface, mobile application, and RESTful evaluate the performance of IoT-based water quality
API [131], [132], [137], [138], [150]. The use of these monitoring systems, showcasing their potential for managing
visualizations assists end-users in promptly detecting any water quality challenges. These methods vary based on the
irregular trends and subsequently making well-timed research objectives and system features. Commonly used
decisions. For example, Ahmed et al. [139] developed a user methods include prediction accuracy, real-time data
interface module that enables end-users to view the water collection, and anomaly detection [57], [140], [142]. For
potability result on both a website and a mobile app. Similarly, instance, Chen and Han [138] reported the effectiveness of
Chen and Han [138] designed a web-based user interface that their system in providing real-time and high-frequency water
displays real-time water quality data through heatmaps and quality data. This data played a pivotal role in identifying
time series plots. sources of pollution and managing water resources efficiently.
Furthermore, other studies by Shanmugam et al. [152] and
4) Applications and Case Studies Oberascher et al. [127] evaluated the cost-efficiency and
The growing number of case studies and practical applications affordability of IoT-driven water quality monitoring systems,
within IoT-based water quality monitoring underscores the where both demonstrated that their systems offered a cost-
growing significance of this field. This subsection provides effective alternative to commercial solutions.
comprehensive insights into the present status of the discipline
and its capability to confront water quality management 5) Limitations and Gaps
challenges by exploring real-world applications and case Previous studies have identified various challenges and
studies. limitations within IoT-based water quality monitoring, where
The reviewed studies in the context of IoT-based water these discoveries can be categorized into six primary groups,
quality monitoring can be categorized based on two principal as depicted in Fig. 27. Among the most noteworthy challenges
criteria, as depicted in Fig. 26. The first categorization is reported in the literature is the need for comprehensive data
rooted in the specific environments where water quality analysis methods, a concern raised by several studies [128],
monitoring is implemented. These environments encompass [134], [138], [144], [149]. For instance, Saravanan et al. [32]
urban, rural, residential, commercial, and other areas. Studies highlighted the necessity of a more comprehensive water
by Nordin et al. (2018) and Revathi et al. (2021) have quality analysis and the integration of AI and ML technologies

20 VOLUME XX, 2017

in water quality management. Communication-related
challenges, including technical issues with LoRaWAN
technology [127] and network coverage limitations in remote
areas [146], [149], have been identified as significant
obstacles.
IoT-based water quality monitoring is also associated with
several technical and operational challenges. Technical issues
include high installation costs, intensive computer processing
requirements, and vulnerability to vandalism [130], [131].
FIGURE 28. Proposed solutions for overcoming challenges in IoT-based
Moreover, additional challenges include accommodating water quality monitoring.
more end devices by gateways and relying solely on
LoRaWAN infrastructures for real-time or critical services Overall, the proposed solutions have significantly
[136]. On the other hand, operational challenges related to progressed in mitigating the challenges of implementing IoT-
potential interference from other environmental factors may based systems for water quality monitoring. Nonetheless,
affect measurement accuracy and long-term deployability due several unresolved gaps remain, necessitating further research
to battery-powered devices [127], [130], [135]. Lastly, sensor and investigation. Some of these gaps include, but are not
limitations such as limited accuracy and reliability, the need limited to:
for regular calibration, false readings due to environmental • Lack of low-cost, reliable, and accurate sensors:
factors, and lack of full waterproofing pose additional Proposed solutions suggest using battery-powered
challenges [134], [144], [152]. sensors, but these have limitations regarding long-term
deployability and potential interference from other
environmental factors. To address these challenges,
there is a need for low-cost and reliable sensors for water
quality monitoring that can achieve long-term
performance in harsh environmental conditions without
periodic maintenance. Further research is needed to
develop low-power, sustainable, and integrated
underwater and above-water IoT sensor networks
suitable for various conditions.
• Challenges associated with data acquisition and
transmission: Although some proposed solutions
FIGURE 27. Challenges and limitations of implementing IoT in water
quality monitoring. suggest the need for secure and reliable communication
channels, they do not fully address the technical issues
Various solutions have been suggested in the literature to associated with wireless link limitations and network
overcome the challenges linked to monitoring water quality coverage in remote areas. Further research is needed to
using IoT. These solutions can be broadly categorized into investigate different communication mechanisms, such
four groups: connectivity enhancement, enhancing data as Zigbee, Sigfox, and NB-IoT, and to integrate various
management and analysis, sensors development and use, and techniques to generate a more integrated system.
system design and implementation strategies (Fig. 28). To Moreover, there is a need to migrate to LTE network
enhance connectivity, researchers have recommended infrastructure, and technical challenges associated with
exploring alternative wireless backbone technologies, LoRaWAN technology, such as obstructed propagation
expanding wireless infrastructure, and conducting further of electromagnetic waves in remote areas, need to be
research on propagation modeling for NB-IoT in remote areas addressed.
with thick and tall foliage [87], [149]. Additionally, • Comprehensive analysis of water quality: While some
implementing cloud-based platforms for data storage and solutions propose the integration of AI and ML in water
analysis, along with the use of open data formats and open- quality management, a more thorough analysis of water
source software, has been suggested to improve data quality is still needed. Traditional manual monitoring
management and analysis [32], [137], [145], [150]. On the schemes lack sufficient detail about diurnal fluctuations
other hand, low-cost, reliable, and fully waterproof sensors in water quality. Further research is necessary to
have been proposed to improve the sensors used in IoT-based improve the accuracy and depth of water quality
systems [139], [142], [152]. Furthermore, some studies analysis.
suggested using solar-powered IoT devices and event • Lack of standardization: The lack of standardization in
detection methods to reduce labor-intensive interventions in data collection, analysis, and reporting limits the
the field and involve stakeholders to improve system design interoperability of IoT-based systems for water quality
and implementation strategies [137], [142]. monitoring. This issue could be addressed by
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21
 developing standard protocols for sensor calibration, locations, and the pressing concern of addressing energy
data processing, and quality assurance. In addition, consumption and optimizing power sources are among these
developing a centralized database that collects and common hurdles. Furthermore, the lack of standardization in
stores data from different monitoring stations could data collection and analysis practices hampers
facilitate data sharing and analysis. Additionally, the interoperability, and fostering interdisciplinary collaboration
collaboration between stakeholders such as water remains underrepresented in current research efforts. While
resource management agencies, researchers, and regular monitoring practices are crucial for maintaining water
technology developers could help develop a quality, it's important to note that the response to pollution
standardized data collection and sharing framework. episodes often lacks standardized protocols, necessitating
adaptable and situational monitoring strategies to effectively
V. Conclusions address such unpredictable events. These shared challenges
This review highlights IoT's substantial potential in and gaps emphasize the necessity for innovative solutions,
transforming water and wastewater management and water such as improved sensor technologies, enhanced connectivity,
quality monitoring. Employing a hybrid methodology that sustainable energy management, standardized data practices,
combines ChatGPT and manual processes, we identified and and greater interdisciplinary cooperation to fully harness the
analyzed 119 relevant articles from an initial set of 496 potential of IoT in water infrastructure management and
through rigorous screening and snowballing techniques. monitoring.Contributing significantly to the field, this review
The SA explores IoT research in water-related domains serves as a guiding reference for both researchers and
spanning 2012 to 2023. Notably, IoT research witnessed a practitioners. It not only directs efforts towards impactful
substantial surge in 2017, peaking at 24 articles in 2021. Since research but also advocates for the integration of sustainability
2017, an annual average of 15 articles underscores the principles. By recognizing IoT's transformative potential
growing significance of IoT-based sensor technologies in alongside advancements in AI and ML, our work propels
three research domains. Employing keyword co-occurrence water infrastructure towards enhanced efficiency, resilience,
analysis, the study unveils trends and hotspots. Distinct and environmental stewardship.
keyword clusters emerged, particularly emphasizing IoT Moving forward, we propose actionable recommendations
applications in water management and IoT-based water for future research directions. First and foremost, there is a
quality monitoring. Separate analyses for IoT-based pressing need for concerted efforts in developing more cost-
wastewater management, water management, and water effective and robust sensor technologies capable of operating
quality monitoring provide deeper insights into these domains. in diverse conditions. Additionally, researchers should focus
In the SR part, we categorized articles into three on ensuring stable and reliable technical connections,
dimensions, which offer a nuanced understanding of the especially in remote or underground locations, and addressing
various applications of IoT within these realms. Each the challenge of energy consumption by optimizing power
dimension further uncovers insights across subcategories, sources. Standardization in data collection and analysis
highlighting the significance of sensors and sensing practices is paramount for fostering interoperability. Future
technologies, data acquisition and transformation, data studies should prioritize the establishment of common
analytics and visualization, application and case studies, and protocols to enhance the compatibility of diverse IoT
existing limitations and research gaps. The SR results indicate applications in water-related domains. Moreover,
equal research focus across the three domains. Many studies interdisciplinary collaboration must be actively encouraged
(20 for water management, 24 for wastewater management, and facilitated. The integration of expertise from diverse
and 32 for water quality) involve multiple sensors. Water fields, including water management, engineering, data
level, flow, and pH sensors are frequently used (12, 15, and 17 science, and environmental science, will be instrumental in
articles, respectively). This detailed analysis enhances our tackling shared challenges and advancing the field cohesively.
understanding of IoT's multifaceted benefits and challenges. In conclusion, as we confront escalating water-related
The prevalence of sensors, particularly flow and pH sensors, challenges globally, this review not only delineates the current
is crucial in the context of surface water monitoring, where landscape but also charts a course for future endeavors. By
real-time data acquisition plays a pivotal role in managing implementing these recommendations, researchers can propel
water quality and facilitating informed decision-making, IoT in water infrastructure management towards greater
thereby enhancing the effectiveness of water and wastewater innovation, effectiveness, and sustainability, ensuring the
management practices in such environments. resilience of our water resources in the digital age.
The findings of this comprehensive review have uncovered
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27
 Ahmad Alshami received his Civil Tarek Zayed, Ph.D., PE, PEng, F.ASCE,
Engineering Bachelor's degree from the F.CSCE, Professor and Associate Head
University of Jordan and his Master's degree in (Research), Dept. of Building and Real Estate,
Construction and Real Estate Management from Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Dr. Zayed has
the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. He is a Ph.D., M.Sc., and B.Sc. in Construction
now a Ph.D. candidate at Florida State Engineering and Management. He received his
University, majoring in Construction Ph.D. from Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Management. His main research interest is in the Indiana, USA, in May 2001. He conducted
integration of computer science and construction research on infrastructure/asset management;
management, including intelligent infrastructure simulation, fuzzy, optimization, risk assessment,
monitoring systems, Heavy-machinery guidance systems, and automation data mining, and artificial intelligence
in construction. applications in construction; and performance, budget allocation, and life
cycle cost analysis for municipal underground systems. He has more than
30 years of professional experience working in the construction industry
training and in academic posts in the USA, Canada, and Hong Kong. Dr.
Zayed has published around 500 journal and conference articles and
performed research with a significant amount of funding from government
Eslam Ali graduated with a B.Sc. degree in Civil and private funding agencies. He is serving as associate editor of the ASCE's
Engineering from Cairo University, Egypt, and journal of pipeline systems engineering and practice and the Canadian
received his M.Sc. degree in Geoinformatics journal of civil engineering. Dr. Zayed is also a fellow of the American
Engineering He received his Ph.D. degree from Society of Civil Engineers (F.ASCE) and the Canadian Society for Civil
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. He is an Engineering (F.CSCE). He is ranked in the top 2.0% of scholars in Civil
Assistant Professor in the Civil Engineering Engineering worldwide based on a study by Stanford University.
Department, Cairo University, Egypt. His research
interests include Localization and Mapping,
intelligent infrastructure monitoring, Asset
Management, Remote sensing applications,
Geoinformatics, Big data, and Monitoring Natural
hazards.

Moustafa Elsayed earned his B.Sc. degree in

Civil Engineering from the University of Jordan
and then pursued a M.Sc. degree in Urban
Informatics and Smart Cities at the Hong Kong
Polytechnic University. Currently, he is a Ph.D.
student at Florida A&M University, specializing
in Construction Management. His primary
research focus lies in sustainable construction
practices and smart infrastructure management,
including the implementation of smart
infrastructure systems, sustainable construction
management strategies, and sustainable demolition practices.

Abdelrahman E.E. Eltoukhy graduated with

a B.Sc. degree in Production Engineering from
Helwan University, Egypt, and received his M.Sc.
degree in Engineering and Management from
Politecnico Di Torino, Italy. He received his Ph.D.
degree from The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hong Kong. Before joining The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, he worked as an
Assistant Professor in the Systems Engineering
Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Later, he
moved to the Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, as a Research Assistant Professor. His current
research interests include Airline Schedule Planning, Logistics and Supply
Chain Management, Operations Research, Simulation, AI Optimization,
and Robot Localization and Mapping.

28 VOLUME XX, 2017

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