Date Unit

14 February 2023 Lecture 1 : Ways of thinking about child development

21 February 2023 Lecture 2: Research in education
28 February 2023 Lecture 3: Early development: Physical, perceptual, motor development Part I
7 March 2023 Lecture 4: Early development: Physical, perceptual, motor development Part II
14 March 2023 Lecture 5: Language and cognitive development in early childhood Part I
28 March 2023 Lecture 6: Language and cognitive development in early childhood Part II
11 April 2023 Lecture 7: Cognitive and physical development in middle childhood
18 April 2023 Lecture 8: Neurodevelopmental barriers to learning Part I
25 April 2023 Lecture 9: Neurodevelopmental barriers to learning Part II
2 May 2023 Lecture 10: Revision and application using case studies (lectures 3 – 9)
9 May 2023 Lecture 11: Social-emotional development in early childhood
16 May 2023 Lecture 12: Social-emotional development in middle childhood
23 May 2023 Lecture 13: Social-emotional development in adolescence
1 2 3
Explain how
gender, Compare and
temperament, age, contrast how
perceptions of cliques, crowds,
Examine the
parental treatment, and the dominance
reciprocal influence
and quality of the hierarchy can
between children
relationship influence the
and their parents
between parents influence
are related to the relationships inside
quality of sibling a classroom.
relationships
• Children are increasingly interested in their world and want to engage meaningfully and
actively in it

• The school system is really important for this stage, as it provides opportunities for skill
development on numerous levels and social interaction:
o Acquiring new skills (e.g. reading, writing, maths)
o Expanding their knowledge base
o Sports – teamwork, matches
o Other extracurricular activities (e.g. music, drama, etc)
• Successful resolution of this stage leads to a sense of competency

• Increased confidence in ability to achieve goals

• Praise further nurtures sense of pride and encourages child to set new goals

• Erikson: Resolution of this conflict is the primary source of healthy self-esteem

• If this stage is not successfully resolved, we would see inferiority:
o If a child ‘fails’ or his efforts are criticised, they may consider themselves to be failures
o Fearful of attempting new tasks and activities

• Inferiority develops when a child receives repeated negative feedback from others
• The feedback can take various forms (e.g. marks, comments to child and others, etc.)
• Unrealistic expectations and goals further contribute to the development of inferiority
• It is important to keep Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
theory in mind when working with adolescents and their
families:
o Microsystem: Where the individual lives (family,
school, peers, etc.)
o Mesosystem: Links between the microsystem
(e.g. connections between family and peers)
o Exosystem: Influences from other settings that
the adolescent does not necessarily experience
directly but is affected by nonetheless
(e.g. the parents’ work environment)
o Macrosystem: The culture in which the adolescent
comes from
o Chronosystem: The set of sociohistorical circumstances
that the adolescent finds themselves in
• Imagine that we are seeing an increase in drunk-driving
o What are the causes of this?
o How would we possibly think of addressing this?
• Linear / individualistic model:
o People choosing to drink and drive
o People can’t handle their alcohol
o People are choosing to break the law, etc.

• Systemic model:
o Socio-economic, where people are drinking as an escape from depression and / or boredom
of unemployment
o Reduction in effort to educate people on dangers of drinking and driving
o Poor public transport and high cost of cabs over weekends and holidays

• Linear / individualistic model:

o More psychoeducation

• Systemic model:
o Address public transport, more policing presence, regulate costs of cabs over weekend etc.
o Programmes to upskill the unemployed, etc.
• The traditional, individualistic approach tended to focus on the intrapsychic world
of the child, and their interaction with their mother
o Causality is viewed in a linear way; assumed to be parent (mother) to child
o Focused on the individual, not relationships!
o This linear causality tends to be the approach Western societies have

• The systemic approach has a more circular causality

o Individuals, families, and society affect one another
o All relationships of the family are considered
o The way in which a family is embedded in a socio-cultural system is also
considered (time, place, history, etc.)
o Very complex way of thinking
• The family structure evolved as
a way to protect and nurture
young children
• Theorists view families from a
contextual perspective and
believe that families form a
system of interacting elements
• The family itself is embedded in
other social systems that can
affect family dynamics, either
directly or indirectly
• ‘Traditional’ Family Types:
o Married couple (two married individuals)
o Nuclear family (Parents and at least one child)
o Extended family (Nuclear Family and at least one grandparent)
o Joint family (Blood relatives and their spouses and / or children staying together)

• ‘New’ types of families:

o Blended family (A family where either one or both partners had been previously married)
o Single parent family (Only one parent is present, looking after the children)
o Unmarried family (Parents are living together with their child, but are unmarried)
o Communal family (Group of families living together, sharing responsibilities)
• Absent / deceased parent/s
o May be due to having to work far away from one’s family, illness, death, divorce etc.

• Grandparents often raise their grandchildren with a pension

• Effects of poverty and unemployment on the family?

• For grown children of parents who were part of the migrant system: How have they
learned how to parent? Who was their model?
• There are two general parenting dimensions
1. Warm & responsive vs hostile & uninvolved
2. Extreme control vs no control
o Psychological control
o Behavioural control

• Four parenting styles result from combining the two dimensions and their two levels
• The authoritative parent is:
o Affectionate and engaged with their child
o Able to set limits and follow through with consequences
o Able to use reasoning, logic, and (appropriate) negotiation
o Able to empower their child to make their own decisions
• A child of an authoritative parent is likely to be:
o Happy
o Responsible
o A problem-solver
o Self-motivated
o Confident to attempt tasks and activities
o Cooperative with others
o A leader
o Most likely to be a good student
• The authoritarian parent is:
o Emotionally aloof / unavailable
o ‘Bossy’
o Likely to use phrases such as “I told you so” or “You must do this because I am telling you to”
o Uses disciplinary measures of physical punishment and / or verbal insults
o Often dismissive of their child’s feelings
• A child of an authoritarian parent is likely to be:
o Often moody
o Anxious
o Well-behaved
o A follower amongst their peer group
o An average-to-good student
• The permissive or indulgent parent is:
o Very affectionate
o Anxious to please their child
o Indulgent
o Likely to struggle to say ‘no’ / set limits & follow through with consequences
o Likely to be quite easily manipulated
• A child of a permissive parent is likely to be:
o Often very demanding
o Somewhat ‘whiny’, moody, vindictive
o Easily frustrated / unregulated
o May lack empathy with others, may be unkind to others
o Have trouble keeping friends
o A poor-to-average student, with a low interest in school
o A follower
• The neglectful or passive parent is:
o Emotionally uninvolved with their child
o Uninvolved with child’s life in general
o Does not discipline
o Inconsistent and unpredictable (may be overindulgent)
• A child of a neglectful parent is likely to be:
o More clingy and needy during childhood
o Often in trouble (destructive, detached)
o May develop addictions
o Poor self-control
o A poor student, very unmotivated with little or no confidence in their ability
o A follower
o Socially incompetent , often withdraws
o Inappropriate in their actions and what they say (rude & disorespectful))
• Think of a child who has messed their toys all around the room

• The authoritarian parent would tell their child to tidy up or risk being punished (no
consideration of the child’s needs or why they are reluctant to tidy up)
• The permissive parent would likely clear up the toys themselves (whims of the child are
indulged)
• Neglectful parent would ignore the mess (as would the child) (child’s needs are not
considered)
• The authoritarian parent would tell the child to clean up their toys and explain why, and
possibly introduce some boundaries (usually taking the form of introducing fair
consequences such as limiting the number of toys the child can play with until they have
learned how to clear up) (child’s needs are considered and they have a chance to learn
autonomy)

• Think of how this would apply to boundaries / discipline and adolescents?

• Parenting styles vary across cultures, for example:

o European Americans: warm, exert moderate control, and value individualism

o China: value emotional restraint and obedience; parents thus tend to be more
authoritarian

o Low SES entails stress due to HIV/AIDS, low income, lesser education, and/or a need
to protect children from danger
• Direct instruction: telling children what to do, when, and explaining why
o Coaching: helping children master social and emotional skills; explaining links
between behaviour and emotions
• Modelling: learning by observing and imitating what parents do and say
• Feedback through reinforcement: strengthening desirable behaviours through rewards
• Punishment can be effective
o Prompt, consistent, explained, within a good parent child relationship
• Punishment has some serious drawbacks
o Suppressive, temporary effects, undesirable side effects
• Spanking is ineffective in getting children to comply with parents
• Time-out
• Parents and children affect each other’s behaviour and family (dys)functioning

• Parenting styles differ with the child’s age, cognitive development, and temperament
o Adolescents desire more autonomy and input into decision-making
▪ Well-being flourishes as parents gradually relinquish control
o Temperamentally active children may require greater parental control
• Birth order of children often affects their position of power in the family

• Characteristics based on sibling position:

o Oldest children tend towards positions of leadership.
o Youngest children tend to prefer to be followers. They may enjoy being in charge, but
usually have different leadership styles, to those of older children.
o Middle children exhibit the functional characteristics of two sibling positions
• Birth of a sibling can result in the older child withdrawing or regressing to childish
behaviour

• Sibling relationships are more harmonious

o In adolescence
o If same-sex
o When parents have a good relationship
o When parents are affectionate, caring, and responsive to each other and all of their
children
• Many children in South Africa are neglected or abused in some way every year

• For example, we see the following behaviours may be reported

o Neglect: inadequate food, clothing, or medical care
o Physical abuse: assault leading to physical injuries
o Sexual abuse: fondling, intercourse, or other sexual behaviours
o Psychological abuse: ridicule, rejection, or humiliation
• Maltreatment risk is highest when cultures condone physical punishment, when parents
lack effective skills, and the child’s behaviour is often aversive

• Spanking is common in South Africa, although illegal at home and in schools

• Poverty, social isolation, and some cultural factors may be factors that contribute to abuse

• Abusive parents were often abused themselves

• Even with no lasting physical damage, abused children tend to:
o Have poor peer relationships
o Be disruptive at school; earn low marks and test scores
o Have disturbed cognitive development
o Experience more depression
o Be more prone to abuse their children and to consider or attempt suicide as adults
• Friends tend to be similar in age, of same-sex, and from the same race or ethnic group
o The latter is less true if children’s schools or communities are ethnically diverse
o Cross-group friendships help majority group children form more positive attitudes
toward a minority

• Friends have similar interests, attitudes toward school, recreational pursuits, future
plans, and drug use
• Children benefit from good friendships
o Higher self-esteem
o Less likely to be lonely or depressed
o Act more prosocially
o Cope better with stresses

• Co-rumination: discussing personal problems

• Risks of friendships
o Reinforce each other’s aggressiveness and risky behaviours
• Clique: Small group of child or adolescent friends similar in attitudes, sex, race, and age

• Crowd: Larger mixed-sex group of older children with similar attitudes and values

• Children of parents who are authoritative join crowds endorsing adult behavioural
standards

• Children of parents who are neglectful or permissive join crowds disavowing these
standards
• Dominance hierarchy: groups with a leader to whom others defer

• Boys: Physical power determines who leads

• Girls and older boys: Having the best skills to fulfil group’s purpose determines who leads
o Being outgoing and having good ideas qualifies one to lead class projects
• Peer pressure: pressure to conform to group norms

• Most powerful when:

o Youth are younger and socially anxious
o Peers are friends and/or of high status
o Behavioural standards are ambiguous

• Can have both positive and negative effects

• A popular child: Most classmates like the child
o Can be Positive or negative

• Rejected child: Most classmates dislike the child

o Can be aggressive or withdrawn

• Controversial: classmates are divided; some like while others dislike the child

• Average child is liked and disliked by some classmates, but with lower intensity than
above categories

• Neglected child: Many classmates ignore the child

• Compared to popular children’s parents, the parents of rejected children:
o Are belligerent, combative, intimidating, and aggressive during interpersonal conflict
o Inconsistently discipline children and are not loving or warm when punishing them
o Ultimately have children who imitate the above behaviours
• Instrumental, hostile, and relational aggression
• Early childhood aggressiveness predicts adolescent and adult aggression

• Chronic bullying victims have low self-esteem, dislike school, and are often lonely,
anxious, and depressed

• Risks for being victimised include children either being aggressive themselves or
withdrawn and submissive