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Module 4 - Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working
Module 4 - Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working
in Metal Working
Manufacturing Processes
AERO315
UAE University
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering
1
Introduction
• Rolling.
• Other deformation processes related to
rolling.
• Forging.
• Other deformation processes related to
forging.
• Extrusion.
• Wire and Bar Drawing
Introduction
• Bulk deformation processes accomplish significant
shape change in metal parts whose initial form is bulk
rather than sheet.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Flat-Rolling and
Shape-Rolling
Processes
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Rolling of Metals
• Rolling: is a deformation process in which the thickness of the work
is reduced by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls.
– Hot rolling: most rolling is carried out by hot working, due to the
large amount of deformation required.
d = t0 − t f
where d = draft, mm; t0 = starting thickness, mm; and tf = final thickness, mm.
• Constant volume
to wo Lo = t f w f L f
where wo and wf are the before and after work widths, mm; and Lo and Lf are the before and
after work lengths, mm.
• Similarly, before and after volume rates of material flow must be the same,
so the before and after velocities can be related:
• Constant volume rate
to wo vo = t f w f v f
where vo and vf are the entering and exiting velocities of the work.
Flat Rolling and Its Analysis
Spreading in Flat Rolling
tf
to
• where s is forward slip; vf is final (exiting) work velocity, m/s (ft/sec); and vr
is roll speed, m/s (ft/sec).
K n
Yf =
1+ n
The average flow stress is used to compute estimates of force and power in rolling.
Flat Rolling and Its Analysis
• There is a limit to the maximum possible draft that can be accomplished in
flat rolling with a given coefficient of friction, defined by:
d max = 2 R
where dmax = maximum draft, mm; μ = coefficient of friction; and R = roll radius, mm.
L = R(to − t f )
Flat Rolling and Its Analysis
• The torque (T) required to drive each roll are:
T = 0.5FL
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Bending of Rolls
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Effects of Hot Rolling
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Roller Leveling
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Defects in Flat Rolling
Schematic illustration of
typical defects in flat
rolling:
(a) wavy edges;
(b) (b) zipper cracks in
the center of the strip;
(c) edge cracks; and
(d) alligatoring.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Shape Rolling of an H-section part
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Production of Steel Balls
Figure 13.14 (a) Production of steel balls by the skew-rolling process. (b) Production of
steel balls by upsetting a cylindrical blank. Note the formation of flash. The balls made by
these processes subsequently are ground and polished for use in ball bearings.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Other Deformation Processes
Related to Rolling
• Ring Rolling: a deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of
smaller diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter.
Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the diameter of a
ring: (1) start, and (2) completion of process.
Thread-Rolling Processes
Figure 13.16 Thread-rolling processes: (a) and (b) reciprocating flat dies; (c) two-roller dies.
(d) Threaded fasteners, such as bolts, are made economically by these processes at high
rates of production. Source: Courtesy of Central Rolled Thread Die Co.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Machined and Rolled Threads
Figure 13.17 (a) Features of a machined or rolled thread. Grain flow in (b) machined and
(c) rolled threads. Unlike machining, which cuts through the grains of the metal, the rolling
of threads imparts improved strength because of cold working and favorable grain flow.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Cavity Formation in Bar
Figure 13.18 Cavity formation in a solid, round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube-
piercing process for making seamless pipe and tubing. (see also Fig. 2.9.)
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Bulk Deformation Processes
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Forging
– Cold forging: its advantage is the increased strength that results from
strain hardening of the component.
• https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=YobXFODkp50
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Forging
Three types of forging operation: (a) open-die forging, (b) impression-die forging, and
(c) flashless forging.
Forging
Open-Die Forging
• Known as upsetting or upset forging.
Figure 14.3 (a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies. (b) Uniform
deformation of the billet without friction. (c) Deformation with friction. Note the
barreling of the billet caused by friction forces at the billet-die interfaces.
Open-Die forging with Barreling
• Analysis of Open-Die Forging:
2 r
2
Forging force, F = Y f r 1 +
3h
and , Y f = k n
where :
Yf is the flow stress of the material, μ is the coefficient of friction
between the workpiece and the die, and r and h are, respectively,
the instantaneous radius and height of the workpiece.
Example
A solid cylindrical slug made of 304 stainless steel is 150 mm in diameter and
100 mm high. It is reduced in height by 50% at room temperature by open-die
forging with flat dies. Assuming that the coefficient of friction is 0.2, calculate
the forging force at the end of the stroke.
2 r
2
Forging force, F = Y f r 1 +
3h
The final radius, r, is determined from volume constancy by equating the
volumes before and after deformation.
Y f = k = 1275 x 0.69
n .45
1100MPa
2
(2)(0.2)(0.106 )
F = (1078 x10 )( ) (0. 106) 1 +
6
48 MN
(3)(0.05)
Impression-Die Forging
• Impression-die forging (sometimes called closed-die forging):
performed with dies that contain the inverse of the desired shape of the
part.
Figure 14.5 (a) through (c) Stages in impression-die forging of a solid round billet. Note
the formation of flash, which is excess metal that is subsequently trimmed off (see Fig.
14.7). (d) Standard terminology for various features of a forging die.
Cogging Operation on a Rectangular Bar
F = kY f A
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Trimming Flash After Forging
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Closed-Die Forging Versus Flashless Forging
Figure 14.9 Comparison of closed-die forging with flash (left side of each illustration) and
precision or flashless forging (right side) of a round billet. Source After H. Takemasu, V.
Vazquez, B. Painter, and T. Altan.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
The Coining
Process
(b)
Figure 14.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the coining process. The earliest coins were
made by open-die forging and lacked precision and sharp details. (b) An example of a
modern coining operation, showing the workpiece and tooling. Note the detail and superior
finish that can be achieve in this process. Source: Courtesy of C & W Steel Stamp Co., Inc.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
The Coining Process
• Coining: is a type of flashless forging, in which fine details in the die
are impressed into the top and bottom surfaces of the workiece.
There is little flow of metal in coining.
Figure 14.11 (a) Heading operation to form heads on fasteners, such as nails and rivets.
(b) Sequence of operations to produce a typical bolt head by heading.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Metals in Decreasing Order of Forgeability
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Defects in Forged Parts
Figure 14.16 Examples of defects in forged parts. (a) Laps formed by web buckling during
forging; web thickness should be increased to avoid this problem. (b) Internal defects
caused by an oversized billet. Die cavities are filled prematurely, and the material at the
center flows past the filled regions as the die closes.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Speed Ranges of Forging Equipment
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Costs of a Rod Made by Forging and Casting
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Bulk Deformation Processes
Process 3: Extrusion and Drawing of
Metals
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Extrusion
• Extrusion: a compression process in which the work metal is forced
to flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional
shape.
• Advantages include:
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Types of Extrusion
2. Indirect Extrusion (also called backward extrusion) is illustrated in
the Figure below.
Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section and (b) a hollow cross
section.
Types of Extrusion
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Types of Extrusion
• Hot Extrusion:
– Hot extruded metals include: Al, Cu, Mg, Zn, Sn, and their alloys
(sometimes extruded cold as well).
– Steel alloys are usually extruded hot, although the softer, more
ductile grades are sometimes cold extruded (e.g. low C-steels).
– Al is probably the most ideal metal for extrusion (hot and cold).
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Example 1
A round billet made of brass is extruded at a temperature of 675°C. The
billet diameter is 125 mm, and the diameter of the extrusion is 50 mm.
Calculate the extrusion force required.
Ao
Extrusion force, F = Ao k ln
Af
(0.125 ) 2 (0.125 ) 2
F= (250 x10 ) ln
6
4 (0.050 ) 2
= 5.6 MN
Example 2
A cylindrical billet that is 100 mm long and 50 mm in diameter is reduced
by indirect extrusion to a 20 mm diameter. The 2flow curve for the work
Ao 𝜋(25)
metal has a strength coefficient
(a) rof
x =800 MPa
= =6.25
and2 strain hardening exponent
Af
of 0.13. Assume Ideal (no friction) case. 𝜋(10)
Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b)
ram pressure and (c) ram force
(b) ε = ln rx = ln 6.25 = 1.833
2
Ao 𝜋(25)
(a) rx = = 2 =6.25 p = Y f ln rx
Af 𝜋(10)
K n
Yf = Y f = 800(1.833)0.13/1.13 = 766.0 MPa
1+ n
P = 766.0 x 1.833 = 1.4 GPA
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Process Variables in Direct Extrusion
Figure 15.4 Process variables in direct extrusion. The die angle, reduction in cross-section,
extrusion speed, billet temperature, and lubrication all affect the extrusion pressure.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Extrusion Temperature Ranges
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Extrusion-Die Configurations
Figure 15.7 Typical extrusion-die configurations: (a) die for nonferrous metals; (b) die
for ferrous metals; (c) die for a T-shaped extrusion made of hot-work die steel and
used with molten glass as a lubricant. Source: (c) Courtesy of LTV Steel Company.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Design of Extruded Cross-Sections
Figure 15.9 Poor and good examples of cross-sections to be extruded. Note the
importance of eliminating sharp corners and of keeping section thicknesses uniform.
Source: J.G. Bralla (ed.); Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing. New York:
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1986. Used with permission.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Extrusion of Heat Sinks
Figure 15.10 (a) Aluminum extrusion used as a heat sink for a printed circuit board. (b)
Die and resulting heat sink profiles. Source: Courtesy of Aluminum Extruders Council.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Cold Extrusion Examples
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Impact-Extrusion Process
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Bulk Deformation Processes
Process 4: Wire and Bar Drawing
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Wire and Bar Drawing
• Bar drawing: the term used for large diameter bars.
F A
= = Y f = Y f ln o
Af Af
Exercise
Wire is drawn through a draw die with entrance angle = 15o. Starting
diameter is 2.5 mm and final diameter = 2.0 mm. The coefficient of friction
at the work-die interface = 0.07. The metal has a strength coefficient K =
205 MPa and a strain hardening exponent n = 0.20. Determine the draw
stress and draw force in this operation.
Tube-Drawing Operations
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Drawing Dies
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Multistage Wire-drawing Machine
Figure 15.23 Two views of a multistage wire-drawing machine that typically is used
in the making of copper wire for electrical wiring. Source: After H. Auerswald
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.