Cambridge Checkpoint Science Revision Guide
Cambridge Checkpoint Science Revision Guide
checkp int
Science
Revision Guide
For the Cambridge Secondary 1 Test
To David and Hazel
Introduction iv
BIOLOGY
l Chapter 1 Plants 1
l Chapter 2 Humans as organisms 8
l Chapter 3 Cells and organisms 22
l Chapter 4 Living things in their environment 27
l Chapter 5 Variation and classification 33
CHEMISTRY
l Chapter 6 States of matter 37
l Chapter 7 Material properties 39
l Chapter 8 Material changes 47
l Chapter 9 The Earth 57
PHYSICS
l Chapter 10 Forces and motion 61
l Chapter 11 Energy 72
l Chapter 12 The Earth and beyond 77
l Chapter 13 Sound 81
l Chapter 14 Light 83
l Chapter 15 Magnetism 87
l Chapter 16 Electricity 89
Introduction
Preparing for the test
You might find the following points helpful when preparing for
the Cambridge Checkpoint Science Secondary 1 Test.
l Make sure that you are familiar with the science content
that the test will cover. Use this revision guide to check
your understanding of each topic area. You can tick off each
section once you have practised it in the box provided.
l Read the Tips for success boxes for useful pointers to the
areas of understanding the test is looking to check.
l Make sure that you are familiar with the types of questions
that will be asked in the test.
l Try to get hold of some past papers, and practise working
through these in the time limits given, so that you know
what is expected.
l Spend some time practising the test-style questions
(Spotlight on the test) in this revision guide.
l Remember to look at the mark scheme so that you know
how much each answer is worth.
l Check your answers against the sample answers so that you
can see how your answers will be assessed.
Introducing plants
The organs of a plant
A
______________________________
B
______________________________
C
______________________________
D
______________________________
l The root holds the plant in the soil, and takes up water and
Tips for success minerals from the soil.
Remember the names and the l The stem supports the leaves and flowers, and transports
functions of each of the plant water and food through the plant.
organs. l The leaf produces food by photosynthesis (see page 3).
l The flower contains the reproductive organs (see page 6).
1
l BIOLOGY
2
1 Plants l
Photosynthesis
Definition of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make biomass
and oxygen from water and carbon dioxide, using energy in
light that has been trapped in chlorophyll.
The stages in photosynthesis
Tips for success
Remember that photosynthesis Water, taken up by the roots Carbon dioxide in the air Some of the light from the
from the soil and transported enters the leaves through Sun enters the leaves
takes place in the chloroplasts of
by the stem to the leaves tiny holes called stomata
plant cells.
3
l BIOLOGY
leaf 1 leaf 2
aluminium plastic
foil covering covering
plastic
bag
soda sodium
lime hydrogencarbonate
solution
plant A plant B
Figure 1.3 Investigating the effect of carbon dioxide on starch production Figure 1.4 Investigating the effect of light on
starch production
4
1 Plants l
sunlight in dark
Canadian
pondweed
support to keep
funnel off bottom
light
water + carbon dioxide carbohydrate + oxygen
chlorophyll
5
l BIOLOGY
Plant reproduction
The flowers of a plant contain the organs of reproduction.
There are two kinds of flowers: insect-pollinated flowers and
wind-pollinated flowers.
The parts of a flower
6
1 Plants l
After fertilisation
The ovule forms a seed and the ovary becomes a fruit.
Dispersal of fruit
Plants have ways to disperse fruit to spread out the seeds.
This allows the seeds to have enough soil, space and light in
which to grow.
Figure 1.9
a) How are they dispersed? [1]
b) Name one feature that helps them to be dispersed in this way. [1]
7
2 Humans as organisms
_________________
heart
_________________
lungs
_________________
_________________
_________________
The skeleton
The skeleton has three functions.
l Protection: the skull protects the brain; the vertebrae, which
form the backbone, protect the spinal column; the backbone
and ribs protect the heart and lungs.
l Support: the bones provide a strong structure which holds
the organs up so they do not squash one another.
8
2 Humans as organisms l
Antagonistic muscles
l A muscle can move. It contracts (gets shorter) when it
moves. A muscle cannot make itself longer again. It needs
another muscle to pull it back to its original length.
l Many muscles are arranged in pairs so that when one
Tips for success muscle contracts it makes the other muscle in the pair relax
Remember how antagonistic and lengthen. The action of one muscle is antagonistic or
muscles operate. opposite to the other. Muscles arranged like this are called
an antagonistic muscle pair.
biceps
triceps
X Y
9
l BIOLOGY
10
2 Humans as organisms l
6 What previous knowledge did Eijkman use for his first investigations?
7 What evidence did Eijkman collect from first-hand experience?
8 What scientific knowledge and understanding was later used to
explain Eijkman’s results?
11
l BIOLOGY
Digestion
Tips for success The digestive system
Make sure you can describe the
main structures and function of
the digestive system.
A
_________________
B
_________________
D C
_________________ _________________
E
_________________
G
_________________
F
_________________
I
H _________________
_________________
J
_________________
12
2 Humans as organisms l
Tooth Function
incisor
canine
molar
13
l BIOLOGY
14
2 Humans as organisms l
The pulse
l As the heart pumps the blood, it makes the blood surge
through the blood vessels leaving the heart and causes their
walls to stretch and shrink.
l This change in the blood vessel walls can be detected as a
throbbing sensation called the pulse. The rate of throbbing
of the pulse matches the rate of beating of the heart.
Harvey and the heart
William Harvey was taught by a professor who had discovered
that veins had valves in them. When Harvey became a doctor,
the professor’s discovery gave him an idea for an investigation.
He thought the valve would only let blood go one way.
He tied a cord around a vein and saw that the blood did not
flow ‘backwards’ through the valve. It could only go one way.
15
l BIOLOGY
A
_________________________
B D
_________________________ _________________________
C E
_________________________ _________________________
F
_________________________
16
2 Humans as organisms l
Gaseous exchange
l The alveoli form the respiratory surface through which
gaseous exchange takes place.
l Oxygen from the inhaled air dissolves in the moist covering
of the alveolar wall, then diffuses through the wall into the
capillary next to it and is taken up by haemoglobin in the
red cells to form oxyhaemoglobin.
l Carbon dioxide dissolved in the plasma diffuses from the
capillary through the alveolar wall, then escapes as a gas
into the lung air and is exhaled.
Aerobic respiration
In aerobic respiration, energy is released from food with
the use of oxygen. Aerobic respiration takes place in the
body cells. The word equation for this reaction is shown in
Figure 2.7.
How does it reach cell How does it reach cell What is energy used How does it leave the How is excess water
from food? from the air? for? body? removed from the body?
17
l BIOLOGY
Human reproduction
l Humans become capable of reproducing when they have
gone through the period of physical changes called puberty
during adolescence.
l Adolescence is the time from the beginning of puberty
to the end of the emotional changes, after which a person
becomes an adult.
Physical changes at puberty
Physical changes are brought about by the action of the growth
hormones and sex hormones.
l Males: growth of hair on face, in the armpits and in the
pubic region; broadening of shoulders; growth of penis and
testicles; deepening of voice.
l Females: growth of hair on face, in the armpits and in pubic
region; development of breasts; growth of vagina and uterus;
widening of pelvis.
Emotional changes at adolescence
l Both sexes have emotional changes due to their physical
changes and a desire to be more independent.
l Anxiety can arise due to: the variation between people in
the rate and timing of the physical changes; variations in
the ways different families allow independence; increasing
interest in the opposite sex due to the action of sex
hormones; fear of losing friends due to peer pressure in
which others encourage a person to follow their ways.
The reproductive systems
Reproductive system – organs Features and function
testis (two testicles) contained in a sac called the scrotum to keep them
cool for sperm production
glands along tube to the outside, glands produce fluid which mixes with sperm to
called the urethra form semen
penis delivers semen into vagina
ovary (two ovaries) in the lower torso, produce eggs
oviduct one next to each ovary, contains ciliated cells which
move egg along the oviduct
uterus connected to each oviduct; place where foetus
develops
vagina receives penis and semen
18
2 Humans as organisms l
Fertilisation
l The head of the sperm cell contains the nucleus, which is the
male gamete. The nucleus of the egg is the female gamete.
l Sperm swim from the vagina through the uterus into the
oviducts. If an egg is present in an oviduct the head of a
sperm breaks off and enters the egg.
l Fertilisation occurs when the male and female gametes join
together and form a cell called the zygote.
Foetal development
l The zygote divides to form a ball of cells, which implants in
Tips for success the uterus wall. The cells on the surface of the zygote form
Remember that the outer layer the placenta. The placenta is the organ which takes food
of cells of the zygote develops and oxygen to the foetus from the mother’s blood and takes
to form the placenta, and the wastes such as carbon dioxide from the foetus back to the
inner layer of cells develops into mother’s blood.
the foetus. l The placenta produces hormones which stop the ovaries
producing more eggs and stop the uterus wall breaking
down. Inside the ball of cells the foetus forms and grows.
l The foetus is connected to the placenta by the umbilical
cord and is surrounded by a bag called the amnion,
which is filled with a watery liquid called amniotic fluid.
The amniotic fluid prevents the foetus from being squashed
and allows the foetus to float freely and have space for its
Spotlight on limbs to develop.
the test
Check your understanding
What is the name of the organ that
brings oxygen and nutrients from 20 Use these words to label Figure 2.8.
the mother to the foetus, and at the
vagina placenta uterus wall umbilical cord amniotic fluid
same time removes waste products
and carbon dioxide? [1] 21 How do the hormones produced by the placenta help the foetus to survive?
A
_____________________
B
_____________________
C
_____________________
D
___________________
E
_____________________
19
l BIOLOGY
Health
Conception and pregnancy, growth and development,
behaviour and health are all affected by diet, drugs
and disease.
20
2 Humans as organisms l
21
3 Cells and organisms
Life processes
There are seven characteristics of life that an organism must
show at some stage to be described as living.
Characteristic Life processes
nutrition
respiration
movement
growth
excretion
reproduction
irritability
22
3 Cells and organisms l
Microorganisms
A microorganism is an organism made from a body with only
one cell. Microorganisms are important in many ways.
l Decomposition: as bacteria and fungi break down the dead
bodies of once living things they release minerals into the
soil for plants to use.
l Food production: yeast (a fungus) is used to make bread;
bacteria are used to make yoghurt and vinegar.
l Disease: some bacteria cause typhoid, cholera and tuberculosis.
Some Protista cause malaria and sleeping sickness. Viruses
cause diseases such as measles and chicken pox.
Louis Pasteur and microorganisms
swan-necked
flask
3 Look at Figure 3.1. Where did the microorganisms settle in the flask?
23
l BIOLOGY
A
____________
B
____________
C
____________
F ____________
B D
___________ ____________ ___________
____________
Figure 3.4
cilia
cell body
cytoplasm
nucleus
cell membrane
nucleus
25
l BIOLOGY
Figure 3.7
a) Name the cell. [1]
b) Name one special feature of this cell. [1]
26
Living things in their
4 environment
Adapting to habitats
l A habitat is the place where a plant or an animal lives.
l Each habitat has special conditions and the plants and
animals that live there are especially suited or adapted to
live in those conditions.
Habitat and conditions Adaptations of plants Adaptations of animals
rainforest: hot and humid, trees have their main leafy branches at the top monkeys are adapted to balancing on branches, jumping
sunlit top, dark on floor of the trunk to receive light; plants on the floor and climbing to find food in the tree tops; frogs have
can make food with low light or grow up the suckers on their feet for tree climbing
sides of trees to take them into brighter light
desert: hot in day, cold plants such as a cactus have thick waxy skins many animals make or find burrows to hide from the heat
at night, short period to prevent water loss and long roots to find and cold; they conserve water in their bodies by releasing
of rainfall onto well- water deep in soil; some plants grow flowers small amounts of urine; their mouth parts are adapted for
drained soil and set seed quickly after rain, then survive as feeding on tough plants; camels have wide feet to prevent
seeds in dry periods them sinking in the sand
river plants take in carbon dioxide dissolved in water; fish take in oxygen dissolved in water through their gills;
also take in minerals dissolved in water through have streamlined shape for moving through a much
stem and leaves; roots for holding plant in mud; denser substance than air; insects have flatter bodies
weak floppy stems as water supports the plant so water flows more easily over them as they grip rocks;
leeches have suckers to hold on in currents
27
l BIOLOGY
A
B
cloth cover
Figure 4.1
2 Give the apparatus in Figure 4.1 a title. Annotate the diagram to explain how
it works.
28
4 Living things in their environment l
herbivore carnivore
prey predator
29
l BIOLOGY
a) Grass is a ___________.
b) The rabbit is a ___________.
c) The fox is a ___________. [1]
30
4 Living things in their environment l
Energy sources
There are two types of energy sources: renewable and
non-renewable.
Non-renewable resources
l Fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas (methane). These have
many negative influences (see Energy on pages 72–76).
l Nuclear fuel: radioactive materials such as uranium.
A positive feature is that it does not produce carbon dioxide,
so has no link with the possible risk of global warming.
A negative feature is that a leak of radioactive material from
a power station or from stored waste can cause widespread
environmental damage.
31
l BIOLOGY
Renewable resources
l Fuel wood: must be harvested in such a way that woodlands
can grow back.
l Solar energy: solar panels trap heat from the Sun’s rays; solar
cells convert light energy into electrical energy.
l Wave energy: energy in the up and down motion of waves is
converted into electrical energy.
Tips for success l Hydro-electric power station: energy in moving water
Make sure you can explain why released from a dam is converted into electrical energy.
sources of energy are described A negative feature is habitat destruction to create the water
as either ‘renewable’ or reservoir for the power station.
‘non-renewable’, and can list l Wind energy: movement of air turns turbines and is
some examples of each. converted to electrical energy. A negative feature is that the
blades can kill birds.
32
Variation and
5 classification
Groups, species and keys
Living things are grouped or classified according to the
features they possess. In this classification system the two
major groups are the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom.
Major groups of plants and animals
l The plant kingdom is divided into five large subgroups.
l The animal kingdom is divided into animals without an
internal skeleton and backbone (invertebrates) and animals
with an internal skeleton and backbone (vertebrates).
Plant kingdom
Animal kingdom
invertebrates vertebrates
33
l BIOLOGY
Species
The kingdom is the largest group in the classification system
and the species is the smallest group. All the living things in a
species have a large number of similarities and the males and
females of the same species can breed new individuals. Males
and females of most species cannot breed with the males and
females of other species.
Keys
A key is a series of statements that can be used with
Tips for success observations on a living thing to help to identify it.
Practise using keys to identify The statements may be set out in a spider key, where you read
plants and animals. from the top centre and move down the statements on the
‘legs’ until the organism is identified.
Pond animal
Animal has Animal has Animal has Animal does not have
six legs eight legs suckers suckers
34
5 Variation and classification l
Inheritance
An inheritance is something which you receive from another
person. In science, inheritance means receiving features, also
called characteristics, from parents.
Genetic material
l The nucleus of a cell contains threads called
chromosomes on which are zones called genes. Genes are
made up from DNA.
l The DNA in a gene carries an instruction for the body
to make a particular characteristic such as brown eyes or
black hair.
l Chromosomes are arranged in pairs in the nucleus so
there is also a pair of genes for each characteristic. When
gametes, such as those in eggs and sperm, are produced,
they receive just one of each pair of chromosomes.
l When the gametes fuse in fertilisation the zygote receives
one half of its chromosomes from each parent, and so has
pairs of chromosomes made up of one from the mother and
one from the father.
l The two genes from the two parents may have different
instructions for certain characteristics. The way the pair of
genes pass on their instructions produces an individual that
varies in some ways from both parents.
➯ ➯ ➯ ➯
A B C D
Selective breeding
l The individuals in a species vary due to the way they inherit
their genes. Selective breeding is used to produce varieties in
a species which have particular useful features.
l For example, a crop plant species may have some
Tips for success individuals which produce larger grains than others. These
Make sure you are able to are then bred together so that they produce a variety with
identify a number of ‘selected’ even larger grains. The new variety may have a stalk that
features in a variety of is too weak to hold the larger head of grain, so a strong-
domesticated plants and animals. stalked variety is brought into the breeding programme to
make a plant with large grains and a strong stalk.
35
l BIOLOGY
Charles Darwin
l Charles Darwin travelled on a survey ship called HMS
Beagle that was making a world tour. He studied the bodies
of the living things he saw and then tried to explain how
their features varied.
l In the Galapagos Islands, Darwin found finches with
different shaped beaks, each adapted to a particular food
such as insects or seeds. He explained these observations by
setting out a theory called natural selection.
l Using this theory Darwin explained that all the finches may
have developed or evolved from an earlier finch. Some had
slightly pointed beaks, which were adapted to feeding on
insects, while others had slightly blunt beaks, which were
adapted to feeding on seeds. Over time, the birds with the
pointier or blunter beaks survived better than the others
and left more offspring with their characteristics. After many
generations two new species would have formed.
Figure 5.4 Charles Darwin (1809–82)
commemorated in this statue
36
6 States of matter
Particle theory
l The particle theory states that materials are made from
particles that are so tiny they cannot be seen with the
naked eye.
l These particles are atoms and molecules.
A B C
37
l CHEMISTRY
Gas pressure
l A gas is made of millions of quickly moving particles which
bounce off the walls of their container.
l The pushing force they generate as they bounce exerts a
pressure on the walls of the container. If the gas is heated,
the particles receive more energy, move faster, bounce more
Tips for success frequently and raise the gas pressure. Cooling lowers the
Make sure you can explain how gas pressure.
temperature can affect gas l If the temperature is kept constant and the volume is
pressure. reduced, the particles bounce more frequently on the smaller
area of the container walls and the gas pressure is increased.
Diffusion
l Diffusion is a process in which one substance spreads
through another. It can occur when two or more liquids or
two or more gases meet.
l The particles in diffusing liquids move around each other
and the particles in diffusing gases bounce off each other
as they spread out. Diffusion is faster in gases because gas
particles move faster than particles in a liquid.
38
7 Material properties
Everyday materials
There are many everyday materials. The most frequently used
materials are plastic, metals, fabrics, wood, pottery, glass,
paper, cardboard, brick and concrete.
Physical properties
Tips for success The physical properties of a material are the features it
Look around you at a range of possesses that can be investigated by observation or by simple
everyday objects. Think about experiments which do not involve chemical reactions.
the materials they are made
from. What properties do they
transparent
have that make them suitable for (lets light pass straight through)
their functions?
translucent
(lets light though but scatters it)
opaque
(does not let light rigid
hard or soft pass through) (cannot be bent
or squashed)
surface appearance
(shiny, dull, flexible
rough smooth) (can be bent and
squashed)
Physical properties
electrical conductor of materials brittle
(lets electricity (breaks if bent
pass through it) or hit)
electrical insulator
(does not let electricity malleable
pass through it) (shaped by hammering
or pressing)
absorbent
heat conductor
(takes in a liquid)
(lets heat
pass through)
heat insulator waterproof
(does not let (does not let water
heat pass through) pass through it)
39
l CHEMISTRY
Metals: ________________________________________________
Non-metals: _ ___________________________________________ [1]
40
7 Material properties l
Atoms
l An element is a substance which is made from just one
type of atom.
l The structure of the atom gives the element its physical and
chemical properties.
Rutherford and the atom
l Ernest Rutherford knew from the work of another scientist
called Thomson that atoms had negatively charged electrons.
He also knew that an atom did not have a negative charge
so there must be something else present to cancel out the
negative charge.
l Rutherford was involved in the discovery of large positively
charged particles called α-particles (α is the Greek letter
alpha) and he used them to investigate atomic structure.
He set up a thin sheet of gold surrounded by a screen that
could detect α-particles, as shown in Figure 7.2.
a few α-particles
bounce back from the
gold beam of
α-particles
source of
α-particles
very thin
gold sheet
most α-particles
some α-particles
pass straight through,
are deflected
undeflected
l α-particles were fired from the source onto the gold sheet.
The screen showed that most α-particles passed straight
through the sheet but some had been deflected to other
parts of the screen.
l Rutherford explained these results by saying that most of the
structure of an atom was empty space, which the α-particles
had passed straight through, but at the centre of an atom
was a positively charged nucleus which deflected some of
Tips for success the α-particles.
Make sure you can recognise and l From this he described the atom as having a central
label the main parts of an atom. positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of
Remember that the electrons negatively charged electrons.
are negatively charged, and the l Rutherford later discovered that the atomic nucleus
nucleus is positively charged. contained protons and his work stimulated another scientist
to discover that the nucleus could also contain neutrons.
41
l CHEMISTRY
e 1p e 2p e e 3p e e 4p e e e 5p e
2n 4n 5n 6n
H He Li Be e B e
e e e e e
e e e e e e
e e 6p e e e e 7p e e e e 8p e e e e 9p e e e e 10 p e e
6n 7n 8n 10n 10 n
e e e e
C e N e O e F e Ne e
e e e
e e e e e e e e e e e
e e e e e e e e e e
e e 11 p e e e 12 p e e e e 13p e e e e 14 p e e e e 15 p e e
12 n 12 n 14n 14 n 16 n
e e e e e e e e e e
e e e e e e e e e e
Na Mg Al Si e P e
e e
e e e e e
e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
e e e e e e e e e e
e e 16 p e e e e 17 p e e e e 18 p e e e 19 p e e e e 20 p e e
16 n 18 n 22 n 20 n 20 n
e e e e e e e e e e
e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
e e e e e
S Cl Ar K Ca e
Figure 7.3 The atomic structure of the first 20 elements of the periodic table
Tips for success 6 Next to each symbol in Figure 7.3, write down the name of the element.
Familiarise yourself with the
periodic table. You should be able Spotlight on the test
to recognise the names of the
first 20 elements. How many different types of atoms will a block of copper contain? [1]
42
7 Material properties l
0
1 1
H 2
He
1 2 hydrogen 3 4 5 6 7 helium
2 3 Li 4 Be 5
B 6
C 7
N 8
O 9
F 10
Ne
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
3 Na Mg
11 12 13
Al Si
14 15
P
16
S Cl Ar
17 18
4 K Ca Sc Ti
19 20 21 22 23
V 24 25 26 27
Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br 36 Kr 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
5 Rb Sr
37 38 39
Y 40 41 42 43
Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 81 82 83 84 85 86
caesium barium lanthanum hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
43
l CHEMISTRY
Trends in groups
l Group 1 – the alkali metals: going down the column the
density generally increases, the melting and boiling points
Tips for success generally decrease, the metals become softer and their
Make sure you can use the reactivity in chemical reactions increases.
periodic table to recognise and l Group 2 – the alkaline earth metals: going down the first
name elements in Groups 1, 2 three elements in this column the densities, melting points
and 7 of the periodic table. You and boiling points decrease but their reactivity in chemical
also need to know how metals reactions increases.
and non-metals are arranged in l Group 7 – the halogens: going down the column the
the periodic table. melting and boiling points increase but their reactivity in
chemical reactions decreases.
Trends in periods
Moving along each period from Group 2 to Group 5, the
elements change from being metals to being non-metals.
44
7 Material properties l
45
l CHEMISTRY
delivery tube
filter funnel
filter paper
support
salt solution
pure water
antibumping
the liquid that filters
through is called granules
the filtrate
heat
Figure 7.5 Filtration with a filter funnel Figure 7.6 Simple distillation
11 Mark with an X where filtration occurs in Figure 7.5 and mark with a Y
where condensation occurs in Figure 7.6.
46
8 Material changes
The pH scale
l The letters ‘p’ and ‘H’ stand for the ‘power of hydrogen’.
Hydrogen is found in acids and takes an active part in their
chemical reactions.
l The divisions in the pH scale are used to show the strength
of acids and alkalis.
l pH 0 to pH 2 indicates a strong acid, pH 3 to pH 6 indicates
a weak acid, pH 7 indicates that a solution is neither acid nor
alkali and is described as neutral, pH 8 to pH 11 indicates a
weak alkali, and pH 12 to pH 14 indicates a strong alkali.
l Universal indicator is a mixture of indicators which gives a
range of colours over the pH scale.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
blood
milk lime
water oven
dilute cleaner
water,
hydrochloric bleach,
salt
acid washing soda
solution
lemon juice,
toothpaste
vinegar
(ethanoic acid)
47
l CHEMISTRY
Neutralisation
l Neutralisation occurs when an acid and an alkali take part
in a chemical reaction. A salt and water are formed.
l The general word equation for a neutralisation reaction is:
48
8 Material changes l
Chemical reactions
Chemical reactions are taking place all round us and inside
us, too. Some take in heat (endothermic reactions) and some
give out heat (exothermic reactions). Some of these reactions
affect food and other materials and are described as not useful.
Reactions which are not useful
l Some of the reactions which are not useful take place when
oxygen reacts with fats and oils in foods. This oxidation
reaction makes the foods smell unpleasant and inedible.
l Some manufactured foods have antioxidants added to them
to slow down oxidation. Bags of snack foods like corn chips
have nitrogen in them instead of oxygen so the oxidation
process does not begin until the bag is opened.
l If iron or steel is in damp air, water condenses on the
Tips for success surface and oxygen dissolves in it. The oxygen and iron then
Make sure you can explain what take part in an oxidation process in which rust is produced
an oxidation reaction is, and and the metal becomes weaker.
why these reactions are not l If very fine powders such as coal dust (in coal mines) and
always useful. flour (in flour mills) mix with oxygen in the air and become
hot they can cause an explosion.
Endothermic reactions
Melting ice Sherbet
Ice takes in heat from its Sherbet is a popular sweet that
surroundings when the is made from citric acid and
temperature rises above 0 °C. sodium hydrogencarbonate.
The ice starts to melt When the sweet is put in the
mouth it feels cool because it
takes in heat from the body and
the two compounds react to
produce sodium citrate,
carbon dioxide and water.
(The carbon dioxide gas also
makes the sweet ‘fizzy’)
Endothermic reactions
49
l CHEMISTRY
Exothermic reactions
Burning
When a substance burns it reacts with
oxygen in the air and this reaction
releases heat. Fuels such as wood, coal,
oil and natural gas are burnt to provide
heat for cooking, warming homes and
making steam in power stations to
generate electricity. Carbon dioxide and
water are produced when fuels are burnt
Exothermic
reactions
Respiration Rusting
Tips for success Respiration is the process in which energy
is released from food (glucose). It takes
When iron and oxygen react in an oxidation
process to produce rust, heat is given out.
Remember that exothermic place in the bodies of all living things. In hand warmers this heat is held in a bag
The word equation is which can be used to warm the body
reactions give out heat to their
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
surroundings, and endothermic
The energy is used for making the substances
reactions take in heat from
needed in the body for growth and in animals
their surroundings. it is used by muscles to allow movement
50
8 Material changes l
Reactions of metals
Different metals react at different speeds when they react with
other chemicals.
Reaction with oxygen
When heated in oxygen:
l sodium: bursts into flame and burns quickly to form a
white powder
l iron: small particles glow and produce yellow sparks
l copper: does not glow or burst into flame but forms a
black powder
l gold: does not change.
51
l CHEMISTRY
52
8 Material changes l
ide
iron(III) chlor cobalt nitrate
sodium chloride
copper sulfate
nickel sulfate
zinc granules
are added
bubbles
of gas hydrochloric acid
filter paper
support
53
l CHEMISTRY
+ ________
54
8 Material changes l
Rates of reaction
Measuring rates of reaction
1 The rate of some reactions can be found by measuring the
reduction in mass of the reactants over a few minutes if a
gas is produced and escapes.
cotton
wool dilute
hydrochloric
acid
marble top-pan balance stop clock
chips
apparatus apparatus
just as marble chips when reaction has
are added finished
magnesium
ribbon kept stop clock
separate from hydrochloric
acid before acid
reaction
Concentration
l The concentration of the liquid reactant (the acid) is a
measure of how much solute is dissolved in it.
l If there is a small amount of solute in a large volume of
solution the concentration is low, but if there is a large
amount the concentration is high.
l Higher concentrations increase the rate of reaction. Lower
ones decrease the rate of reaction.
Particle size
l A cube with sides 2 cm long has six sides. Each side has a
surface area of 2 × 2 = 4 cm2. The total surface area of the
cube is 6 × 4 = 24 cm2.
l If the cube is broken into eight cubes with sides 1 cm long,
each of which has six sides, then the surface area of each
cube is 6 × 1 = 6 cm2. As there are eight of them, the total
surface area is now 6 × 8 = 48 cm2.
55
l CHEMISTRY
mixture of sodium
thiosulfate
stop clock solution and dilute
piece of paper with
a cross marked on it hydrochloric acid
Figure 8.11 Viewing a mixture and measuring the time for the reaction to take place
Catalysts
l A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a
Tips for success reaction but does not change itself.
Remember that concentration, l Only a small amount of a catalyst is needed to produce a
particle size, temperature and large increase in the reaction rate.
the presence of a catalyst are l A catalyst only works on speeding up one reaction; it cannot
important factors in determining speed up a number of different reactions.
the rate of a reaction. l Manganese dioxide is a catalyst that is used to speed up the
rate at which hydrogen peroxide breaks down into oxygen
and water.
56
9 The Earth
57
l CHEMISTRY
Soils
There are three main types of soil. Sand, clay and silt are made
by the weathering of rocks. Humus forms from the rotting
remains of plant and animal bodies.
Soil type Main component Drainage Air content pH
sandy sand grains; some very good good acidic
humus
clay clay particles; some poor low alkaline
humus
loam sand, silt, clay and good, but very good, varied by
large amounts of humus holds humus makes farmers to
humus some water for soil crumbs match the
roots to use with large air plants they
spaces wish to grow
58
9 The Earth l
Rock layers
l Rocks break down in the process of weathering and the
tiny fragments are washed away and deposited in layers,
often at the mouths of rivers.
l Over time, layers of different rock such as limestone and
sandstone build up on each other. The oldest layer is usually
found at the bottom and the most recent layer is found at
the top.
l Observing how layers of sand and mud are built up today
hints that rock formation takes a long time and that the
Earth is very old.
The fossil record
If the fossils are set out in the order they are found in the
rocks, starting at the bottom with the oldest rocks and moving
to the most recent at the top, a fossil record is made. Here
is an example of a fossil record. ‘3’ in the table shows the
presence of a particular type of organism.
Layer name Formation Flowering Trilobites Insects Reptiles
began (mya)* plants
Quarternary about 2.5 3 3 3
Tertiary about 65 3 3 3
Cretaceous about 145 3 3 3
Jurassic about 200 3 3 3
Triassic about 251 3 3
Permian about 300 3 3 3
Carboniferous about 360 3 3 3
Devonian about 416 3 3
Silurian about 444 3
Ordovician about 488 3
Cambrian about 542 3
* mya = millions of years ago.
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l CHEMISTRY
60
10 Forces and motion
Forces
move stop Contact and non-contact forces
l There are two kinds of contact forces: impact forces, when
surfaces touch and strain forces, when a force builds up in
Forces
the object on which a force is acting. An example of a strain
force is the force inside a squashed sponge ball. Tension is a
strain force that builds up in a stretched elastic band.
change l A non-contact force that is exerted by one object on another
change direction without the two objects touching. Examples are magnetic,
speed change electrostatic and gravitational forces.
shape
non-contact forces. to slide one surface over another a frictional force of similar
strength is generated between the surfaces in the opposite
direction. Gradually increasing the pushing or pulling force
causes a gradual increase in the frictional force to match it.
The force that exists between the two surfaces when there is
no movement is called static friction.
l Sliding friction: if the pushing or pulling force is further
increased, one surface will slide over the other because the
static friction cannot stop it. However, the surface cannot
slide freely because there is a sliding frictional force which
is less than the maximum value of the static frictional force.
If the pushing or pulling force ceases, the sliding frictional
force stops the two surfaces sliding.
Increasing and reducing friction
All surfaces have tiny projections (bumps) and hollows.
Tips for success l Reducing friction: a liquid applied to the two surfaces
Make sure you can explain the fills the hollows and makes the contact between the
ways of increasing and reducing surfaces smoother.
l Increasing friction: pressing the surfaces makes the
friction, and why both can be
important. projections and hollows lock together. Making a surface
rougher also increases friction.
61
l PHYSICS
Air resistance
l When an object moves through the air, the object pushes
on the air and the air pushes back with a force called
air resistance.
l The faster an object moves, the more it pushes on the air
and the greater the air resistance pushing back on it.
l Vehicles which are designed to travel very fast through
the air, such as a racing car or an aeroplane, have a
streamlined shape. These shapes have a pointed front
(aeroplane) or a wedge shape (cars) and curved body
surfaces to make the air flow over the body easily, which
reduces the air resistance.
Gravity
Six facts about gravity
1 Gravity is a non-contact force
4 The force of gravity between two objects with large masses, such as
the Sun and the Earth, produces a noticeable effect. It is gravity that
causes the attraction of the Earth for the Sun and the Earth’s movement
around the Sun
5 The force of gravity between one object with large mass, such as the
Earth, and an object with a comparatively small mass, such as a
person, draws the small mass to the large mass. If you jump up, gravity
draws you back down
62
10 Forces and motion l
63
l PHYSICS
Speed
Speed is a measure of the distance covered by a moving
object in a certain time.
55 60 5
50 10
45 15
40 20
35 30 25
time
start finish
distance travelled
64
10 Forces and motion l
20 20 20
(and not distance/time)
distance/centimetres
distance/centimetres
15 15 15
10 10 10
5 5 5
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
a) time/seconds b) time/seconds c) time/seconds
Figure 10.4 Examples of distance–time graphs a), b) and c). Graph a) shows an object travelling at a speed of 5 cm/second for
3 seconds.
65
l PHYSICS
Pressure
l Pressure is the term used to describe a force acting over an
area of known size. It can be defined by the equation:
force
Pressure = area
l The units for pressure are N/cm2 or N/m2.
66
10 Forces and motion l
67
l PHYSICS
Density
l The density of a substance is a measure of the amount of
matter that is present in a certain volume of it. It can be
defined by the equation:
mass
density = volume
l The units for density are g/cm3 or kg/m3.
measuring cylinder
second reading
first reading
water
pebble
68
10 Forces and motion l
69
l PHYSICS
Moments
The lever
l A force can be used to move an object so that it follows a
circular path.
l A device that changes the direction in which a force acts is
called a lever.
l A lever is composed of two arms and a fulcrum or pivot.
l The force applied to a lever to do work is called the effort.
l The force which resists the action of the effort is called
the load.
A first class lever
effort load
fulcrum
The seesaw
l The seesaw is an example of a lever as shown in
Figure 10.10.
l For the seesaw to balance and the two arms to be
horizontal, the moment of the weight on one arm must be
equal to the moment of the weight on the other.
70
10 Forces and motion l
X
direction of turn
pivot (nut)
Figure 10.11
The point X is 10 cm from the pivot (nut). He holds the spanner at point X.
He uses a force of 90 N.
Calculate the size of the moment. [2]
71
11 Energy
Energy
l The law of the conservation of energy states that energy
Tips for success cannot be made or destroyed, it can only be changed from
Remember the law of the one form to another.
conservation of energy! l Scientists describe energy as a property that something has
which allows it to exert a force or to do work.
Types of energy
l There are two kinds of energy: stored or potential energy
Tips for success (PE) and movement or kinetic energy (KE).
Make sure you can recall the l Potential energy and kinetic energy can be divided further
main types of energy. into eight more types (Figure 11.1).
72
11 Energy l
Energy transfers
l The transfer of energy can be shown by energy transfer
diagrams. The diagrams show the main transfers of energy
but it should be remembered that during any energy transfer
some energy is always lost as heat. This is not shown on
the diagrams unless it is of particular importance, such as in
providing heat from a fuel.
l The energy transfer diagram has three parts: energy input
and arrow, energy converter or transducer, energy output
and arrow
l Blowing up a balloon:
Types of
7 geothermal (RE) 3 hydro-electric (RE)
energy resources
5 solar (RE)
73
l PHYSICS
heat
heat
heat
75
l PHYSICS
Evaporation
l The particles in a liquid have different amounts of energy.
The higher the energy, the faster they move.
l The fastest moving particles near the liquid surface move so
fast that they break through the surface, separate from other
liquid particles and become a gas (Figure 11.6).
liquid surface
76
12 The Earth and beyond
March spring
autumn
northern
hemisphere
tilted towards
Sun
summer winter
Sun
June December
winter summer
southern
hemisphere
tilted away autumn
from Sun
spring September
l From Figure 12.2 you can also see that the positions of
sunrise and sunset are much further to the north in the
northern hemisphere in summer compared to winter.
Sun at midday
mid-summer
E mid-winter
S
dawn
N
sunset W
Figure 12.2 The change in the Sun’s path with the seasons in the northern hemisphere
78
12 The Earth and beyond l
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Neptune
Uranus
Jupiter
Mars
Saturn
Figure 12.3 The Solar System (not to scale), showing the relative positions of the planets around the Sun
79
l PHYSICS
80
13 Sound
low pressure
amplitude
X
amplitude
wavelength
Check your
understanding
1 Does sound travel through the 3
vacuum of space? Explain your
answer.
2 An object is set vibrating and
the sound wave it produces is
recorded on an oscilloscope, as
shown in Figure 13.3.
4
a) What has happened to the
vibrating object and the
loudness and pitch of the
sound in part 2?
b) What has happened to the
vibrating object and the Figure 13.3 Sound waves as displayed on an oscilloscope screen
loudness and pitch of the
sound in part 3? Spotlight on the test
c) What has happened to the
vibrating object and the Josh has produced a diagram of a sound wave using an oscilloscope.
loudness and pitch of the He notices that it has a large amplitude and a low frequency. Describe
sound in part 4? the sound. [1]
82
14 Light
mirror
83
l PHYSICS
Refraction
l If a light ray is shone through the air so that it strikes the
surface of a transparent material such as glass or water at
right angles (perpendicular to the surface; see ‘normal’ in
Figure 14.1 on page 83) it passes straight through.
l If the light ray travelling from a less dense material (air)
strikes the more dense materials (glass) at another angle
the light ray is ‘bent’ or refracted, as shown in Figure 14.2.
The angle of refraction is less than the angle of incidence.
normal incident ray
angle of incidence
angle of refraction
refracted ray
84
14 Light l
Colour
The dispersion of white light
A prism used to disperse light is a triangular block of glass or
plastic. If a ray of sunlight is shone through a prism at certain
angles of incidence and its path is stopped with a screen a
spectrum of light is produced (Figure 14.3).
white
light
screen
prism
red
orange
yellow
green
blue
indigo
violet
85
l PHYSICS
blue green
light light
cyan
white
magenta yellow
red
Figure 14.4 Adding colours of light light
Colour subtraction
l When white light shines on a painted surface some of the
light is absorbed and subtracted from the white light and
Tips for success some of it is reflected and seen by an observer.
Make sure you can explain colour l For example, if white light shines on yellow paint all the
subtraction in terms of reflection colours in the spectrum are absorbed except yellow. The
and absorption. other colours are subtracted from the white light, leaving
yellow to be reflected and seen by the observer.
86
15 Magnetism
87
l PHYSICS
The electromagnet
l When an electric current runs through a wire it generates a
magnetic field around it.
l An electromagnet is made by wrapping wire around an
iron bar so that the wire makes a coil.
l When an electric current passes through the coil the
Tips for success magnetic field from the coil turns the iron bar into a magnet
Make sure you can identify the that can be used to lift things up.
components of an electromagnet, l When the current is switched off the magnetic field in the
and describe how it works. coil is destroyed, the iron loses its magnetism and the object
it was lifting falls off.
88
16 Electricity
Electrostatics
The atom and electric charge
l An atom has a nucleus containing positively charged protons
surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons.
l In an atom, the number of protons and electrons is the
same so their charges cancel each other out and the atom
is neutral.
Insulators and conductors
l An insulator is a material that does not let an electric
current pass through it. If it is electrically charged (see
below) it holds onto the charge. The electric charge does not
go anywhere. It is static.
l A conductor allows a current of electricity to pass through
it. It cannot hold onto electric charges because it conducts
them away.
Charging materials
l When some materials are rubbed they can lose electrons.
This means that there are then more positive charges than
negative ones and the material becomes positively charged.
l When other materials are rubbed they can gain electrons.
This means that there are then more negative charges
present than positive ones and the material becomes
negatively charged.
The behaviour of charged materials
Tips for success l If two balloons are negatively charged, hung from threads
Make sure you are aware of how and brought close together they push each other away
electrostatics can be useful, but because like electrical charges repel each other.
also be aware of the problems it l If a positively charged material is brought near a negatively
can cause. charged balloon the balloon moves towards it because
opposite charges attract.
Induced charge
l An induced charge is one that is made in a material by a
charged material without the two materials touching.
l For example, if you rub a plastic pen with a cloth the pen
will lose electrons and become positively charged. When the
pen is held over tiny pieces of paper it induces a negative
charge in their surfaces.
l This can be checked by moving the pen very close to the
paper. The paper jumps up to the pen because opposite
charges attract.
89
l PHYSICS
Digital sensors
l Charge is stored in devices called capacitors. It is released
from the capacitor when it is switched into a circuit with a
conductor. The first capacitors had metal plates separated by
an insulator.
l Today, capacitors are tiny electronic devices which are used
in digital sensors to store electrical charge when changes
in light, pH or movement are being recorded. The stored
charges provide a record of the changes that have taken
place and can be transferred to other devices such as
screens which display information.
Sparks and lightning
If two oppositely charged surfaces are very highly charged a
spark may pass between them. An example is lightning in a
storm. Sparks can also be dangerous; a spark could cause an
explosion in fuel vapour.
Current electricity
How components affect current
Component How it affects current
cell (battery) generates current when a circuit is complete
wire conducts current and offers some resistance
lamp changes some electrical energy to light and heat, offers some
resistance to the current
switch when closed, it conducts current; when open, air (an insulator) prevents
current flow
90
16 Electricity l
1 2
2
a) b) 3
Measuring current
l The rate at which electrons flow through a wire is measured
in units called amps, with the symbol A, and is measured
using an ammeter.
l When an ammeter is placed in a circuit its positive terminal
is connected to a wire that leads towards the positive
terminal of the cell. It is always connected in series with
the component through which the current flow is to be
measured.
Division of the current in a parallel circuit
l When the current flowing in a wire reaches two wires
Tips for success with the same resistance in the parallel part of a circuit it
Make sure you can explain splits equally.
differences between series and l For example, if a current of 4 A is in the single wire each of
parallel circuits. the parallel wires carries a current of 2 A. When the wires
join to make a single wire again the current strength is
restored to 4 A.
Voltage
l The voltage is the difference in electrical potential (potential
difference) between two points in a circuit and is measured
in units called volts, with the symbol V, using a voltmeter.
l The voltmeter is connected into the circuit with its positive
(red) terminal connected to a wire that leads towards the
positive terminal of the cell. The negative (black) terminal
must be connected to a wire that leads to the negative
terminal of the cell.
l These wires must be attached into the circuit so that the
+ – voltmeter is in parallel with the part of the circuit being
V tested. In Figure 16.2 the voltmeter is measuring the voltage
across the lamp.
Figure 16.2 A voltmeter in a circuit
91
l PHYSICS
Figure 16.3
92