Cambridge Checkpoint Science Revision Guide

Peter D Riley checkp int
and Mike Cole
checkp int
Science
Revision Guide
For the Cambridge Secondary 1 Test
To David and Hazel
Answers to selected questions can be found at www.hoddereducation.com/checkpointextras

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© Peter D Riley 2013
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Contents
Introduction iv
BIOLOGY
l Chapter 1 Plants 1
l Chapter 2 Humans as organisms 8
l Chapter 3 Cells and organisms 22
l Chapter 4 Living things in their environment 27
l Chapter 5 Variation and classification 33
CHEMISTRY
l Chapter 6 States of matter 37
l Chapter 7 Material properties 39
l Chapter 8 Material changes 47
l Chapter 9 The Earth 57
PHYSICS
l Chapter 10 Forces and motion 61
l Chapter 11 Energy 72
l Chapter 12 The Earth and beyond 77
l Chapter 13 Sound 81
l Chapter 14 Light 83
l Chapter 15 Magnetism 87
l Chapter 16 Electricity 89
Introduction
Preparing for the test
You might find the following points helpful when preparing for
the Cambridge Checkpoint Science Secondary 1 Test.
l Make sure that you are familiar with the science content
that the test will cover. Use this revision guide to check
your understanding of each topic area. You can tick off each
section once you have practised it in the box provided.
l Read the Tips for success boxes for useful pointers to the
areas of understanding the test is looking to check.
l Make sure that you are familiar with the types of questions
that will be asked in the test.
l Try to get hold of some past papers, and practise working
through these in the time limits given, so that you know
what is expected.
l Spend some time practising the test-style questions
(Spotlight on the test) in this revision guide.
l Remember to look at the mark scheme so that you know
how much each answer is worth.
l Check your answers against the sample answers so that you
can see how your answers will be assessed.
General revision tips

l Find somewhere quiet to revise. Sit on a comfortable chair
at a table and have a pen or pencil and some sheets of
paper as well as this book. Plan what you will revise in your
revision session. Remember to take a break; perhaps every
20 or 30 minutes to let your mind rest.
l Just reading through the text is not always the best way
of learning. It is better to make your revision more active.
You should use a variety of active ways to make your
learning secure. Here are some of them:
l Cover a diagram or table with your hand and try to recall
what is there.
l Read through a section of text and write down each key
word (those in bold type) on a piece of paper. Close your
book and make a definition of each word or phrase.
l Read about a process and write down the words that you
think are the key words to remember. Then, make a mind
map by joining the words together with lines and writing
Questions in the Check your a sentence on each line about how and why the words are
understanding sections that test linked together.
l Continue your active revision by completing the Check
your science enquiry skills are
identified with a magnifying your understanding sections. Write your answers in the
glass icon and a book or on some paper.
l Check your revision progress by responding on paper to
green background.
each Tips for success.
iv
1 Plants
Introducing plants
The organs of a plant
A
______________________________
B
______________________________
C
______________________________
D
______________________________
Figure 1.1 The main organs of a plant
l The root holds the plant in the soil, and takes up water and
Tips for success minerals from the soil.
Remember the names and the l The stem supports the leaves and flowers, and transports
functions of each of the plant water and food through the plant.
organs. l The leaf produces food by photosynthesis (see page 3).
l The flower contains the reproductive organs (see page 6).
1
l BIOLOGY
Absorption of water and minerals

Water in the soil contains dissolved minerals (see below).
The taking up of water and the minerals dissolved in the
water is called absorption. It takes place in the root hair part
of the root.
Transport of water and minerals
l The water and minerals are drawn up the root and stem and
into the leaves in tiny tubes called xylem vessels.
l Most of the water in the leaves evaporates to form water
vapour in the spaces between the leaf cells. The water
vapour escapes into the air through holes in the leaf surface
called stomata.
l This process by which plants lose water is called
transpiration and the movement of water through the plant
is called the transpiration stream.
The importance of water to plants
l The chemical reactions of life such as respiration and
photosynthesis take place in water. Without water, plants
would die.
l A lack of water makes a plant wilt, so that the leaves are
not held up to the sunlight. Photosynthesis is reduced and
then stops.
The importance of minerals to plants
Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are three important
Tips for success minerals.
Make sure you can label the Mineral Needed for … Absence causes …
parts of a plant, and that you nitrogen leaf development yellow leaves and poor growth
know which minerals are needed phosphorus root development poor growth
for the growth of each part.
potassium flower and fruit development yellow leaves which grow abnormally
Check your understanding

1 Label A–D on Figure 1.1 on page 1.
2 Where does the absorption of water take place?
3 Where does the evaporation of water take place?
4 Draw an arrow on Figure 1.1 to show the transpiration stream. Label the
arrow.
5 Which mineral is needed for the growth of A, B and D?
Spotlight on the test

David is growing a plant on his windowsill. He notices that it has weak shoots
and roots. Give a reason for this. [1]
2
1 Plants l
Photosynthesis
Definition of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make biomass
and oxygen from water and carbon dioxide, using energy in
light that has been trapped in chlorophyll.
The stages in photosynthesis
Tips for success
Remember that photosynthesis Water, taken up by the roots Carbon dioxide in the air Some of the light from the
from the soil and transported enters the leaves through Sun enters the leaves
takes place in the chloroplasts of
by the stem to the leaves tiny holes called stomata
plant cells.
The process of photosynthesis takes place in

the leaf using the energy in sunlight that has
been trapped by chlorophyll
Carbohydrate, in the form of Oxygen is produced, which is used by

sugar, is produced the plant in respiration and released
through the stomata into the air for
other organisms to use in respiration
The sugar is converted to starch and stored in
the leaf. Later it will be reconverted to sugar and
transported to other parts of the plant to provide
energy for life processes or combined with
minerals to make plant structures and increase
the biomass of the plant
Figure 1.2 The stages in photosynthesis
The starch test

The starch test can be used in three investigations about
photosynthesis.
This is how you carry out the starch test.
1 A leaf is dipped in boiling water to soften it.
2 The leaf is then boiled in ethanol to remove the chlorophyll.
The leaf is again dipped in boiling water to soften it.
3 Iodine solution is poured over the leaf.
4 A black colour indicates the presence of starch; a brown
colour indicates the absence of starch.
A destarched plant
Photosynthesis investigations begin by destarching the plants
that will be used. A plant is destarched by putting it in a dark
place for two or three days.
Photosynthesis investigations
If a plant does not receive water, it cannot photosynthesise
and produce starch. It will eventually die. Three further
investigations can be made to study photosynthesis.
3
l BIOLOGY
1 Carbon dioxide and starch production

Two destarched plants, A and B, are placed in a sunny place
for a few hours, as shown in Figure 1.3. The leaves are then
tested for starch.
l Soda lime absorbs carbon dioxide from the air, so
destarched plant A does not make starch.
l Sodium hydrogencarbonate releases carbon dioxide into the
air, so destarched plant B can make starch.
2 Light and starch production
A destarched plant is set up as shown in Figure 1.4 and placed
in a sunny place for a few hours. Leaves 1 and 2 are then
tested for starch.
leaf 1 leaf 2
aluminium plastic
foil covering covering
plastic
bag
soda sodium
lime hydrogencarbonate
solution
plant A plant B
Figure 1.3 Investigating the effect of carbon dioxide on starch production Figure 1.4 Investigating the effect of light on
starch production
3 The effect of chlorophyll on starch production

A variegated leaf has green parts where chlorophyll is
present, and white parts where chlorophyll is absent.
A destarched plant with variegated leaves is left in a sunny
place for a few hours. The leaves are then tested for starch.

6 In Figure 1.3, which plant produces starch: A or B?
7 a) In Figure 1.4, which leaf does not produce starch?
b) Explain your answer.
8 On Figure 1.5, shade in the parts of the variegated leaf that turned black in
the starch test.
Figure 1.5 A variegated leaf
4
1 Plants l
The production of oxygen

The role of light in photosynthesis can be investigated by
setting up two samples of water plants and testing for the
production of oxygen (Figure 1.6).
gas collecting no gas

collecting
sunlight in dark
Canadian
pondweed
support to keep
funnel off bottom
Figure 1.6 The production of oxygen by water plants

Tips for success
Remember that oxygen will The water plants are left for a week and the amount of gas
relight a glowing splint, but in each test tube is observed. Only the plant placed in the
carbon dioxide will extinguish a light produces gas. The gas is tested for oxygen by plunging a
lit splint. glowing splint into the test tube. If oxygen is present the splint
relights.
The word equation for photosynthesis
How did it get to the leaf? How did it get in the leaf? What is the test to show What substance is stored? What is the test to show
that it is needed? What substance is made? that it is produced?
light
water + carbon dioxide carbohydrate + oxygen
chlorophyll
What is the test to show What is the test to show

that it is needed? that it is needed?
Figure 1.7 All about photosynthesis

9 On a sheet of paper, make a large copy of Figure 1.7 and complete the
answers to each of the questions.

Complete the word equation for photosynthesis:
carbon dioxide + _________ + light energy → _________ + oxygen [1]
5
l BIOLOGY
Plant reproduction
The flowers of a plant contain the organs of reproduction.
There are two kinds of flowers: insect-pollinated flowers and
wind-pollinated flowers.
The parts of a flower
Figure 1.8 Parts of a flower
Wind-pollinated flowers do not have scent, may not have

Tips for success petals, and their anthers and stigmas hang outside the flower.
Make sure you know the
structural differences between Pollination
wind-pollinated flowers and Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the
insect-pollinated flowers. stigma. After pollination a pollen tube grows from the stigma
down the style and into the ovary.
Fertilisation
The male gamete travels down the pollen tube to the female
gamete in an ovule. Fertilisation occurs when the male gamete
and female gamete fuse.
6
1 Plants l
After fertilisation
The ovule forms a seed and the ovary becomes a fruit.
Dispersal of fruit
Plants have ways to disperse fruit to spread out the seeds.
This allows the seeds to have enough soil, space and light in
which to grow.

10 Label Figure 1.8 on page 6.
11 Write the following stages of plant reproduction in the order in which they
occur:
A fertilisation occurs F seeds grow

B petal attracts insect G insect visits another flower and
C fruits dispersed leaves pollen on stigma
D pollen tube grows H seed and fruit form
E insect feeds on nectar in I male gamete travels down
flower and picks up pollen pollen tube

Look at the pictures below of a dandelion fruit and a maple fruit.
dandelion fruit maple fruit
Figure 1.9
a) How are they dispersed? [1]
b) Name one feature that helps them to be dispersed in this way. [1]
7
2 Humans as organisms
Parts of the body

Major organ systems
brain and spinal cord
_________________
heart
_________________
lungs
_________________
stomach and intestine
_________________
kidneys and bladder
_________________
Figure 2.1 The major organs of the body
The organs of the body perform a range of tasks to keep the

Tips for success body alive.
Make sure you know which l The nervous system uses messages from the sensory
organs make up each of the organs and sends messages to the muscles to coordinate the
major organ systems. activities of the body.
l The digestive system breaks down food so that the energy
and materials it contains can be used by the body.
l The respiratory system takes in oxygen from the air and
releases carbon dioxide.
l The excretory system removes poisonous liquid wastes.
The skeleton
The skeleton has three functions.
l Protection: the skull protects the brain; the vertebrae, which
form the backbone, protect the spinal column; the backbone
and ribs protect the heart and lungs.
l Support: the bones provide a strong structure which holds
the organs up so they do not squash one another.
8
2 Humans as organisms l
l Movement: the place where two bones meet is called a joint.

Many joints allow movement. Hinge joints (for example,
elbow) allow backwards and forwards movement. Ball and
socket joints (for example, hip and shoulder) allow side-to-
side movement, too.
At a movable joint you find:
l ligaments, which hold the bones together
l cartilage, which protects the ends of bones from wear
l synovial fluid, which reduces friction as the bones move.
Antagonistic muscles
l A muscle can move. It contracts (gets shorter) when it
moves. A muscle cannot make itself longer again. It needs
another muscle to pull it back to its original length.
l Many muscles are arranged in pairs so that when one
Tips for success muscle contracts it makes the other muscle in the pair relax
Remember how antagonistic and lengthen. The action of one muscle is antagonistic or
muscles operate. opposite to the other. Muscles arranged like this are called
an antagonistic muscle pair.
biceps
triceps
X Y
Figure 2.2 Antagonistic muscles

1 On Figure 2.1 on page 8 write the name of the system to which each organ
belongs.
2 Look at Figure 2.2 above.
a) Which muscle is i) contracted, ii) relaxed?
b) Draw an arrow on the diagram to show the way the lower arm moves
when the muscles swap their actions.
c) What coats the end of bone X to protect it from wear?
d) What holds bones X and Y together?

Which antagonistic pair of muscles controls the elbow joint in humans? [1]
9
l BIOLOGY
Diet and nutrition

Nutrients
l A nutrient is a chemical which is needed by the body to
keep it in good health.
Nutrient Function Foods rich in the nutrient
protein growth and repair of body tissues meat, beans, lentils, milk,
cheese
fats provide energy that is stored in the body cheese, butter, peanuts
carbohydrates provide energy which can be used quickly bread, rice, pasta
vitamins wide range of functions in keeping the fruit, vegetables
body healthy
minerals wide range of functions in keeping the fruit, vegetables
body healthy (for example, iron needed for
blood to carry oxygen) and maintaining its
structure (for example, calcium needed for
bones and teeth)
l The body needs water as all the chemical reactions of life

processes in the cells take place in water.
l The body needs fibre too. Fibre gives bulk to the food so
that the alimentary canal can push it along more easily and
make digestion more efficient.
Deficiency diseases
A deficiency disease is a disease caused by the lack of a
nutrient in the diet.
Deficiency disease Lack of nutrient Foods for prevention of disease
night blindness – vitamin A milk, liver, carrot
cannot see in dark
beriberi vitamin B bread, milk, brown rice, soya bean
scurvy vitamin C blackcurrant, orange, lemon, papaya,
guava
rickets vitamin D egg yolk, butter, pilchards
Tips for success anaemia iron meat, eggs, lentils
Make sure you can name the
main types of nutrients required
for a healthy diet, and explain
A balanced diet
their functions. A balanced diet is one in which all the nutrients are present
in the correct amounts to keep the body healthy.
10
Figure 2.3 Pyramid of food showing the

amounts of different foods that can provide Christiaan Eijkman and beriberi
a balanced diet l Eijkman tried to find out the cause of beriberi. His study of
other scientists’ research showed that microorganisms cause
a range of diseases. He predicted that microorganisms also
caused beriberi. However, his investigations did not show this.
l Eijkman observed chickens that showed signs of beriberi.
He discovered that their diet had been changed from chicken
feed to polished rice. His patients also ate polished rice. When
he fed the chickens on chicken feed again they recovered.
l Later work by others showed that rice has a skin containing
vitamin B. Polished rice has this skin removed, so the
patients were getting a diet deficient in vitamin B and this
deficiency caused their disease.

3 What nutrient would be lacking from the diet of a person who did not grow well?
4 What nutrient would you expect to find in excess in the diet of an obese person?
5 Look at Figure 2.3.
a) What foods can you eat in large amounts?
b) What foods should you eat in very small amounts?
6 What previous knowledge did Eijkman use for his first investigations?
7 What evidence did Eijkman collect from first-hand experience?
8 What scientific knowledge and understanding was later used to
explain Eijkman’s results?

Emma is a body builder and is training hard to develop larger and stronger
muscles. Which type of nutrient is particularly important in muscle growth? [1]
11
l BIOLOGY
Digestion
Tips for success The digestive system
Make sure you can describe the
main structures and function of
the digestive system.
A
_________________
B
_________________
D C
_________________ _________________
E
_________________
G
_________________
F
_________________
I
H _________________
_________________
J
_________________
Figure 2.4 The digestive system is made

up of the alimentary canal, the liver and the
pancreas
Breaking down food
l Food is broken down physically by the action of the teeth
and enzymes.
l Food is broken down chemically by the action of enzymes.
They act as catalysts and speed up the break down of large
molecules in food into smaller ones which can then be
absorbed by the body.
Tips for success
Remember that enzymes have a Food group Small molecules produced
very important role in breaking protein amino acids
down larger molecules into fats fatty acids and glycerol
smaller ones. carbohydrates simple sugars
12
Studying the stomach

A doctor called William Beaumont treated a man who had
been accidentally shot. The man survived but a hole that
did not heal was left in his stomach. The patient allowed
Dr Beaumont to place food directly into his stomach through
the hole and then observe what happened to it. He found that
cooked meat broke down faster then uncooked meat.

9 Match each type of tooth to its function.
biting grinding tearing
Tooth Function
incisor
canine
molar
10 On Figure 2.4 on page 12, label the organs A–J.

11 Next to each of your labels on Figure 2.4 write:
a) where water is reabsorbed
b) where acid kills bacteria and pepsin starts protein digestion
c) where undigested food is stored
d) where food is absorbed
e) where bile is made
f) where enzymes for digesting proteins, fats and carbohydrates are made.
12 Did Beaumont use first-hand experience or secondary sources in

his investigation?
13 What conclusion about the digestion of meat do you think Beaumont made?

Complete the following sentences:
1 Proteins are broken down by enzymes into _________________. [1]
2 Fats are broken down by enzymes into __________________. [1]
13
l BIOLOGY
The circulatory system

The basic parts of the circulatory system
Figure 2.5 A simple diagram of the circulatory system

l The heart pumps the blood around the body.
l Blood is carried away from the heart in arteries. Arteries
have thick elastic walls to stand up to the high pressure of
the blood as it leaves the heart.
l In the body tissues, the arteries divide into tiny blood
vessels called capillaries. Exchange of materials between the
blood and the tissue cells takes place in the capillaries.
l The blood moves back towards the heart in veins.
Veins have thinner walls as the blood pressure is lower.
Veins have valves to prevent the blood flowing backwards.
Components of blood
Component Function
red blood cells (biconcave disc, no contain haemoglobin which carries oxygen from
nucleus) the lungs to the tissues
white blood cells (irregular shape, has kill bacteria which cause disease
a nucleus)
platelets (fragments of cells) help blood to clot at the site of a wound
plasma (yellow watery liquid), makes carries digested food and waste products such
up about 55% of the blood as carbon dioxide and urea
The action of the heart

Tips for success l A simple diagram of the heart is shown in Figure 2.5.
Make sure you can describe l Blood enters the two atria (plural of atrium) at the same
and explain the differences in time. The walls of the atria push the blood through the
structure between arteries and valves into the ventricles.
veins. l The valves close and stop the blood flowing backwards. The
walls of the two ventricles push the blood out of the heart.
14
The pulse
l As the heart pumps the blood, it makes the blood surge
through the blood vessels leaving the heart and causes their
walls to stretch and shrink.
l This change in the blood vessel walls can be detected as a
throbbing sensation called the pulse. The rate of throbbing
of the pulse matches the rate of beating of the heart.
Harvey and the heart
William Harvey was taught by a professor who had discovered
that veins had valves in them. When Harvey became a doctor,
the professor’s discovery gave him an idea for an investigation.
He thought the valve would only let blood go one way.
He tied a cord around a vein and saw that the blood did not
flow ‘backwards’ through the valve. It could only go one way.

14 Look at Figure 2.5 on page 14.
a) Draw arrows to show the movement of blood around the circulatory
system.
b) Colour the blood vessels and the side of the heart which transports
oxygenated blood in red. Colour the blood vessels and the side of the
heart which transports deoxygenated blood in blue.
c) Label the blood vessels: A for artery and V for vein. Label where the
capillaries are found with C.
15 Did Harvey use first-hand experience or secondary sources for his

idea for an investigation?
16 Predict what Harvey saw when he tied off an artery – did the blood flow
back to the heart or did it stay in the artery and cause it to swell up?

Abi runs a 100 metre race.
a) Predict what is likely to happen to her pulse rate. [1]
b) Explain why you made your prediction. [1]
15
l BIOLOGY
The respiratory system

The function of the respiratory system is to exchange oxygen
and carbon dioxide at a rate which meets the needs of the
body whether it is active or at rest.
A
_________________________
B D
_________________________ _________________________
C E
_________________________ _________________________
F
_________________________
Figure 2.6 The respiratory system
Components of the respiratory system

Component Features and functions
nose hairs filter dust; mucus traps bacteria and moistens air
for lungs; blood vessels in the lining warm air for lungs
windpipe (trachea) cartilage rings hold airway open all the time; ciliated
cells move dust and bacteria trapped in mucus to top of
windpipe for swallowing
lung organ where gaseous exchange takes place; has three
components
bronchus tube to each lung with same features as the windpipe
bronchioles tubes 1 mm in diameter with muscles in walls carry air
to alveoli
alveoli (singular alveolus) tiny bubble-like structures with very thin walls, one
cell thick, which form a huge surface through which
gaseous exchange takes place
chest wall ribs and muscles; ribs rise to increase chest volume and
Tips for success draw air in, ribs lower to decrease chest volume and
Make sure you can explain why push air out
the process of respiration is so diaphragm sheet of muscle at base of chest; contracts and lowers
to increase chest volume and draw air in, relaxes and
vital.
rises to decrease chest volume and push air out
16
Gaseous exchange
l The alveoli form the respiratory surface through which
gaseous exchange takes place.
l Oxygen from the inhaled air dissolves in the moist covering
of the alveolar wall, then diffuses through the wall into the
capillary next to it and is taken up by haemoglobin in the
red cells to form oxyhaemoglobin.
l Carbon dioxide dissolved in the plasma diffuses from the
capillary through the alveolar wall, then escapes as a gas
into the lung air and is exhaled.
Aerobic respiration
In aerobic respiration, energy is released from food with
the use of oxygen. Aerobic respiration takes place in the
body cells. The word equation for this reaction is shown in
Figure 2.7.
glucose + oxygen energy released + carbon dioxide + water
How does it reach cell How does it reach cell What is energy used How does it leave the How is excess water
from food? from the air? for? body? removed from the body?
Figure 2.7 Aerobic respiration

17 On Figure 2.6 on page 16, label the parts of the diagram A–F.
18 What two things happen for:
a) air to be drawn into the lungs?
b) air to be pushed out of the lungs?
19 On a sheet of paper make a large copy of Figure 2.7. Complete the answers
to each question.

Complete the word equation for respiration.
_________ + oxygen → _________ + water (+ energy) [1]
17
l BIOLOGY
Human reproduction
l Humans become capable of reproducing when they have
gone through the period of physical changes called puberty
during adolescence.
l Adolescence is the time from the beginning of puberty
to the end of the emotional changes, after which a person
becomes an adult.
Physical changes at puberty
Physical changes are brought about by the action of the growth
hormones and sex hormones.
l Males: growth of hair on face, in the armpits and in the
pubic region; broadening of shoulders; growth of penis and
testicles; deepening of voice.
l Females: growth of hair on face, in the armpits and in pubic
region; development of breasts; growth of vagina and uterus;
widening of pelvis.
Emotional changes at adolescence
l Both sexes have emotional changes due to their physical
changes and a desire to be more independent.
l Anxiety can arise due to: the variation between people in
the rate and timing of the physical changes; variations in
the ways different families allow independence; increasing
interest in the opposite sex due to the action of sex
hormones; fear of losing friends due to peer pressure in
which others encourage a person to follow their ways.
The reproductive systems
Reproductive system – organs Features and function
testis (two testicles)  contained in a sac called the scrotum to keep them
cool for sperm production
glands along tube to the outside, glands produce fluid which mixes with sperm to
called the urethra  form semen
penis  delivers semen into vagina
ovary (two ovaries)  in the lower torso, produce eggs
oviduct  one next to each ovary, contains ciliated cells which
move egg along the oviduct
uterus  connected to each oviduct; place where foetus
develops
vagina  receives penis and semen
The menstrual cycle

l The wall of the uterus thickens every month in case a
fertilised egg is received.
l If no fertilised egg is received, the wall breaks down,
causing bleeding from the vagina.
18
Fertilisation
l The head of the sperm cell contains the nucleus, which is the
male gamete. The nucleus of the egg is the female gamete.
l Sperm swim from the vagina through the uterus into the
oviducts. If an egg is present in an oviduct the head of a
sperm breaks off and enters the egg.
l Fertilisation occurs when the male and female gametes join
together and form a cell called the zygote.
Foetal development
l The zygote divides to form a ball of cells, which implants in
Tips for success the uterus wall. The cells on the surface of the zygote form
Remember that the outer layer the placenta. The placenta is the organ which takes food
of cells of the zygote develops and oxygen to the foetus from the mother’s blood and takes
to form the placenta, and the wastes such as carbon dioxide from the foetus back to the
inner layer of cells develops into mother’s blood.
the foetus. l The placenta produces hormones which stop the ovaries
producing more eggs and stop the uterus wall breaking
down. Inside the ball of cells the foetus forms and grows.
l The foetus is connected to the placenta by the umbilical
cord and is surrounded by a bag called the amnion,
which is filled with a watery liquid called amniotic fluid.
The amniotic fluid prevents the foetus from being squashed
and allows the foetus to float freely and have space for its
Spotlight on limbs to develop.
the test
What is the name of the organ that
brings oxygen and nutrients from 20 Use these words to label Figure 2.8.
the mother to the foetus, and at the
vagina placenta uterus wall umbilical cord amniotic fluid
same time removes waste products
and carbon dioxide? [1] 21 How do the hormones produced by the placenta help the foetus to survive?
A
_____________________
B
_____________________
C
_____________________
D
___________________
E
_____________________
Figure 2.8 The foetus in the uterus
19
l BIOLOGY
Health
Conception and pregnancy, growth and development,
behaviour and health are all affected by diet, drugs
and disease.
Tips for success Conception and pregnancy

Make sure you are able to explain
how drugs, alcohol and STDs can
affect conception and pregnancy.
Figure 2.9 Sperm cells, an egg and a foetus
l A diet that is lacking nutrients and is unbalanced can reduce

sperm production, stop the menstrual cycle and slow foetal
growth, producing smaller babies.
l Alcohol reduces sperm production, smoking tobacco reduces
the efficiency of the ovaries, while other non-medical drugs
such as cannabis can cause abnormal sperm and stop the
menstrual cycle. Alcohol causes nerve damage in the foetus.
Smoking tobacco slows foetal growth. Non-medical drugs
slow foetal growth, reduce resistance to disease and can
make the baby addicted to the drugs.
l Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) can make females
infertile and, in males, can reduce the action of sperm and
reduce the chance of fertilisation.
l Tuberculosis (TB) can block tubes carrying sperm in
males and can make females infertile. TB can kill a foetus.
Malaria slows the growth of the foetus and can kill it.
Rubella can cause nerve and heart damage in the foetus,
leading to blindness and deafness in babies. STDs can cause
blindness, deafness and liver damage in babies.
Figure 2.10 A family unit
20
Growth and development

l Lack of nutrients can cause poor growth and marasmus
in babies and kwashiorkor in young children. Diets rich
in fats and sugars can cause obesity. A balanced diet and a
healthy lifestyle with plenty of exercise help to reduce the
risk of obesity and develop strong muscles, bones and joints.
l Children may die from sniffing glue.
l A mother suffering from HIV may pass it on to her baby.
l Young people suffering from diseases may grow more slowly
or stop growing. Malaria can cause nerve damage which can
be fatal.
Behaviour
l A lack of food may produce tiredness. Obese people may
have low self-confidence, feel depressed and sleep badly.
Hyperactivity may be due to certain food additives.
l Alcohol slows actions, makes movements uncoordinated,
and induces sleep or unconsciousness, during which a
person may be sick and suffocate in their vomit. Non-
medical drugs can cause hallucinations and mental illness.
l Disease causes tiredness and pain. AIDS sufferers may
think more slowly, develop a poor memory and have
Figure 2.11 Happy or sad? uncoordinated movements.
Health
l If a nutrient in a person’s diet is missing then a deficiency
disease (see page 10) may develop. A fatty diet may
increase the level of cholesterol in the blood and cause
circulatory problems.
l Over time, drinking large amounts of alcohol can lead to
hepatitis and cirrhosis of the liver. Non-medical drugs can
cause brain and heart damage. Smoking tobacco can cause
chronic bronchitis and lung cancer.
l Tuberculosis may damage bones, kidneys and the brain.
AIDS may weaken bones, and cause kidney and heart
disease. Malaria may cause brain, kidney and lung
Figure 2.12 Healthy damage.

22 How may alcohol adversely affect a person’s life from the foetal stage to
becoming an adult?
23 How may a lack of nutrients in the diet affect different stages of life?
Tips for success
You will be expected to know Spotlight on the test
about the factors that can affect
human health. Name two diseases caused by smoking. [2]
21
3 Cells and organisms
Life processes
There are seven characteristics of life that an organism must
show at some stage to be described as living.
Characteristic Life processes
nutrition
respiration
movement
growth
excretion
reproduction
irritability

1 Complete the table of characteristics of life with the following life processes:
getting rid of wastes taking in or making food

changing position having young increasing in size
sensing changes around them releasing energy from food
Plants and life processes

l Plants make their own food in their leaves by photosynthesis
in the daytime (see pages 3–4).
l Plants change position or move as they grow (for example,
a climbing bean plant). They are sensitive to features in the
environment such as light and will grow towards them.
l Wastes are stored in their leaves and released from the plant
when the leaves fall (for example, deciduous trees). Some
fully grown plants produce flowers once and die, while
others such as trees continue to grow and reproduce for
years. Plants respire both day and night.
Animals and life processes
l Animals take in food from plants or other animals. They
respire all the time, are sensitive to their surroundings and
often respond by moving.
l They grow into adults and reproduce once in their lifetime
(for example, insects) or may reproduce regularly over
a number of years until near the end of their lives (for
example, mammals). Most animals excrete periodically
during a day.
22
3 Cells and organisms l
Microorganisms
A microorganism is an organism made from a body with only
one cell. Microorganisms are important in many ways.
l Decomposition: as bacteria and fungi break down the dead
bodies of once living things they release minerals into the
soil for plants to use.
l Food production: yeast (a fungus) is used to make bread;
bacteria are used to make yoghurt and vinegar.
l Disease: some bacteria cause typhoid, cholera and tuberculosis.
Some Protista cause malaria and sleeping sickness. Viruses
cause diseases such as measles and chicken pox.
Louis Pasteur and microorganisms
swan-necked
flask
broth did not

go bad
sterile broth
at the start
Figure 3.1 Swan-necked flask and broth
l Before scientist Louis Pasteur began his work, people used

to believe that living things developed from non-living things
to make food go bad.
l Pasteur put some boiled broth in a swan-necked flask and
found it did not go bad. When he tipped the broth into
Tips for success the bend or broke open the flask the broth went bad. He
Remember that microorganisms reasoned that microorganisms in the air had settled in the
can cause disease, but they neck of the flask and had not managed to reach the broth.
can also be very helpful and l Pasteur developed ‘pasteurisation’, a process of stopping
important! liquids from going bad quickly, and discovered that
microorganisms caused disease.

2 Draw a table with these headings and use it to compare the life processes
of plants and animals.
Characteristic Life process in plants Life process in animals
3 Look at Figure 3.1. Where did the microorganisms settle in the flask?
4 What previous knowledge might have made Pasteur think that

boiled broth would not contain living things?

Which of the following is not a type of microbe? [1]
bacteria fungi malaria Protista virus
23
l BIOLOGY
From cells to organisms

The cell is the basic unit or building block of life. Organisms
are made from a large group of cells.
The basic parts of an animal cell
A
____________
B
____________
C
____________
Figure 3.2 A typical animal cell

l A cell has a control centre called the nucleus.
l A watery jelly called cytoplasm surrounds the nucleus and
is the place where most life processes take place.
l The cell membrane is a thin sheet of material which
surrounds the cytoplasm. It lets food and oxygen pass in
and carbon dioxide pass out. It can prevent some harmful
substances entering the cell.
The parts of a plant cell
A C
___________ ___________
___________ ___________
F ____________
B D
___________ ____________ ___________
___________ E ____________ ___________
____________
Figure 3.3 A typical plant cell

l A plant cell has the basic parts shown in Figure 3.2, but has
some extra features, as Figure 3.3 shows.
l The cell wall is made from cellulose, a tough material
which supports the cell.
l The chloroplasts in the cytoplasm contain chlorophyll
which traps energy from sunlight for photosynthesis.
l The vacuole contains cell sap which contains sugars, salts
and water. The water provides further support to the cell.
24
3 Cells and organisms l
Structure and function of common cells

Cell and its structure Function
muscle cell: spindle shaped, capable of if muscle cells are arranged in layers at
movement right angles they can move food in the
oesophagus, stomach and intestine
nerve cell: cell body with a long fibre electrical signals pass along the fibre,
generating messages for the brain and
muscles
ciliated epithelium cells: have a surface cells line the windpipe and the cilia move
covered with tiny moving hairs called cilia dust-filled mucus away from the lungs
root hair cell: cell with long thin probing cells form near the root tip to take up water
extension into the soil from the soil
Three common cell types
Tips for success

nucleus
Make sure you are able cell wall
to recognise and explain
cell membrane
the functions of a range of
specialised cells. cytoplasm
vacuole
Figure 3.4
cilia
cell body
cytoplasm
nucleus
cell membrane
nucleus
nerve fibre Figure 3.6

5 Label A–C in Figure 3.2 on page 24.
6 Label A–F in Figure 3.3 on page 24.
Figure 3.5 7 Identify the cells in Figures 3.4–3.6 by giving each diagram a title.
25
l BIOLOGY
Cells, tissues, organs and organisms

l Cells of one type are arranged into groups called tissues.
The tissue performs a task in the life of the organism.
A tissue of ciliated epithelium cells, called the ciliated
epithelium, moves dust away from the lungs.
l Groups of tissues join together to form an organ.
The stomach has tissues of smooth muscle cells, tissues
of mucus-secreting cells and cells that secrete enzymes
for the digestion of protein in food.
l Groups of organs which perform a particular task form a
system. The stomach is joined to the small intestine and
other organs to form the digestive system.
l A group of organ systems which together perform all the life
processes form an organism.

Look at the cell in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7
a) Name the cell. [1]
b) Name one special feature of this cell. [1]
26
Living things in their
4 environment
Adapting to habitats
l A habitat is the place where a plant or an animal lives.
l Each habitat has special conditions and the plants and
animals that live there are especially suited or adapted to
live in those conditions.
Habitat and conditions Adaptations of plants Adaptations of animals
rainforest: hot and humid, trees have their main leafy branches at the top monkeys are adapted to balancing on branches, jumping
sunlit top, dark on floor of the trunk to receive light; plants on the floor and climbing to find food in the tree tops; frogs have
can make food with low light or grow up the suckers on their feet for tree climbing
sides of trees to take them into brighter light
desert: hot in day, cold plants such as a cactus have thick waxy skins many animals make or find burrows to hide from the heat
at night, short period to prevent water loss and long roots to find and cold; they conserve water in their bodies by releasing
of rainfall onto well- water deep in soil; some plants grow flowers small amounts of urine; their mouth parts are adapted for
drained soil and set seed quickly after rain, then survive as feeding on tough plants; camels have wide feet to prevent
seeds in dry periods them sinking in the sand
river plants take in carbon dioxide dissolved in water; fish take in oxygen dissolved in water through their gills;
also take in minerals dissolved in water through have streamlined shape for moving through a much
stem and leaves; roots for holding plant in mud; denser substance than air; insects have flatter bodies
weak floppy stems as water supports the plant so water flows more easily over them as they grip rocks;
leeches have suckers to hold on in currents
Tips for success Adaptations to changes in habitats

The conditions in habitats change daily and seasonally, and
Make sure you can describe a
living things are adapted to these changes.
range of adaptations of plants
l Daily changes: most flowers open in daytime to attract insects
and animals to various habitats.
for pollination, and close at night for protection from the
cold or nocturnal feeders. Some flowers open and produce
scent at night to attract moths for pollination. Most birds
have eyes that can only see well in daylight. Owls can see
well in the dark. Bats use echolocation to find food at night.
l Seasonal changes: many trees shed leaves in autumn or in
the dry season to prevent them losing water when frozen
ground or lack of rain reduces water for the roots. Many
animals such as deer grow thicker coats in winter to keep
warm. Some animals hibernate.
Studying habitats
l Plants: mapping a small area is done using a quadrat; finding
how plant spacies change down a hillside or from the edge
of a wood to the middle is done using a line transect.
l Animals: a Tullgren funnel is used to collect animals from
soil and leaf litter; pitfall traps are used to catch small
animals moving along the ground; a sheet, beater and pooter
are used to collect small animals on branches; a sweep net
is used to collect small animals from tall grass.
27
l BIOLOGY
A
B
cloth cover
Figure 4.1

1 Make a table using the headings below to show how the plants and animals
in the countryside or a city park near you change during the year, season by
season.
Season Plants Animals
2 Give the apparatus in Figure 4.1 a title. Annotate the diagram to explain how
it works.

Hedgehogs hibernate during winter months. Give one reason why they
do this. [1]
Food, energy and populations

Food, the energy food contains and populations of living
things are all linked together through feeding.
The food chain and energy flow
l A food chain shows the path of food and the energy
it contains through a series of organisms as one feeds
on another.
l The energy of almost all food chains comes from the
Sun, so it is usually omitted from the food chain diagram.
The diagram usually begins with the organism that
converts the energy in sunlight into the food – a plant.
l Figure 4.2 shows a food chain and the ecological words that
are linked to each organism in it. Note that animals that feed
on both plants and animals are called omnivores.
28
4 Living things in their environment l
Tips for success plant grasshopper frog

Make sure you are aware of
the meanings of these terms:
producer, herbivore, carnivore,
consumer and omnivore. producer primary consumer secondary consumer
herbivore carnivore
prey predator
Figure 4.2 A food chain and its terms
The food web and energy flow

The food chains in a habitat link together to form a food
web. A food web in a forest habitat is shown in Figure 4.3.
hawk owl wolf
mouse rabbit deer shrew
grass shrubs trees caterpillar
Figure 4.3 A food web in a forest habitat
The role of decomposers

l When a plant or an animal dies its body is broken down
by decomposers.
l Decomposers may be animals, such as insects and worms,
and microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi.
l Decomposers feed on dead material until all that remains
are the minerals that settle into the soil to be used by plants
which take part in new food chains. Their feeding process
allows the minerals to be recycled.
29
l BIOLOGY
Tips for success Factors affecting population size

l The population of a species in a habitat is the number of
Make sure you are aware of
individuals of that species which are present.
the factors that can affect the
l The two major factors which affect population size are the
birth rate and death rate of
birth rate (the number of individuals that are added to the
a population.
population each year) and the death rate (the number of
individuals that leave the population each year).
l If the birth rate is greater than the death rate, the population
will increase. If the birth rate is less than the death rate, the
population will decrease.
l If a species has plenty of food and good weather for raising
young, its birth rate will increase. A lack of food and poor
weather can reduce birth rates.
l If a species is attacked by a large number of predators or if
its habitat is destroyed, its death rate will increase.

3 Snakes eat frogs.
a) Make a copy of the food chain in Figure 4.2 on page 29 and add a
snake to it.
b) Which way did you draw the arrow? What does the arrow represent?
c) What further information can you give about the snake? Is it a producer
or consumer, carnivore or herbivore, prey or predator?
d) What extra information can you now provide about the frog?
e) If the population of grasshoppers was infected with a fatal disease, how
would the population of frogs be affected? Explain your answer.
4 Look at the food web in Figure 4.3 on page 29. Imagine that the amount of
grass increased.
a) How would this affect the populations of mice and rabbits?
Explain your answer.
b) How would the populations of the hawk and the owl change?

Look at the food chain below.
grass → rabbit → fox
Use the following words to describe each of the species:
carnivore herbivore producer
a) Grass is a ___________.
b) The rabbit is a ___________.
c) The fox is a ___________. [1]
30
4 Living things in their environment l
Humans in the environment

Once humans left their hunter-gathering ways and began
farming and building towns, they affected their surroundings
in many negative ways. In recent years they have come to
affect the environment in some positive ways but there is
still much to do to keep the Earth a habitable place for living
things, including ourselves.
The positive and negative influences of
humans
Positive influences of humans Negative influences of humans
Energy Using renewable energy: wind, water Using fossil fuels causes an increase
and solar sources in carbon dioxide in the air and may
increase global warming
Introducing energy-saving schemes
such as switching off lights when not Soot, smog and acid rain are
in use produced
Using methane from wastes as a fuel
Pollution Reducing carbon dioxide emissions As above
by using catalytic converters
Use of CFCs damages the ozone
Reducing the use of CFCs layer; wastes from factories,
excessive use of fertilisers and
Limiting the use of pesticides and
pesticides in farming causes water
fertilisers
pollution
Recycling to reduce the need for
Oil spillages pollute seas
landfill sites
Materials Recycling to reduce the need to Mining can destroy habitats
extract more from the Earth and to
conserve for the future
Habitats Creating national parks for wildlife Towns, cities and farms destroy
prevents habitat destruction habitats
Energy sources
There are two types of energy sources: renewable and
non-renewable.
Non-renewable resources
l Fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas (methane). These have
many negative influences (see Energy on pages 72–76).
l Nuclear fuel: radioactive materials such as uranium.
A positive feature is that it does not produce carbon dioxide,
so has no link with the possible risk of global warming.
A negative feature is that a leak of radioactive material from
a power station or from stored waste can cause widespread
environmental damage.
31
l BIOLOGY
Renewable resources
l Fuel wood: must be harvested in such a way that woodlands
can grow back.
l Solar energy: solar panels trap heat from the Sun’s rays; solar
cells convert light energy into electrical energy.
l Wave energy: energy in the up and down motion of waves is
converted into electrical energy.
Tips for success l Hydro-electric power station: energy in moving water
Make sure you can explain why released from a dam is converted into electrical energy.
sources of energy are described A negative feature is habitat destruction to create the water
as either ‘renewable’ or reservoir for the power station.
‘non-renewable’, and can list l Wind energy: movement of air turns turbines and is
some examples of each. converted to electrical energy. A negative feature is that the
blades can kill birds.

5 After reading about the positive and negative influences of humans on the
environment, draw a set of weighing scales and show how you think the
balance should look.
6 How does the building of a city affect the environment?

Explain why it is important to limit the use of fertilisers in farming. [1]
32
Variation and
5 classification
Groups, species and keys
Living things are grouped or classified according to the
features they possess. In this classification system the two
major groups are the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom.
Major groups of plants and animals
l The plant kingdom is divided into five large subgroups.
l The animal kingdom is divided into animals without an
internal skeleton and backbone (invertebrates) and animals
with an internal skeleton and backbone (vertebrates).
Plant kingdom
algae mosses and liverwort ferns conifers flowering plants
Animal kingdom
invertebrates vertebrates
jellyfish annelid arthropods echinoderm fish amphibians reptiles birds mammals

worms
flatworm nematode molluscs

worms
Figure 5.1 Major groups of the plant and animal kingdoms
l The members of each major group have one or more

Tips for success features in common. For example, jellyfish have soft jelly-like
Make sure you can name the bodies and arthropods have a hard skeleton on the outside
major groups of plants and of their bodies.
animals. l The major groups are also divided into groups. The
arthropod group, for example, is divided into the insect
group, spider group (arachnids), crab and lobster group
(crustaceans) and centipede and millipede group. Members
of each group share a major feature, for example all insects
have six legs.
33
l BIOLOGY
Species
The kingdom is the largest group in the classification system
and the species is the smallest group. All the living things in a
species have a large number of similarities and the males and
females of the same species can breed new individuals. Males
and females of most species cannot breed with the males and
females of other species.
Keys
A key is a series of statements that can be used with
Tips for success observations on a living thing to help to identify it.
Practise using keys to identify The statements may be set out in a spider key, where you read
plants and animals. from the top centre and move down the statements on the
‘legs’ until the organism is identified.
Pond animal
Animal does not

Animal has legs
have legs
Animal has Animal has Animal has Animal does not have
six legs eight legs suckers suckers
water beetle water mite leech

Animal does not have
Animal has a shell
a shell
water snail tubifex worm
Figure 5.2 A spider key

1 Is an insect a vertebrate? Explain your answer.
2 Is a kingdom in a species or a species in a kingdom?
3 Make a key about three animals from these statements and names:
no legs wings butterfly no wings snake legs

two wings monkey four wings

Give a reason why the classification system of plants and animals is
so important. [1]
34
5 Variation and classification l
Inheritance
An inheritance is something which you receive from another
person. In science, inheritance means receiving features, also
called characteristics, from parents.
Genetic material
l The nucleus of a cell contains threads called
chromosomes on which are zones called genes. Genes are
made up from DNA.
l The DNA in a gene carries an instruction for the body
to make a particular characteristic such as brown eyes or
black hair.
l Chromosomes are arranged in pairs in the nucleus so
there is also a pair of genes for each characteristic. When
gametes, such as those in eggs and sperm, are produced,
they receive just one of each pair of chromosomes.
l When the gametes fuse in fertilisation the zygote receives
one half of its chromosomes from each parent, and so has
pairs of chromosomes made up of one from the mother and
one from the father.
l The two genes from the two parents may have different
instructions for certain characteristics. The way the pair of
genes pass on their instructions produces an individual that
varies in some ways from both parents.
➯ ➯ ➯ ➯
A B C D
Figure 5.3 Genetic material
Selective breeding
l The individuals in a species vary due to the way they inherit
their genes. Selective breeding is used to produce varieties in
a species which have particular useful features.
l For example, a crop plant species may have some
Tips for success individuals which produce larger grains than others. These
Make sure you are able to are then bred together so that they produce a variety with
identify a number of ‘selected’ even larger grains. The new variety may have a stalk that
features in a variety of is too weak to hold the larger head of grain, so a strong-
domesticated plants and animals. stalked variety is brought into the breeding programme to
make a plant with large grains and a strong stalk.
35
l BIOLOGY
Charles Darwin
l Charles Darwin travelled on a survey ship called HMS
Beagle that was making a world tour. He studied the bodies
of the living things he saw and then tried to explain how
their features varied.
l In the Galapagos Islands, Darwin found finches with
different shaped beaks, each adapted to a particular food
such as insects or seeds. He explained these observations by
setting out a theory called natural selection.
l Using this theory Darwin explained that all the finches may
have developed or evolved from an earlier finch. Some had
slightly pointed beaks, which were adapted to feeding on
insects, while others had slightly blunt beaks, which were
adapted to feeding on seeds. Over time, the birds with the
pointier or blunter beaks survived better than the others
and left more offspring with their characteristics. After many
generations two new species would have formed.
Figure 5.4 Charles Darwin (1809–82)
commemorated in this statue
Figure 5.5 A domestic sheep Figure 5.6 A wild sheep
Spotlight on Check your understanding

the test 4 a) Label the parts of Figure 5.3 on page 35.
Look at the pictures above of b) Draw a pair of chromosomes and genes in the fertilised cell and give it a
the domesticated sheep used title.
in modern farming and the wild 5 What kind of features would you use to selectively breed a plant to grow and
sheep. Suggest one feature that produce a crop in an area with periods of dry weather?
has been selected for the modern
6 Which of the following features of scientific enquiry do you think
domesticated sheep. [1]
Darwin used in developing his theory? Circle your answers.
made experiments over a long time

used creative thought
used a wide range of apparatus including thermometers and
measuring cylinders
made careful observations
used first-hand experience
36
6 States of matter
Particle theory
l The particle theory states that materials are made from
particles that are so tiny they cannot be seen with the
naked eye.
l These particles are atoms and molecules.
Particles in solids, liquids and gases

l The particles in solids are held together by strong forces.
The particles cannot change position and this gives solids a
fixed shape and a definite volume, and makes them hard to
squash. The particles, however, can vibrate a little in their
fixed positions.
l The particles in liquids are held together by weaker forces,
so they can slide over each other. This gives liquids a
definite volume and makes them hard to squash, but allows
them to flow and take up the shape of any container into
which they are poured.
l The particles in gases have very small forces between them,
so the particles can move freely in all directions. This allows
gases to flow easily, be squashed easily, change their volume
and take up the shape of their containers.
A B C
Figure 6.1 Particles in the three states

of matter Changes of state
l Changes due to raising the temperature: heating a solid to a
certain temperature (the melting point) makes it change into
a liquid, in a process called melting. Heating a liquid to a
certain temperature (the boiling point) makes it change into
a gas in a process called boiling.
l Evaporation: a liquid can change into a gas in a process
called evaporation. Evaporation occurs over a range of
temperatures below the liquid’s boiling point.
l Changes due to lowering the temperature: if a gas is cooled
it may reach a temperature at which it condenses and
changes into a liquid. If a liquid is cooled down, it may
reach a temperature at which it freezes (the freezing point)
and turns into a solid.
37
l CHEMISTRY
Gas pressure
l A gas is made of millions of quickly moving particles which
bounce off the walls of their container.
l The pushing force they generate as they bounce exerts a
pressure on the walls of the container. If the gas is heated,
the particles receive more energy, move faster, bounce more
Tips for success frequently and raise the gas pressure. Cooling lowers the
Make sure you can explain how gas pressure.
temperature can affect gas l If the temperature is kept constant and the volume is
pressure. reduced, the particles bounce more frequently on the smaller
area of the container walls and the gas pressure is increased.
Diffusion
l Diffusion is a process in which one substance spreads
through another. It can occur when two or more liquids or
two or more gases meet.
l The particles in diffusing liquids move around each other
and the particles in diffusing gases bounce off each other
as they spread out. Diffusion is faster in gases because gas
particles move faster than particles in a liquid.

1 To which state of matter do the groups of particles in Figure 6.1 on page 37
belong? Write your answer next to A, B and C.
2 A reversible change is one that can be reversed. What is the reverse of:
a) melting
b) boiling
c) freezing
d) evaporating?
3 What would happen to the pressure of a gas if the volume of its container
was increased?
4 How do you think raising the temperature affects the process of diffusion?

Complete the sentences below by inserting one of the following words:
gas liquid solid
a) Particles in a ___________ are held together by weak forces.

b) Particles in a ___________ are held together by very weak forces.
c) Particles in a ___________ are held together by strong forces. [1]
38
7 Material properties
Everyday materials
There are many everyday materials. The most frequently used
materials are plastic, metals, fabrics, wood, pottery, glass,
paper, cardboard, brick and concrete.
Physical properties
Tips for success The physical properties of a material are the features it
Look around you at a range of possesses that can be investigated by observation or by simple
everyday objects. Think about experiments which do not involve chemical reactions.
the materials they are made
from. What properties do they
transparent
have that make them suitable for (lets light pass straight through)
their functions?
translucent
(lets light though but scatters it)
opaque
(does not let light rigid
hard or soft pass through) (cannot be bent
or squashed)
surface appearance
(shiny, dull, flexible
rough smooth) (can be bent and
squashed)
Physical properties
electrical conductor of materials brittle
(lets electricity (breaks if bent
pass through it) or hit)
electrical insulator
(does not let electricity malleable
pass through it) (shaped by hammering
or pressing)
absorbent
heat conductor
(takes in a liquid)
(lets heat
pass through)
heat insulator waterproof
(does not let (does not let water
heat pass through) pass through it)
Figure 7.1 Physical properties of materials
39
l CHEMISTRY
The physical properties of metals and non-metals

Elements are substances made from one type of atom.
They can be classified as metals (for example, iron, copper,
silver and gold) and non-metals (for example, carbon, sulfur,
oxygen and chlorine). The table below shows the physical
properties of metals and non-metals.
Property Metal Non-metal
state at room temperature solid (one is a liquid) solid, liquid or gas
density generally high generally low
surface shiny dull
melting point generally high generally low
boiling point generally high generally low
effect of hammering shaped without breaking breaks easily
magnetic a few examples no examples
conduction of heat good very poor
conduction of electricity good very poor (one conductor)
The chemical properties of metals and

non-metals
l The chemical properties of a substance are the ways in
which it behaves in chemical reactions with other substances.
l In these reactions the substance is changed into another
substance. For example, if iron and sulfur are heated
together the two elements take part in a chemical reaction
that produces the compound called iron sulfide.
l The reaction between a metal and oxygen forms a metal
oxide (for example, calcium oxide). The metal oxide is called
Tips for success a base because it can take part in a chemical reaction with
Make sure you are familiar an acid and neutralise it. Metal oxides that dissolve in water
with the names of a variety of are called alkalis.
elements, both metals and l The reaction of non-metals with oxygen forms non-metal
non-metals. oxides (for example, sulfur dioxide). Most non-metal oxides
dissolve in water to form acids.

1 Describe the physical properties of a plastic ruler.
2 Compare the physical properties and chemical properties of iron and oxygen.

Sort the following elements into metals and non-metals.
chlorine copper helium iron oxygen silver sodium sulfur
Metals: ________________________________________________
Non-metals: _ ___________________________________________ [1]
40
7 Material properties l
Atoms
l An element is a substance which is made from just one
type of atom.
l The structure of the atom gives the element its physical and
chemical properties.
Rutherford and the atom
l Ernest Rutherford knew from the work of another scientist
called Thomson that atoms had negatively charged electrons.
He also knew that an atom did not have a negative charge
so there must be something else present to cancel out the
negative charge.
l Rutherford was involved in the discovery of large positively
charged particles called α-particles (α is the Greek letter
alpha) and he used them to investigate atomic structure.
He set up a thin sheet of gold surrounded by a screen that
could detect α-particles, as shown in Figure 7.2.
a few α-particles
bounce back from the
gold beam of
α-particles
source of
α-particles
very thin
gold sheet
most α-particles
some α-particles
pass straight through,
are deflected
undeflected
Figure 7.2 Rutherford’s α-particle experiment
l α-particles were fired from the source onto the gold sheet.
The screen showed that most α-particles passed straight
through the sheet but some had been deflected to other
parts of the screen.
l Rutherford explained these results by saying that most of the
structure of an atom was empty space, which the α-particles
had passed straight through, but at the centre of an atom
was a positively charged nucleus which deflected some of
Tips for success the α-particles.
Make sure you can recognise and l From this he described the atom as having a central
label the main parts of an atom. positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of
Remember that the electrons negatively charged electrons.
are negatively charged, and the l Rutherford later discovered that the atomic nucleus
nucleus is positively charged. contained protons and his work stimulated another scientist
to discover that the nucleus could also contain neutrons.
41
l CHEMISTRY
The first 20 elements of the periodic table

e e e
e 1p e 2p e e 3p e e 4p e e e 5p e
2n 4n 5n 6n
H He Li Be e B e
e e e e e
e e e e e e
e e 6p e e e e 7p e e e e 8p e e e e 9p e e e e 10 p e e
6n 7n 8n 10n 10 n
e e e e
C e N e O e F e Ne e
e e e
e e e e e e e e e e e
e e e e e e e e e e
e e 11 p e e e 12 p e e e e 13p e e e e 14 p e e e e 15 p e e
12 n 12 n 14n 14 n 16 n
e e e e e e e e e e
e e e e e e e e e e
Na Mg Al Si e P e
e e
e e e e e
e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
e e e e e e e e e e
e e 16 p e e e e 17 p e e e e 18 p e e e 19 p e e e e 20 p e e
16 n 18 n 22 n 20 n 20 n
e e e e e e e e e e
e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
e e e e e
S Cl Ar K Ca e
Figure 7.3 The atomic structure of the first 20 elements of the periodic table

3 What previous knowledge did Rutherford have to help him work
out the structure of the atom?
4 How did Rutherford interpret the patterns he saw on the screen in his
α-particle experiment?
5 What did Rutherford discover when he refined his method?
Tips for success 6 Next to each symbol in Figure 7.3, write down the name of the element.
Familiarise yourself with the
periodic table. You should be able Spotlight on the test
to recognise the names of the
first 20 elements. How many different types of atoms will a block of copper contain? [1]
42
The periodic table

As more and more elements were discovered in the nineteenth
century, scientists set out to arrange them in order to make their
study easier. The result of this work was the periodic table.
Scientists and the periodic table
l John Dalton tried to put the elements in order using a
measurement called atomic weight.
l Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner found he could group elements
into groups of three, called triads, based on their atomic
weights.
l John Newlands arranged the elements in order of their
atomic weights, starting with the element with the lowest
weight. He found that elements eight places apart had similar
properties and from this developed his ‘law of octaves’.
l Dalton had assumed that the atoms of each element joined
with just one atom of another element in a chemical reaction,
but over the years other scientists discovered that the atoms of
some elements could join with two, three or more atoms.
l Dmitri Mendeleev used all this evidence and developed
Newlands’ work on grouping to produce the periodic table.
When the elements are arranged in rows there is a rise and
fall in the number of atoms the elements will combine with.
0
1 1
H 2
He
1 2 hydrogen 3 4 5 6 7 helium
2 3 Li 4 Be 5
B 6
C 7
N 8
O 9
F 10
Ne
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
3 Na Mg
11 12 13
Al Si
14 15
P
16
S Cl Ar
17 18
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulphur chlorine argon
4 K Ca Sc Ti
19 20 21 22 23
V 24 25 26 27
Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br 36 Kr 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
5 Rb Sr
37 38 39
Y 40 41 42 43
Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 81 82 83 84 85 86
caesium barium lanthanum hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
reactive poor non-metals transition metalloids noble gases

metals metals metals
Figure 7.4 Parts of the periodic table
43
l CHEMISTRY
Trends in groups
l Group 1 – the alkali metals: going down the column the
density generally increases, the melting and boiling points
Tips for success generally decrease, the metals become softer and their
Make sure you can use the reactivity in chemical reactions increases.
periodic table to recognise and l Group 2 – the alkaline earth metals: going down the first
name elements in Groups 1, 2 three elements in this column the densities, melting points
and 7 of the periodic table. You and boiling points decrease but their reactivity in chemical
also need to know how metals reactions increases.
and non-metals are arranged in l Group 7 – the halogens: going down the column the
the periodic table. melting and boiling points increase but their reactivity in
chemical reactions decreases.
Trends in periods
Moving along each period from Group 2 to Group 5, the
elements change from being metals to being non-metals.

7 What previous research did Döbereiner and Newlands use in their
work?
8 What previous work did Mendeleev use in setting up the periodic table?
9 On a black-and-white copy of the periodic table, colour in the alkali metals

in blue, the alkaline earth metals in green and the halogens in red.

Sort the following elements into alkali metals, alkaline earth metals and halogens.
bromine calcium chlorine magnesium potassium sodium
Alkali metals: ____________________________________________

Alkaline earth metals: ______________________________________
Halogens: ______________________________________________ [1]
44
Elements, compounds and mixtures

l An element is a substance which is made from just one
type of atom. Each element has its own particular properties.
l A compound is a substance that is formed from two or
more elements which have joined together as the result of a
chemical reaction.
l The physical and chemical properties of a compound are
different from the physical and chemical properties of the
elements from which it is formed.
l The elements in the compound can be separated from
each other when the compound takes part in other
chemical reactions.
Compound Description Use
copper oxide black powder colouring pottery
carbon dioxide colourless gas taken in by plants for
photosynthesis
calcium hydroxide white solid used to make lime water
potassium chloride white crystals fertiliser
copper sulfate white powder or blue crystals fungicide
calcium carbonate white solid making snail and egg shells
l A mixture is made up of two or more substances. Each
substance is spread out through the other substance or
substances. The substances can be either elements or
compounds, or both elements and compounds.
l The substances in a mixture keep their own physical and
Tips for success chemical properties. For example, if iron powder is mixed
Make sure you can explain the
with sulfur it retains its magnetic properties and can be
differences between elements,
separated from the mixture using a magnet.
compounds and mixtures.
l The substances in a mixture can be separated by physical
processes such as filtering, boiling and condensing.
Separation mixtures
l An insoluble solid can be separated from a liquid by
filtration. The holes in the filter paper are large enough to
let the liquid through, but small enough to hold back the
solid particles.
l A soluble substance and its solvent can be separated by
distillation. The solvent boils and turns into a gas when
it is heated. It is then directed into a cooler region where
it condenses to form a liquid again. The soluble substance
cannot boil away and so is left behind as a solid.
45
l CHEMISTRY
delivery tube
filter funnel
filter paper
support
the solid remains

in the filter paper as
the residue
steam
salt solution
pure water
antibumping
the liquid that filters
through is called granules
the filtrate
heat
Figure 7.5 Filtration with a filter funnel Figure 7.6 Simple distillation

10 Fill in this table by writing in the letter of the appropriate answer:
A spread out D changed when combined
B physical processes E chemically combined
C retained F chemical reactions
Compound Mixture
Elements are …
Properties of the elements are …
Elements are separated by …
11 Mark with an X where filtration occurs in Figure 7.5 and mark with a Y
where condensation occurs in Figure 7.6.

State two methods of separating mixtures.
________________________ and _________________________ [1]
46
8 Material changes
Acids and alkalis

l Acids and alkalis are liquids.
l Acids have a sour taste while alkalis have a soapy feel as
they react with fat on the surface of the skin. These are not
tests to try in the laboratory or at home!
l Both acids and alkalis can be corrosive substances and can
burn the skin severely.
Indicators
An indicator is a liquid which produces a particular colour if
it is mixed with an acid or alkali, as the following table shows.
Indicator Colour in acid Colour in alkali
red cabbage changes from purple to red changes from purple to green
litmus solution* changes from purple to red changes from purple to blue
methyl orange pink yellow
phenolphthalein colourless pink
* Litmus paper is frequently used. Blue litmus paper is used to test for acids. Red litmus
paper is used to test for alkalis.
The pH scale
l The letters ‘p’ and ‘H’ stand for the ‘power of hydrogen’.
Hydrogen is found in acids and takes an active part in their
chemical reactions.
l The divisions in the pH scale are used to show the strength
of acids and alkalis.
l pH 0 to pH 2 indicates a strong acid, pH 3 to pH 6 indicates
a weak acid, pH 7 indicates that a solution is neither acid nor
alkali and is described as neutral, pH 8 to pH 11 indicates a
weak alkali, and pH 12 to pH 14 indicates a strong alkali.
l Universal indicator is a mixture of indicators which gives a
range of colours over the pH scale.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
blood
milk lime
water oven
dilute cleaner
water,
hydrochloric bleach,
salt
acid washing soda
solution
lemon juice,
toothpaste
vinegar
(ethanoic acid)
Figure 8.1 The pH scale and universal indicator colours
47
l CHEMISTRY
Neutralisation
l Neutralisation occurs when an acid and an alkali take part
in a chemical reaction. A salt and water are formed.
l The general word equation for a neutralisation reaction is:
acid + alkali → salt + water
l Here are some examples from a school science laboratory:

sodium sodium
hydrochloric acid + → + water
hydroxide chloride
potassium potassium
sulfuric acid + → + water
hydroxide sulfate
sodium sodium
nitric acid + → + water
hydroxide nitrate
Applications of neutralisation
l A bee sting is acidic and is neutralised by soap; a wasp sting
is alkaline and is neutralised by vinegar.
l Calcium hydroxide is an alkali called lime which is added to
soil to neutralise its acidity.
l Sodium hydrogencarbonate dissolves in water to produce an
alkaline solution which can be used in neutralisation. The
word equation is:
sodium
hydrochloric sodium carbon
hydrogen- + → + + water
acid chloride dioxide
carbonate
Tips for success
Make sure you understand l Sodium hydrogencarbonate is used in tablets to cure
what a neutralisation reaction indigestion when there is too much acid in the stomach. It
is and that you can recognise is used in baking powder, mixed with an acid, and the gas
a number of examples of produced makes the cake rise. It is also used in some fire
neutralisation reactions. extinguishers; it reacts with an acid and the gas produced
pushes water onto the fire and helps extinguish the flame.

1 What colour does blue litmus paper change to if an acid is present?
2 What colour does red litmus paper change to if an alkali is present?
3 What does the pH scale show the following to be:
a) hydrochloric acid
b) oven cleaner
c) milk
d) water
e) limewater?

Complete the following word equation for a neutralisation reaction. [1]
____________ + sodium hydroxide → sodium sulfate + ___________
48
8 Material changes l
Chemical reactions
Chemical reactions are taking place all round us and inside
us, too. Some take in heat (endothermic reactions) and some
give out heat (exothermic reactions). Some of these reactions
affect food and other materials and are described as not useful.
Reactions which are not useful
l Some of the reactions which are not useful take place when
oxygen reacts with fats and oils in foods. This oxidation
reaction makes the foods smell unpleasant and inedible.
l Some manufactured foods have antioxidants added to them
to slow down oxidation. Bags of snack foods like corn chips
have nitrogen in them instead of oxygen so the oxidation
process does not begin until the bag is opened.
l If iron or steel is in damp air, water condenses on the
Tips for success surface and oxygen dissolves in it. The oxygen and iron then
Make sure you can explain what take part in an oxidation process in which rust is produced
an oxidation reaction is, and and the metal becomes weaker.
why these reactions are not l If very fine powders such as coal dust (in coal mines) and
always useful. flour (in flour mills) mix with oxygen in the air and become
hot they can cause an explosion.
Endothermic reactions
Melting ice Sherbet
Ice takes in heat from its Sherbet is a popular sweet that
surroundings when the is made from citric acid and
temperature rises above 0 °C. sodium hydrogencarbonate.
The ice starts to melt When the sweet is put in the
mouth it feels cool because it
takes in heat from the body and
the two compounds react to
produce sodium citrate,
carbon dioxide and water.
(The carbon dioxide gas also
makes the sweet ‘fizzy’)
Endothermic reactions
Cooking Making lime

When foods are cooked they take Limestone (calcium carbonate)
in heat, which allows chemical is heated to make lime
reactions to take place. These (calcium oxide), which is used
reaction change the texture to make bricks, plaster, glass
and taste of the food and paper
Figure 8.2 Endothermic reactions
49
l CHEMISTRY
Exothermic reactions
Burning
When a substance burns it reacts with
oxygen in the air and this reaction
releases heat. Fuels such as wood, coal,
oil and natural gas are burnt to provide
heat for cooking, warming homes and
making steam in power stations to
generate electricity. Carbon dioxide and
water are produced when fuels are burnt
Exothermic
reactions
Respiration Rusting
Tips for success Respiration is the process in which energy
is released from food (glucose). It takes
When iron and oxygen react in an oxidation
process to produce rust, heat is given out.
Remember that exothermic place in the bodies of all living things. In hand warmers this heat is held in a bag
The word equation is which can be used to warm the body
reactions give out heat to their
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
surroundings, and endothermic
The energy is used for making the substances
reactions take in heat from
needed in the body for growth and in animals
their surroundings. it is used by muscles to allow movement
Figure 8.3 Exothermic reactions

4 Rusting is speeded up by water and oxygen reaching the metal surface.
How can oil prevent rusting?
5 Is melting a physical or a chemical reaction?
6 Oxidation occurs when chemicals react with oxygen. List five oxidation
reactions featured on pages 49 and 50.

Complete the following word equation. [1]
iron + __________ + __________ → iron oxide (rust)
50
Reactions of metals
Different metals react at different speeds when they react with
other chemicals.
Reaction with oxygen
When heated in oxygen:
l sodium: bursts into flame and burns quickly to form a
white powder
l iron: small particles glow and produce yellow sparks
l copper: does not glow or burst into flame but forms a
black powder
l gold: does not change.
Reaction with water

l Potassium floats and bursts into flame; hydrogen is produced
and potassium hydroxide solution is formed.
l Sodium floats and fizzes; hydrogen is produced and sodium
hydroxide solution is formed.
l Calcium sinks and produces bubbles of hydrogen and forms
calcium hydroxide solution.
l Magnesium, zinc and iron do not react with liquid water but
react with steam in the apparatus shown in Figure 8.4 to
produce the metal oxide and hydrogen.
l Copper does not react with water or steam.
Tips for success

Remember that you can get
an indication of how reactive
a metal is by observing how
vigorously it reacts.
Figure 8.4 Apparatus for investigating the reaction of metals and steam
51
l CHEMISTRY
Reaction with dilute acids

Some metals react violently with dilute acids while others do
not react at all. Between these two groups of metals are other
metals which react at different rates (see the last column in the
table below).
The reactivity series
Metals can be arranged in the order they react with oxygen,
water and dilute acids. This classification is called the
reactivity series.
Metal Reaction with Reaction with water Reaction with acid
oxygen
potassium oxide forms very produces hydrogen violent reaction
sodium vigorously with cold water
calcium produces hydrogen rate of reaction
magnesium with steam decreases down the
table
aluminium
zinc
iron oxide forms slowly
Tips for success tin oxide forms without no reaction with very slow reaction
Make sure you are familiar with copper burning water or steam no reaction
the reactivity series, and why silver no reaction
metals are placed in that order.
gold

7 What compounds do sodium, iron and copper form with oxygen?
8 On Figure 8.4 on page 51, label the metal sample with A. Put B where
hydrogen is collected. Label rocksil wool soaked in water with C. Draw an
arrow labelled D to show where heat is applied to the apparatus.
9 Why is copper placed above tin in the reactivity series?

Explain why gold is considered to be a very unreactive metal. [1]
52
Preparing common salts

Common salts can be prepared from a metal or metal
carbonate and one of three acids: hydrochloric acid, sulfuric
acid and nitric acid.
ide
iron(III) chlor cobalt nitrate
sodium chloride
copper sulfate
nickel sulfate
Figure 8.5 Some examples of chloride, sulfate and nitrate salts
Preparing a salt from a metal and an acid

The stages in preparing a salt are:
1 Add the metal to the acid in a flask. Let all the hydrogen
bubbles escape before moving to Stage 2.
zinc granules
are added
bubbles
of gas hydrochloric acid
Figure 8.6 Stage 1
2 Pour the contents of the flask into the filter funnel to

separate the solid from the liquid.
filter funnel
filter paper
support
the solid remains

in the filter paper as
the residue
the liquid that filters

through is called
the filtrate
Figure 8.7 Stage 2
53
l CHEMISTRY
3 Pour the liquid into an evaporating dish. Heat it gently until

Tips for success a solid appears.
Make sure you are familiar with
a range of acids used to make
salts, as well as the names of
salts they will produce.
Figure 8.8 Stage 3

4 Leave the mixture to cool.
5 Filter the mixture again to collect the solid salt.
Preparing a salt from a metal carbonate and
an acid
When a metal carbonate is used instead of a metal to make a
salt, the same procedure is used.

10 When a salt forms from an acid what physical process takes place?
11 What process continues to take place as the mixture cools?
12 The stages in the preparation of a metal carbonate are shown below but in
the wrong order. Rearrange them to make a flow chart.
A Stop heating when the solid appears.
B Filter the carbonate from the mixture.
C Add carbonate to the acid in a flask
D Let the evaporating dish cool.
E Pour the mixture into an evaporating dish and gently heat.
F Filter the mixture to collect the solid salt.

Complete the following word equation: [1]
calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid → ________ + _________
+ ________
54
Rates of reaction
Measuring rates of reaction
1 The rate of some reactions can be found by measuring the
reduction in mass of the reactants over a few minutes if a
gas is produced and escapes.
cotton
wool dilute
hydrochloric
acid
marble top-pan balance stop clock
chips
apparatus apparatus
just as marble chips when reaction has
are added finished
Figure 8.9 Measuring the change of mass of the reactants

2 The rate of reaction can be found by measuring the volume
of gas produced during the reaction over a few minutes.
hydrogen gas syringe

pushing barrel out
magnesium
ribbon kept stop clock
separate from hydrochloric
acid before acid
reaction
Figure 8.10 Measuring the volume of gas produced in a reaction
Concentration
l The concentration of the liquid reactant (the acid) is a
measure of how much solute is dissolved in it.
l If there is a small amount of solute in a large volume of
solution the concentration is low, but if there is a large
amount the concentration is high.
l Higher concentrations increase the rate of reaction. Lower
ones decrease the rate of reaction.
Particle size
l A cube with sides 2 cm long has six sides. Each side has a
surface area of 2 × 2 = 4 cm2. The total surface area of the
cube is 6 × 4 = 24 cm2.
l If the cube is broken into eight cubes with sides 1 cm long,
each of which has six sides, then the surface area of each
cube is 6 × 1 = 6 cm2. As there are eight of them, the total
surface area is now 6 × 8 = 48 cm2.
55
l CHEMISTRY
l Breaking into smaller particles further increases the total

surface area. As the surface is the place where the reaction
takes place, increasing the surface area increases the rate
of reaction.
Temperature
l Raising the temperature of the reactants speeds up the rate
of reaction.
l This can be confirmed by mixing hydrochloric acid and
sodium thiosulfate, and timing how long it takes for a cloud
of sulfur to develop in the liquid sufficient to block the view
of a cross at the base of the flask.
l When the experiment is repeated with reactants at a higher
temperature the view is blocked more quickly.
eye looking through
solution in flask
mixture of sodium
thiosulfate
stop clock solution and dilute
piece of paper with
a cross marked on it hydrochloric acid
Figure 8.11 Viewing a mixture and measuring the time for the reaction to take place
Catalysts
l A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a
Tips for success reaction but does not change itself.
Remember that concentration, l Only a small amount of a catalyst is needed to produce a
particle size, temperature and large increase in the reaction rate.
the presence of a catalyst are l A catalyst only works on speeding up one reaction; it cannot
important factors in determining speed up a number of different reactions.
the rate of a reaction. l Manganese dioxide is a catalyst that is used to speed up the
rate at which hydrogen peroxide breaks down into oxygen
and water.

13 State three ways to slow down the rate of reaction between a solid and
an acid.
14 State four ways by which a reaction might be speeded up.

Suggest one way by which the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric
acid could be speeded up. [1]
56
9 The Earth
Earth structure, rocks and soils

Earth structure
crust igneous,
metamorphic
and sedimentary
rocks
mantle rocky material

containing
silicon, oxygen,
iron and
magnesium
outer core liquid iron and

nickel
inner core solid iron and

nickel
Tips for success
Make sure you can remember Figure 9.1 The structure of the Earth
the names of the three main rock
types, and recognise the features
of each of them.
Rocks
There are three types of rock.
Rock type Rock Features
igneous: escaped from volcanoes basalt black; small crystals due to rapid cooling
granite pink, white with black dots; large crystals due to slow
cooling
obsidian black with glassy structure
sedimentary: produced by weathering and sandstone made from grains of sand cemented together
deposition limestone made from shells of ancient sea creatures
chalk made from tiny shells of ancient planktonic organisms
shale made from clay and mud particles
metamorphic: made by squashing and marble: made from white, glistens like sugar
heating in the crust limestone
slate: made from grey; breaks to form thin sheets
shale
57
l CHEMISTRY
Soils
There are three main types of soil. Sand, clay and silt are made
by the weathering of rocks. Humus forms from the rotting
remains of plant and animal bodies.
Soil type Main component Drainage Air content pH
sandy sand grains; some very good good acidic
humus
clay clay particles; some poor low alkaline
humus
loam sand, silt, clay and good, but very good, varied by
large amounts of humus holds humus makes farmers to
humus some water for soil crumbs match the
roots to use with large air plants they
spaces wish to grow

1 Complete the labelling in Figure 9.1 on page 57 by adding pointer lines to
the correct features.
2 How can the elements in granite also be found in slate?
3 How could you improve the drainage of a soil?

Jonathan has found a rock containing shells of tiny ancient sea creatures.
a) Name the rock type. [1]
b) Explain how it was formed. [1]
Fossils and the age of the Earth

Fossils
l Fossils are formed from the bodies of ancient plants and
animals that are quickly covered by mud or sand, which
prevents decay. Over time, the mud and sand turn to rock
and as they do, water passing through them can produce
fossils in one of two ways: replacement or petrification.
l Replacement: the body tissues dissolve and are washed away
to be replaced with minerals which come out of water and
make a rocky shape of the body.
l Petrification: minerals in the water passing through the fossil
settle in the tissues and turn them into rock.
58
9 The Earth l
Rock layers
l Rocks break down in the process of weathering and the
tiny fragments are washed away and deposited in layers,
often at the mouths of rivers.
l Over time, layers of different rock such as limestone and
sandstone build up on each other. The oldest layer is usually
found at the bottom and the most recent layer is found at
the top.
l Observing how layers of sand and mud are built up today
hints that rock formation takes a long time and that the
Earth is very old.
The fossil record
If the fossils are set out in the order they are found in the
rocks, starting at the bottom with the oldest rocks and moving
to the most recent at the top, a fossil record is made. Here
is an example of a fossil record. ‘3’ in the table shows the
presence of a particular type of organism.
Layer name Formation Flowering Trilobites Insects Reptiles
began (mya)* plants
Quarternary about 2.5 3 3 3
Tertiary about 65 3 3 3
Cretaceous about 145 3 3 3
Jurassic about 200 3 3 3
Triassic about 251 3 3
Permian about 300 3 3 3
Carboniferous about 360 3 3 3
Devonian about 416 3 3
Silurian about 444 3
Ordovician about 488 3
Cambrian about 542 3
* mya = millions of years ago.
Fossils and rocks

l Different layers of rock can have groups of fossils of
organisms that lived in different habitats, such as swamps
and deserts. This suggests that during the time the different
layers were laid down, the climate changed. Up until now
this has been a very slow process, again hinting that the
Earth is very old.
l The fossil record shows that fossils change over time, in a
process called evolution. Recent studies on evolution show
that it takes a very long time, another hint that the Earth is
very old.
59
l CHEMISTRY
Recent estimates on the age of the Earth

l The age of a rock is found by studying the amounts of
radioactive elements it contains.
l A radioactive element is one that breaks down or decays to
form other elements. Radioactive elements decay at a regular
rate, with some taking thousands or even millions of years
Tips for success to decay to half of their original mass.
Make sure you are aware of the l A definite age for a rock can be found by comparing the
evidence that points to the Earth amounts of radioactive elements in it with the amounts of
being very old. elements they have produced. Using this method the age of
the Earth is estimated at 4.6 billion years.

4 For each of the following questions you need to give an explanation as part
of your answer.
a) Did a trilobite ever see a flower?
b) Have insects always fed on flowering plants?
c) Could a reptile have eaten a trilobite?
5 What features of rocks and fossils hint that the Earth is very old?
6 Why does using radioactive materials give a more reliable estimate of the
age of the Earth?

Look at the words below. Which of these is not a process of fossil
formation? [1]
petrification precipitation replacement
60
10 Forces and motion
Forces
move stop Contact and non-contact forces
l There are two kinds of contact forces: impact forces, when
surfaces touch and strain forces, when a force builds up in
Forces
the object on which a force is acting. An example of a strain
force is the force inside a squashed sponge ball. Tension is a
strain force that builds up in a stretched elastic band.
change l A non-contact force that is exerted by one object on another
change direction without the two objects touching. Examples are magnetic,
speed change electrostatic and gravitational forces.
shape
Figure 10.1 Action of forces Friction

Friction is a contact force that occurs between two surfaces
Tips for success when a push or pull could cause one surface to move over
Make sure you can give the other.
examples of contact and l Static friction: if a small pushing or pulling force is generated
non-contact forces. to slide one surface over another a frictional force of similar
strength is generated between the surfaces in the opposite
direction. Gradually increasing the pushing or pulling force
causes a gradual increase in the frictional force to match it.
The force that exists between the two surfaces when there is
no movement is called static friction.
l Sliding friction: if the pushing or pulling force is further
increased, one surface will slide over the other because the
static friction cannot stop it. However, the surface cannot
slide freely because there is a sliding frictional force which
is less than the maximum value of the static frictional force.
If the pushing or pulling force ceases, the sliding frictional
force stops the two surfaces sliding.
Increasing and reducing friction
All surfaces have tiny projections (bumps) and hollows.
Tips for success l Reducing friction: a liquid applied to the two surfaces
Make sure you can explain the fills the hollows and makes the contact between the
ways of increasing and reducing surfaces smoother.
l Increasing friction: pressing the surfaces makes the
friction, and why both can be
important. projections and hollows lock together. Making a surface
rougher also increases friction.
61
l PHYSICS
Air resistance
l When an object moves through the air, the object pushes
on the air and the air pushes back with a force called
air resistance.
l The faster an object moves, the more it pushes on the air
and the greater the air resistance pushing back on it.
l Vehicles which are designed to travel very fast through
the air, such as a racing car or an aeroplane, have a
streamlined shape. These shapes have a pointed front
(aeroplane) or a wedge shape (cars) and curved body
surfaces to make the air flow over the body easily, which
reduces the air resistance.

1 Describe the forces acting in this situation: a car is moving along, it hits a
cardboard box and makes it move.

Sean says that gravity is a contact force. Explain why he is not correct. [1]
Gravity
Six facts about gravity
1 Gravity is a non-contact force
2 Gravity is a force between any two objects in the universe
3 The force of gravity between two objects with small

masses is too weak to produce a noticeable effect
4 The force of gravity between two objects with large masses, such as
the Sun and the Earth, produces a noticeable effect. It is gravity that
causes the attraction of the Earth for the Sun and the Earth’s movement
around the Sun
5 The force of gravity between one object with large mass, such as the
Earth, and an object with a comparatively small mass, such as a
person, draws the small mass to the large mass. If you jump up, gravity
draws you back down
6 Objects on the Earth are drawn by gravity to the Earth’s centre,

not its surface. That is why objects fall down holes
Figure 10.2 All about gravity
62
10 Forces and motion l
Tips for success Mass and weight

l The mass of an object is the amount of matter in it and is
Many students can get confused
measured in grams (g) or kilograms (kg).
between mass and weight. Make
l The weight of an object is the pull of the Earth’s gravity on
sure you know the difference.
the object and is measured in newtons (N).
l The pull of the Earth’s gravity on an object of mass 1 kg is
almost 10 N and for calculations is considered to be 10 N.
This means an object with a mass of 3 kg has a weight of
3 × 10 = 30 N.
Gravity and weight in other places
l The region in which a non-contact force acts is called
a field.
l Gravitational field strength is calculated by dividing weight
by mass. For example, on Earth an object of weight 10 N has
a mass of 1 kg, so the gravitational field strength is 10 N/kg.
Tips for success l The gravitational field strength of the Moon is six times
Remember that planets with a
weaker than that of the Earth. This means the weight of
larger mass will have a larger
an object on the Moon is one-sixth the weight on Earth.
gravitational field strength.
The gravitational field strengths of the other planets in the
Solar System also differ from that of the Earth.
Stretching springs
l Objects used to investigate springs are called masses. If a
spring is hung vertically and a mass is attached to the end,
the weight of the mass pulls down and stretches the spring.
l If the size of the mass is increased, the extension of the
spring increases in proportion, up to a point called the
elastic limit. Up to this limit the removal of the mass
allows the spring to return to its original length. Beyond this
limit the spring is permanently deformed and cannot return
to its original length.
The newton spring balance
l The spring balance is used in laboratory investigations on
forces. It contains a spring and a device called a stop which
Check your prevents the spring being stretched beyond its elastic limit.
understanding l The spring can be used to measure and compare forces
2 An object has a mass of 9 kg. because it stretches in a regular way as forces are applied
a) What is its weight on the to it. The amount of stretch is measured on a scale which is
Earth? calibrated in newtons.
b) What is its weight on the
Moon? Spotlight on the test
c) What is its weight on Mars?
Charlotte would like to measure the mass of her science book.
(Mars has a gravitational
1 Name the instrument she should use. [1]
field strength one-third of
2 Name the units of measurement. [1]
that of the Earth.)
63
l PHYSICS
Speed
Speed is a measure of the distance covered by a moving
object in a certain time.
55 60 5
50 10
45 15
40 20
35 30 25
time
start finish
distance travelled
Figure 10.3 Measuring speed
Measuring speed with a stopwatch

l A distance is marked out, with a start line and a finish line.
l When an object moves away from the start line, the
stopwatch is started. When the moving object passes the
finish line, the stopwatch is stopped.
l The distance between the start and finish lines is then
divided by the time taken to give a value. The value has
units of distance/time, such as metres/second.
Measuring speed with a light gate
l A light gate is often shaped like an upside-down U, with
the light source near the tip of one arm and a light-sensitive
switch near the tip of the other arm. When a moving object
passes between the arms it breaks the beam of light.
l In an investigation to measure speed, a light gate is set up at
the start line and the switch is set to start an electronic clock
when the beam is broken. A second light gate is set up at
the finish line with the switch set to stop the electronic clock
when the beam is broken. In the investigation the object
passing the start line starts the electronic clock and when it
passes the finish line it stops the electronic clock.
l The electronic clock can give a more accurate measure of
speed than using a stopwatch.
64
Tips for success Distance–time graph

l A distance–time graph is a graph showing the distance
Remember:
travelled by an object in a certain time. It can be used to
distance
speed = find the speed of an object.
time
l The x axis (horizontal) of the graph always shows the time,
Units of speed should always be
in units such as seconds, minutes or hours. The y axis
given in your answers.
(vertical) of the graph always shows the distance travelled,
in units such as centimetres, metres or kilometres.
20 20 20
(and not distance/time)

distance/centimetres
15 15 15
10 10 10
5 5 5
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
a) time/seconds b) time/seconds c) time/seconds
Figure 10.4 Examples of distance–time graphs a), b) and c). Graph a) shows an object travelling at a speed of 5 cm/second for
3 seconds.

3 What is the speed in cm/second of the following objects:
a) distance travelled = 50 cm, time at first light gate = 0.00 s, time at
second light gate = 10.00 s
b) distance travelled = 100 cm, time at first light gate = 0.00 s, time at
c) distance travelled = 120 cm, time at first light gate = 0.00 s, time at
d) distance travelled = 144 cm, time at first light gate = 0.00 s, time at
4 Which is faster, the object in 1a) or in 1c)?
5 Which is slower, the object in 1b) or in 1d)?

An Olympian runs a 100 metre race in 10 seconds. What is her average
speed? [2]
65
l PHYSICS
Pressure
l Pressure is the term used to describe a force acting over an
area of known size. It can be defined by the equation:
force
Pressure = area
l The units for pressure are N/cm2 or N/m2.
Pressure exerted by a solid

l The pressure exerted by a solid object acts on the surface
below it. The weight of the object in newtons pushes down
on the area in contact with the surface. If the weight of the
object is 100 N and the area in contact is 1 m2 then the
100
pressure is 1 = 100 N/m2.
l Pressure can be reduced by keeping the area of contact the
same and reducing the size of the force. For example, if the
50
force is reduced to 50 N, then the pressure is 1 = 50 N/m2.
l Pressure can be reduced by increasing the area in contact.
For example, if the area of the object in contact with the
100
surface is increased to 2 m2, the pressure is 2 = 50 N/m2.
l Pressure can be increased by keeping the area in contact the
same and increasing the size of force. For example, if the
200
force is increased to 200 N, the pressure is 1 = 200 N/m2.
Tips for success l Pressure can be increased by reducing the area in contact.
With all calculations, remember For example, if the area in contact is reduced to 0.5 m2 the
to include units in your answers. 100
pressure is 0.5 = 200 N/m2.
Pressure exerted by a liquid

l The particles in a liquid move around and exert pressure not
only on the bottom of the container but also on its sides, as
Figure 10.5 shows.
l The pressure at the bottom of the liquid is higher than that
at the top due to the weight of liquid above it.
l The taller the column of water, the greater the pressure
difference between the top and the bottom. This is why a
dam wall has a wider stronger base compared with the top,
to stand up to the stronger pressure at the bottom of the
reservoir.
reservoir
dam
wall
Figure 10.5 Forces exerted by particles

in a liquid Figure 10.6 Cross-section of a dam wall and reservoir
66
Pressure exerted by a gas

l A gas contains millions of quickly moving particles. Large
numbers of the particles push on the walls of the container
and exert a force. This force divided by the area of the
container walls produces the gas pressure.
l The pressure can be raised by heating the container and gas.
This makes the particles move faster and push on the walls
more frequently.
l The pressure can also be raised by decreasing the volume
of the container so that the particles push on its walls
more frequently.
Tips for success l The pressure can be reduced by cooling the container and
Make sure you can explain the gas. This makes the particles move more slowly and
the effects of changes in push on the walls less frequently.
temperature and volume l The pressure can also be reduced by increasing the
on gas pressure. volume of the container so the particles push on its walls
less frequently.

6 Do you exert more pressure on the ground when you sit on it or when you lie
down on it? Explain your answer.
7 Figure 10.7 shows a cylinder of water with three pipes in its side. There was
a piece of rubber tubing attached to each pipe, with a clip to prevent water
escaping, but now the clips have been removed and the water is free to
flow out of the pipe. Draw the paths of the jets of water on the diagram and
explain your answer.
Figure 10.7 Jets of water leaving a measuring cylinder

Which of the following are not units of pressure? [1]
N/cm2 N/cm N2 /m2 N/m2
67
l PHYSICS
Density
l The density of a substance is a measure of the amount of
matter that is present in a certain volume of it. It can be
defined by the equation:
mass
density = volume
l The units for density are g/cm3 or kg/m3.
Determining the density of a solid

l The density of a regular-shaped solid, such as a cube,
can be found easily. The mass is found by placing it on a
top-pan balance. The volume is found by measuring the
length of its sides and multiplying them together.
l For example, if a cube has a mass of 160 g and its sides are
2 cm long then its volume is 2 × 2 × 2 = 8 cm3 and its density
160
is = 20 g/cm3.
8
l The density of an irregular-shaped solid, such as a pebble,
can be found in the following way.
l The mass is found by placing it on a top-pan balance.
l A measuring cylinder is filled up to a certain volume and
the volume is recorded as V1.
l The pebble is lowered into the water until it is completely
covered, as shown in Figure 10.8. This makes the water
level rise. The new volume V2 is then recorded.
l The volume of the pebble Vp is found by subtracting V1
from V2.
l The density of the pebble is given by mass of pebble/Vp.
measuring cylinder
second reading
first reading
water
pebble
Figure 10.8 Measuring the density of a pebble
68
Determining the density of a liquid

1 find mass of measuring cylinder, M1
2 pour certain volume into measuring cylinder, V
3 find mass of liquid and cylinder, M2
4 find mass of liquid, M2 – M1 = ML
5 find density, ML/V
Figure 10.9 Measuring the density of a liquid
Determining the density of a gas

The density of air is determined by the following procedure:
1 The mass of the gas container and air is found by placing it
on a top-pan balance. This is M1.
2 The air is sucked out with a vacuum pump, then is placed
Tips for success back on the balance to find its mass. This is M2.
Remember: 3 The volume of the container is measured by opening the
mass container under water. Water replaces the vacuum, so that
density = pouring the water out into a measuring cylinder gives its
volume
Remember the units: volume, V.
g kg 4 The density is found using the formula:
or M2 × M1
cm3 m3
V

8 a) What is the density of a substance that has a mass of 100 g and a
volume of 20 cm3?
b) What is the mass of a substance that has a density of 10 g/cm3 and a
volume of 70 cm3?
c) What is the volume of a substance that has a density of 4 g/cm3 and a
mass of 100 g?
9 A pebble displaces 15 cm3 of water when placed in a measuring cylinder
and has a mass of 45 g. What is its density?

Which of the following are not units of density? [1]
g/cm3 kg/m3 g/cm2 kg/m
69
l PHYSICS
Moments
The lever
l A force can be used to move an object so that it follows a
circular path.
l A device that changes the direction in which a force acts is
called a lever.
l A lever is composed of two arms and a fulcrum or pivot.
l The force applied to a lever to do work is called the effort.
l The force which resists the action of the effort is called
the load.
A first class lever
effort load
fulcrum
Figure 10.10 A lever
Forces and moments

l The turning effect produced by a force around a fulcrum
is called the moment of the force. The direction of the
moment is usually specified as clockwise or anticlockwise.
l In Figure 10.10, the direction of the moment of the load
is clockwise and the direction of moment of the effort
is anticlockwise.
l The size of the moment is found by multiplying the size
of the force by the distance between the point at which
Tips for success the force acts and the fulcrum. In Figure 10.10, these are
Make sure you can remember the distances from the fulcrum to the end of each arm of
the equation for calculating the lever.
moments. Practise using this l The moment of a force can be found using this equation:
equation before the test. moment of a force = force × distance from the fulcrum.
l The moment is measured in newton metres (N m).
The seesaw
l The seesaw is an example of a lever as shown in
Figure 10.10.
l For the seesaw to balance and the two arms to be
horizontal, the moment of the weight on one arm must be
equal to the moment of the weight on the other.
70
The principle of moments (law of the lever)

When a body is in equilibrium (or balance), the sum of the
clockwise moments about any point (such as the fulcrum)
equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about that
point.

10 If the arms of the lever in Figure 10.10 on page 70 were 1 m long and the size
of the load was 10 N, what would the moment and direction of the force be?
11 What would the moment and direction of the effort need to be to make the
lever balance, given the moment you have calculated in Question 10?

Callum uses a spanner to turn a nut.
spanner
X
direction of turn
pivot (nut)
Figure 10.11
The point X is 10 cm from the pivot (nut). He holds the spanner at point X.
He uses a force of 90 N.
Calculate the size of the moment. [2]
71
11 Energy
Energy
l The law of the conservation of energy states that energy
Tips for success cannot be made or destroyed, it can only be changed from
Remember the law of the one form to another.
conservation of energy! l Scientists describe energy as a property that something has
which allows it to exert a force or to do work.
Types of energy
l There are two kinds of energy: stored or potential energy
Tips for success (PE) and movement or kinetic energy (KE).
Make sure you can recall the l Potential energy and kinetic energy can be divided further
main types of energy. into eight more types (Figure 11.1).
1 gravitational potential energy (PE)
2 strain energy (PE)

8 electromagnetic energy (KE)
7 internal energy (KE) Types of energy 3 chemical energy (PE)
6 electrical energy (KE) 4 kinetic energy of moving

bodies (KE)
5 sound energy (KE)
Figure 11.1 Types of energy
72
11 Energy l
Energy transfers
l The transfer of energy can be shown by energy transfer
diagrams. The diagrams show the main transfers of energy
but it should be remembered that during any energy transfer
some energy is always lost as heat. This is not shown on
the diagrams unless it is of particular importance, such as in
providing heat from a fuel.
l The energy transfer diagram has three parts: energy input
and arrow, energy converter or transducer, energy output
and arrow
energy input → transducer → energy output
l Blowing up a balloon:
kinetic energy → balloon → strain energy
The world’s energy needs

l There are two kinds of energy resources:
non-renewable energy resources (NRE) and renewable
energy resources (RE).
l These can be divided further into eight types of energy
resources (Figure 11.2).
1 fossil fuels (NRE)
8 waves (RE) 2 radioactive elements (NRE)
Types of
7 geothermal (RE) 3 hydro-electric (RE)
energy resources
6 fuel wood (RE) 4 wind (RE)
5 solar (RE)
Figure 11.2 Types of energy resources
Non-renewable resources will eventually be used up, so

renewable resources should be used alongside them now.
The aim should be to switch to renewable forms of energy
completely before the non-renewable resources run out.
73
l PHYSICS

1 The following statements are about the eight forms of energy. Write the
letter for each statement on Figure 11.1 on page 72 next to the energy it
describes:
A the flow of electricity
B pulled down by gravity
C movement of particles inside a substance
D to and fro vibrations reach the ear
E energy in stretched or squashed objects
F two forms are light and heat
G in links between atoms
H occurs when objects move
2 In the energy transfer diagram, what has the kinetic energy and what has
the strain energy?
3 The following statements are about eight energy resources. Write the letter
for each statement on Figure 11.2 on page 73 next to the energy resource it
describes:
A grows on trees
B from up and down motion of sea water
C coal, oil, gas
D uses panels for heat and cells for electricity
E uranium is the fuel
F moving air turns turbines
G moving water turns turbines
H from heat inside the Earth

List three renewable energy resources. [1]
Energy on the move

Heat or thermal energy moves in three ways: by conduction,
by convection and by radiation.
Conduction
l In conduction the heat energy passes from one particle in a
substance to the next one it touches (Figure 11.3).
heat
Figure 11.3 Conduction of heat
l Conduction can occur easily in solids where the particles

remain in one place to pass on the heat, less easily in
liquids where the particles move about, and hardly at all
in gases where the particles are too far apart to touch
frequently enough to pass on heat.
74
11 Energy l
l Conduction does not take place in the vacuum of

outer space.
l Materials can be divided into heat conductors and heat
insulators. Metals are the best heat conductors because
they have freely moving electrons which can carry the heat
quickly to cooler electrons and atoms. Air is a good insulator
and is trapped in woollen clothes to reduce heat loss from
the body.
Convection
In convection, the particles that receive the heat move and take
it with them into a cooler region of the substance (Figure 11.4).
heat
Figure 11.4 Convection

l Convection only occurs in liquids and gases.
l It does not occur in solids, because the atoms do not move,
nor in a vacuum such as outer space where there is an
absence of particles.
Radiation
l Heat energy can travel as electromagnetic waves by radiation
(Figure 11.5).
l These waves are in the infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum and can pass through the air or
a vacuum such as outer space because particles are not
involved in their transfer.
heat
Figure 11.5 Radiation wave

Tips for success
Make sure you are clear about l The surface of a material affects the amount of heat it
the differences between radiates or absorbs. A black surface radiates and absorbs the
conduction, convection most amount of heat in a given time. A light shiny surface,
and radiation. such as polished metal, radiates and absorbs the least
amount of heat in a given time.
75
l PHYSICS
Evaporation
l The particles in a liquid have different amounts of energy.
The higher the energy, the faster they move.
l The fastest moving particles near the liquid surface move so
fast that they break through the surface, separate from other
liquid particles and become a gas (Figure 11.6).
liquid surface
Figure 11.6 Path of a particle in an evaporating liquid
l This process is called evaporation and occurs below the

boiling point of the liquid. The gas produced when water
evaporates is called water vapour.
l When these hotter high-energy particles leave the liquid
there is less heat energy in the liquid and its temperature
drops.

4 When a pan of soup is heated, the three kinds of heat transfer and
evaporation take place. Describe why and where they occur, starting at the
bottom of the pan.

Use the words particle/s and kinetic energy to explain why a beaker of hot
water cools down. [3]
76
12 The Earth and beyond
The Earth in space

Lights in the sky
l The Sun and the other stars are sources of light.
l The Moon, the planets and comets reflect light from the Sun
towards the Earth.
The rotation of the Earth
l The Earth rotates on its axis – an imaginary line or rod that
runs through the centre of the Earth from the north pole to
the south pole. The Earth turns round or rotates once on its
axis in 24 hours (one day).
l When a place on the surface of the Earth is turned away
from the Sun it is night-time; later, as the Earth continues to
turn, that place is turned towards the Sun and it becomes
daytime.
l As the Earth turns anticlockwise, as viewed from above the
Tips for success north pole, the Sun always rises over the eastern horizon
Make sure you can explain night and sets below the western horizon. In between it seems to
and day in terms of the rotation rise in the sky in the morning and to sink in the afternoon.
of the Earth. l At night, stars and planets also seem to move across the sky
from east to west. This is due to the rotation of the Earth.
The Earth in its orbit
l The Earth’s path around the Sun is called its orbit.
l The axis of the Earth is not vertical but is at an angle of
about 23° to the perpendicular. The Earth’s axis always
points in the same direction during the Earth’s orbit and this
produces changes in the amount of sunlight and heat that
some places receive.
l These periods in which a place has a certain amount of
light and heat (which also affects the weather) are called
seasons. The seasons in each hemisphere are related to the
way the Earth is tilting with respect to the Sun, as shown in
Figure 12.1 on page 78.
The path of the Sun in the sky
l The rotating Earth makes the Sun appear to follow a path in
the sky from east to west. As the Earth moves in its orbit this
path changes (Figure 12.2 on page 78).
l When a hemisphere is tilting towards the Sun in the
summer time, sunrise is at its earliest, the Sun rises highest
at midday and sunset is at its latest. In winter, sunrise is at
its latest, at midday the Sun rises to a much lower height and
sunset is at its earliest.
77
l PHYSICS
March spring
autumn
northern
hemisphere
tilted towards
Sun
summer winter
Sun
June December
winter summer
southern
hemisphere
tilted away autumn
from Sun
spring September
Figure 12.1 The orbit and seasons
l From Figure 12.2 you can also see that the positions of
sunrise and sunset are much further to the north in the
northern hemisphere in summer compared to winter.
Sun at midday
mid-summer
spring and autumn

equinoxes
E mid-winter
S
dawn
N
sunset W
Figure 12.2 The change in the Sun’s path with the seasons in the northern hemisphere
Tips for success Check your understanding

Make sure you can explain the 1 An asteroid is formed from a piece of rock that may have come from a
seasons in terms of the path of planet. Is it a light source or a reflector of light?
the Sun. 2 If the Earth was tilted at a greater angle than it is, how do you think
summers and winters might change?
3 How do the positions of sunrise and sunset change from winter to summer
in the southern hemisphere?

The Moon, the planets and comets do not produce their own light, yet they
can be seen from Earth. Explain why this is the case. [1]
78
12 The Earth and beyond l
The Solar System

The Sun and the planets
Sun
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Neptune
Uranus
Jupiter
Mars
Saturn
Figure 12.3 The Solar System (not to scale), showing the relative positions of the planets around the Sun
The movement of the planets

The distances of the planets from the Sun, their rotation times
and their orbit times are shown in the table.
Planet Distance from Sun, Rotation time Orbit time, days
million km (approx.) Days Hours Minutes
Mercury 58 58 15 30 88
Venus 108 243 0 0 224
Earth 150 23 56 365
Mars 228 24 37 686
Tips for success Jupiter 778 9 50 4332
Make sure you can explain the Saturn 1427 10 14 10 759
difference between rotation time Uranus 2871 10 49 30 707
and orbit time.
Neptune 4497 6 15 48 90 777
79
l PHYSICS
Studies on the Solar System

l The ancient Greeks believed that all the objects in the sky
were set in crystal spheres which moved around the Earth.
This belief was called the Earth Centred Universe and was
held by almost everyone for 1300 years.
l From data collected about the movement of the planets,
Copernicus suggested that the Sun was the centre of the
Solar System and the planets moved in circular orbits around
it. Data on the movements of comets collected by Brahe
showed that crystal spheres could not exist because comets
seemed to smash through them.
l Kepler looked at more data on the movement of planets
collected by Brahe and suggested that the planets moved in
elliptical orbits.
l Galileo used his telescope to show that Jupiter had moons
that moved around it, and not around the Earth, indicating
that other objects also might not move around the Earth.
l Newton made calculations on the movement of objects in
the Solar System and showed that this movement was due to
the force of gravity. All these observations were made on the
first six planets in the Solar System, which everyone could
see with the naked eye. In 1781 Herschel discovered Uranus
and in 1846 Galle discovered Neptune, using telescopes.

4 Which is the nearest neighbour to Earth – Venus or Mars? Explain your
answer.
5 Which are the fastest and slowest spinning planets in the Solar System?
6 What two pieces of evidence did Brahe’s data provide that

suggested the ancient Greeks were wrong?
7 a) Who provided evidence that all the objects in the sky did not move
around the Earth?
b) What apparatus did he use?
c) Who else used this apparatus and what did they discover?

Look at the table about the movement of the planets on page 79.
1 Name the planet with the fastest orbit time. [1]
2 Name the planet with the slowest rotation time. [1]
80
13 Sound
The properties of sound

Sound is made when an object vibrates. This to and fro
movement of the object is transferred to the particles in the air
around it. The air particles next to the vibrating object push on
the air particles next to them and they to push on air particles
further away, and so on. Once a particle has pushed, it
swings back to receive another push from the vibrating object
and other particles around it. This swinging of the particles
produces regions of high and low pressure which move away
from the object and create the sound wave.
high pressure
low pressure
Figure 13.1 Particles and pressure changes
If a microphone is attached to an oscilloscope the vibrations

of the particles are converted into electrical signals which can
be displayed on a screen to produce a wave you can see.
wavelength
amplitude
X
amplitude
wavelength
Figure 13.2 The features of a sound wave
The loudness of a sound

l The loudness of the sound is related to the amount of
movement of the vibrating object.
l If the object moves only a small distance to and fro it makes
a sound wave with a small amplitude and the sound will be
quiet.
81
l PHYSICS
l If the object moves a large distance to and fro it makes

Tips for success a sound wave with a large amplitude and the sound will
Make sure you can explain the be loud.
loudness of a sound in terms of
its amplitude.
The pitch of a sound
l An object makes a certain number of vibrations in a second.
l The vibrations generate the same number of sound waves in
a second and this produces the pitch of a sound.
l The number of sound waves produced per second is called
the frequency. This is measured in hertz, with the unit
symbol Hz.
l A low-pitched sound has lower frequency waves with longer
wavelengths than a high-pitched sound, which has higher
Tips for success frequency waves with shorter wavelengths.
Look at diagrams of a number
of sound waves. Make sure you
can recognise and describe 1
differences between them

in terms of amplitude and
frequency, that is, loudness
and pitch.
2
Check your
understanding
1 Does sound travel through the 3
vacuum of space? Explain your
answer.
2 An object is set vibrating and
the sound wave it produces is
recorded on an oscilloscope, as
shown in Figure 13.3.
4
a) What has happened to the
vibrating object and the
loudness and pitch of the
sound in part 2?
b) What has happened to the
vibrating object and the Figure 13.3 Sound waves as displayed on an oscilloscope screen
loudness and pitch of the
sound in part 3? Spotlight on the test
c) What has happened to the
vibrating object and the Josh has produced a diagram of a sound wave using an oscilloscope.
loudness and pitch of the He notices that it has a large amplitude and a low frequency. Describe
sound in part 4? the sound. [1]
82
14 Light
Light on the move

Light and shadows
l Light rays travel in straight lines. When light shines on an
opaque object, rays striking its surface are stopped and
there is an absence of light behind the object and this forms
the shadow.
l The shape of the shadow is not identical to the shape of
the object. For example, if the light rays shine down on the
Tips for success object they make the shadow shorter than the object. If the
Make sure you can explain how
light rays shine from one side of the object they make the
the size of a shadow can be
shadow taller than the object.
affected by altering the distance
l The size of the shadow on a screen can be increased by
between object and light source.
moving the object towards the light source and decreased
by moving the object towards the screen.
Reflection
l Non-luminous objects are seen because they reflect light
from a light source into the eyes.
l Most objects have a slightly rough surface. This makes light
rays scatter in all directions when they strike the surface, so
they do not produce reflections in their surfaces.
l Some objects, such as a mirror, have a very smooth surface.
When a light ray strikes it, the ray is reflected as shown in
Figure 14.1. This orderly reflection of the light rays, following
the law of reflection, produces images in the mirror. These
images come from the light rays that travel from objects in
front of the mirror.
normal
incident ray reflected ray
angle of incidence angle of reflection
mirror
Figure 14.1 Reflection of light from a plane mirror
83
l PHYSICS
Refraction
l If a light ray is shone through the air so that it strikes the
surface of a transparent material such as glass or water at
right angles (perpendicular to the surface; see ‘normal’ in
Figure 14.1 on page 83) it passes straight through.
l If the light ray travelling from a less dense material (air)
strikes the more dense materials (glass) at another angle
the light ray is ‘bent’ or refracted, as shown in Figure 14.2.
The angle of refraction is less than the angle of incidence.
normal incident ray
angle of incidence
angle of refraction
refracted ray
Figure 14.2 Refraction between air and glass

l Figure 14.2 shows how light moving from a less dense
material (air) to a more dense material (glass) is refracted.
l When light moves from a more dense material (water) into
Tips for success a less dense material (air) the angle of refraction it makes is
Learn the differences between greater than the angle of incidence. This makes objects on
reflection and refraction. the bottom of a swimming pool appear closer to the surface
than they really are.

1 How does the shadow of an object change when:
a) the light source shining on one side is raised above it then lowered again
b) the object is moved towards a screen and then back towards the light
source?
2 If the angle of incidence of an incident ray is 48° what is the angle of
reflection?
3 When a light ray shines from air into glass at an angle of incidence of 30°
will the angle of refraction be a) the same, b) greater, or c) less?

Explain how non-luminous objects are seen. [1]
84
14 Light l
Colour
The dispersion of white light
A prism used to disperse light is a triangular block of glass or
plastic. If a ray of sunlight is shone through a prism at certain
angles of incidence and its path is stopped with a screen a
spectrum of light is produced (Figure 14.3).
white
light
screen
prism
red
orange
yellow
green
blue
indigo
violet
Figure 14.3 Dispersion of white light by a prism
How rainbows are seen

l When a ray of sunlight from behind an observer shines
onto a raindrop, the light is dispersed at the surface of the
raindrop to form a spectrum on the opposite inner surface
of the drop.
l This is then reflected back through the raindrop to a surface
below the point of dispersion where it is refracted again and
passes to the eye of an observer.
Colour addition
l The primary colours of light are red, green and blue. They
Tips for success can be added together by shining their light onto a white
Remember how secondary screen, as shown in Figure 14.4 on page 86.
colours and white light can l When any two primary colours are added together they
be produced. produce a secondary colour. When all three primary
colours of light are added together they produce white light.
85
l PHYSICS
blue green
light light
cyan
white
magenta yellow
red
Figure 14.4 Adding colours of light light
Colour subtraction
l When white light shines on a painted surface some of the
light is absorbed and subtracted from the white light and
Tips for success some of it is reflected and seen by an observer.
Make sure you can explain colour l For example, if white light shines on yellow paint all the
subtraction in terms of reflection colours in the spectrum are absorbed except yellow. The
and absorption. other colours are subtracted from the white light, leaving
yellow to be reflected and seen by the observer.

4 Use the information in the section ‘How rainbows are seen’ on page 85 to
construct a diagram of how an observer sees a rainbow.
5 What secondary colours are produced by mixing the following:
a) blue and green light
b) blue and red light
c) green and red light?
6 Magenta, cyan and yellow are used to make coloured paints. What colour of
paint is made when:
a) yellow and magenta are mixed together
b) cyan and magenta are mixed together
c) yellow and cyan are mixed together?
7 a) Describe the appearance of a surface which absorbs all the colours in
white light.
b) Explain the appearance of this surface in terms of subtracting the
primary colours.

Adele shines a red light and a blue light onto a white table tennis ball. It no
longer looks white.
1 What colour does it appear? [1]
2 What colour light would need to be added to make it appear white again? [1]
86
15 Magnetism
All about magnets

The properties of magnets
l Iron, cobalt and nickel are the three elements that have
magnetic properties. Steel is an alloy (a mixture) of iron and
carbon and also has magnetic properties.
l A magnetic material is one that is attracted to a magnet
and can be made into a magnet.
l Inside a magnetic material are many tiny regions called
domains which behave like microscopic magnets.
l In an unmagnetised material the domains are arranged at
random, pointing in all directions. When the material is
magnetised all the domains point in the same direction.
l The regions of greatest magnetic force are near the ends of
the magnet. These regions are called the poles.
l When a magnet is allowed to move freely, one pole turns
towards the Earth’s magnetic north pole and is called the
north pole of the magnet, and the other pole turns towards
the Earth’s magnetic south pole and is called the south pole
of the magnet.
l When two magnets are brought together their similar
Tips for success poles repel each other and their different poles attract
Make sure you can explain each other.
why magnets repel and attract l You can compare the strengths of magnets by finding out
using the terms ‘north pole’ and how many paper clips can hang in a chain from them or
‘south pole’. how many sheets of card can be placed between the magnet
and a paper clip before the paper clip falls away.
Magnetic field pattern
l The magnetic field is the region around a magnet where
the pull of the magnetic force acts on magnetic materials.
l The magnetic field can be shown by placing a bar magnet
on a table, covering it with a sheet of paper, sprinkling iron
filings on the paper, and then tapping it. The iron filings
then arrange themselves into lines showing the lines of force
in the magnetic field.
87
l PHYSICS
Figure 15.1 The magnetic field pattern of a bar magnet
The electromagnet
l When an electric current runs through a wire it generates a
magnetic field around it.
l An electromagnet is made by wrapping wire around an
iron bar so that the wire makes a coil.
l When an electric current passes through the coil the
Tips for success magnetic field from the coil turns the iron bar into a magnet
Make sure you can identify the that can be used to lift things up.
components of an electromagnet, l When the current is switched off the magnetic field in the
and describe how it works. coil is destroyed, the iron loses its magnetism and the object
it was lifting falls off.

1 A paper clip sticks to the north pole of a magnet. What does this tell you
about the material the paper clip is made from?
2 If a second similar paper clip is brought near the first, it sticks to it. What
has happened to the first paper clip?
3 When the two paper clips are removed from the magnet they no longer stick
together. Why?
4 What happens to two magnets:
a) when their north and south poles are brought together
b) when their two north poles are brought together?
Explain each answer.

1 Steel cans can be easily separated from aluminium cans using a magnet.
Explain why. [1]
2 What is the major advantage of using electromagnets compared to
bar magnets? [1]
88
16 Electricity
Electrostatics
The atom and electric charge
l An atom has a nucleus containing positively charged protons
surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons.
l In an atom, the number of protons and electrons is the
same so their charges cancel each other out and the atom
is neutral.
Insulators and conductors
l An insulator is a material that does not let an electric
current pass through it. If it is electrically charged (see
below) it holds onto the charge. The electric charge does not
go anywhere. It is static.
l A conductor allows a current of electricity to pass through
it. It cannot hold onto electric charges because it conducts
them away.
Charging materials
l When some materials are rubbed they can lose electrons.
This means that there are then more positive charges than
negative ones and the material becomes positively charged.
l When other materials are rubbed they can gain electrons.
This means that there are then more negative charges
present than positive ones and the material becomes
negatively charged.
The behaviour of charged materials
Tips for success l If two balloons are negatively charged, hung from threads
Make sure you are aware of how and brought close together they push each other away
electrostatics can be useful, but because like electrical charges repel each other.
also be aware of the problems it l If a positively charged material is brought near a negatively
can cause. charged balloon the balloon moves towards it because
opposite charges attract.
Induced charge
l An induced charge is one that is made in a material by a
charged material without the two materials touching.
l For example, if you rub a plastic pen with a cloth the pen
will lose electrons and become positively charged. When the
pen is held over tiny pieces of paper it induces a negative
charge in their surfaces.
l This can be checked by moving the pen very close to the
paper. The paper jumps up to the pen because opposite
charges attract.
89
l PHYSICS
Digital sensors
l Charge is stored in devices called capacitors. It is released
from the capacitor when it is switched into a circuit with a
conductor. The first capacitors had metal plates separated by
an insulator.
l Today, capacitors are tiny electronic devices which are used
in digital sensors to store electrical charge when changes
in light, pH or movement are being recorded. The stored
charges provide a record of the changes that have taken
place and can be transferred to other devices such as
screens which display information.
Sparks and lightning
If two oppositely charged surfaces are very highly charged a
spark may pass between them. An example is lightning in a
storm. Sparks can also be dangerous; a spark could cause an
explosion in fuel vapour.

1 a) If an atom has seven protons and six electrons what charge is it?
b) How can the charge be reversed?
2 When pieces of paper jump towards the charged pen, what two forces are
acting on them?

Two balloons are rubbed with a dry cloth and hung upside down, next to
each other. Describe and explain what happens to them. [1]
Current electricity
How components affect current
Component How it affects current
cell (battery) generates current when a circuit is complete
wire conducts current and offers some resistance
lamp changes some electrical energy to light and heat, offers some
resistance to the current
switch when closed, it conducts current; when open, air (an insulator) prevents
current flow
Series and parallel circuits

l In a series circuit all the components are in a line.
In Figure 16.1a on page 91 the battery and the two lamps
are in a line.
l In a parallel circuit some components are arranged side by
side. In Figure 16.1b on page 91 the two lamps are arranged
in parallel.
90
16 Electricity l
Figure 16.1 a) A series circuit;

b) a parallel circuit. Note: the positive
terminal of the cell is the longer vertical line 1
1 2
2
a) b) 3
Measuring current
l The rate at which electrons flow through a wire is measured
in units called amps, with the symbol A, and is measured
using an ammeter.
l When an ammeter is placed in a circuit its positive terminal
is connected to a wire that leads towards the positive
terminal of the cell. It is always connected in series with
the component through which the current flow is to be
measured.
Division of the current in a parallel circuit
l When the current flowing in a wire reaches two wires
Tips for success with the same resistance in the parallel part of a circuit it
Make sure you can explain splits equally.
differences between series and l For example, if a current of 4 A is in the single wire each of
parallel circuits. the parallel wires carries a current of 2 A. When the wires
join to make a single wire again the current strength is
restored to 4 A.
Voltage
l The voltage is the difference in electrical potential (potential
difference) between two points in a circuit and is measured
in units called volts, with the symbol V, using a voltmeter.
l The voltmeter is connected into the circuit with its positive
(red) terminal connected to a wire that leads towards the
positive terminal of the cell. The negative (black) terminal
must be connected to a wire that leads to the negative
terminal of the cell.
l These wires must be attached into the circuit so that the
+ – voltmeter is in parallel with the part of the circuit being
V tested. In Figure 16.2 the voltmeter is measuring the voltage
across the lamp.
Figure 16.2 A voltmeter in a circuit
Tips for success

Remember that an ammeter
is connected in series with
the component through which
current flow is measured. A
voltmeter is attached in parallel.
91
l PHYSICS

3 Draw a circuit with a cell, a switch and a lamp. Add an ammeter to the
circuit to measure the current flow through the lamp.
4 In Figure 16.1a on page 91, if the current at 1 is 3 A what is it at 2?
5 In Figure 16.1b on page 91, if the current at a is 3 A what is it at 2 and 3?
6 Draw a circuit diagram with one cell and three lamps in parallel.
7 What is the difference between a volt and an amp?

Use the components below to draw a circuit with a light that can be switched
on and off. [2]
Figure 16.3
92

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Answers to selected questions can be found at www.hoddereducation.com/checkpointextras

General revision tips

Figure 1.1 The main organs of a plant

Absorption of water and minerals

Check your understanding

Spotlight on the test

The process of photosynthesis takes place in

Carbohydrate, in the form of Oxygen is produced, which is used by

Figure 1.2 The stages in photosynthesis

The starch test

1 Carbon dioxide and starch production

3 The effect of chlorophyll on starch production

Check your understanding

Figure 1.5 A variegated leaf

The production of oxygen

gas collecting no gas

Figure 1.6 The production of oxygen by water plants

What is the test to show What is the test to show

Figure 1.7 All about photosynthesis

Spotlight on the test

Figure 1.8 Parts of a flower

Wind-pollinated flowers do not have scent, may not have

Check your understanding

A fertilisation occurs F seeds grow

Spotlight on the test

dandelion fruit maple fruit

Parts of the body

stomach and intestine

kidneys and bladder

Figure 2.1 The major organs of the body

The organs of the body perform a range of tasks to keep the

l Movement: the place where two bones meet is called a joint.

Figure 2.2 Antagonistic muscles

Check your understanding

Spotlight on the test

Diet and nutrition

l The body needs water as all the chemical reactions of life

Figure 2.3 Pyramid of food showing the

Check your understanding

Spotlight on the test

Figure 2.4 The digestive system is made

Studying the stomach

Check your understanding

biting grinding tearing

10 On Figure 2.4 on page 12, label the organs A–J.

12 Did Beaumont use first-hand experience or secondary sources in

Spotlight on the test

The circulatory system

Figure 2.5 A simple diagram of the circulatory system

The action of the heart

Check your understanding

15 Did Harvey use first-hand experience or secondary sources for his

Spotlight on the test

The respiratory system

Figure 2.6 The respiratory system

Components of the respiratory system

glucose + oxygen energy released + carbon dioxide + water

Figure 2.7 Aerobic respiration

Check your understanding

Spotlight on the test

The menstrual cycle

Figure 2.8 The foetus in the uterus

_ E _