Chapter-2 4-2 5
Chapter-2 4-2 5
Concept of Multiplexing
As shown in fig multiplexer takes 4 input lines and diverts them to single output line.
The signal from 4 different devices is combined and carried by this single line.
At the receiving side, a demultiplexer takes this signal from a single line & breaks it into
the original signals and passes them to the 4 different receivers.
Advantages of Multiplexing
If no multiplexing is used between the users at two different sites that are distance apart,
then separate communication lines would be required as shown in fig.
This is not only costly but also become difficult to manage. If multiplexing is used then,
only one line is required. This leads to the reduction in the line cost and also it would be
easier to keep track of one line than several lines.
More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.
Why to use Multiplexing?
• If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in
such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth.
• For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10
unit is shared by each signal.
• When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision.
Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
Types of Multiplexing
It is analog technique. Each signal is assigned a different frequency (sub channel) within
the main channel.
FDM requires that the bandwidth of a link should be greater than the combined
bandwidths of the various signals to be transmitted. Thus each signal having different
frequency forms a particular logical channel on the link and follows this channel only.
These channels are then separated by the strips of unused bandwidth called guard bands.
These guard bands prevent the signals from overlapping as shown in Fig.
In FDM, signals to be transmitted must be analog signals. Thus digital signals need to
be converted to analog form, if they are to use FDM.
A typical analog Internet connection via a twisted pair telephone line requires approximately
three kilohertz (3 kHz) of bandwidth for accurate and reliable data transfer.
Twisted-pair lines are common in households and small businesses. But major telephone cables,
operating between large businesses, government agencies, and municipalities, are capable of
much larger bandwidths.
FDM Process
In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier
frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal
that can be transported by the link.
Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the
modulated signal.
These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel.
Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth guard bands to prevent
signals from overlapping.
Figure: Multiplexing Process :
Question: Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed together. What is
the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz between the
channels to prevent interference? (4 Marks)
Answer:
• For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the required
bandwidth is at least
Answer:
• Five channels each with 200 kHz bandwidth are multiplexed using FDM.
• For five channels, we need at least four guard bands.
• Guard Bands of 10 KHz is used.
• This means that the required bandwidth is at least :
• 5*200+4*10=1040 KHz.
Advantages of FDM:
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
• Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability
of fiber-optic cable.
• The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable, but
using a fiber-optic cable for a single line wastes the available bandwidth.
• WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and Demultiplexing
involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels. The difference is that the
frequencies are very high.
• WDM is an analog multiplexing technique.
• In WDM different signals are optical or light signals that are transmitted through optical
fiber.
• Various light waves from different sources are combined to form a composite light signal
that is transmitted across the channel to the receiver.
• At the receiver side, this composite light signal is broken into different light waves by
Demultiplexer.
• The Combining and the Splitting of light waves is done by using a PRISM. Prism bends beam of
light based on the angle of incidence and the frequency of light wave.
Relatively simple
An order of data is maintained
No addressing information is required, channel capacity should be large.
Commonly used with ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network).
1. The channel capacity cannot be fully utilized. Some of the slots go empty in certain frames.
2. The capacity of single communication line that is used to carry the various transmission
should be greater than the total speed of input lines.
Disadvantages of TDM :
Switching Nodes:
• Nodes may connect to other nodes, or to some stations.
• Network is usually partially connected
• there is not a direct link between every possible pair of nodes.
• However, some redundant connections are desirable for reliability
Types of Switching
Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching is used in public telephone networks.
Telephone network provides telephone service which involves the two way, real-time
transmission of voice signals across a network.
The network connection allows electrical current and the associated voice signal to flow
between the two users.
These networks are connection oriented because they require setting up of a connection
before the actual transfer of information can take place.
The transfer mode of a network that involves setting up a dedicated end to end
connection is called Circuit Switching.
Communication via circuit switching has three phases:
1. Circuit establishment (link by link)
Routing & resource allocation (FDM or TDM)
2. Data transfer
3. Circuit disconnect
Deallocate the dedicated resources
Phases of Operation in Circuit Switching
Communication via Circuit switching takes place over three phases of operation:
For example consider above figure, station A sends a request to node-4 requesting a
connection to station E.
Typically, the link from A to 4 is a dedicated line node 4 must find the next route
leading to E node 4 selects the link to node 5 and so on then sends a message
requesting connection to E.
Thus, a dedicated path has been established from A-4-5-6-E
2. Data Transfer -After establishing a connection actual transfer of information can take
place. It can be analog or digital depending on the nature of network.
Data can now be transmitted from A through the network to E.
The path is A-4 link, internal switching through 4, 4-5 channel, internal switching
through 5, 5-6 channel, internal switching through 6, 6-E link. Generally, the
connection is full duplex.
3. Circuit disconnect (Teardown) : After some time the connection between two users
is terminated usually by the action of one or two stations.Signals must be propagated to
nodes 4, 5, and 6 to deallocate the dedicated resources.
Advantages :
The dedicated transmission channel provides a guaranteed data rate.
Because of dedicated path there is no delay in data flow.
This method is suitable for long continuous transmission.
Disadvantages :
Since the connection is dedicated it cannot be used to transmit any other data even if the
channel is free.
Dedicated channels require more bandwidth.
It takes more time to establish connection.
Message Switching
With message switching there is no need to establish a dedicated path between two stations.
When a station sends a message, the destination address is appended to the message.
The message is then transmitted through the network, in its entirety, from node to node.
Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety on disk, and then transmits the
message to the next node.
This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
Advantages:
• Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit switched systems, because more
devices are sharing the channel.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be temporarily stored in route.
• Message priorities can be established due to store-and-forward technique.
• Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of broadcast address appended in the
message.
Disadvantages
• Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they must have large disks to hold
potentially long messages.
Packet Switching
In Packet Switching, messages are broken up into packets, each of which includes a header
with source, destination and intermediate node address information.
Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the advantages of message
and circuit switching.
There are two methods of packet switching:
o Datagram and
o virtual circuit.
In packet switching methods, a message is broken into small parts, called packets.
Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and destination addresses.
Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length, they can be stored in main memory
instead of disk, therefore access delay and cost are minimized.
Also the transmission speeds, between nodes, are optimized.
With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto the network on a first-come,
first-served basis.
Advantages:
Better utilization of the network segments in terms of the usage of the network path.
If a certain link goes down during the transmission, the remaining packets can be sent
through another route.
Since many users can share transmission resources efficiently, the cost of intermittent data
communication is reduced.
Disadvantages:
Variable transmission delays caused by packet processing and packet queues at packet
switches.
Some packet-switching networks support variable packet sizes; this contributes to longer
packet processing times at packet switches.
Sometimes packet may not arrive at their destination in the order in which they were
originally transmitted
Datagram packet Switching
Each message is divided into a stream of packets. Each packet is separately addressed and
treated as an independent unit with its own control instructions.
The switching devices route each packet independently through the network, with each
intermediate node determining the packet’s next route segment.
Before transmission starts, the sequence of packets and there are established by the
exchange of control information between the sending terminal, the network and the
receiving terminal.
Resources are not allocated for any packet so there is no reserved bandwidth.
The switches in datagram network are referred to as routers.
No dedicated connection is established between the sender and the receiver, so this network
is called as connectionless network.
Datagram packet switching operates at network layer
Advantages:
No call setup phase required.
More flexible because routing can be used to avoid congested port of the network.
Cheaper in cost.
Disadvantages:
Packets are forwarded slowly as compare to the Virtual circuit approach.
Virtual Circuit Packet Switching
It establishes a logical connection between the sending and receiving devices called Virtual
circuit.
The sending device starts the conversation by communicating with the receiving device and
agreeing as communication parameters, such as maximum message size and the path to be
taken.
Once this virtual circuit is established; the two devices use it for the rest of the conversation.
All packets travel through the logical connection established between the sending device
and the receiving device.
Similar to circuit switched network, there are setup and teardown phases along with the
data transfer phase.
Virtual circuit is established in the data link layer.
Virtual Circuit Identifier(VCI) is a small number which is used by a frame between two
switches.
1. Set up
2. Data Transfer
3. Teardown
Set up Phase:
o In the Set up phase a switch creates an entry for a virtual circuit by following two
approaches-