CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

3D printing has many advantages over traditional manufacturing techniques but there is
still scope for improvement through further research & development activities. (Tuan Ngo, et
al., 2018) reviews the main 3D printing methods, materials used in it as well as their
applications in biomedical engineering aerospace industry buildings and more.

(David L.Bourell, et al., 2016) presents a comprehensive overview of the materials

requirements for additive manufacturing (AM) and their associated processes. It also provides
an analysis of microstructural features that affect AM part properties, as well as descriptions
of physical, mechanical, optical, and electrical service properties. Finally, it proposes an
Additive Manufacturability Index to assess how suitable certain material is for use in AM
applications.

Additive Manufacturing refers to 3D printing technologies which use digital slicing or

tomography data from computer-aided design models (CAD), scans, etc., to build objects layer
by layer without molds or machining tools being required. Polymer Processing involves
manipulating materials such as plastics into desired shapes using various methods like
extrusion, lamination, and bioprinting among others. The goal of (Samuel Clark Ligon, et al.,
2017) is simply to provide readers with information about what types of AM exist today along
with their associated advantages/disadvantages.

(Xin Wang, et al., 2017) provides an overview of 3D printing techniques for polymer
composite materials and the properties and performance of 3D printed composite parts. It also
discusses potential applications in biomedical, electronics, and aerospace engineering fields.
However, it does not provide any specific results or conclusions from experiments conducted
by the authors; rather it identifies important limitations to motivate future research on this topic.
3D Printing is a process that uses computer-aided design software to create three-dimensional
objects layer by layer. The most common methods are Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM),
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Inkjet 3D Printing, Stereolithography(SLA), and Three-
Dimensional Plotting(3DP). These processes can be used to produce components with complex
geometries at a relatively low cost compared to traditional manufacturing methods.

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 (Vamsi Krishna Balla, et al., 2019) is a review of the use of natural fibers and their
associated properties for reinforcing polymers. It does not present any results, but rather
provides an overview of different types of natural fibers that can be used as reinforcements in
polymer composites, fiber surface modification techniques to enhance bonding between the
matrix and reinforcement materials, conventional processing routes for NFRCs (natural fiber
reinforced composites), additive manufacturing technologies applicable to these composite
materials and challenges/opportunities related with AMbased fabrication processes

2.2 FUSED FILAMENT FABRICATION

The samples with a 0° orientation, where layers were deposited along the length of the
sample, had superior tensile strength and impact resistance compared to other orientations.
(Omar S. Es-Said, et al., 1999) suggests anisotropic properties are weak due to interlayer
bonding and porosity between layers.

(B.H. Lee, et al., 2005) indicate that the optimal factor settings for each performance
characteristic are different. The FDM process is highly complex and there isn't a theoretical
model to predict its outcomes, so an artificial neural network (ANN) was used instead. (B.H.
Lee, et al., 2005) found out which parameters had the most influence on dimensional accuracy
in terms of layer thickness, part orientation, raster angle, air gap, and raster width as well as
their interactions with one another. It also determined what parameter combinations would
minimize percentage change in length, width, and thickness simultaneously using Taguchi's
Parameter Design method combined with Grey Relational Grade analysis - both statistical
methods commonly used when optimizing processes like these.

The results of (K Thrimurthulu, et al., 2004) are that an optimum part deposition
orientation can be obtained for the fused deposition modeling process to enhance the surface
finish and reduce build time. This is done by using a real coded genetic algorithm that searches
through different orientations to find the best one. The predictions from this method were found
to agree with earlier published results, showing its effectiveness.

(Anoop Kumar Sood, et al., 2009) show that the quality of built parts depends on five
important process parameters such as layer thickness, orientation, raster angle, raster width,
and air gap. Empirical models relating to response and process parameters were developed to
determine optimal parameter settings for each response. The major reason for weak strength

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was attributed to distortion within or between the layers which can be minimized by using the
desirability function to maximize all responses simultaneously.

The results of (R. Anitha, et al., 2001) are that the various process parameters used in
FDM affect the quality characteristics of prototypes. The Taguchi technique was used to assess
how these parameters influence prototype quality, and it showed that certain combinations can
produce higher-quality parts than others. (R. Anitha, et al., 2001) provides valuable insight
into which parameter settings should be chosen for optimal performance when using FDM
technology for rapid prototyping applications.

(Pulak M. Pandey, et al., 2002) proposes a slicing procedure for Fused Deposition
Modelling (FDM) based on the real-time edge profile of deposited layers. This adaptive slicing
method is designed to improve the part surface quality and geometric accuracy in Rapid
Prototyping, while also reducing build time. The proposed technique takes into account non-
rectangular layer edges which can be parabolic or other shapes, rather than just rectangular as
assumed by existing methods. Examples have been included to demonstrate how this new
approach works in practice.

Five important process parameters such as layer thickness, orientation, raster angle,
raster width, and air gap affect three responses: tensile strength (the amount a material can be
stretched before breaking), flexural strength (how much bending the material can take without
breaking) and impact strength (resistance to sudden force). (Samir Kumar Panda, et al., 2009)
used central composite design experiments to develop empirical models relating each response
with the different process variables. These models were then validated using an analysis of
variance. Finally, the bacterial foraging technique was used to suggest theoretical combinations
of parameter settings to achieve good strengths simultaneously across all three responses.

2.3 HYDROXYAPETITE COATING

In Alam et al.`s (2019) groundbreaking study, the incorporation of bronze

particles within PLA nanocomposites resulted in a notable increase in the elastic
modulus by 10-27%. Similarly, the addition of silver particles led to a remarkable 103%
increase in stiffness for the PLA nanocomposite scaffolds. Moreover, the application of
acid treatment further enhanced antibacterial properties and bioactivity by 20-25%.
Through the innovative use of fused filament fabrication (FFF), Alam et al. successfully

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fabricated anti-bacterial scaffolds comprising copper, bronze, and silver particles
embedded within PLA nanocomposites. Despite a decrease in tensile strength due to
the addition of metallic/metallic alloy particles, this technique yielded enhanced
mechanical properties, including increased elastic modulus and elongation.
Additionally, surface treatment with acetic acid facilitated the formation of a micro-
porous network, significantly augmenting antibacterial properties and bioactivity.
These findings highlight the promising potential of PLA nanocomposites for bone
scaffold applications, offering improved mechanical strength alongside inherent
antibacterial activity.

P. Shanmugapriya et al. (2021) successfully coated Ti-6Al-4V alloy with

Al2O3/Gr/HAP nano-composite coatings using the sol-gel technique. The coatings exhibited a
remarkable improvement in hardness, increasing from 358 to 616 HV, indicating enhanced
mechanical properties. Furthermore, the coated substrates demonstrated higher corrosion
potential and superior biocompatibility compared to bare titanium, showcasing their suitability
for biomedical applications. Notably, the wear rate of the composite coating was found to be
lower than that of the bare titanium alloy, signifying improved durability. Through XRD and
Raman Spectroscopy, the presence of alumina, graphene, and hydroxyapatite in the coatings
was confirmed, affirming their composition. The coated substrates displayed a homogeneous,
smooth surface with visible pores or pits, illustrating the effectiveness of the coating process.
Additionally, the coatings prevented the release of metallic ions and facilitated apatite
formation, as validated by EDX analysis. The study conducted by Shanmugapriya et al. (2021)
underscores the significant enhancement in wear and corrosion resistance achieved through the
coating technique, suggesting its potential for both industrial and biomedical applications.

Experimental studies conducted by Y.S. Narayan et al. (2023) investigated the effects
of coating on 3D-printed ABS samples. They successfully synthesized a hydrophobic clear
solution for coating and applied it using a dip coating process, which notably improved the
hydrophobicity of the ABS specimens. Coated samples exhibited higher water contact angles
(WCA), indicating their hydrophobic nature and protection against water absorption. The
coating process did not affect dimensional accuracy, while it reduced surface roughness,
particularly with an increase in layer thickness. Additionally, the interlayer bonding of
fabricated parts was found to be superior in coated samples. Furthermore, water retention
decreased after coating, as evidenced by water absorption tests. These results highlight the

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effectiveness of the coating in enhancing surface properties and protecting ABS parts. Future
research avenues could explore monitoring surface properties during weathering or other
influences to further understand the long-term performance of coated ABS samples.

Muhammad Anwaar Nazeer et al. (2020) conducted a study focusing on the

modification of 3D printed PLA scaffolds with chitosan (CS) and hydroxyapatite (HA). Using
formic acid as a suitable solvent for modification, they successfully synthesized PLA/CS/HA
composite scaffolds, which exhibited improved surface activity. In vitro cell viability results
revealed enhanced attachment and proliferation on the modified scaffolds, indicating their
potential for bone defect repair in tissue engineering applications. Virgin PLA scaffolds
exhibited a slow degradation rate and weight loss after 15 weeks, while modified scaffolds
showed improved surface activity and excellent performance as scaffolds. The study also
demonstrated the suitability of formic acid for incorporating CS and HA into PLA scaffolds,
with FTIR analysis revealing strong interaction between PLA, CS, and HA. These findings
underscore the promising prospects of PLA/CS/HA composite scaffolds in bone tissue
engineering with FTIR analysis revealing strong interaction between PLA, CS, and HA. These
findings underscore the promising prospects of PLA/CS/HA composite scaffolds in bone tissue
engineering.

Yang Aiping (2004) Nano-hydroxyapatite (n-HA) was used to make a new hydrogel
bio composite with poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) by a unique technique. Fourier transform
infrared absorption spectra (IR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction
(XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TG) and burning test were used to test the physical and
chemical characteristics of the composite. Chemical binding between inorganic n-HA and poly
(vinyl alcohol) was investigated and discussed. The results showed that the composite had good
thermal stability and homogeneity. The n-HA crystals were uniformly distributed in the
polymer matrix. The improved n-HA/PVA hydrogel could be used as an artificial articular
cartilage, showing a promoting prospect.

XIONG Dang sheng Nano-hydroxyapatite reinforced poly (vinyl alcohol) gel (nano-
HA/PVA gel) composites has been proposed as a promising biomaterial, especially used as an
articular cartilage repair biomaterial. In this paper, nano-HA/PVA gel composite was prepared
by in situ synthesis method and incorporation with freeze-thaw cycle process. The
microstructure and morphology were investigated by X-ray diffraction, TEM, SEM and FTIR.
The results showed that the size of HA particles synthesized in PVA solution was on the

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nanometer scale. Both the size and crystallinity of HA particles synthesized in PVA solution
decreased compared with that of HA synthesized in distilled water. The nano-HA particles
were distributed in PVA matrix uniformly due to the effect of PVA solution as a dispersant
while low content of HA particles in the composites. On the contrary, with high content of
nano-HA particles in the composites, the particles tended to aggregate. The result of FT-IR
analysis indicated that the chemical bond between nano-HA particles and PVA matrix existed.
The conformation and degree of tacticity of PVA molecule changed because of the addition of
HA particles. Furthermore, the interfacial strength of the composites was improved due to the
interaction between nano-HA particle and PVA matrix and this was beneficial to improving
the mechanical properties of the composites.

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