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Advances in Food
Rheology and Its
Applications
Related Titles
Advances in Food
Rheology and Its
Applications
Editor
J. Ahmed
Food and Nutrition Program
Environment and Life Sciences Research Center
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research
Kuwait City, Kuwait
Associate Editors
P. Ptaszek
Department of Engineering and Machinery for Food Industry
Faculty of Food Technology, Agricultural University in Cracow
Krakow, Poland
S. Basu
Dr. S.S. Bhatnagar University
Institute of Chemical Engineering & Technology
Panjab University, Chandigarh, Panjab, India
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
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such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluat-
ing and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using
such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others,
including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or
ideas contained in the material herein.
J. Ahmed, Dr. S.S. Bhatnagar University, Institute of Chemical Engineering and Tech-
nology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, Panjab, India; Food and Nutrition Program,
Environment and Life Sciences Research Center, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Re-
search, Kuwait City, Kuwait
A. Asghar, National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
A. Aslam Maan, National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agri-
culture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
A. Bannikova, School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Vic, Australia
S. Basu, Dr. S.S. Bhatnagar University, Institute of Chemical Engineering & Technol-
ogy, Panjab University, Chandigarh, Panjab, India
P. Chakraborty, Dr. S.S. Bhatnagar University, Institute of Chemical Engineering &
Technology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, Panjab, India
V. Glicerina, Interdepartmental Centre for Agri-Food Industrial Research, Alma Mater
Studiorum, University of Bologna, Cesena (FC), Italy
M.J. Hernández, Department of Earth Physics and Thermodynamics, Faculties of
Physics and Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
M. Houška, Food Research Institute Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
S. Kasapis, School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Vic, Australia
K. Muthukumarappan, Department of Agriculture and Biosystems Engineering, South
Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, United States
S. Naji-Tabasi, Food Hydrocolloids Research Centre, Department of Food Science and
Technology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (FUM), Mashhad, Iran
A. Nazir, National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
S. Pérez-Quirce, Department of Agriculture and Forestry Engineering, Food Technol-
ogy, College of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, University of Valladolid,
Palencia, Spain
S. Prakash, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
P. Ptaszek, Dr. S.S. Bhatnagar University, Institute of Chemical Engineering and Tech-
nology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, Panjab, India; Department of Engineering
and Machinery for Food Industry, Faculty of Food Technology, Agricultural Univer-
sity in Cracow, Krakow, Poland
xiii
xiv List of Contributors
S.M.A. Razavi, Food Hydrocolloids Research Centre, Department of Food Science and
Technology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (FUM), Mashhad, Iran
S. Romani, Interdepartmental Centre for Agri-Food Industrial Research, Alma Mater
Studiorum, University of Bologna; Department of Agri-Food Science and Technol-
ogy, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Cesena (FC), Italy
F. Ronda, Department of Agriculture and Forestry Engineering, Food Technology,
College of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, University of Valladolid, Palen-
cia, Spain
S. Różańska, Department of Chemical Engineering and Equipment, Faculty of Chemi-
cal Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland
S. Sahin, Middle East Technical University, Department of Food Engineering, Ankara,
Turkey
A. Salvador, Institute of Agricultural Chemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC),
Valencia, Spain
T. Sanz, Institute of Agricultural Chemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC),
Valencia, Spain
U.S. Shivhare, Dr. S.S. Bhatnagar University, Institute of Chemical Engineering &
Technology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, Panjab, India
G. Sumnu, Middle East Technical University, Department of Food Engineering,
Ankara, Turkey
G.J. Swamy, Department of Agriculture and Biosystems Engineering, South Dakota
State University, Brookings, SD, United States
B.C. Tatar, Middle East Technical University, Department of Food Engineering,
Ankara, Turkey
E. Tornberg, Department of Food Technology, Engineering and Nutrition, Lund
University, Lund, Sweden
G. Tucker, Baking and Cereal Processing Department, Campden BRI, Chipping
Campden, Glos, United Kingdom
M. Villanueva, Department of Agriculture and Forestry Engineering, Food Technology,
College of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, University of Valladolid, Palencia,
Spain
R. Žitný, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
Woodhead Publishing Series in
Food Science, Technology and
Nutrition
xv
xvi Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition
Yeasts in food
Edited by T. Boekhout and V. Robert
Phytochemical functional foods
Edited by I. T. Johnson and G. Williamson
Novel food packaging techniques
Edited by R. Ahvenainen
Detecting pathogens in food
Edited by T. A. McMeekin
Natural antimicrobials for the minimal processing of foods
Edited by S. Roller
Texture in food Volume 1: Semi-solid foods
Edited by B. M. McKenna
Dairy processing: Improving quality
Edited by G. Smit
Hygiene in food processing: Principles and practice
Edited by H. L. M. Lelieveld, M. A. Mostert, B. White and J. Holah
Rapid and on-line instrumentation for food quality assurance
Edited by I. Tothill
Sausage manufacture: Principles and practice
E. Essien
Environmentally-friendly food processing
Edited by B. Mattsson and U. Sonesson
Bread making: Improving quality
Edited by S. P. Cauvain
Food preservation techniques
Edited by P. Zeuthen and L. Bøgh-Sørensen
Food authenticity and traceability
Edited by M. Lees
Analytical methods for food additives
R. Wood, L. Foster, A. Damant and P. Key
Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 2
Edited by K. V. Peter
Texture in food Volume 2: Solid foods
Edited by D. Kilcast
Proteins in food processing
Edited by R. Yada
Detecting foreign bodies in food
Edited by M. Edwards
Understanding and measuring the shelf-life of food
Edited by R. Steele
Poultry meat processing and quality
Edited by G. Mead
Functional foods, ageing and degenerative disease
Edited by C. Remacle and B. Reusens
xx Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition
Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 4: Mangosteen
to white sapote
Edited by E. M. Yahia
Food and beverage stability and shelf life
Edited by D. Kilcast and P. Subramaniam
Processed Meats: Improving safety, nutrition and quality
Edited by J. P. Kerry and J. F. Kerry
Food chain integrity: A holistic approach to food traceability, safety, quality and
authenticity
Edited by J. Hoorfar, K. Jordan, F. Butler and R. Prugger
Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products Volume 1
Edited by Y. Nys, M. Bain and F. Van Immerseel
Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products Volume 2
Edited by F. Van Immerseel, Y. Nys and M. Bain
Animal feed contamination: Effects on livestock and food safety
Edited by J. Fink-Gremmels
Hygienic design of food factories
Edited by J. Holah and H. L. M. Lelieveld
Manley’s technology of biscuits, crackers and cookies Fourth edition
Edited by D. Manley
Nanotechnology in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries
Edited by Q. Huang
Rice quality: A guide to rice properties and analysis
K. R. Bhattacharya
Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging
Edited by J. P. Kerry
Reducing saturated fats in foods
Edited by G. Talbot
Handbook of food proteins
Edited by G. O. Phillips and P. A. Williams
Lifetime nutritional influences on cognition, behaviour and psychiatric illness
Edited by D. Benton
Food machinery for the production of cereal foods, snack foods and confectionery
L.-M. Cheng
Alcoholic beverages: Sensory evaluation and consumer research
Edited by J. Piggott
Extrusion problems solved: Food, pet food and feed
M. N. Riaz and G. J. Rokey
Handbook of herbs and spices Second edition Volume 1
Edited by K. V. Peter
Handbook of herbs and spices Second edition Volume 2
Edited by K. V. Peter
Breadmaking: Improving quality Second edition
Edited by S. P. Cauvain
xxvi Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition
Functional Dietary Lipids: Food Formulation, Consumer Issues and Innovation for Health
Edited by T. Sanders
Handbook on Natural Pigments in Food and Beverages: Industrial Applications for
Improving Color
Edited by R. Carle and R. M. Schweiggert
Integrating the Packaging and Product Experience in Food and Beverages: A Road-Map to
Consumer Satisfaction
Edited by P. Burgess
The Stability and Shelf Life of Food Second edition
Edited by Persis Subramaniam and Peter Wareing
Multisensory Flavor Perception: From Fundamental Neuroscience through to the
Marketplace
Edited by Betina Piqueras-Fiszman and Charles Spence
Flavor: From food to behaviors, wellbeing and health
Edited by Andrée Voilley, Christian Salles, Elisabeth Guichard and Patrick Etiévant
Developing Food Products for Consumers with Specific Dietary Needs
Edited by Wayne Morley and Steve Osborn
Advances in Food Traceability Techniques and Technologies: Improving Quality
Throughout the Food Chain
Edited by Montserrat Espiñeira and J. Francisco Santaclara
Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Extraction, Separation, Component Modification
and Process Intensification
Edited by Kai Knoerzer, Pablo Juliano, and Geoffrey Smithers
Steamed Breads: Ingredients, Process and Quality
Sidi Huang and Diane Miskelly
Handbook of Hygiene Control in the Food Industry, Second Edition
Edited by Huub Lelieveld, Domagoj Gabrić, and John Holah (Editors)
Handbook for Sensory and Consumer-Driven New Product Development: Innovative
Technologies for the Food and Beverage Industry
Maurice O’Sullivan
Early Nutrition and Long-Term Health: Mechanisms, Consequences and Opportunities
Edited by Jose M. Saavedra and Anne Dattilo
Baking Problems Solved, Second Edition
S. P. Cauvain
Non-Equilibrium States and Glass Transitions in Food
Edited by Bhesh Bhandari, Yrjö Roos
New Aspects of Meat Quality: From Genes to Ethics
Edited by Peter Purslow
Advances in Food Authenticity Testing
Edited by Gerald Downey
Food for the Ageing Population, Second Edition
Edited by Monique Raats, Lisette De Groot, Dieneke van Asselt
Microbiological Quality of Food
Edited by Antonio Bevilacqua, Maria Rosaria Corbo and Milena Sinigaglia
xxx Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition
Swainson’s Handbook of Technical and Quality Management for the Food Manufacturing
Sector
Edited by Mark Swainson
Food Protection and Security
Edited by Shaun Kennedy
Cereal Grains: Assessing and Managing Quality 2e
Edited by Colin Wrigley, Ian Batey, Diane Miskelly
Advances in Food Rheology and Its Applications
Edited by Jasim Ahmed, Pawel Ptazsek, Santanu Basu
Chapter 1
dependent on the amount of water insoluble solids, the area of the large particles
and in the concentrated region also on the hardness of the particles. One chapter
(Chapter 8) has been included in the book, which deals with the rheology of di-
etary fiber (DF) suspensions and how the microstructural properties influence it.
Most of the rheology books do not deal with practical applications in food
product developments. There is hardly any singular book where attempts are
made to show theoretical concepts of rheology and practical applications in
food systems in detail. An impressive development has been observed in the
area of food rheology measurement in last two decades and some fields are
coming up with huge potential. Areas like tribology, extensional rheology,
LAOS measurement, nanoemulsion, gluten-free dough rheology, food gelation
have created interest among professionals and food/biopolymer industries. This
book provides a comprehensive overview of these most prominent areas of re-
search in food rheology. All these topics are compiled in this book, and we do
believe the book will be helpful to professionals and students who are interested
in the advancement in food rheology.
REFERENCES
Ahmed, J., Taher, A., Mulla, M., Arfat, Y.A., Luciano, G., 2016. Effect of sieve particle size
on functional, thermal, rheological and pasting properties of Indian and Turkish lentil flour.
J. Food Eng. 186, 34–41.
Carmona, J.A., Ramírez, P., Calero, N., Muñoz, J., 2014. Large amplitude oscillatory shear of
xanthan gum solutions. Effect of sodium chloride (NaCl) concentration. J. Food Eng. 126,
165–172.
Hyun, K., Wilhelm, M., Klein, C.O., Cho, K.S., Nam, J.G., Ahn, K.H., Lee, S.J., Ewoldt, R.H.,
McKinley, G.H., 2011. A review of nonlinear oscillatory shear tests: analysis and application
of large amplitude oscillatory shear (LAOS). Prog. Polym. Sci. 36, 1697–1753.
Melito, H., Daubert, C., Foegeding, E., 2013. Relationships between nonlinear viscoelastic behav-
ior and rheological, sensory and oral processing behavior of commercial cheese. J. Texture
Stud. 44 (2013), 253–288.
Chapter 2
According to the Newton’s law, for an ideal viscous liquid, the applied stress
is proportional to the rate of shear strain but is independent of the strain; in other
words, the viscosity η is a constant. Such fluid obeys Eq. 2.1 and is called Newtonian
fluid. Those polymer solutions or dispersions that do not obey Eq. 2.1 are called
non-Newtonian fluids where the viscosity is shear-rate dependent. When the solution
viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate, the solution is said to have a shear thin-
ning (pseudoplastic) flow behavior (systems with polymeric ingredients/additives
at 1–20% solids content); by contrast, if the solution viscosity increases with in-
creasing shear rate, the solution has a shear thickening flow behavior (concentrated
slurries ≈ 50% native potato starch granules in water) (Lapasin and Pricl, 1995).
Advances in Food Rheology and Its Applications. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100431-9.00002-4
Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 7
8 PART | I Advances in Food Rheology
FIGURE 2.1 Hysteresis loop of shear stress and viscosity versus shear rate for a thixotropic
fluid.
For some non-Newtonian liquids, flow viscosity may depend on the length
of flow time and flow history. It is known that soft biomaterials are character-
ized by a three-dimensional structure, which can break down at some level of
applied stress. Samples with a yield point have such three-dimensional struc-
ture, which breaks once its yield point is reached. The force needed to break
the structure is called yield stress (S0). In the case of materials with a three-
dimensional structure that doesn’t break down immediately when a force is ap-
plied (thixotropic materials), upon application of a constant shear rate, viscosity
reaches a peak value and then gradually decreases with time until it reaches
a stationary state. This time dependency is the effect of a high degree of dis-
solved or dispersed materials. The high concentration of dispersed phase results
in a time dependency, since the particles cannot move independently from each
other. Thixotropic materials break their structure under shear and rebuild the
structure, that is, the viscosity returns to its original value, after termination
of the shear with a delayed period rather than instantaneously. As shown in
Fig. 2.1, for a typical thixotropic liquid, plot of viscosity versus shear rate forms
a hysteresis loop when the viscosity measurement is made first at increasing
shear rate followed by a decrease in shear rate (Young and Smart, 1996).
A useful mathematical model for describing shear thinning behavior and
thixotropic behavior is the power law model:
S = So + kγ n (2.2)
where n is called the flow behavior index or power law index and k is called the
consistency index. Both n and k are concentration dependent. In general, when
concentration or molecular weight increases n decreases, but k increases. When
concentration approaches zero, n equals 1, the power law relationship returns to
the Newton’s law (Eq. 2.1).
The Cross equation can be used to describe both high and low shear rate
regions of pseudoplastic solutions, which includes both the zero shear viscosity
η0 and the limiting viscosity at infinite shear rate, η∞:
η0 − η∞
= ( kγ m ) (2.3)
η − η∞
Rheology and Food Microstructure Chapter | 2 9
FIGURE 2.2 Schematic plot of zero-shear specific viscosity, ηsp versus dimensionless overlap
parameter c[η] in a bilogarithmic plot for random coil polysaccharide solutions.