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Class 12 History Notes
Class 12 History Notes
● The people of Harappan Civilisation ate a wide range of plant and animal
products including fish and meat, wheat, maize, millet, pulses, rice and
another eatables. For this, cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig were
domesticated by the Harappans.
● Archaeological evidences suggested that oxen were used for ploughing and
two different crops were grown together. As most of the Harappan sites are
located in Semi-arid lands, it is evident that water from canals and wells
was used for irrigation.
Social and Economic Differences among Harappan People:
● Economic life of the people was very prosperous The main occupations of
the people were agriculture and domestication of animals.
● Trade was well developed. Both internal and external trade were carried out.
Pictures of ships, boats have also been found on seals which throw light on
Harappan contacts with far off places
● The caste system was not present in the society. All people live together
with mutual love and understanding. Women held a high position or rank in
the society.
● By 1800 BCE, most of the mature Harappan sites were abandoned. Around
1200 BCE, this civilisation had completely vanished. After 1900 BCE, a rural
way of life what was known as ‘Late Harappan’ or ‘successor cultures’
emerged.
● The reasons for the end of the civilisation range from climatic change,
deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and drying up of rivers and to
overuse of the landscape. All these factors may have weakened the
civilisation, but its ultimate extinction is more likely to have been completed
by deliberate and large-scale destruction or by an invasion.
Important Terms:
● Seal: It generally contained animal motifs and signs from a script.
● Hoards: Generally metal objects and jewellery kept by people inside
containers.
● Stratigraphy: The study of historical layers.
● Motif: Name of animal, used by the Harappans on seals to mark some sort
of trademark.
● Proto-Shiva: A seal that shows a figure seated in a yogic posture
surrounded by animals has been designated as Proto-Shiva, an early form
of one of the deities of Hinduism.
● Lingas: The polished stones were often worshipped as symbols of the God
Shiva.
● Shamans: These were the groups of men and women who claimed to have
magical and healing powers and ability to communicate with the other
world.
● Art: It referred to painting, sculpture, pottery and seal making.
● Culture: Term used for a group of objects, distinct in style, found
specifically within a geographical area and period of time.
● Pictographs: Picture-like signs to represent letters or words.
● The Great Bath: Best known building in Mohenjodaro for bath.
● Granaries: Buildings where grains were stored.
Time Line:
The Mahajanapadas:
● The earliest states emerged in the 6th century BCE which were mentioned
in the early Buddhist and Jaina texts. The earliest 16 states were known as
mahajanapadas. In which Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala,
Gandliara and Avanti were most important. The mahajanapadas had a
capital city, which was often fortified.
● Brahmanas began composing Dharmasutras from the 6th century BCE
onwards. Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada. Bimbisara,
Ajatashatru and Mahapadma Nanda were the most ambitious kings of
Magadha. Magadha had its capital in Rajagaha (Rajgir) which was fortified
and later the capital shifted to Pataliputra (Patna).
Mauryan Empire:
● Development of Magadha resulted in the emergence of the Mauryan empire
founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE. Besides sculptures,
historians have used a variety of sources like written texts of Megasthenes,
Kautilya (Arthashastra), Buddhist) Jaina and Puranic literature, inscriptions
of Asoka to reconstruct the history of Mauryan empire.
● Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, Suvarnagiri were the five major political
centres of Mauryan empire.
● The vast empire was not controlled by a uniform administrative system.
Asoka tried to hold his vast empire together by propagating dharma. He
appointed special officers, known as the Dhamma Mahamatta, to spread
the message of Dhamma.
Asokan Inscription:
● New kingdoms emerged in the Deccan and further South, including the
Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas. Satavahanas and Shakas derived revenues
from long-distance trade. Kushanas ruled over a vast kingdom and
considered themselves as God, adopting the title Devaputra (Son of God).
● Histories of the Gupta rulers were reconstructed from literature, coins and
inscriptions, including Prashastis. The Prayaga Prashasti (also called
Allahabad pillar inscription) by Harisena is the most important source to
know about the Gupta rulers.
● Several urban centres emerged in the sub-continent from the 6th century’
BCE. People living in these areas traded artefacts like fine pottery known as
Northern black polished ware, ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines
made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and teracotta.
● Guilds or Shrenis procured raw materials, regulated production and
marketed the finished product. The trade extended beyond the
sub-continent, Central Asia, East and North Africa, South-East Asia and
China.
● Successful merchants, designated as Masattuvan in Tamil, Set this and
Satavahanas in Prakrit became very’ rich. Exchanges were facilitated by
the introduction of silver, copper and gold coins.
● The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the
Indo-Greeks, who established control over the North-Western part of the
sub-continent in 2nd century BCE.
● The first gold coins were issued in 1st century’ CE by the Some of the most
spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. From the 6th
century CE on wards, the use of gold coins wras reduced.
Time Line:
Historians often use textual traditions to understand the socio-economic changes of the
society. In this case, it is very necessary to keep in mind who composed what and for
whom. The language and the ways in which the text is circulated are also important.
Social Differences:
The Mahabharata:
● VS Sukthankar, a noted Indian Sanskritist, with his team initiated the task of
preparing a critical edition of the Mahabharata. It involved collecting
Sanskrit manuscripts of the texts written in a variety of scripts, from
different parts of the country.
● First historians accepted the texts written in Sanskrit as the main source,
but later they also relied on works in Pali, Prakrit and Tamil to reconstruct
social histories.
Time Line:
In the reconstruction of the history of India from 600 BCE to 600 CE, the historians had
taken information from Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical texts. Besides this a large
number of monuments and inscriptions provided significant information.
● According to Jainism, entire world is animated, i.e even stones, rocks and
water have life.
● Non-injury to living beings is central to Jaina philosophy. According to
Jainism, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through Karma.
● To free oneself from the cycle of Karma, asceticism and penance are
required. Jaina monks and nuns took five vows. These are:
● to abstain (to decide not to do something) from killing
● to abstain from stealing
● to abstain from lying
● to observe celibacy (not married and not naring sex)
● to abstain from possessing property.
● Jainism spread to many parts of India. Jaina scholars produced a wealth of
literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil languages.
Explanation of Religions:
● 19th century European scholars were more familiar with the statues of
Buddha and Bodhisattas which were evidently based on Greek models. But
they were sometimes could not understand the sculptures of gods and
goddesses with multiple arms and heads or with combinations of human
and animal forms.
● Art historians have tried to explain the meaning of sculptures with the help
of textual references (e.g. Puranas), but it was not an easy task.
● Many rituals, religious beliefs and practices were not even recorded in a
permanent visible form, these were only practised by the respective
communities.
Stupas:
● The Great Stupa at Sanchi in the state of Madhya Pradesh is one of the
most wonderful ancient buildings. 19th century Europeans were very
interested in the Stupa at Sanchi.
● The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum provided
money to preserve the site of Sanchi Stupa.
● John Marshall wrote important volumes on Sanchi.
● The discovery of Sanchi has transformed our understanding of early
Buddhism. It stands as an example of the successful restoration and
preservation of ancient site by the Archaeological Survey of India.
Amaravati Stupas:
Time Line:
● 468 B.C. Mahavira passed away and attained Nirwan at the age of 72.
● First century B.C.E. Jainism enjoyed the patronage of the Kalinga king
Kharavela.
● Fourth century B.C.E. Jainism spread to Kalinga in Orissa (Odisha).
● 563 B.C.E. Gautama Buddha was bom in a Shakya Kshatriya family in
Kapilavastu.
● 487 B.C.E. The First Buddhist Council.
● 387 B.C.E. The Second Buddhist Council.
● 251 B.C. The Third Buddhist Council.
Our knowledge of the past can be enriched through the’descriptions of social life
provided by travellers who visited the sub-continent. Generally, they recorded everyday
activities and practices of common men along with the descriptions of the kings.
Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta and Francois Bernier were three famous travelers who visited the
sub-continent from 11th century to 17th century.
● Ibn Battuta wrote the book ‘Rihla’ in Arabic. This book provides extremely
rich and interesting detail about the social and cultural life in the
sub-continent in the 14th century.
● Ibn Battuta went to far-off places, exploring new worlds and peoples.
● Before coming to India, he travelled extensively to Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen,
Oman, Mecca and a few trading ports on the coast of East Africa.
● When he came to Delhi, Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq was the Sultan of Delhi.
The Sultan was impressed by his scholarship and appointed him the ‘qazi’
or judge of Delhi.
● He visited Bengal, Assam, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Sumatra and China.
● He meticulously recorded his observations about new cultures, peoples,
beliefs, values, etc.
● Travelling was not secure at that time. During his travel, Ibn Battuta was
attacked by bands of robbers several times and was severely wounded.
● Ibn Battuta spent several years travelling through North Africa, West Asia,
parts of Central Asia, the Indian sub-continent and China and recorded
extensively his experiences.
● In the 14th century, Indian sub-continent had its contact from China in the
East to North West Africa and Europe in the West. Ibn Battuta travelled
through these lands and arrived at Delhi in the 14th century after visiting
sacred shrines, meeting with rulers, learned men and people who spoke
Arabic, Persian, Turkish and other languages. He shared ideas, information
and anecdotes.
● While describing Indian society, Ibn Battuta explained the unfamiliar things
like coconut and paan in a unique way.
● Ibn Battuta found the cities of India densely populated and prosperous.
According to him, Delhi was the largest city in India. He also had the same
view for Daulatabad (in Maharashtra).
● The bazaars (markets) were the places of economic transactions and also
the hub of social and cultural activities. There were masjids and temples to
offer prayers and also some bazaars marked with spaces for public
performances by dancers, musicians and singers.
● Ibn Battuta found Indian agriculture very productive because of the fertility
of the soil where farmers tend to cultivate two crops a year.
● Indian manufacturing flourished due to inter-Asian network of trade and
commerce. These were in great demand in both West Asia and South-East
Asia where artisans and merchants were fetching huge profits.
● Indian textiles, specially cotton cloth, fine muslins, silks, brocade and satin
were also in great demand.
● Ibn Battuta was amazed by the efficiency of the postal system which was
of two kinds, the horse-post called ‘uluq’ and the foot-post called ‘dawa’.
Time Line:
A variety of religious structures like stupas, monastries, temples are found in the
sub-continent by the mid-first millennium CE. Textual resources like the Puranas, music
in different regional languages, hagiographies of saints were also found. These sources
provide us with insight into a dynamic and diverse scenario.
● Historians classified bhakti traditions into two broad categories i.e. Nirguna
(without attributes) and Saguna (with attributes).
● In the sixth century, Bhakti movements were led by Alvars (devotees of
Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva). They travelled place to place
singing Tamil devotional songs. During their travels, the Alvars and
Nayanars identified certain shrines and later large temples were built at
these places.
● Historians suggested that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of
protest against the caste system. Nalayira Divyaprabandham composed by
the Alvars was described as the Tamil Veda.
● Women devotees like Andal, Karaikkal Ammariyar composed devotional
music which posed a challenge to patriarchal norms. Under the patronage
of the Chola rulers, large and magnificent temples were constructed at
Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangai Kondacholapuram.
● Tamil Shaiva hymns were sung in the temples under royal patronage.
● In the 13th century, Turk and Afghans invaded India and established the
Delhi Sultanate.
● Theoretically, Muslim rulers were to be guided by the Ulama and followed
the rules of Shari’a.
● Non-Muslims had to pay a tax called Jizya and gained the right to be
protected by Muslim rulers.
● Several Mughal rulers including Akbar and Aurangzeb gave land
endowments and granted tax exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian,
Christian and Jewish religious institutions.
● All those who adopted Islam accepted the five pillars of the faith that are:
● There is one God, Allah, and prophet Muhammad is his
messenger.
● offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat).
● Giving alms (Zakat).
● Fasting during the month of Ramzan (Sawm).
● Performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj).
● People were occasionally identified in terms of the region from which they
came. Migrant communities often termed as Mlechchha meant that they
did not observe the norms of caste, society and spoke languages that were
not derived from Sanskrit.
● The Chishtis were the most important group of Sufis who migrated to India.
● The Khanqah was the centre of social life.
● Shaikh Nizamuddin’s hospice on the banks of river Yamuna in Ghiyaspur in
the fourteenth century was very famous. The Shaikh lived here and met
visitors in the morning and evening.
● There was an open Kitchen (langar) and people from all walks of life came
here from morning till late night.
● Visitors who came here included Amir Hasan Sijzi, Amir Khusrau and
Ziyauddin Barani.
● Pilgrimage (Ziyarat) to tombs of Sufi saints was common. It was a practice
for seeking the Sufis spiritual grace (Barakat).
● The most revered shrine was ‘Gharib Nawaz’, the shrine of Khwaja
Muinuddin at Ajmer.
● This shrine was funded by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khalji of Malwa. Emperor
Akbar visited several times and constructed a mosque within the
compound of dargah.
● Specially trained musicians or qawwals performed music and dance to
evoke divine ecstasy.
● Baba Farid’s compositions in the local language were incorporated in the
Guru Granth Sahib.
● In Karnataka, the Sufis were inspired by the pre-existing bhakti traditions
and composed Dakhani, Lurinama (lullabies) and Shadinama (wedding
songs).
● Sultans of Delhi always preferred the Sufis although there were instances of
conflict between them.
Timeline:
Vijayanagara or ‘City of Victory’ was the home of both a city and an empire. It stretched
from the river Krishna in the North to the extreme South of the Peninsula. People
remembered it as Hampi, a name derived from that of the local mother Goddess,
‘Pampadevi’.
Rise of Vijayanagara:
● Two brothers Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagara empire in 1336.
The rulers of Vijayanagara called themselves as ‘Rayas’.
● Vijayanagara was famous for its markets dealing in spices, textiles and
precious stones. The trade of import of horses from Arabia and Central
Asia was controlled by Arab and Portuguese traders and also by local
merchants (Kudirai Chettis).
● Trade was often regarded as a status symbol for this city. The revenue
derived from trade in turn contributed significantly to the prosperity of the
state.
● The royal centre was located in the South-Western part of the settlement
which had more than 60 temples. Thirty building complexes were identified
as palaces. The king’s palace was the largest of the enclosures and had
two platforms viz. the ‘audience hall’ and the ‘Mahanavami dibba’.
● Located on one of the highest points in the city, the ‘Mahanavami dibba’ is a
massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq ft to a height of 40
ft. Different ceremonies like worship of the image, worship of the state
horse and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals were performed in
Vijayanagara. Some beautiful buildings in the royal centre are Lotus Mahal,
Hazara Rama temple, etc.
Temples of Hampi:
● Buildings that survive convey ideas about the materials and techniques, the
builders or patrons and cultural context of Vijayanagara empire. Thus, we
can understand by combining information from literature, inscriptions and
popular traditions.
● But the investigation of architectural features do not tell us about the
places where ordinary’ people live, what kind of wages did the masons,
stonecutters, sculptors get, how was the building material transported and
so many other questions.
● Continuing research using other sources that available architectural
examples might provide some further clues about Vijayanagara.
Time line:
● 1336 -Foundation of Vijayanagara Empire by Harihara Raya and Bukka
Raya.
● 1483 – Emergence of Saluva Dynasty.
● 1509-1529 Tenure of Krishnadeva Raya.
● 1512 – Krishnadev Raya occupied Raicher Doals.
● 1565 – Battle of Talikata.
● 1570 – Foundation of Aravidu Dynasty.
● 1815 – Col Mackenizie appointed as 1st Surveyor General of India.
● 1856 – Alexander Greenlaw takes the first detailed photographs of
archaeological remains at Hampi.
● 1876 – J.F. Fleet begins documenting the inscription on the temple walls at
the site.
● 1902 – Conservation begins under John Marshall.
● 1986 – Hampi declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO.
During the 16th and 17th centuries most of the population of India, i.e. about 85 percent
lived in villages. Both peasants and landed elites were involved in agricultural
production and claimed their rights to have a share of the total produce.
Ain-i-Akbari:
Other Sources:
● Revenue from the land was the economic mainstay of the Mughal empire.
● The office of the diwan, revenue officials and record keeper all became
important for the agricultural domain.
● The land revenue arrangements consisted of two states i.e. first,
assessment (jama) and then actual collection (hasil).
● Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in each province.
● At the time of Akbar, lands were divided into polaj, parauti, chachar and
banjar.
● Women and men had to work shoulder to shoulder in the agricultural fields.
● Men tilled and ploughed, w’hile women sowed, weeded, threshed and
winnowed the harvest. Although biases related to women’s biological
functions did continue.
● Many artisanal tasks like spinning yarn, sifting and kneading day for pottery
and embroidery were dependent on female labour.
● Women were considered an important resource in agrarian society because
they were child bearers in a society dependent on labour.
● Sometimes in rural communities the payment of bride-price, remarriage for
both divorced and widowed women were considered legitimate. Women
had the right to inherit property.
● Hindu and Muslim women even inherited zamindaris which they were free
to sell or mortgage.
● The zamindars had extensive personal lands termed milkiyat (property) and
enjoyed certain social and economic privileges in rural society.
● The zamindars often collected revenue on behalf of the state.
● Most zamindars had fortresses as well as an armed contingent comprising
units of cavalry’, artillery and infantry. In this period, the relatively ‘lower’
castes entered the rank of zamindars as zamindaris
● were bought and sold quite briskly.
● Although, there can be little doubt that zamindars were an exploitative
class, their relationship with the peasantry had an element of reciprocity,
paternalism and patronage.
● Forest dwellers known as ‘jangli’ were those whose livelihood came from
the gathering of forest produce, hunting and shifting agriculture.
● Sometimes the forest was a subversive place, a place of refuge for
troublemakers.
● Forest people supplied elephants to the kings.
● Hunting was a favourite activity for the kings, sometimes it enabled the
emperor to travel extensively in his empire and personally attended the
grievances of his subjects.
● Forest dwellers supplied honey, bees wax, gum lac, etc.
● Like the ‘big men’ of the village community tribes also had their chieftains.
● Many tribal chiefs had become zamindars, some even became kings.
● Tribes in the Sind region had armies comprising of 6,000 cavalry and 7,000
infantry.
Class 12 History Notes Chapter 8 Important Terms:
● Raiyat: It is used to denote a peasant in Indo-Persian sources.
● Hasil: It was the actual amount of revenue collected.
● Khud-kashta Peasants: The peasants who were the residents of the village
in which they had their lands.
● Pahi-kashta: The peasants who generally belonged to another village.
● Shroff: A money changer who also acts as a banker.
● Amin: The officials that were responsible for imperial regulations.
● Pargana: An administrative subdivision.
● Jama: The assessed amount and to be collected as revenue.
Time line:
● 1526 – Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat and became the first
Mughal Emperor.
● 1530-40 – The first phase of Humayun’ reign.
● 1540-55 – Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah in exiled at Safavid court.
● 1555-1605 – Humayun regains his lost territories.
● 1556-1605 – Rule of Akbar
● 1605-1627 – Rule of Jahangir
● 1628-1658 – Rule of Shah Jahan
● 1658-1707 – Rule of Aurangzeb
● 1739 – Nadir Shah attacked India and ransacked Delhi
● 1761 – In the third battle of Panipat, Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated the
Marathas.
● 1765 – The diwani of Bengal transferred to the East India Company.
● 1857 – The last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah II was deposed by the British
and exiled to Rangoon.
● The name Mughal derives from the term ‘Mongol’. The Mughals were
descendants of the Turkish ruler Timur on the paternal side. Zahiruddin
Babur was related to Ghenghis Khan from his mother’s side.
● Babur was driven from Farghana by the warring Uzbeks. First he
established himself at Kabul and then in 1526 came to Indian
sub-continent.
● Babur’s successor, Nasiruddin Humayun (1530-40, 1555-56) expanded the
frontiers of the empire, but lost it to the Afghan leader Sher Shah Sur. In
1555, Humayun defeated the Surs, but died a year later.
● Jalaluddin Akbar (1556-1605) was the greatest of all the Mughal emperors.
He expanded and consolidated his empire making it the largest, strongest
and richest.
● Akbar had three fairly able successors Jahangir (1605-27), Shah Jahan
(1628-58) and Aurangzeb (1658-1707). After the death of Auranzeb (1707),
the power of Mughal dynasty diminished.
● The Akbar Nama written by Abu’l Fazl is divided into three books, of which
the third one is Ain-i Akbari which provided a detailed description of Akbar’s
regime.
● The Badshah Nama was written by Abul Hamid Lahori about the reign of
Shahjahan. Later, it was revised by Sadullah Khan.
● The Asiatic Society of Bengal founded by Sir William Jones in 1784
undertook the editing, printing and translation of many Indian manuscripts,
including Akbar Nama and Badshah Nama.
● Iranian Sufi thinker Suhrawardi developed the idea that there was a
hierarchy in which the Divine Light was transmitted to the king who then
became the source of spiritual guidance for his subjects.
● The Mughal artists, from the 17th century onwards began to portray
emperor wearing the haloto symbolise the light of God.
● Abu’l Fazl described the ideal of Sulh-i kul (absolute peace) as the
cornerstone of enlightened rule.
● In sulh-i kul all religions and schools of thought had freedom of expression
but they did not undermine the authority of the state or fight among
themselves.
● Akbar abolished the discriminating pilgrimage tax in 1563 and Jizya in
1564.
● Abu’l Fazl defined sovereignty as a social contract i.e., the emperor
protected life, property, honour and faith and in return demanded obedience
and a share of resources.
● The capital cities of the Mughals frequently shifted during the 16th and
17th centuries.
● Babur took over the Lodhi capital of Agra.
● In 1570, Akbar decided to build a new capital, Fatehpur Sikri.
● Akbar commissioned the construction of a white marble tomb for Shaikh
Salim Chisthi at Sikri. He also constructed Buland Darwaza here after the
victory in Gujarat.
● In 1585 the capital was shifted to Lahore to bring the North-West in control
and to watch the frontier.
● In 1648, under the rule of Shah Jahan, the capital was transferred to
Shahjahanabad with the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, the Chandni Chowk and
spacious homes for the nobility.
● In Mughal Court, status was determined by spatial proximity to the king.
● Once the emperor sat on the throne, no one was permitted to move from
his position without permission.
● The forms of salutation to the ruler indicated the person’s status in the
hierarchy.
● The emperor began his day at sunrise with personal religious devotions and
then appeared on a small balcony, the jharoka for the view (darshan) of his
subjects.
● After that the emperor walked to the public hall of audience (Diwan-i-am) to
conduct the primary business of his government.
● The Mughal kings celebrated three major festivals in a year i.e. the solar
and lunar
● birthdays of the Monarch and Nauroz, the Iranian New Year on the vernal
equinox.
● Grand titles were adopted by the Mughal emperors at the time of
coronation or after a victory.
● The titles like Asaf Khan, Mirza Raja were given to the nobles.
● Whenever a courtier met with the emperor, he had to offer nazr (a small
amount of money) or peshkash (a large amount of money).
● The term ‘harem’ was used to refer to the domestic world of the Mughals.
● The Mughal household consisted of the emperor’s wives and concubines,
his near and distant relatives (mother, step-and foster-mothers, sisters,
daughters, daughters-in-law, aunts, children, etc) and female servants and
slaves.
● Polygamy was practised widely by the ruling class.
● Both the Rajputs and the Mughals took marriage as a way at cementing
political relationships and forging alliances.
● After Noor Jahan, Mughal queens and princesses began to control
significant financial resources.
● The bazaar of Chandni Chowk was designed by Jahanara.
● Gulbadan Begum, daughter of Babur wrote ‘Humayun Nama’ which was
considered as an important source of Mughal Empire.
● In Mughal period, the nobility was recruited from diverse ethnic and
religious group. In Akbar’s imperial service Turani and Iranian nobles played
a dominant role.
● Two ruling groups of Indian origin, the Rajputs and the Indian Muslims
(Shaikhzadas) entered the imperial service from 1560 onwards.
● The emperor personally reviewed changes in rank, titles and official
postings.
● Akbar designed mansab system which established spiritual relationships
with a select band of his nobility by treating them as his disciples.
● Some important officials were Mir Bakshi (paymaster general), Diwan-i ala
(Finance minister) and sadr-us-sudur (minister of grants and incharge of
appointing local judges or qazis), etc. The keeping of exact and detailed
rewards was a major concern of the Mughal administration.
● The Mir Bakshi supervised the corps of court writers who recorded all
applications and documents of courts.
● News reports and important official documents travelled across the Mughal
Empire by imperial post which included round-the-clock relays of
foot-runners (qasid or pathmar) carried papers rolled up in bamboo
containers.
● The division of functions established at the centre was replicated in the
provinces (subas),
● The local administration was looked after the level of the paragana by three
semi-hereditary officers, the qanungo (keeper of revenue records), the
chaudhuri (incharge of revenue collection) and the qazi.
● Persian language was made the language of administration throughout, but
local languages were used for village accounts.
● Akbar’s quest for religions knowledge led to interfaith debates in the Ibadat
Khana at Fatehpur Sikri, between learned Muslims, Hindus, Jainas, Parsis
and Christians.
● Increasingly, Akbar moved away from the orthodox Islamic ways of
understanding religions towards a self-conceived eclectic form of divine
worship focused on light and sun.
● Akbar and Abu’l Fazl tried to create a philosophy of light and used it to
shape the image of the king and ideology of the state. King was a divinely
inspired individual who had supreme sovereignty over his people and
complete control over his enemies.
● With these liberal ideas, the Mughal rulers could effectively controlled the
heterogeneous population of Indian sub-continent for a century and a half.
Class 12 History Notes Chapter 9 Important terms:
● Chronicles: It is a continuous chronological record of events.
● Manuscript: The handwritten records.
● Divine theory of kingship: The king was believed as the representative of
god, acquired his powers from him and therefore had to be obeyed.
● Sulh-i-kul: It is state policy of religious tolerance.
● Jizya: A tax imposed on non-muslims in lieu of military service.
● Mansabdar: All royal officers were known as mansabdars.
● Chahar taslim: A form of salutation to the emperor which is done four
times.
● Tajwiz: A petion presented to the emperor by a nobleman recommending an
application to the post of a mansabdar.
Time line:
The East India Company of England established its control in the countryside and
implemented its revenue policies. In this chapter, we will discuss what these policies
meant to people and how these changed the daily lives of people.
● The British officials fell that agriculture, trade and the revenue resources of
the state could be developed by encouraging investment in agriculture. This
could be done by securing rights of property and permanently fixing the
rates of revenue demand.
● Company felt that when revenue will be fixed, it will provide opportunity to
individual to invest in agriculture as a means of making profit and company
will also be assured of regular flow of revenue.
● After a prolonged debate amongst company officials, the permanent
settlement was made with the rajas and taluqdars of Bengal.
● Zamindars had several, sometimes even 400 villages under them.
● Zamindars collected rent from the different villages, paid the revenue to the
company, and retained the difference as his income.
● Zamindars were important for the company but it also wanted to control
and regulate them, subdue their authority and restrict their autonomy.
● Thus, the zamindars’ troops were disbanded, customs duties abolished and
their ‘cutcheries’ (courts) brought under the supervision of a collector
appointed by the company.
● Zamindars lost their power to organise local justice and local police.
● Over time zamindars were severely restricted and their powers were seized.
● Zamindars and Britishers after having failed to subdue the Paharias and
transform them into settled cultivators turned to Santhals. The Santhal
appeared to be ideal settlers, cleared the forest and ploughed land.
● After land was granted, population of Santhals increased exponentially and
their villages also increased in number.
● When the Santhal were settling, the Paharias resisted but were ultimately
forced to withdraw deeper into hills. It impoverished the Paharias in the
long term.
● Santhals now lived a settled life, cultivated a range of commerical crops for
market and dealt with traders,’moneylenders. But state was taxing them
heavily, moneylenders (dikus) were charging high interest rate and taking
over their land when debts remained unpaid and zamindars were asserting
control over their land. Later due to problems, Santhal revolted in year
1855-1856, and to pacify them, Britishers carved out new areas for the
Santhals and imposed some special laws within it.
● One of the way to explore what was happening in the area of Bombay
Deccan is to focus on the revolt of that area. Rebels expressed their anger
and fury.
● Revolt provide information about life of peasant, event associated with
revolt, suppress or control of the revolt. Enquiries about the revolt produced
result that can be explored by Historians.
● Through the nineteenth century, peasants in various parts of India rose in
revolt against money lenders and grain dealers, e.g. the revolt occurred in
1875 in the Deccan.
● A movement began at Supa Village in Poona in 1895, where ryots from
surrounding rural areas gathered and attacked the Shopkeepers and
demanded their bahi khatas (account book) and debt bonds. Ryots burnt
the Khatas, looted shop and in few instances burnt the house of Sahukars.
● Later revolt spread from Pune to Ahmednagar and even further terrified
Sahukars fled the village leaving behind their property and belonging.
● British officials controlled these revolts, they established police post in
villages and arrested people and convicted them.
● In the 19th century, the British company was keen to expand its financial
resources in its annexed territories through other temporary revenue
settlement policies.
● This was so, because after 1810, the agricultural prices rose and enlarged
the income of the Bengal zamindars but not the company. This was due to
the Permanent Settlement policy in which the revenue demand was fixed
and could not be hiked. Therefore to expand its revenue source, company
started to introduce temporary settlement.
● Policies of officials were also shaped by the economic theories they are
familiar with. In 1820’s, officials were under influence of Ricardian ideas.
David Ricardo was a celebrated Economist in England.
● Ricardian idea states that landowner should claim only to average rent and
when there is surplus, state should tax that surplus. He further says if tax
will not be levied cultivators will likely to turn into rentiers and surplus
income will not be productively invested in improvement of land.
● Ryotwari settlement was introduced in Bombay Deccan as a new revenue
system. In this system, revenue was directly settled with cultivator or ryot.
Average income from soil, revenue paying capacity of ryot was assessed
and proportion of it was fixed as share of the state. In this system, there
was provision for resurvey of land every 30 years.
● Peasants got deeper and deeper into debt and now they were utterly
dependent on moneylender for survival but now moneylenders were
refusing their loan. Along with this, there was customary rule that interest
charged cannot be more than principal amount of loan. But in colonial rule
this law was broken and now ryots started to see money lenders as devious
and deceitful. They complained of moneylenders manipulating laws and
forging accounts.
● To tackle this problem, British in 1859 passed Limitation Law that stated
that loan bond would have validity for 3 years only.
● It was meant to check accumulation of interest. But moneylenders now
forced ryot to sign a new bound every 3 years in which total unpaid balance
of last loan was entered as principal amount and interest was charged on
it.
● In petitions to Deccan Riots commission, ryots
● stated how moneylenders were suppressing and oppressing them by
refusing to give receipts when loan were paid back, entered fictitious
figures in bond and forced them to sign and put thumb impression on
bonds or document about which they had no idea and they were not able to
read. Money lenders also acquired the harvest at low price and ultimately
took over property of peasant. They have no choice because to survive they
needed
● loan but inoneylenders were not willing to give it without bonds.
● The American civil war broke in 1861. Due to war, cotton export to Britain
decreased very much. To reduce dependence on America, cotton
cultivation was promoted in India.
● Export merchants gave money to urban sahukars who in turn gave to rural
moneylenders to secure the produce. So now the peasant had access to
money easily and due to this, cotton production increased rapidly. But this
brought prosperity to rich peasants mostly and for small peasants it led to
heavier debt. By 1862 over 90 percent of cotton imports into Britain were
coming from India.
● When in 1865 civil war ended, export of cotton resumed, prices of cotton
and demand of cotton from India decreased. Thus merchants, sahukars
and moneylenders were not extending credit to peasants, instead they
demanded repayment of debts. At the same time revenue demand was also
increased from 50 to 100 percent.
Class 12 History Notes Chapter 10 Important terms:
● Mahals: Estates owned by big zamindars who were called Raja locally.
● Raja: It is the term for Monarch but often refers to the big Zamindars in their
respective local areas.
● Taluqdars: The owners of Taluq, taluq stood for piece of land or territorial
unit.
● Ryots: Ryots means peasants.
● Jotedars: Rich peasants often owning large farmlands. They often
controlled moneylending and trade at local levels. Sometimes village
headman was also called Jotedar.
● Zamindar: The chain between farmer and the company in the system called
permanent settlement. Zaminadars were responsible for collection of land
revenue and depositing the same to the Company. They lived life of comfort
and luxury.
● Amla: Official of Zamindar who would maintain record and collect revenue
from villages.
● Benami: the literal meaning is anonymous. The term was to denote
transactions wherein real person was hidden behind insignificant name or
person.
● Lathy at: The musclemen of Zamindars.
● Sahukar: Trader who was also in money lending business.
● Rentier: A person who lived on rental income.
● Dewani: The Revenue department of state.
● Permanent Settlement: Land revenue system introduced by Cornwallis in
1793 in Bengal. Under this system, the land revenue was collected by
Zamindars. Zamindari rights passed on father to son.
● Ryotwari System: The land revenue system introduced in Madras and
Bombay Presidencies. Under the system, settlement was made directly with
cultivators.
Time line:
● 1765 – East India Company got diwani right for the province of Bengal, in
the wake of Battle of Buxar.
● 1773 – Regulating act enacted by the British Parliament aimed at
controlling the East India Company.
● 1800’s – Santhals began to settle in the hills of Rajmahal.
● 1818 – First land revenue settlement done in the Bombay Presidency.
● 1820’s – Prices of agriculture produce decline.
● 1855-56 – Santhals rebel in Rajmahal.
● 1861 – Cotton boom for the Indian cultivators, in the wake of American civil
war
● 1875 – Ryots in Deccan villages rebel.
Revolt started with an outbreak of mutiny in Meerut on 10th May, 1857. After taking over
the local administration, sepoys alongwith people of surrounding village marched to
Delhi. They wanted the support of Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah. Sepoys came to Red
Fort and demanded that the emperor give them his blessings. Bahadur Shah had no
option but to support them.
Revolt of 1857:
● Sepoys’started revolt by capturing the arms from stores and plundering the
treasury, afterward they attacked and ransack all government offices like
jail, treasury-, telegraph office, record room, bungalows etc. Proclamations
in Hindi, Urdu and Persian were put up calling local to join them and
exterminate the foreign rule. When ordinary people joined sepoys, mutiny
changed to revolt, the targets of attack widened.
● During the revolt in towns like Lucknow, Kanpur and Bareilly, the rich people
and moneylenders were also attacked and property were looted, as they
were seen as allies of British and they also oppressed the peasants in the
recent past.
Revolt in Awadh:
● Lord Dalhousie describe the Kingdom of Awadh as a Cherry that will drop
into our mouth one day’.
● Lord Wellesley introduced subsidiary alliance in Awadh in 1801. Gradually,
the British developed more interest in the kingdom of Awadh.
● The British were looking at role of Awadh as producer of cotton and indigo
and also as principal market of upper India. .
● By the 1850’s, British conquered all major areas of India like the Maratha
lands, the Doab, the Carnatic, the Punjab and Bengal. The annexation of
Awadh in 1856 completed the territorial annexation which started a century
earlier with the annexation of Bengal.
● Dalhousie displaced Nawab Wazid Ali Shah and exiled to Calcutta on plea
that Awadh is being misgoverned.
● British government wrongly assume that Nawab Wazid Ali was an
unpopular ruler. On the contrary, he w’as widely loved and people bemoaned
for the loss of Nawab.
● The removal of Nawab led to dissolution of courts and decline of culture.
Musicians, dancers, poets, cooks, retainers and administrative officials, all
lost their livelihood.
● With removal of Nawab all taluqdar of the Awadh were also disposed. They
were disarmed and their forts were destroyed. With a new revenue system
named Summary Settlement, taluqdar lost their very large share of revenue
; from land.
● Wherever possible, taluqdars were removed and settlement was done
directly with peasants. This dispossession of taluqdar meant the complete
break dowm of social order.
● Company directly settled revenue with peasants and revenue now was over
assessed, so peasants were troubled.
● There was no longer any guarantee that in times of hardship or crop failure
the revenue demand of the state would be reduced or the peasant would
get the loan and support during festivals which they earlier used to get from
taluqdar.
● Earlier, British officials had friendly relations with Indian sepoys but later
Indian sepoys were subjected to racial abuse, low pay scale, difference in
service.
● In 1840s, English officer developed a sense of superiority, physical violence
also started and distance between officers and sepoys grew.
● As many Indian serving in Army were from Awadh, i.e. so local people of
Awadh were also aware of unfair behaviour meted out to their brothers.
● Peasants of Awadh were already in trouble because of high revenue and
taluqdar were looking for revenge to gain back their authority.
● All these factors cumulatively led to intense participation of people of
Awadh in revolt of 1857.
Demands of Rebels:
● During the revolt only few proclamations and ‘ishtahars’ (notification) were
issued by rebel leader to propagate their ideas and persuade people to join
the revolt.
● So it is very difficult to reconstruct what happened in 1857 and what were
the demands of rebels. The only way to know in detail about revolt of 1857
is by going through details of British officials and to know their point of
view.
● Proclamation issued by rebel leader appealed to all sections of the
population irrespective of cast and creed. The rebellion was seen as a war
in which both Hindus and Muslims were equally to lose or gain.
● It was remarkable that during uprising, religious division between Hindus
and Muslims was hardly noticeable despite the attempt of British
government.
Rebels Against the Oppression:
● British rule ruined the status of peasants, artisans and weavers. There was
a sense of fear and suspicion that British were determined to destroy the
caste and religion of Hindus and Muslims and convert them to Christianity.
● Proclamation were issued which urged people to come together to save
their livelihood, faith, identity and completely reject the things associated
with firangi raj.
● During the revolt, rebellion attacked all the symbols and office of British
government. Rebellion even targeted the allies of British government,
ransacked moneylenders property and burnt account books.
● All the activities reflected an attempt of rebels to overturn traditional
hierarchies and rebel against all oppression.
● Rebels tried to establish pre-British world of 18th century during the revolt.
● They tried to set up whole administrative machinery on one hand to carry
out day to day activities during the war and on the other hand they tried to
plan how to fight with British.
● To reconquer North India, British passed series of law. Whole North India
was put under martial law, military officers and ordinary Britons were given
power to punish Indian suspected of rebellion.
● Britain government brought reinforcement from Britain and arranged double
pronged strategy to capture Delhi. Delhi was captured in late September
only.
● British government faced very stiff resistance in the Awadh and they had to
use military power at gigantic scale.
● In Awadh, they tried to break unity between landlords and peasants by
offering their land back to landlords. Rebel landlords were dispossessed
and loyals were rewarded.
● As news about severeness of revolt spread, there was great anger, shock
and demand of retribution, severe repression and grew louder.
● Threatened by the rebellion, the British felt that they had to demonstrate
their invincibility. There were innumerable pictures and cartoons in British
press that sanctioned brutal repression and violent reprisal.
● Rebels were executed publicly, blown from cannon or hanged from gallows.
There were mass execution. To instill a sense of fear among the people,
most of these punishments were given in public.
● Governor General Canning declared that gesture of leniency and show of
mercy would help in winning back the loyalty of sepoys. At that time, there
was voice for revenge and idea of Canning was mocked.
Time line:
● 1849 – Governor General Lord Dalhousie announced that after the death of
Bahadur Shah Zafar, the family of the king would be shifted out of the Red
Fort and given another place in Delhi to reside in.
● 1856 – (i) Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar
would be the last Mughal king and after his death his descendants would
be recognised as princes.
(ii) The Company passed a new law which stated that every new person
who took up employment in the Company’s army had to agree to serve
overseas if required.
● 29 Mar, 1857 – Mangal Pandey, a young soldier, was hanged to death for
attacking his officer in Barrackpore.
● May, 1857 – Sepoys mutinied in several places.
● 10 May, 1857 – Sepoys rushed to Delhi from Meerut.
● Sep,1857 – Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces.
● Oct, 1858 – Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar along with his wife was
sent to prison in Rangoon.
● 1858 – A new Act passed by the British Parliament transferred the power of
the East India Company to the British Crown.
● Nov, 1862 – Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the jail.of Rangoon.
Company agents initially settled in the Madras, Calcutta and Bombay which were
originally fishing and weaving villages. They gradually developed these villages into the
cities. These cities had the mark of colonial government institutions which were set up
to regulate economic activity and demonstrate the authority of new rule.
Nature of Towns:
● In the 18th century with decline of Mughal empire, old towns also lost their
grandeur and new towns like Lucknow, Hyderabad, Seringpatnam, Pune,
Nagpur, Baroda, Tanjore, etc were developed and these towns were seat of
local authority. Traders, artisans, administrators and mercenaries migrated
from old Mughal centres to these towns in search of work and patronage.
Many new qasbah (small town in the country side) and garij (small fixed
market) came into existence, but effect of political decentralisation were
uneven (Puducherry).
● European commercial companies had set up their base in different towns,
e.g., Portuguese in Panji, Dutch in Masulipatnam, British in Madras and
French in Pondicherry.
● With expansion in commercial activity towns grew further, gradually by the
end of 18th century land-based empires in Asia were replaced by the
powerful sea-based European empires. Forces of international trade,
mercantilism and capitalism defined the nature of society.
● As British took over political control in India from 1757, trade of East India
Company expanded and colonial port cities like Bombay, Calcutta and
Madras emerged as economic and political power.
Trends of Change:
● Urban population of India remained stagnant during 1800s. In the forty
years between 1900 and 1940 the urban population increased from about
10 percent of the total population to about 13 percent.
● Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay were became sprawling cities. They were
entry and exit points of goods from the country. Smaller towns had little
opportunity to grow. Few towns which were situated on the bank of river
like Mirzapur (which specialised in collecting cotton and cotton goods from
Deccan) were growing but with introduction of railways its development
stopped.
● Expansion of railway led to the formation of railway workshops and railway
colonies. Towns like Jamalpur, Waltair and Bareilly developed due to
railways.
● By 18th century Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, all had important ports and
became the economic centre.
● Company built its factories and fortified these settlements for protection.
Fort St. George in Madras, Fort Wiliam in Calcutta, and the fort in Bombay
were famous settlement of that time.
● Indian traders, merchants, artisans who worked with the European
merchant lived outside these forts in their own settlement. Settlement of
European was called ‘White Town’ and settlement of Indians was known as
‘Black Town’.
● Expansion of railways connected the hinterland to these port cities. So it
became convenient to transport raw material and labour to the cities.
● In 19th century, there was expansion of cotton and jute mills in region of
Bombay and Calcutta.
● There were only two proper industrial cities. Kanpur, which was specialised
in leather, woollen and textiles and second city was Jamshedpur, which was
specialised in steel. However, Industrial development was lagging behind in
India due to discriminatory policies of the British.
● In cities life seemed always in a flux, there was a great inequality between
rich and poor.
● New transport facilities like horse drawn carriage, trains, buses had been
developed. People now started travelling, from home to work place using
the new mode of transportation.
● Many public places were created, e.g. public parks, theatres, dubs, and
cinema halls in 20th century. These places provided entertainment and
opportunity for social interaction.
● People started migrating to cities. There were demands of clerks, teachers,
lawyers, doctors, engineers and accountants. There were schools, colleges
and libraries.
● A new public sphere of debate and discussion emerged. Social norms,
customs and practices came to be questioned.
● They provided new. opportunities for women. It provided women avenues to
get out of their house and become more visible in public life.
● They entered new profession as teacher, theatre and film actress, domestic
worker, factory worker, etc.
● Middle class women started to express themselves through the medium of
autobiographies, journals and books.
● Conservatives feared these reforms, they feared breaking existing rule of
society, and patriarchal order.
● Women who went out of the household had to face opposition and they
became object of social censure in those years.
● In cities, there were a class of labourers or the working class. Poor came to
cities looking for opportunity, few came to cities to live a new way of life
and desire to see the new things.
● Life in cities were expensive, jobs were uncertain and sometimes migrants
leave their family at native place to save money. Migrants also participated
in the Tamashas (folk theatre) and Swangs (satires) and in that way they
tried to integrate with the life of cities.
● Company first set up its centre at Surat and then tried to occupy east coast.
British and French were engaged in Battle in South India, but with defeat of
France in 1761, Madras became secure and started to grow as commercial
centre.
● Fort St. George became the important centre where Europeans lived and it
was reserved for English men.
● Officials were not permitted to marry Indians. However, other than English
Dutch, Portuguese were allowed to live in the fort as they were European
and Christian.
● Development of Madras was done according to the need of whites. Black
town, settlement of Indians, earlier it was outside the fort but later it was
shifted.
● New Black town resembled traditional Indian town with living quarter
around temple and bazaar. There were caste specific neighbourhoods.
● Madras was developed by incorporating many nearby villages. City of
Madras provided numerous opportunities for local communities.
● Different communities perform their specific job in the Madras city, people
of different communities started competing for British Government job.
● Transport system gradually started to develop. Urbanisation of Madras
meant areas between the villages were brought within the city.
Architecture in Bombay:
● Architecture reflected the aesthetic idea prevalent at that time, building also
expressed vision of those who build them. Architectural styles also mould
taste, popularise styles and shape the contours of culture.
● From the late nineteenth century, regional and national tastes were
developed to counter colonial ideal. Style has changed and developed
through wider processes of cultural conflict.
Time line:
● 1688 – Bombay was handed over to East India company by the Butanes
Empire.
● 1673 – French established trading centre at Pondichhery.
● 1757 – Battle of Placey
● 1798 – Lord Welleseley appointed as the 1st General of Bangal
● 1807 – Lottery commission was setup at Calcutta.
● 1814 -16 – Shimla was established.
● 1836 – That shed huts were banned in Calcutta.
● 1872 – Attempts were made for 1st census.
● 1878 – Organisation of survey of India
● 1881 – Madras harbour was completed.
● 1896 – Plague began to spread in India cities.
● 1911 – British transfer their capital from Calcutta to Delhi.
● Gandhiji marked the day of Independence with a 24 hour fast. The freedom
struggle ended with division of country and Hindus and Muslims seeking
each others life.
● In the months of September and October Gandhiji went around hospitals
and refugee camps giving consolation to people. He appealed to Sikhs, the
Hindus and Muslims to forget the past and to extend the hand of friendship,
cooperation and peace.
● At the backing of Gandhiji and Nehru, Congress passed resolution on the
right of minorities. It further said party had never accepted partition but it
has been forced on it.
● Congress said India will be a democratic secular country, every citizen will
be equal. Congress tried to assure the minorities in India that their rights
will be protected in India.
● On 26th January, 1948, Gandhiji said, earlier independence day was
celebrated on this day, now freedom has come but it has been deeply
disillusioning. He believed that worst is over. He allowed himself to hope
that though geographically and politically India is divided into two, at heart
we shall ever be friends and brothers helping and respecting one another
and be one for the outside world.
● Gandhiji was shot dead by a Hindu extremist Nathuram Godse. Nathuram
Godse was an editor of Hindu extremist, newspaper who had denounced
Gandhiji as an appeaser of Muslims.
● Gandhiji’s death led to extraordinary pouring of grief, tributes were paid
across the political spectrum in India and appreciation coining from
International figure such as George Orwell, Einstein, etc. Time magazine
compared his death to Abraham Lincoln.
● There are different sources from which history of the National Movement
and the political career of Gandhiji can be reconstructed.
● Writing and speeches of Mahatma Gandhi and his contemporaries were
important source for knowing the events. Though there is a difference,
speech were meant for public while private letter were meant to express
emotions and thinking that cannot be expressed publicly.
● Many letters written to individuals were personal but they were also meant
for the public. The language of letter was shaped by the awareness that it
might be published, so it often prevent people from expressing their opinion
freely.
● Autobiographies give us an account of past, but one need to be careful
while reading and interpreting it. They are written on the basis of memory of
author.
● Government records, official letters were also important source for knowing
the history. But it also have limitations as these were mostly biased so it
needs to be interpreted carefully.
● Newspapers in English and other Vernacular
● languages tracked Gandhiji’s movement, National Movement and sentiment
of Indians regarding freedom movement and Gandhiji. Newspaper should
not be seen as unprejudiced as they were published by people who had
their own political opinions and views.
Time line:
● and its disturbing experiences can be known by interviews, books and other
related documents.
● Partition caused at very large scale violence, thousands of people were
killed, innumerable women were raped and abducted. There was large scale
displacement of people across the border, millions were uprooted and
transformed into refugees. In all, approximately 15 million had to move
across the newly created borders.
● Displaced people lost their all immovable property and most of their
movable property, separated from their relatives and friends as well. People
were stripped of their local culture and were forced to begin life from
scratch.
● Speaking of these killings, arson, rape and loot that came along with
partition, observers and scholars have sometimes used the expression
‘holocaust’, with primary meaning of destruction or slaughter on a mass
scale.
● There are several events which gave fuel to fire for partition of India and
Pakistan, whether directly or indirectly.
● Politicisation of religion started with separate electorate in 1909. It was
further strengthened by colonial government of India in 1919.
● Community identities no longer indicated simple difference in faith and
belief, they became mean to active opposition and hostility between
communities.
● Communal identities were further consolidated during 1920s and 1930s by
music before rnasjid, by Cow Protection Movement and Shuddhi Movement
of Arya Samaj. Hindus were angered by the rapid spread of tabligh
(propaganda) and tanzim (organisation).
● Middle class publicist and communal activist sought to build greater
solidarity within their communities and mobilising people against other
community. Every communal riot deepened the difference between
communities.
● Large scale bloodshed took place in the year 1947. Governance structure of
the country was totally collapsed, there was complete loss of authority.
British officials were reluctant to take decisions and did not know how to
handle the situation. British were busy preparing to quit India.
● Top leaders barring Gandhiji were engaged in negotiation regarding
Independence. Indian Civil Servants in the affected areas were concerned
for their own life. Problem became more complicated when soldiers and
policemen forgot their professional commitment and helped their
co-religionist and attacked members of other communities.
● During the partition women suffered the most. Women were raped,
abducted, sold and forced to settle down to a new life with stranger in
unknown circumstances. Some began to develop a new family bond in their
changed circumstances.
● Government of both India and Pakistan showed lack of understanding of
emotions and sometimes forcefully sent women away from their new
relatives. They did not consult the concerned women and undermine their
rights to take decisions.
● Notion of honour drew on a conception of masculinity, defined as
ownership of zan [women] and zamin [land]. Virility, it was believed that lay
in ability to protect your possession i.e. zan and zamin from outsiders.
● So when men feared that their women-wives, daughters, sisters would be
violated by enemy, they killed their women themselves. There was an
incident in village of Rawalpindi, where 90 Sikh women voluntarily jumped
into w’ell for protecting themselves from outsiders.
● These incidents were seen as ‘martyrdom and it is believed that men at that
time had to courageously accept the decision of women and in some cases
even persuade them to kill themselves.
● There is history’ of help, and humanity beneath the debris of violence and
pain of partition. Numerous stories are there when people took an extra
effort to help the victims of partition.
● Many stories of caring, sharing, empathy are present, stories of opening of
new opportunities and of triumph over trauma are also present.
● For e.g. the story of Khushdeva Singh, a Sikh doctor’s work, is one of the
finest examples, who helped many migrants whether of Muslim, Hindu or
Sikh communities with affection. He provided them shelter, food, security,
etc in times of partition.
Time line:
Company agents initially settled in the Madras, Calcutta and Bombay which were
originally fishing and weaving villages. They gradually developed these villages into the
cities. These cities had the mark of colonial government institutions which were set up
to regulate economic activity and demonstrate the authority of new rule.
● Towns and cities before the advent of the British can be discussed under
the following heads
Nature of Towns:
Trends of Change:
● By 18th century Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, all had important ports and
became the economic centre.
● Company built its factories and fortified these settlements for protection.
Fort St. George in Madras, Fort Wiliam in Calcutta, and the fort in Bombay
were famous settlement of that time.
● Indian traders, merchants, artisans who worked with the European
merchant lived outside these forts in their own settlement. Settlement of
European was called ‘White Town’ and settlement of Indians was known as
‘Black Town’.
● Expansion of railways connected the hinterland to these port cities. So it
became convenient to transport raw material and labour to the cities.
● In 19th century, there was expansion of cotton and jute mills in region of
Bombay and Calcutta.
● There were only two proper industrial cities. Kanpur, which was specialised
in leather, woollen and textiles and second city was Jamshedpur, which was
specialised in steel. However, Industrial development was lagging behind in
India due to discriminatory policies of the British.
● In cities life seemed always in a flux, there was a great inequality between
rich and poor.
● New transport facilities like horse drawn carriage, trains, buses had been
developed. People now started travelling, from home to work place using
the new mode of transportation.
● Many public places were created, e.g. public parks, theatres, dubs, and
cinema halls in 20th century. These places provided entertainment and
opportunity for social interaction.
● People started migrating to cities. There were demands of clerks, teachers,
lawyers, doctors, engineers and accountants. There were schools, colleges
and libraries.
● A new public sphere of debate and discussion emerged. Social norms,
customs and practices came to be questioned.
● They provided new. opportunities for women. It provided women avenues to
get out of their house and become more visible in public life.
● They entered new profession as teacher, theatre and film actress, domestic
worker, factory worker, etc.
● Middle class women started to express themselves through the medium of
autobiographies, journals and books.
● Conservatives feared these reforms, they feared breaking existing rule of
society, and patriarchal order.
● Women who went out of the household had to face opposition and they
became object of social censure in those years.
● In cities, there were a class of labourers or the working class. Poor came to
cities looking for opportunity, few came to cities to live a new way of life
and desire to see the new things.
● Life in cities were expensive, jobs were uncertain and sometimes migrants
leave their family at native place to save money. Migrants also participated
in the Tamashas (folk theatre) and Swangs (satires) and in that way they
tried to integrate with the life of cities.
● Company first set up its centre at Surat and then tried to occupy east coast.
British and French were engaged in Battle in South India, but with defeat of
France in 1761, Madras became secure and started to grow as commercial
centre.
● Fort St. George became the important centre where Europeans lived and it
was reserved for English men.
● Officials were not permitted to marry Indians. However, other than English
Dutch, Portuguese were allowed to live in the fort as they were European
and Christian.
● Development of Madras was done according to the need of whites. Black
town, settlement of Indians, earlier it was outside the fort but later it was
shifted.
● New Black town resembled traditional Indian town with living quarter
around temple and bazaar. There were caste specific neighbourhoods.
● Madras was developed by incorporating many nearby villages. City of
Madras provided numerous opportunities for local communities.
● Different communities perform their specific job in the Madras city, people
of different communities started competing for British Government job.
● Transport system gradually started to develop. Urbanisation of Madras
meant areas between the villages were brought within the city.
Architecture in Bombay:
● Although, government building primarily serving functional needs like
defence, administration and commerce but they often meant to showcase
ideas of nationalism, religious glory and power.
● Bombay has initially seven islands, later it become commercial capital of
colonial India and also a centre of international trade.
● Bombay port led to the development of Malwa, Sind and Rajasthan and
many Indian merchants also become rich.
● Bombay led to development of Indian capitalist class which came from
diverse communities like Parsi, Marwari, Konkani, Muslim, Gujarati, Bania,
Bohra, Jew and Armenian.
● Increased demand of cotton, during the time of American civil war and
opening of Suez Canal in 1869 led to further economic development of
Bombay.
● Bombay was declared one of the most important city of India. Indian
merchants in Bombay started investing in cotton mills and in building
activities.
● Many new buildings were built but they were built in European style. It was
thought that it would:
● give familiar landscape in alien country to European, thus to
feel at home in the colony.
● give them a symbol of superiority, authority and power.
● help in creating distinction between Indian subjects and
colonial masters.
● For public building, three broad architectural styles were used. These
included neo-classical, neo-Gothic and Indo-Saracenic styles.
● Architecture reflected the aesthetic idea prevalent at that time, building also
expressed vision of those who build them. Architectural styles also mould
taste, popularise styles and shape the contours of culture.
● From the late nineteenth century, regional and national tastes were
developed to counter colonial ideal. Style has changed and developed
through wider processes of cultural conflict.
Time line:
● 1688 – Bombay was handed over to East India company by the Butanes
Empire.
● 1673 – French established trading centre at Pondichhery.
● 1757 – Battle of Placey
● 1798 – Lord Welleseley appointed as the 1st General of Bangal
● 1807 – Lottery commission was setup at Calcutta.
● 1814 -16 – Shimla was established.
● 1836 – That shed huts were banned in Calcutta.
● 1872 – Attempts were made for 1st census.
● 1878 – Organisation of survey of India
● 1881 – Madras harbour was completed.
● 1896 – Plague began to spread in India cities.
● 1911 – British transfer their capital from Calcutta to Delhi.
The constitution of India is the longest constitution in the world. It was framed between
December 1946 and December 1949. It came into effect from 26th January, 1950. A
Constitution is designed to keep the country together and to take it forward. A
constitution is an elaborated and carefully worked out document.
● Out of all 300 members of the constituent assembly, few members like Pt
Nehru,Vallabh Bhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, BR Ambedkar, ICM Munshi and
Alladi Krishna Swamy Aiyar had a remarkable contribution. Pt. Jawaharlal
Nehru, Vallabh Bhai Patel and Rajendra Prasad were representatives of the
National Congress.
● Pt Jawaharlal Nehru moved crucial “objectives resolution” as well as
proposal of National Flag. While Vallabh Bhai Patel played an important role
in negotiating with princely states, merging these princely states with India.
He drafted several reports and worked for reconciling the opposing point of
view.
● Rajendra Prasad as a President of assembly steered the discussion along
the constructive lines and made sure that all members had a chance to
speak.
● Dr BR Ambedkar joined the cabinet on advice of Gandhiji and worked as law
minister. He was the chairman of drafting committee of the constitution.
KM Munshi and Alladi Krishnaswamy Aiyar were another two lawyers who
played important role in drafting of the Constitution.
● There were two civil servants who gave vital assistance to these leaders,
one among them was B.N. Rao, who worked as constitutional advisor to
government of India and another was S.N. Mukherjee who put up complex
proposal in clear legal language.
Rights of People:
● The way of defining the rights of people was quiet different. Different
demands were made by different groups of people. These demands, ideas,
opinions were debated, discussed and conflicting idea were reconcilled and
then consensus was made to take collective decision.
● Issue of division of power of the government at the centre and at state level
was intensely debated.
● Draft constitution provided three lists of subject i.e. Union List-union
government can make laws on it. State List, State government can make
laws on it and Concurrent List-Both Union and State government can make
laws on listed items.
● More items are listed in Union list. In India-Union government is made more
powerful so that it can ensure peace, security, and can coordinate on the
matter of vital interest and to speak for whole country in the international
sphere.
● However some taxes such as land and property taxes, sales tax and tax on
bottled liquor could be levied and collected by the state on their own.
● The need for strong government had been further reinforced by the events
of partition. Many leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, BR Ambedkar,
Gopalaswami Ayyangar etc advocated for strong centre.
● Before Partition the Congress had agreed to grant considerable autonomy
to the provinces. This was agreed to satisfy the Muslim League. But after
partition, there was no political pressure and voilence aftermath of partition
gave further fillip to centralised power.