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ISBN: 978-0-12-804794-1
ISSN: 1876-1623
Helena M. Abelaira
Laboratory of Neurosciences, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Health Sciences Unit,
University of Southern Santa Catarina, Criciuma, Santa Catarina, Brazil
Rashmi K. Ambasta
Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Delhi Technological
University (Formerly DCE), Delhi, India
Adela Banciu
Department of Anatomy, Animal Physiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Biology, University
of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Daniel Dumitru Banciu
Department of Anatomy, Animal Physiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Biology, University
of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Xu Chen
College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, PR China
Jinke Cheng
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University
School of Medicine, Shanghai, PR China
Chantelle Fourie
Department of Physiology, Centre for Brain Research, University of Auckland, Auckland,
New Zealand
Roman V. Frolov
Division of Biophysics, Department of Physics, University of Oulu, Oulun Yliopisto,
Finland
Yan-Lin Fu
Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Case Western Reserve University School of
Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
Lucy Goodman
Department of Physiology, Centre for Brain Research, University of Auckland, Auckland,
New Zealand
Zuleide M. Ignácio
Laboratory of Neurosciences, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Health Sciences Unit,
University of Southern Santa Catarina, Criciuma, Santa Catarina, Brazil
Niraj Kumar Jha
Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Delhi Technological
University (Formerly DCE), Delhi, India
ix
x Contributors
w
Matti Weckstr€
om has died.
PREFACE
xiii
xiv Preface
technology and biomedical knowledge suggest that these proteins are prom-
ising targets for future therapeutic development. Therefore, the aim of this
volume is to promote further research in the structure, function, and regu-
lation of different families of ion channels which would result in designing
new efficient targeted drugs with significantly fewer adverse effects.
Proteostasis Maintenance of
Cys-Loop Receptors
Yan-Lin Fu*, Ya-Juan Wang†, Ting-Wei Mu*,1
*
Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland,
Ohio, USA
†
Center for Proteomics and Bioinformatics and Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Case Western
Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
1
Corresponding author: e-mail address: [email protected]
Contents
1. Introduction 2
2. Folding, Assembly, and Degradation of Cys-Loop Receptors in the ER 5
2.1 Folding and Assembly of Cys-Loop Receptors 5
2.2 ERAD of the Cys-Loop Receptors 8
3. Trafficking of Cys-Loop Receptors from ER to Golgi and to Plasma Membrane 10
4. Protein Quality Control of Cys-Loop Receptors on the Plasma Membrane 11
4.1 Clustering 11
4.2 Endocytosis 12
5. Other Regulations of Cys-Loop Receptors 13
5.1 Lipid Involvement in Trafficking and Clustering 13
5.2 Phosphorylation Signaling in the Biogenesis of the Receptors 14
6. Disease and Therapy 15
References 16
Abstract
The Cys-loop receptors play prominent roles in the nervous system. They include γ-
aminobutyric acid type A receptors, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, 5-hydroxytrypta-
mine type-3 receptors, and glycine receptors. Proteostasis represents an optimal state of
the cellular proteome in normal physiology. The proteostasis network regulates the
folding, assembly, degradation, and trafficking of the Cys-loop receptors, ensuring their
efficient functional cell surface expressions. Here, we summarize current advances about
the protein biogenesis process of the Cys-loop receptors. Because operating on individ-
ual biogenesis steps influences the receptor cell surface level, manipulating the
proteostasis network components can regulate the function of the receptors, rep-
resenting an emerging therapeutic strategy for corresponding channelopathies.
Advances in Protein Chemistry and Structural Biology, Volume 103 # 2016 Elsevier Inc. 1
ISSN 1876-1623 All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.apcsb.2015.11.002
2 Yan-Lin Fu et al.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Cys-loop receptors, belonging to ligand-gated channels family,
are activated by neurotransmitters, allowing ion flux through neuronal cell
membrane to maintain the neuronal activity of central nervous system
(CNS; Lester, Dibas, Dahan, Leite, & Dougherty, 2004). They include
γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABAARs), nicotinic acetylcholine
receptors (nAChRs), 5-hydroxytryptamine type-3 receptors (5-HT3Rs),
and glycine receptors (GlyRs). As the Cys-loop receptors are composed of five
homomeric or heteromeric subunits, they are also called pentameric ligand-
gated ion channels. The bacterial GLIC and ELIC and the Caenorhabditis
elegans GluCl are also in this superfamily.
The Cys-loop receptors have prominent roles in the nervous system. As
the most studied member, nAChRs are cation channels, permeable to Na+,
K+, and Ca2+ upon activation. They are responsible for synaptic transmis-
sion in the CNS, in autonomic ganglias, in the adrenal gland, and at neuro-
muscular junctions and other peripheral synapses. The receptors are
involved in diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), bipolar disease, and
myasthenia gravis. nAChRs located at different locations are composed of
different sets of subunit subtypes. α1, β1, γ, and δ subunits or α1, β1, δ,
and ε subunits form muscle-type nAChRs at a 2:1:1:1 ratio, whereas
α2–α10 and β2–β4 subunits compose the most neuronal-type receptors
with (α4)3(β2)2, (α4)2(β2)3, or (α7)5 subtypes predominantly found in
CNS and α3β4 subtypes in autonomic ganglion and adrenal gland (Gotti
et al., 2009; Hogg, Raggenbass, & Bertrand, 2003; Mazzaferro et al.,
2014; Palma, Bertrand, Binzoni, & Bertrand, 1996; Wu, Cheng, Jiang,
Melcher, & Xu, 2015; Xiao & Kellar, 2004).
5-HT3Rs, the only inotropic receptor in serotonin receptor family, are
also cation channels permeable to Na+, K+, and Ca2+ upon activation. They
are widely located at postsynaptic sites in hippocampus, cortex, substantia
nigra, and brain stem. They also exist in the presynaptic GABAergic nerve
terminals in the amygdala and CA1 region of the hippocampus, presynaptic
glutamatergic synapses, glial cell membranes in the medial nucleus of the sol-
itary tract where they play a major role in regulating the release of neuro-
transmitters such as GABA, dopamine, glutamate (Connolly, 2008). They
are involved in many clinical diseases such as drug addiction, cognitive func-
tion, schizophrenia, and satiety control. Its antagonists are used to treat
postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome and severe diarrhea-predominant
Proteostasis Maintenance of Cys-Loop Receptors 3
A B
Extracellular
90°° Cys-loop
Cytosolic
Figure 1 Structural characteristics of the Cys-loop receptors. (A) The Cys-loop receptors
are pentameric, forming a central ion pore. (B) Each subunit has a large ER lumen
domain, four transmembrane helices, and a large intracellular loop domain (ICD)
between TM3 and TM4. The two cysteines that form the signature disulfide bond are
shown in sphere model. The cartoons are built from the crystal structures of GABAA
receptors (4COF).
Plasma
membrane
Trafficking
Assembly
Chaperone-assisted
folding
Golgi
Cys-loop
receptors Endocytosis
ER-associated
degradation
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Proteasome
Figure 2 Protein biogenesis pathway of the Cys-loop receptors. The receptor subunit
proteins are cotranslationally translocated onto the ER membrane. Molecular chaper-
ones both in the ER and in the cytosol assist their folding. Properly folded subunits
assemble into a pentamer, which is then transported from the ER to Golgi and to
the plasma membrane. Misfolded proteins and unassembled subunits are degraded
by the ER-associated degradation pathway. The receptors on the plasma membrane
undergo endocytosis.
membrane insertion. Factors that affect this balance will influence the
potency of the receptor-mediated neuron activity.
In this review, we present the proteostasis maintenance of the Cys-loop
receptors. We summarize the folding and assembly characteristics of the
Cys-loop receptors in the ER and their trafficking from the ER to Golgi.
We also discuss the clustering, the endocytosis and recycling of the receptors
on the plasma membrane.
ERAD influences the trafficking and cell surface expression levels of the
Cys-loop receptors. PLIC1 negatively regulates GABAAR degradation by
inhibiting ubiquitination (Tsetlin et al., 2011). PLIC1 and its paralog PLIC2
share an ubiquitin-like proteasome-binding domain. The association of this
domain with the ICD of GABAAR subunits slows their ubiquitination and
enhances their functional surface expression (Bedford et al., 2001; Luscher et
al., 2011; Wu, Wang, Zheleznyak, & Brown, 1999). Ring finger protein 34,
an E3 ubiquitin ligase, interacts with the ICD of the γ2 subunits of GABAARs
and reduces their expression by promoting the degradation of the receptors
through both lysosomal and proteasomal degradation pathways (Jin et al.,
2014). VCP is a type II member of AAA ATPase. Its prominent function
is to extract the ubiquitinated misfolded proteins in the ER to the cytosolic
proteasome for degradation. Inhibiting VCP using eeyarestatin I significantly
enhances the trafficking of both wild type and mutant α1 subunits harboring
the A322D mutation of GABAARs (Han, Di, Fu, & Mu, 2015). Further-
more, coapplication of suberanilohydroxamic acid, a proteostasis regulator,
with eeyarestatin I additively promotes the forward trafficking of misfolding-
prone α1 subunit harboring the A322D mutation of GABAARs and enhances
their functional cell surface expression (Di et al., 2013; Han, Di, et al., 2015).
For nAChRs, blockage of the proteasome function increases their assembly
in the ER, leading to their enhanced surface expression in cultured myotubes
(Christianson & Green, 2004; Wanamaker et al., 2003). Long-term inhibi-
tion of neuronal activity drastically enhances the ubiquitination level of
GABAARs and decreases their cell surface stability, whereas increasing the
level of neuronal activity decreases the ubiquitination of GABAARs and pro-
motes their stability on the plasma membrane. Neuron activity itself can reg-
ulate the potency of GABAAR-mediated effects through ubiquitination
(Saliba, Michels, Jacob, Pangalos, & Moss, 2007). Based on the above evi-
dence, modulating the ERAD rate is a promising way to enhance the surface
trafficking of Cys-loop receptors. It will be of great interest to elucidate the
ERAD machinery, such as critical E3 ligases and retrotranslocation channels,
for the Cys-loop receptors. A tandem mass spectrometry-based proteomics
approach identifies potential proteostasis network components for GABAA
receptors, enabling follow-up studies on their ERAD machinery (Wang,
Han, Tabib, Yates, & Mu, 2013).
In addition, other factors affect the trafficking of Cys-loop receptors
through different mechanisms. For nAChRs, “14-3-3” proteins promote
their trafficking through covering the COPI recognition signals and decreas-
ing the ER retention of the receptors (Mrowiec & Schwappach, 2006).
10 Yan-Lin Fu et al.
4.2 Endocytosis
Surface receptors undergo consistent recycling between cell surface and
intracellular endosomes (Connolly, Kittler, et al., 1999; Connolly, Uren,
et al., 1999). The internalized receptors are either recycled back onto cell
surface through early and recycling endosomes or degraded through late
endosomes in the lysosomes. The regulation of the balance between the
internalization and recycling/degradation is also important in regulating
the availability of the surface expression of receptors and their mediated neu-
ronal excitatory or inhibitory effect.
For GABAARs, clathrin adaptor protein AP2 binds to the β and γ sub-
units, which in turn interact with clathrin, the GTPase dynamin, and other
binding partners and form the GABAARs containing clathrin-coated pits
(Kittler et al., 2000).
Many important factors regulate the endocytosis and recycling process of
Cys-loop receptors. For GABAARs, huntingtin-associated protein 1
(HAP1), which is an adaptor protein for kinesin superfamily motor protein
5 (KIF5) (Twelvetrees et al., 2010), inhibits the degradation of endocytosed
β1–3-containing GABAARs through the KIF5-dependent trafficking,
favors the receptor recycling, and increases their surface expression and
receptor-mediated inhibitory effect (Kittler et al., 2004). GABAAR-
Proteostasis Maintenance of Cys-Loop Receptors 13
interacting factor, GRIF-1, and its paralog TRAK1, also interact with KIF5.
They could be involved in the KIF5-dependent trafficking of GABAARs
(Luscher et al., 2011). BIG2, a guanine exchange factor mentioned earlier,
may also involved in the endocytic recycling of GABAARs (Luscher et al.,
2011). Inhibiting the lysosomal activity (Arancibia-Carcamo et al., 2009;
Kittler et al., 2004), preventing the trafficking of ubiquitinated γ2 sub-
unit-containing GABAARs to lysosomes (Arancibia-Carcamo et al.,
2009), or disrupting the ubiquitination at lysine residues in the intracellular
domain of the γ2 subunit (Arancibia-Carcamo et al., 2009) enhances the
accumulation of GABAARs at synapses.
Giant ankyrin-G, an extended fibrous polypeptide with 2600 residues, is
present in extrasynaptic microdomains on the somatodendritic surfaces of
hippocampal and cortical neurons and disrupts GABAAR endocytosis by
interacting with the GABARAP (Tseng, Jenkins, Tanaka, Mooney, &
Bennett, 2015). This process may be involved in the formation of
GABAAR-mediated circuitry in the cerebral cortex. Human mutations in
the giant ankyrin exon are linked to autism and severe cognitive dysfunction
(Iqbal et al., 2013).
The internalization rate also depends on the extracellular conformation
of the GABAARs and the presence of GABAAR agonists or antagonists.
GABAARs that contain the R43Q mutant γ2 subunits have an increased
clathrin-mediated and dynamin-dependent endocytosis, which can be
reduced by receptor antagonists. Furthermore, receptor agonists enhance
the endocytosis of both endogenous and recombinant wild-type GABAARs
in both cultured neurons and COS-7 cells (Chaumont et al., 2013).
The nAChR agonist, antagonist α-bungarotoxin, and cross-linking anti-
nAChR antibodies promote the internalization of nAChRs (Akaaboune,
Culican, Turney, & Lichtman, 1999; St John, 2009; St John & Gordon,
2001). This process depends on actin activation, but it still happens without
functional clathrin, caveolin, or dynamin (St John, 2009). Neuregulins 1β
(NRG1β), which belongs to EGF family, induces the rapid internalization
of α7-nAChRs from the surface of these neurons. Its effect relies on tyrosine
phosphorylation and activation of actin cytoskeleton.
(Chen & Olsen, 2007). Membrane sphingolipids and other lipids promote
the surface expression level of muscle-type nAChRs by affecting the biosyn-
thesis process in ER (Baier & Barrantes, 2007). Decreasing the membrane
cholesterol promotes the endocytosis of nAChRs and decreases their cell
expression level (Borroni et al., 2007). The underlying mechanism is that
membrane lipid serves as lipid rafts, which is required for the trafficking
and membrane stabilization of the receptors.
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Hän ei kyennyt hillitsemään itseään, vaikka Aljoša oli läsnä,
ehkäpä ei tahtonutkaan hillitä itseänsä.
— Ei, ei niin… Siellä oli aivan toista, Mitja. Siellä… Tapasin siellä
äsken heidät molemmat.
— Kutka molemmat?
*****
Isä Paísi poistui. Että luostarinvanhin teki lähtöä, siitä Aljoša oli
varma, vaikka vanhus vielä saattoikin elää päivän tai kaksi. Aljoša
päätti lujasti ja hehkuvin mielin, että hän huolimatta antamastaan
lupauksesta tavata isää, Hohlakoveja, veljeä ja Katerina Ivanovnaa
— ei seuraavana päivänä ollenkaan poistu luostarista, vaan jää
vanhuksensa luo hänen kuolemaansa asti. Rakkaus leimahti hänen
sydämessään, ja hän moitti katkerasti itseään siitä, että oli hetkeksi
siellä, kaupungissa, suorastaan unohtanut sen, jonka hän oli jättänyt
luostariin kuolinvuoteelle ja jota hän kunnioitti enemmän kuin ketään
muuta koko maailmassa. Hän meni vanhuksen makuukomeroon,
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hiljaa ja liikkumatta, hengittäen tasaisesti ja tuskin huomattavasti.
Hänen kasvonsa olivat rauhalliset.
Palattuaan toiseen huoneeseen — samaan, jossa luostarinvanhin
aamulla oli ottanut vastaan vieraat, kävi Aljoša melkein riisumatta ja
ottaen jalastaan vain saappaat pitkälleen kovalle ja kapealle
nahkapäällyksiselle sohvalle, jolla hän oli jo pitkät ajat nukkunut joka
yö tuoden siihen vain tyynyn. Patjaa, josta hänen isänsä äskettäin oli
pitänyt ääntä, hän ei pitkään aikaan ollut muistanut levittää alleen.
Hän riisui vain lyhyen viittansa ja käytti sitä peitteenään. Mutta ennen
nukkumistaan hän heittäytyi polvilleen ja rukoili kauan. Palavassa
rukouksessaan hänellä ei ollut tapana pyytää Jumalaa tuomaan
selkenemistä hänen ahdistukseensa, vaan hän janosi vain riemuisaa
liikutusta, entistä sulotunnetta, joka aina oli tullut hänen sieluunsa,
kun hän oli kiittänyt ja ylistänyt Jumalaa, ja tuota kiitosta ja ylistystä
oli tavallisesti vain ollutkin hänen rukouksensa levolle käydessä. Tuo
riemu, joka tuli hänen sydämeensä, toi mukanaan kevyen ja
rauhallisen unen. Rukoillessaan taas nyt hän sattumalta tunsi
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Hän tuli hämilleen, mutta rukoili rukouksensa loppuun. Sitten hän
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aamulla oli hänelle niin naureskellut luostarinvanhimman luona.
Aljoša luki kirjeen ihmetellen, luki sen kahdesti, mietti ja alkoi äkkiä
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yhtä hiljaista ja onnellista naurua. Hitaasti hän pani kirjeen takaisin
kuoreen, teki ristinmerkin ja kävi makaamaan. Ahdistus oli äkkiä
kadonnut hänen mielestään. »Herra Jumala, armahda heitä kaikkia,
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heidän kulkunsa. Sinulla on keinot: kaikilla noilla keinoillasi pelastat
heidät. Sinä olet rakkaus, Sinä lähetät myös kaikille ilon!» mutisi
Aljoša tehden ristinmerkkejä ja vaipuen levolliseen uneen.
TOINEN OSA
Neljäs kirja
Mullerruksia
1.
Isä Ferapont
Asian laita oli niin, että hän nyt oli sangen ymmällä eikä oikein
tietänyt, mitä uskoisi. Eilen illalla hän oli käynyt vielä luostarissa isä
Ferapontin luona tämän erityisessä kammiossa mehiläistarhan
takana, ja häntä oli hämmästyttänyt tämä kohtaus, joka oli tehnyt
häneen oudon ja peloittavan vaikutuksen. Tämä vanhus, isä
Ferapont, oli se sama hyvin korkeassa iässä oleva munkki, suuri
paastooja ja vaikenija, jonka jo olemme maininneet luostarinvanhin
Zosiman vastustajana ja ennen kaikkea luostarinvanhinjärjestelmän
vastustajana, jota järjestelmää hän piti vahingollisena ja
kevytmielisenä uutuutena. Tämä oli sangen vaarallinen vastustaja,
vaikka hän, vaikenija kun oli, ei puhunut juuri kenellekään
sanaakaan. Vaarallinen hän oli etupäässä siksi, että monet
veljeskunnan jäsenet olivat täydelleen hänen puolellaan ja monet
luostarissa käyvistä maallikoista kunnioittivat häntä suurena
hurskauden harjoittajana ja uskon sankarina, siitä huolimatta, että
huomasivat hänet ehdottomasti kaistapäiseksi. Mutta se juuri
viehättikin, että hän ei ollut aivan täysijärkinen. Luostarinvanhin
Zosiman luona ei tämä isä Ferapont koskaan käynyt. Vaikka hän
elelikin erakkomajassa, niin häntä ei sanottavasti häiritty
erakkomajoissa noudatettavilla säännöillä juuri siksi, että hänen
käytöksensä ei ollut aivan täysijärkisen käytöstä. Hän oli
seitsemänkymmenenviiden vuoden ikäinen, jollei vanhempikin, ja
asui mehiläistarhan tuolla puolen muurin kulmauksessa vanhassa,
melkein lahonneessa puisessa kammiossa, joka oli siihen laitettu jo
ammoisina aikoina, jo viime vuosisadalla, eräälle niinikään suurelle
paastoojalle ja vaikenijalle, isä Joonaalle, joka oli elänyt sadan viiden
vuoden ikään ja jonka teoista vieläkin kierteli luostarissa ja sen
ympäristössä paljon mielenkiintoisia kertomuksia. Isä Ferapontin
onnistui saada aikaan se, että hänetkin vihdoin, noin seitsemän
vuotta sitten, sijoitettiin tuohon samaan yksinäiseen pikku kammioon,
joka yksinkertaisesti oli mökki, mutta muistutti suuresti kappelia, sillä
siinä oli erittäin paljon lahjaksi tuotuja pyhäinkuvia, joitten edessä
alati paloivat niinikään lahjoitetut lamput, ja näitä hoitelemaan ja
sytyttelemään olikin isä Ferapont oikeastaan sinne pantu. Hän söi,
kuten kerrottiin (ja se olikin totta), vain kaksi naulaa leipää kolmessa
päivässä, ei muuta. Leivän toi hänelle joka kolmas päivä
mehiläistarhassa asuva mehiläisten hoitaja, mutta tällekin häntä
palvelevalle mehiläisten hoitajalle isä Ferapont aniharvoin virkkoi
sanaakaan. Nämä neljä naulaa leipää ynnä sunnuntaisin tuotu
siunattu ehtoollisleipä, jonka igumeni säännöllisesti myöhemmän
jumalanpalveluksen jälkeen lähetti pyhälle miehelle, olivatkin hänen
ruokanaan koko viikon aikana. Vettä vaihdettiin hänen tuoppiinsa
joka päivä. Jumalanpalvelukseen hän saapui harvoin. Luostariin
tulleet rukoilijat näkivät hänen viettävän toisinaan koko päivän
rukoilussa, jolloin hän oli kaiken aikaa polvillaan eikä katsonut
ympärilleen. Jos hän joskus antautui heidän kanssaan puheisiin, niin
hän puhui lyhyesti, katkonaisesti, omituisesti ja melkein aina