Textbook Management of Greywater in Developing Countries Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Management of Greywater in Developing Countries Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed Ebook All Chapter PDF
https://textbookfull.com/product/mechanics-of-human-joints-
physiology-pathophysiology-and-treatment-first-edition-radin/
https://textbookfull.com/product/difference-equations-for-
scientists-and-engineering-interdisciplinary-difference-
equations-1st-edition-michael-a-radin/
https://textbookfull.com/product/public-transport-planning-and-
management-in-developing-countries-1st-edition-ashish-verma/
https://textbookfull.com/product/piece-wise-and-max-type-
difference-equations-periodic-and-eventually-periodic-solutions-
first-edition-radin/
The Change Maker s Playbook How to Seek Seed and Scale
Innovation in Any Company Amy J. Radin
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-change-maker-s-playbook-how-
to-seek-seed-and-scale-innovation-in-any-company-amy-j-radin/
https://textbookfull.com/product/off-grid-electrical-systems-in-
developing-countries-henry-louie/
https://textbookfull.com/product/sustainability-outreach-in-
developing-countries-mir-sayed-shah-danish/
https://textbookfull.com/product/energy-and-environmental-
security-in-developing-countries-muhammad-asif/
Management
of Greywater
in Developing
Countries
Alternative Practices, Treatment and
Potential for Reuse and Recycling
Water Science and Technology Library
Volume 87
Editor-in-Chief
Vijay P. Singh, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
Management of Greywater
in Developing Countries
Alternative Practices, Treatment and Potential
for Reuse and Recycling
123
Editors
Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed Amir Hashim Mohd Kassim
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Faculty of Civil and Environmental
Engineering Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
(UTHM) (UTHM)
Johor Johor
Malaysia Malaysia
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing AG
part of Springer Nature
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
The ever-increasing use of greywater has been associated with growing concerns
over its ultimate destination and effects on the environment after discharge or when
reused for irrigation. Greywater disposal is acknowledged as a serious worldwide
problem due to the increased environmental awareness and stringent environmental
standards that govern its use as set by various environmental protection agencies. In
contrast, the utilization of greywater in agricultural production has been gaining
increasing interest and attention in recent years. It offers economic and nutrient
recycling advantages over the traditional disposal options. Nevertheless, potential
risks derived from the accumulation of heavy metals and organic compounds, as
well as pathogen contamination, must be taken into consideration. The develop-
ments in treatment technologies to produce high-quality greywater emphasize safe
reuse. However, progress in the developing counties is a bit slower than in the
developed countries. Nevertheless, there are a number of alternative technologies
that have emerged, including phycoremediation processing and solar disinfection,
which are more appropriate to the developing countries.
The current book is an effort to summarize the work of researchers in the field of
greywater since 2011 who believe that this is the right time to write a reference
book to discuss the current practice of greywater management. The main targets of
this book are the academicians and researchers who seek to find more meaningful
information on the management and recent treatment technologies of greywater in
developed and developing countries.
This book aims to discuss the proper management of greywater in the devel-
oping countries. It provides a comprehensive review and referenced information on
greywater in order to highlight its risk alongside the benefits. The book consists of
12 chapters: Chap. 1 describes the characteristics of greywater and quantities
generated in the developing countries. This chapter highlights the main pollutants in
greywater, such as heavy metals and infectious pathogens. Chapter 2 addresses the
consequences of improper disposal of greywater into the environment, including the
health risks associated with greywater, the potential of pathogenic organism to
transmit into human and animals, and the adverse effects on the aquaculture
organism in the water bodies which receive the discharged greywater. Chapter 3
v
vi Preface
vii
viii Contents
ix
x Contributors
xiii
xiv Abbreviations
1.1 Introduction
The rapid increase in the total population in developing countries and their activities
alongside the deficiency in clean water resources as well as the absence of advanced
technology required to produce high quality treated wastewater leads to an increase
in the level of natural water contamination. This is due to the direct discharge of
wastewater into water bodies. In most developed countries, black water and greywater
are treated separately. In contrast, these practices are common in the rural areas in
developing countries in order to reduce the quantity of sewage discharged into the
individual septic tank (IST) due to the absence of a central wastewater treatment
plant. Besides, these practices are common in arid and semi-arid areas because they
use greywater for irrigation purposes.
Research studies in greywater treatment and the reuse or recycling of greywa-
ter have started early since the 1990s and have increased significantly after 2005
(Fig. 1.1).
A review of these publications revealed that most of the studies were performed in
developed countries. In the period between 1990 and 2000, the publications addressed
the characteristics of greywater from different sources. However, in the last few
years, they have shifted to the treatment and reuse of greywater for the production of
biomass as well as for irrigation purposes. Most papers published in the Middle East
region were produced in Jordan which has the best practice in the field of wastewater
treatment among the developing countries in the Middle East region, and they are
also related to arid and semi-arid weather in Jordan. Therefore, the greywater in
80
70
60
Publication numbers
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018
Year
Fig. 1.1 Shows the distribution of 426 publications on greywater in the period between 1991 and
2016. The data were collected from Elsevier, Springer and Wiley publishers
1 Qualitative Characterization of Household Greywater … 3
might explain the exclusion of kitchen and restaurant wastewater from the black water
category. Nonetheless, more clarifications are needed to justify the classification of
these wastes within the greywater definition. This is because the quality of wastewater
generated from cooking and dishwashers (both in kitchen and restaurant shops) is
also similar to wet market and meat processing wastewater in terms of microbial
loads and organic content as well as its nutrient content. Indeed, the classification
of wastewater from household activities makes the creation of a separate network
transport system for each type more complicated especially in developing countries
in which all household wastewater is discharged without separation. Therefore, in
order to overcome the confusion between greywater from baths and wastewater
from the kitchen, Bodnar et al. (2014) used the term ‘light greywater’ to represent
greywater from baths and dark greywater generated by laundry and cooking. In a
report published by Morel and Diener (2006), 12 out of 15 references included kitchen
wastewater within the greywater definition. Hence, in this chapter, the concept of
greywater will include all the wastewater from household activities except for black
water.
The main source of greywater comes from household activities, including baths,
showers, laundry as well as dishwashing. The percentage of greywater generated from
household activities represents 50–80% of the total water usage. So far, quantities of
greywater depend on domestic water consumption. The data depicted in Fig. 1.2 show
that the maximum water consumption is utilized for laundry and shower activities
(33 and 23% respectively). The toilets consumed around 20% while dishwashing
and cooking consumed 11% of the total water usage.
The percentage of greywater compared to black water in developing countries
is more than that in developed countries. For instance, in the UK, the quantities
of greywater and sewage produced are equal, while greywater represents 70–80%
of total domestic wastewater in Jordan and Oman (Prathapar et al. 2005; Jamrah
et al. 2008). In South Africa, greywater is ranging between 65 and 85% of the total
household water consumption (Carden et al. 2007). These differences would be also
explained based on lifestyle. This indicates that the greywater quantity does not vary
greatly.
Al-Mughalles et al. (2012) mentioned that the utilization of Arabic toilets might be
associated with high generation of greywater, while the utilization of Western toilets
with a flushing system might lead to increased black water production. Indeed, the
estimation of greywater quantities in developing countries especially those located in
the Middle East region is difficult because in most of those countries, the greywater
is discharged with the sewage. Therefore, accurate information about the percentage
of greywater in black water is unavailable. However, a more acceptable reason to
1 Qualitative Characterization of Household Greywater … 5
Toilets
Laundry 20% Hand washing
(33%) 3%
Shaving
5%
Fig. 1.2 Domestic water consumption per capita per day. (Adopted from Howard et al. 2003)
increase the percentage of greywater in Middle East countries is the ablution water
which is generated from the ablution process and discharged along with greywater
(Efaq et al. 2016; Mohamed et al. 2016a).
Greywater quantity depends on the number of household members, their age,
nature of living, demographics and level of occupancy, geographical location, social
habits and water usage pattern and time (Prathapar et al. 2005; Jamrah et al. 2008).
Hence, the quantity of greywater produced differs in developed countries compared
to developing countries (Fig. 1.3). Bodnar et al. (2014) also indicated that the amount
of generated greywater in large cities (120–130 L/p/d) is higher than that in small
villages (50–70 L/p/d).
Based on the quantities of greywater in different countries presented in Fig. 1.3,
it can be noted that the quantities of greywater generated from household activities
depend on the level of development in that particular country. The maximum quantity
of greywater is recorded in the USA (281 L/p/d), while the lowest quantities were
noted in South Africa (20 L/p/d).
The quantities of greywater in the countries which face a scarcity in freshwater
resources such as Yemen (35 L/p/d), Syria (33.8 L/p/d) and Mali (30 L/p/d) are
less compared to countries which have several water resources such as Malaysia
(125 L/p/d). However, this situation depends on the level of the country’s degree of
economic development and the availability of facilities in the countries. For instance,
in Jordan, the total amount of greywater generated from households is 50 L/p/d. In
contrast, in Oman which is located in the same geographical area, the quantity of
greywater generated is 184 L/p/d. This might be related to desalinated seawater.
6 A. A. S. Al-Gheethi et al.
281
300
250
184
200
150
L/P/D
142
150
125
121
117
117
113
112
110
100
95
90
100
87
80
79
72
65
50
50
33.8
50
35
30
20
0
Country
Fig. 1.3 Quantities of greywater (L/p/d) in selected countries. Source Faruqui and Al-Jayyousi
(2002), Adendorff and Stimie (2005), Alderlieste and Langeveld (2005), Helvetas (2005), Busser
et al. (2006), Jamrah et al. (2008); Mourad et al. (2011), Al-Mughalles et al. (2012), Harikumar and
Mol (2012), Antonopoulou et al. (2013), Mohamed et al. (2013)
In Saudi Arabia, 15.1 billion cubic metres of desalinated seawater is provided per
day (BCM) compared to 1.2 BCM per day of non-renewable groundwater resources
(Al-Saud 2010). In Malaysia, greywater generated is estimated to be 100–150 L/p/d
(Mohamed et al. 2016b). The common practices among the community might play an
important role in the quantities of discharged greywater. Adendorff and Stimie (2005)
stated that the low production of greywater in South Africa (20 L/p/d) is due to the
lifestyle of the people who use rivers or lakes for washing clothes, utensils and to clean
themselves. In comparison to developed countries, the average greywater volume
is 113 L/p/d in Australia, 110 L/p/d in Switzerland (Helvetas 2005), 100 L/p/d in
Hungary (Bodnar et al. 2014) and between 35 and 150 in Europe (Boyjoo et al. 2013).
The main resources for greywater include bathroom, laundry and kitchen. Greywa-
ter from baths constitutes the main percentage of the greywater. It has been reported
that the greywater from bathrooms makes up 55% of the total greywater, followed
by laundry wastewater (34%) and kitchen wastewater (11%) (Katukiza et al. 2015;
Laghari et al. 2015). According to Mara and Cairncross (1989), bathroom greywater
is the main greywater source with 54% of the total greywater generated by houses,
while laundry greywater makes up 38% of the total greywater generated. In a study
conducted by Ghaitidak and Yadav (2013), the percentages of bathroom, laundry
and kitchen greywater were 47, 26 and 27% respectively. Mohamed et al. (2016b)
revealed that the maximum generation of greywater in Malaysia was recorded from
bathing activity, with an average of 50% of total greywater. It was due to frequent
bathing among the occupants of more than three times daily. This is also related to
1 Qualitative Characterization of Household Greywater … 7
the hot and humid weather in Malaysia. The study also found that laundry greywater
contributed 22% of the total greywater. In contrast, the kitchen greywater quantity
represented 28% of total greywater. The quantity of greywater during weekends is
higher than greywater produced during weekdays (Mohamed et al. 2016b). These
differences are due to more household activities on weekends, especially cooking
activities. On weekdays, most people have their meals at their workplace thus less
kitchen grey water is produced in the absence of cooking.
Greywater is mixed with soap, shampoo, toothpaste, food waste, cooking oil and
detergent depending on the utilization of resources by each household (Mohamed
et al. 2016b). The main composition for different types of greywater is presented in
Table 1.1. The quality of greywater depends mainly on the health status and personal
hygiene of the users (Jamrah et al. 2008; Laghari et al. 2015).
The main parameters of greywater include biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
chemical oxygen demand (COD), suspended solids, turbidity, total nitrogen (TN),
total phosphorus (TP), pH, alkalinity, electrical conductivity, heavy metals, disinfec-
tants, bleach, surfactants and detergents (Adendorff and Stimie 2005). The quality
of organic matter in greywater is similar to that in domestic wastewater but differs
in terms of concentration. Moreover, the utilization of low quantities of water for
household activities is associated with heavy pollution while high quantities of grey-
water show that pollutants are subjected to dilution. Previous studies have revealed
that the pollutant loads of greywater from developing countries are higher than that
reported in developed countries (Carden et al. 2007). This might be explained based
on the quantities of greywater in developed countries which are higher in comparison
to that in developing countries. Thus, more dilution for pollutants takes place with
high quantities of greywater. In some developed countries, the term ‘diluted waste’
is used to represent greywater.
Bathroom sinks Bangladesh 74–84 432–532 74–102 Abedin and Rakib (2013)
Kitchen sinks 1253–2414 615–684 303–345
Laundry 854–1160 832–1573 386–410
Total greywater Yemen 337.1–510.8 ND 266.24–618.60 Al-Mughalles et al. (2012)
ND (Non detected)
11
12 A. A. S. Al-Gheethi et al.
and Bangladesh (Al-Mughalles et al. 2012; Abedin and Rakib 2013; Katukiza et al.
2014). Similar trends were observed for turbidity and TDS but with little differ-
ences between the greywater in developed and developing countries. However, the
data in Table 1.2 show that in some countries such as Korea, the turbidity ranges
from 152 to 4400 NTU whereas in Yemen it was between 266.24 and 618.60 NTU
(Jong et al. 2010; Al-Mughalles et al. 2012). Finally, it has to be mentioned that the
physical properties of greywater might give a general idea of greywater while the
real composition needs to be evaluated based on the chemical and microbiological
characteristics.
The chemical characteristics of greywater are illustrated in Table 1.3. These param-
eters including pH, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD), total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphate (TP) provide more details on the
nature of these wastes in terms of organic and inorganic constitutes. Greywater has
a more alkaline pH value ranging from 5 to 11 compared to black water which has a
pH between 6 and 7.7 (Schäfer et al. 2006). The data in Table 1.3 indicate that there
is no clear correlation between pH values and the development level for greywater
from different countries.
However, it was noted that the greywater in developed countries has a neutral pH
whereas those from developing countries ranged from less than 6 as that reported in
Bangladesh, Jordan, Egypt and Yemen (Abedin and Rakib 2013; Ammari et al. 2014;
Abdel-Shafy et al. 2014) to more than pH 9 as reported in India (Vakil et al. 2014).
Meanwhile, Fountoulakis et al. (2016) found that the pH value in greywater from
Greece ranged from pH 6.4 to 10. Nonetheless, pH values in greywater depend on the
source of greywater. For bathing and kitchen greywater, the pH value is on average
7, while those generated from laundry has a pH more than 9 due to the presence of
high concentrations of surfactants/detergents (Bodnar et al. 2014).
COD parameter is one of the main chemical characteristics which reveals real
organic pollutants in greywater (Jais et al. 2016). The concentration of COD depends
on the chemical reaction level between organic substances in greywater. Therefore,
the increasing levels of COD in greywater indicate active chemical reactions with
high consumption of free oxygen available in water. In contrast, BOD is an indicator
for the biological oxidation of organic compounds in the presence of molecular
oxygen as an oxidizing agent to produce carbon dioxide and water. This process
takes place in the microbial cells and uses dissolved oxygen available in water. High
concentrations of BOD in greywater are an indirect indicator for high density of
microorganisms.
From the concentrations of COD and BOD5 in previous studies presented
in Table 1.3, greywater appears to have higher COD than BOD. Therefore, the
COD:BOD5 ratio (4:1) of greywater is higher than that of sewage. This would
be due to the high levels of xenobiotic organic compounds (XOC) in detergent
Table 1.3 Chemical characteristics of bathroom greywater and related sources
Sources Country pH COD BOD5 TN TP References
Bathroom and laundry Greece 6.4–10 26–645 ND 3.6–21 0.1–1 Fountoulakis et al. (2016)
Bathroom Malaysia 6.1 445 349 NR NR Teh et al. (2015)
Bathroom Malaysia 6.1–6.4 445–621 40–105 NR NR Mohamed et al. (2014)
Bathroom Nigeria 7.7 67.6 60.23 NR NR Nnaji et al. (2013)
Men hostel India 7.48 986 279.6 NR NR Gokulan et al. (2013)
Bathroom and laundry Malaysia 6.8–7.8 180–291 90–130 5.3–30 0.2–6.7 Mohamed et al. (2013)
Bathroom France 7.6 399 240 3.8–17.0 0.1–2.0 Chaillou et al. (2011)
Mixed greywater Jordan 6.9–7.8 92–2263 110–1240 38–61 NR Al-Hamaiedeh and Bino
(2010)
1 Qualitative Characterization of Household Greywater …
Showers and hand basins Denmark 7.6–8.6 77–240 26–130 3.6–6.4 0.28–0.779 Eriksson et al. (2002)
Washing, kitchen, cooking, Korea 7.02–7.86 119–3740 23.5–392.4 NR NR Jong et al. (2010)
bathroom
Bathroom Uganda 6–8 4699–8427 929–1861 NR NR Katukiza et al. (2014)
Bathroom sinks, baths and showers UK NR 33–138 8–34 NR NR Winward et al. (2008a, b, c)
Mixed greywater Jordan NR 92–668 NR NR NR Bani-Melhem et al. (2015)
(continued)
13
14