course: Zoology

TOPIC OUTLINE: Intro to Zoology (1) Mammalogy – the study of mammals. A popular
(1) History of Zoology type of mammalogy is primatology, the study of
(2) Specialization in Zoology primates.
(3) Evolutionary Perspective (2) Ornithology – the study of birds.
(4) Ecological Perspective (3) Herpetology – the study of amphibians and
reptiles.
Defining Zoology (4) Ichthyology – the study of fish.
Zoology – also referred as animal biology, is the field of biology (5) Entomology - the study of insects. Entomology is
that involves the study of animals. The word zoology comes itself broken down into many categories because
from the Greek words zöion, meaning "animal", and logos, there are so many types of insects. Some
meaning "the study of" examples of its subcategories are
- It encompasses all aspects of scientific knowledge Lepidopterology, the study of butterflies and
about animals, like embryonic development, moths, Myrmecology, the study of ants, and
evolution, behavior, ecological distribution, and Coleopterology, the study of beetles.
classification.
Careers in Zoology
History of Zoology Many people are fascinated by animals, so zoology can be a
Ancient Times  People have been interested in rather competitive field. However, there are many different
learning about animals since ancient types of jobs in zoology.
times. The prominent ancient Greek
philosopher Aristotle took detailed Many zoologists are researchers who study animals in lab and
notes on animal observations, and or/field settings. To be the head of a research lab, having a PhD
inspired other scientists for many is necessary.
hundreds of years.
16th & 17th  Many universities were founded Another job in zoology is that of a wildlife rehabilitator, who
Century in Europe in the 16th Century, and cares for wild animals that are orphaned or injured in order to
by the mid-17th Century, divisions improve their health so that they can return to their natural
were founded in universities that habitat. Still other zoologists work in zoos as zookeepers and
focused entirely on animal zoo curators, who take care of zoo animals, monitor their
18th – 21st  In the 19th Century, the behavior, train them, and educate the public about the animals.
Century microscope became commonplace in
scientific research, and this opened Many zoologists also work in conservation, where they do
up a whole new realm of possibility; research, collect information about endangered species, and
now, the cells of animals could be educate people about these species.
studied at the microscopic level. Entry-level jobs in zoology usually require a bachelor's degree
and some experience working with animals, while more
Another breakthrough in zoology advanced positions may require a master's or doctorate.
occurred when the naturalist Charles
Darwin developed the theory of Evolutionary and Ecological Perspectives
evolution by natural selection. This Evolution helps zoologist understand the relationships among
theory revolutionized zoology and animals. Zoologist must understand evolutionary process to
taxonomy (classification). understand what an animal is and how it originated.

Branches of Zoology Organic Evolution

Zoography – also called as descriptive zoology or “Evolutus” – means unroll.
zoogeopgraphy, is the study of animals and their habitats.
Change in the genetic makeup of populations of organisms over
Comparative anatomy – is the study of similarities and time. It is the source of animal diversity, and it explains family
differences in the anatomy of different types of animals. relationships within animal groups.

Animal physiology – is the study of the bodily processes that

occur in animals that allow them to maintain homeostasis and
survive. Evidences
The evidence for evolution is found at all levels of organization
Ethology – is the study of animal behavior, usually in regard in in living things and in the extinct species we know about
their natural environment as opposed to in a lab. through.
Behavioral ecology – emerged from ethology. It is the study of
evolution as the basis for animal behavior due to ecological Geographical evidences - The geographic distribution of
pressure, which are constraints placed upon organisms by their organisms on Earth follows patterns that are best explained by
environment. evolution, in combination with the movement of tectonic plates
over geological time.
Grouping by Animals

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Biochemical evidences - Biochemistry reveals similarities naming a species. A binomial name is comprised of two parts,
between organisms of different species. Closely-related species i.e. the generic name (genus name) and the specific name (or
will show more similarities in the amino acid sequences of their specific epithet, in botanical nomenclature). It is often in a
proteins. This is because amino acid sequence in a protein Latinized form.
reflects the nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the
protein. Taxonomic Rank
(1) Kingdom
Fossil records - Evidence of species that no longer exists have (2) Phylum
been found by scientists through fossils. Fossils are hardened (3) Class
traces of dead organisms most commonly found in layer of (4) Order
sedimentary rocks. Fossils are formed when organisms, (5) Family
footprints, or burrows are buried in a sand or sediment.
(6) Genus
Mutation – A mutation is a change in (7) Species
DNA, the hereditary material of life. An organism's DNA affects
how it looks, how it behaves, and its physiology. So a change in Principle of Ecosystem
an organism's DNA can cause changes in all aspects of its life. Ecology is the study of organisms and how they interact with the
Mutations are essential to evolution; they are the raw material of environment around them.
genetic variation.
An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and
Endemic Species other organisms, as well as weather and landscape, work
Endemic species – are plants and animals that exist only in one together to forms a bubble of life.
geographic location.
Diversity - Ecological diversity is a type of biodiversity. It is the
International Context and Setting - This fact places Ecuador variation in the ecosystems found in a region or the variation in
among the 17 countries nominated as "mega-diverse". ecosystems over the whole planet. Ecological diversity includes
This qualification corresponds to these countries because in the variation in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
them, more than 70% of animal species and plant species in the
planet are concentrated. Among this group, the smallest country Habitat - Place where an organism or a community of organisms
is Ecuador. With an area corresponding to 0.17% of terrestrial lives, including all living and nonliving factors or conditions of
surface (256,370 Km2), it owns more than 11% of all land the surrounding environment. A host organism inhabited by
vertebrate species: 2794 species, of which 436 (15.6%) are parasites is as much a habitat as a terrestrial place such as a
endemic. This means that Ecuador is the country with the largest grove of trees or an aquatic locality such as a small pond.
biodiversity of terrestrial vertebrates per unit area in the world.
Adaptation - Is the process of changing to better suit to its
Evolutionary free - Philippines island has the world's greatest environment.
concentration of unique mammals. According to DENR Ecosystem-based adaptation is the use of biodiversity and
(Department of Environment and Natural Resources), the ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to
Philippines is considered a mega-diversity country rivaled only help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change.
by a few countries in the world when it comes to variety of
ecosystems, species and genetic resources. Many of the islands Population
comprising the archipelago are believed to have a very high A group of individuals that belong in the same species and live
degree of animal endemism. in the same area.
Population growth – an increase in a population.
Classification
Taxonomy – is the branch of science concerned with classifying Environmental Resistance
organisms, Classification shows how closely organism are Environmental resistance factors are all the things that keep a
related with respect to evolution. It is based on the assumption population of organisms from endlessly increasing. Biotic
that each organism has descended from its ancestral type with factors are things like predation, parasitism, lack of food
some modification. competition with other organisms and disease. Abiotic factors
include drought, fire, temperature, and even the wrong amount
Evolutionary Relationships of sunshine.
In scientific terms, the evolutionary history and relationship of
an organism or group of organisms is called its phylogeny. A Human Activities
phylogeny describes the relationships of an organism, such as Pollution - Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into
from which organisms it is thought to have evolved, to which the environment. These harmful materials are called pollutants.
species it is most closely related, and so forth. Pollutants can be natural, such as volcanic ash. They can also be
created by human activity, such as trash or runoff produced by
Binomial Nomenclature - The modern system of classification factories. Pollutants damage the quality of air, water, and land.
was developed by Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist.
Linnaeus classified all known organism by their shared Philippines – ranked 70th countries in IQAir.
characteristics. Binomial nomenclature is a binomial system of Bangladesh – ranked 1st out of 106 countries in IQAir.

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Deforestation – the most common pressures causing

deforestation and severe forest degradation are agriculture,
unsustainable forest management, mining, infrastructure projects
and increased fire incidence and intensity.

Natural resource depletion – refers to the situation where the

consumption of natural resources is faster than it can be
replenished. The natural resources of a nation can be divided as
renewable resources and nonrenewable resources. The natural
resources contribute at large to the economic development of a
nation.

Overpopulation – is an undesirable condition where the number

of the existing human population exceeds the catual carrying
capacity of Earth.

Loss of Habitats – habitat loss poses a major welfare risks

including preventing safe animal movement across the
landscape, restricting expression of normal behaviors and
denying animals’ access to basic needs such as food, water, and
shelter. Other impacts include stress, injury, illness, pain,
psychological distress and death.

Topic Objectives: Animal Classification,

Phylogeny, and Organization
(1) Identify the hierarchical classification of animals.
(2) Describe the evolutionary relationships of animals.
(3) Enumerate the patterns of organization.

Shared Characteristics

Domains and Kingdoms

 Molecular Biological techniques such as sequencing nuclear
and mitochondrial DNA
 Genes and proteins of related animals are more similar
 Gene products (proteins) and the sequence of nitrogenous
bases in DNA are compared
Binomial Nomenclature  Ribosomal RNA has been used to study the evolution of
early life on earth
 Studies of rRNA show three major evolutionary lineages all
share a common ancestor 3.5 billion years ago,
 Eubacteria- bacteria, most abundant organisms, 70 phylum
level lineages, 7 are human pathogens
 Archae- contains microbes distinct from bacteria, more
similar to Eukarya genetically, cell wall structure distinct
from bacteria, some are extremeophiles- high and low
temperatures and pressures
 Eukarya- compartmentalized cells, contain mitochondria and
chloroplasts for energy, True multicellularity, tissues-
 Organs- organ systems. Includes animals, Fungi, Plants, and
six protist lineages

Animal Systematics
 Arranging animals into groups that reflect evolutionary
relationships.
 Group should include a single ancestor and all its
descendants
 Evolutionary Systematics – organisms closely related to an
ancestor will resemble that ancestor. Homologies such as the
bones in a bird's wing and a human arm

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 Phylogenetic systematics (cladistics)- examine Homologies  Cellular aggregates (Colonies) loose association of cells
of recent origin and compare them to shared ancestral exhibit little cooperation or interdependence therefore not
characteristics to determine when the group diverged considered tissues. Show some division of labor, cells may
be specialized for reproductive, nutritive, or structural
Patterns of Organization functions (sponges, Porifera)

Diplobastic Organization
Diploblastic- Ectoderm and endoderm embryonic tissue layers.

Ectoderm - gives rise to epidermis, skin and outer layer of body

wall.
Endoderm - gives rise to gastrodermis tissue lines gut
Mesoglea between epi and gastro, may or may not contain cells.(
Mesenchyme- when it contains cells)

Triplobastic Organization
Three embryological layers- Ectoderm and endoderm
sandwiched around mesoderm layer which gives rise to
supportive, contractile, and blood vessels
1. Triploblastic animals are divided into subgroups based on
the presence and type of body cavity
2. Acoelomate-mesoderm tissues form a solid mass of cells
between ecto and endo, some called parenchymal cells
have specialized function (flatworms, Platyhelminthes,
Rotifera)
3. Pseudocoelomate- has a body cavity not entirely lined by
mesoderm. No mesenteries line the body cavity and
connects to and holds organs in place (roundworms,
Nematoda, Arthropoda)
4. Coelomate- body cavity surrounded by mesoderm.
Peritoneum lines inner body wall continuous with serosa
which suspends visceral structures. Mesenteries
(segmented worms, Annelida, mollusca)

Other Patterns of Organization

 Unicellular organization- single cell characteristic of the
Protista. Also called Cytoplasmic meaning all living
functions are carried out by one cell. “Not Simple” provides
for functions of locomotion, food acquisition, digestion,
water and ion regulation, sensory and reproduction in a
single cell

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5. Organ system

Levels of Organization
1. Protoplasmic level: occurs in unicellular organisms.
Organelles within the cell carry out specialized
functions. Protozoans are examples.
2. Cellular level: Cells are aggregated, and cells engage
in a division of labor, being specialized for particular
tasks.
3. Cell-tissue level: Similar cells aggregate into patterns
Higher Animal taxonomy or layers forming tissues.
4. Tissue-organ level: Organs are made up of more than
one kind of tissue and have a specialized function.
5. Organ-system level: Organs work together to perform
functions. Most complex level of organization

Topic Objectives: Levels of Organization in Animal

Complexity
(1) Recall cells as the most basic unit of life
(2) Review the function of the different organelles.
(3) Differentiate the types of animal tissues The cell is the smallest, structural and functional unit of an
(4) Define organ and organ system organism. The cell components are mainly involved in carrying
(5) Define evolution and explain the different theories of out various life functions. To carry out these functions, cells
evolution required specialized structures called cell organelles.
Structural Organization in Animals
The structural organization in animals or any other lifeform Tissues are an integrated group of cells which perform similar
is the same at the fundamental level. Or in other words, all life functions and possess similar cellular structure. These tissues
currently living on earth are made up of cells. And when cells provide a basic framework in multicellular animals.
get together, they form tissues. Tissues, in turn, form organs and
organ systems.

Hierarchical Organization in Animal Complexity

Five major grades of organization among animals (unicellular
and multicellular)
1. Protoplasmic
2. Cellular
3. Cell-tissue
4. Tissue-organ

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Organ and Organ Systems

A collection of tissues form an organ; a group of organs that
work together to perform one or more functions is called an
organ system.

Every organ is composed of one or more type of tissues. A

group of organs working together to perform a common function
is called an organ system. Excretory system, reproductive
system, endocrine system, circulatory system, respiratory system
are examples of organ systems.
A Historical Perspective
Animal Symmetry 1. Evidence of Evolution:
There are three types of symmetry: - Evolution is the process by which species change over
1. Spherical time, and there's a wealth of evidence supporting this
2. Radial concept.
3. Bilateral - One piece of evidence comes from the fossil record,
where we can see the gradual changes in organisms
over millions of years.
- Another piece of evidence comes from comparative
anatomy, where similarities in structures among
different species suggest a common ancestry.

2. Theories of Evolution:
- Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural
selection, suggesting that organisms with
advantageous traits are more likely to survive and
reproduce.
- Over time, these advantageous traits become more
common in the population, leading to the evolution of
new species.
- Modern evolutionary theory builds upon Darwin's
ideas, incorporating genetics and molecular biology to
provide a more comprehensive understanding of how
evolution works.

TOPIC OBJECTIVE: Form and Function of Animals

(1) describe the various types of body plans that occur in
animals.
Process of Development
Protection: Integumentary System
The Integumentary system's primary function is to maintain
homeostasis. It also protects the body, and its other organs and
tissues, from infection, dehydration, sunburn and sudden
changes in temperature.
The Integumentary System of animals includes an outer
protective body
covering called the
integument and
associated structures
and secretions.
 The external
covering of an
animal

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 It may refer to the skin, cuticle or membrane of an organism
 Protects the animal from mechanical and chemical injury and
invasion by other microorganisms

Integumentary System of Invertebrates

Snails, slugs, oysters, and clams are protected by a hard shell
made of calcium carbonate secreted by the mantle, a heavy fold
of tissue that surrounds the mollusk’s internal organs.

Spiders, insects, lobsters, and shrimp have bodies covered by an

Epidermis - rests on a basement membrane. outermost layer of
external skeleton, the exoskeleton, which is strong,
epithelial tissue and is one to several cell thick. An integument
impermeable, and allows some arthropods to live on land.
or outer layer of various invertebrates.
The exoskeleton is composed of layers of protein and a tough  The outer, protective, nonvascular layer of the
polysaccharide called chitin and can be a thick hard armor or a skin
flexible paper-thin covering.  It covers the dermis
 It consists of a basal layer of actively dividing
Plasma membrane - structurally and chemically identical to the cells
plasma membrane of multicellular organisms. Used as protective  The epidermis may bear a variety of specialized
covering of some single-celled protozoa structures (Example: feathers,

Dermis - Made up of connective tissues, cells and elastic fibers

beneath the epidermis
•It is thicker than the epidermis
•Dense and fibrous

Pellicle - Doffers further environmental protection and is a semi

rigid structure that transmits the force of cilia or flagella to the
entire body of the protozoan as it moves. Protective covering of Hypodermis - "below the skin". Consists of loose connective
some protozoa. tissue, adipose tissue, and nerve endings, separates the skin from
deeper tissues

Cuticles - the noncellular, hardened or membranous protective

covering of many invertebrates. Consists of chitin and proteins
in rigid plates that a flexible membrane links together.
Skin of Jawless Fishes
Tegument – outer covering of parasitic flukes and tapeworms. Have relatively thick skin. Slime protects the animals from
external parasites. Multicellular slime glands in their skin
Skin – vertebrate integument. largest organ of the vertebrate secretes large amount of mucous to cover the body surface for
body and grows with the animal. protection
Examples: Lampreys and Hagfishes
Layers of the Skin

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Reptile skin heals much more slowly than mammalian skin,
often taking about 6 weeks for the defect to be fully restored.

The thick keratinized layer resists abrasion, inhibits dehydration

and protects like a suit of armor.

Skin of Birds
The epidermis is usually thin and only two or three cell layers
thick. Also labeled as "Thin Skinned"

Outer keratinized layer is often quite soft. The most prominent

parts of the epidermis are the feathers (collectively known as
Skin of Cartilaginous Fishes plumage) Feathers, provides the strong yet lightweight surface
Multilayered a n d contains mucous and sensory cells. area needed for powered, aerodynamic flight.
Denticles: Are bones in the form of - They also serve as insulation, trapping pockets of air
placoid scales found in the dermis to help birds conserve their body heat.
- Contains blood vessels and - The varied patterns, colors, textures, and shapes of
nerves and are similar to feathers help birds to signal their age, sex, social
vertebrate teeth. status, and species identity to one another.

As cartilaginous fishes grow throughout life, the skin area also Skin of Mammals
increase. Once denticles reach maturity, they do not grow; thus, Notable features of mammalian skin :
continually wear down and are lost. Denticles give cartilaginous  Hair
fishes a sandpaper texture. Examples: Sharks, skates and rays.  A greater variety of epidermal glands than in
 any other vertebrate class
Skin of Bony Fishes  A highly stratified, cornified epidermis
Contains scales. Small flat bony overlapping plates that cover  A dermis many times thicker than the
the bodies of fish and composed of dermal bone.  epidermis
Example: Tuna and Seahorses
The skin of mammals is constructed of two layers, a
superficial nonvascular epidermis and an inner
layer, the dermis or corium.

Epidermis - is composed of stratified squamous epithelium and

consists of several layers of a variety of cells. other cells pushed
toward the surface, from the deepest layer of the epidermis, dies
and becomes keratinized. Keratinized cells make up the outer
Skin of Amphibians skin layer called stratucorneum.
Consists of a stratified epidermis and a dermis containing
mucous and serous gland plus pigmentation cells Dermis - The thickest portion of mammalian skin is composed
of dermis which contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels,
Their skin is highly permeable and they us it to obtain both nerve endings, hair follicles, small muscles, and glands.
oxygen and water from their environment
Hypodermis - In mammals, it consists of loose connective
Earliest amphibians were covered by dermal → bone scale like tissue, adipose tissue, and skeletal muscles. Adipose tissue stores
their fish ancestors. Often times their skin is moist. energy in the form of fat and provides insulation in cold
environment.
Skin of Reptiles
Is comprised of two main layers, the epidermis and the dermis

Epidermis: Outer layer of the epidermis is thick, Structure of Mammal’s Skin:

lack glands, and is modified into keratinized scales, scutes (thick
scales), beaks, claws, plaques, and spiny crests.
It is completely covered in keratin. The keratin is composed of
many layers of very thin, flat cells

Dermis: Dermis: consists of connective tissue. In some reptiles,

there may be small bones called osteoderms. These are what
form the distinctive specialized scales on savannah monitors and
crocodilians, for example.

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animal by producing an insulating layer of warm air between the
erect hair and skin.

If hair is erect because the animal is frightened instead of cold,

the erect hair also makes the animal look larger and less
vulnerable to attack.

Skin of Mammals: Glands

Sudoriferous glands (Sweat Glands) - They are distributed over
most of the human body surface. These glands secrete sweat by
a process called perspiration which helps regulate the body
temperature and maintain homeostasis. In some mammals ,sweat Nails - Like hair, they are modification of the epidermis. They
glands also produce pheromones. are flat, horny plates on the dorsal surface of the distal segments
of the digits (e.g. finger and toes of primates).

Other mammals have claws and hooves. Other keratinized

derivatives of mammalian skin are horns and the baleen plates of
the toothless whales.

Support: Skeletal System

There are 3 kinds of Skeletons:

A. Fluid Hydrostatic Skeletons / Hydroskeleton (Gr. Hydro,

water + statikos, to stand) - A core of fluid (such as blood)
surrounded by a tension-resistant sheath of longitudinal and/or
Sebaceous glands - are simple glands connected to hair (oil) circular m u s c l e s
follicles in the dermis. They lubricate and protect by secreting
sebum. Sebum is permeability barrier, an emollient and a B. Rigid Exoskeletons (Gr. Exo, outside + skeleton) - Have loco
protective agent against microorganisms. Sebum also acts as a motor functions because they provide sites for muscle
pheromone. attachment and counter forces for muscle movements Support
and protect the body, but these are secondary functions

C. Rigid Endoskeletons (Gr. Endo, within + skeleton) - A

skeleton that lies beneath the surface of the body.

The Skeletal System of Vertebrates

An endoskeleton enclosed by other body tissues

Consists of 2 main types of supportive tissues :

1. Cartilage - A specialized type of connective tissue that:
Skin of Mammals: Appendages • provides a site for muscle attachment - aids in movement at
Hair - composed of keratin filled cells that develop joints
from the epidermis. The portion of hair that protrudes from the • provides support - transmits the force of muscular contraction
skin is the hair shaft and the portion embedded beneath the skin from one part of the body to another during movement
is the root.
2. Bone or Osseous Tissue - A specialized connective tissue that:
The arrector pilli muscle(smooth involuntary • provides a point of attachment for muscles
muscles) - attaches to the connective tissue • transmits the force of muscular contraction form one part of
sheath of hair follicle surrounding the bulb of the the body to another during movement
hair root.
Skeleton of Fishes
Arrector Pilli Muscle - When this muscle contracts, it pulls the Most jawed fishes have an axial skeleton that includes a
follicle and its hair to an upright/erect position. In human, this is notochord, ribs, and cartilaginous or bony vertebrae.
referred to as a 'goose bump.' This action helps to warm an
Skeleton of Tetrapods

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Tetrapod endoskeleton become modified for support on land.
Terrestrial Locomotion in Invertebrates: Walking
Has flexible joints, tendons, and muscles that attach rigid
skeletal cuticle and form limbs
• Examples: arthropods
-Crabs : sideward
-Lobsters, spider : forwards

Terrestrial Locomotion in Invertebrates: Flight

Muscles changing the shape of the thorax cause wings to move
up and down.

Terrestrial Locomotion in Invertebrates: Jumping

An insect must exert a force against the ground sufficient to
impart a take-off velocity greater than its weight
• Examples: Fleas, Grasshoppers, Leafhoppers
Human Endoskeleton
Has two major parts :
The Muscular System of Vertebrates
• Axial Skeleton - Made up of the skull, vertebral column,
Provides sites for skeletal muscles to attach
sternum, and ribs
• Tendons : tough, fibrous
• Appendicular Skeleton - Composed of the appendages,
bands or cords, attach skeletal
pectoral girdle, and pelvic girdles
muscles to the skeletons
Movement: Muscular System
Structure of Skeletal Muscle Tissue
Nonmuscular Movement and Muscular Movement. Movement
a. skeletal muscle in the forearm consists of many muscle fibers
is a characteristic of certain cells, protists, and animals
(cells).
4 cell types that contribute movement:
b. Bundled inside a connective tissue sheath
• Amoeboid cells
• Flagellated cells
c. A skeletal muscle fiber contains many myofibrils
• Ciliated cells
• Muscle cells
d. Myofibrils consists of functional units called sarcomeres
Muscle Cells
e. The characteristics striations of a sarcomeres are due to the
Smooth Muscles / involuntary muscles - Higher brains do not
arrangement of actin and myosin filaments
control its contractions ex: cardiac muscle
• Involuntary
• have a single nucleus and are striated

Skeletal Muscles / Striated Muscle

• A voluntary muscle
• The nervous system consciously controls its
contractions

Nonmuscular Movement
It is from the basic framework of the cell that specialized
contractile mechanisms emerged.

The Muscular System of Invertebrates

Locomotion of Soft - Bodied Invertebrates
• Pedal locomotion - Can mover affirm substratum.
Examples: flatworms, cnidarians, gastropod, molluscs
Looping Movement
Leeches: have interior and posterior sucker that provide
alternating temporary point of attachment.

Lepidoteran Caterpillars: arching movements are equivalent to

the contraction of longitudinal muscles.

Water-Vascular System
Star Fish: along each canal are reservoir ampullae and tube feet.
The tube feet extend by hydraulic pressure and can perform
simple step-like motions.

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