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Regionalism in
Africa and
External Partners
Uneven Relationships
and (Un)Intended Effects

Edited by
Johannes Muntschick
Regionalism in Africa and External Partners
 Johannes Muntschick
Editor

Regionalism in Africa
and External Partners
Uneven Relationships and (Un)Intended Effects
Editor
Johannes Muntschick
Institute of Political Science
Johannes Gutenberg University
of Mainz
Bamberg, Germany

ISBN 978-3-031-10701-6 ISBN 978-3-031-10702-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10702-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
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tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
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Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Preface

Regionalism and external actors have become an increasingly impor-

tant topic in the study of international relations today. Research interest
includes mainly the nature of multifaced relationships and modes of inter-
action that exist between regional organisations and their extra-regional
counterparts. It also concerns the impact of asymmetric patterns of inter-
dependence and accompanying imbalance in power, which is a common
feature in North–South relations on the country or regional levels,
notably in the issue areas of the economy and security. Against the back-
ground of these empirical observations and mindful of existing research
gaps, the aim of this volume is to analyse the partnerships between region-
alisms and external actors and explore the logic of how and why the latter
unfold impact on the first.
Given the example of the European Union (EU) in Africa, we see
evidence for Brussels’ growing external involvement and its influence on
various regional cooperation initiatives, regional integration processes and
institution-building on the African continent, notably in the issue area of
the economy but more recently and increasingly also in security matters.
Yet research on this subject is still in its infancy in contrast to the study
of (comparative) regionalism and interregionalism, which reflects in a
growing body of academic literature.
Against the background of a lack of systematic frameworks and theory-
informed empirical case studies, the editor of this volume organised an
international research conference on ‘Regionalism in the Global South

v
vi PREFACE

and the EU in Comparative Perspective: The ambivalent Influence of

Intra- and Extra-Regional Actors on Regional Integration Processes’ held
in Mainz, Germany, in November 2016. Hosted and supported by the
International Relations Unit at the Department of Political Science at
the Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz in cooperation with the Jean
Monnet Centre of Excellence ‘EU in Global Dialogue’ (CEDI) of the
Universities of Mainz and Darmstadt (Germany), the conference was
an attempt to bring scholars interested in (comparative) regionalism,
regionalism and external actors as well as interregionalism together, for
theoretical reflections, debating the role of the European Union on
global regionalism and gaining insights into empirical case studies from
various regions in the Global South. With scholars from different coun-
tries in Europe and Africa attending, the conference was a stimulating
and fruitful event with many high-quality presentations and excellent
papers. The event sparked further interest in the topic and triggered a
process of additional thoughts and research on regionalism and external
actors, particularly in the issue area of security that has been rarely
dealt with before. This led to the idea of an edited volume that brings
together scholars with a shared interest in regionalism and external actors,
combined with profound expertise in African regional organisations and
security policy. While this has proven to be successful, the aim to further
diversify the group of contributors and include some female authors was
inconclusive, unfortunately, since those addressed were busily engaged in
other research projects at that time.
The process of compiling, revising and editing this volume proved
to be much more complex and time-consuming than initially expected.
During the last stages of the project, the COVID-19 pandemic devel-
oped into a scourge of humanity that took many of us by surprise. With
lockdowns and other restrictive government measures increasingly and
repeatedly in place, the pandemic caused many of us new challenges in job
and private life which were sometimes not easy to adapt to. This affected
not least working routines. Notwithstanding some difficult circumstances
over the past years, however, the process resulted in the publication of this
edited volume. I hope that it will contribute to a better understanding
of the phenomenon of regionalism and external actors, both theoreti-
cally and empirically, and help explain the logic of external influence on
regional actors. With its geographical focus on Africa and scope on the
issue area of security, this volume shall provide a basis for further research
on the topic in other world regions and policy fields.
 PREFACE vii

Before expounding the findings of our research endeavour, I shall high-

light that this edited volume could not have been completed without
the efforts and support of several people and institutions. First of all,
I would like to thank all contributors for their interest in the research
topic, for sharing their expertise and research findings, and for providing
excellent conceptual and empirical input to this volume. I would also
like to express my gratitude to the Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence
‘EU in Global Dialogue’ (CEDI), financed by the European Union,
and to Arne Niemann, Head of the International Relations Unit at the
Department of Political Science at the University of Main, for funding,
supporting and hosting the international conference that sparked the idea
for this project. I am also grateful to all those colleagues who attended
the conference and provided constructive criticism as paper discussants
and/or panel chairs. These are, besides the contributors to this volume,
Tobias Hofmann, Arndt Michael, Wolfgang Muno, Mariel Reiss, Jürgen
Rüland, Karen Siegel, Andreas von Staden, Mayte Anais Dongo Sueiro,
Allan Tatham, Daniele Vintila and Antonia Witt. My special thanks go to
Anja Jetschke for her impressive keynote speech on the promise of diffu-
sion approaches for explaining institutional design and policy projects of
regional organisations.
I would also like to sincerely thank all those who contributed in various
ways to the organisation of the conference—namely Laura Hähn, Margit
Hartung and Simone Ndongala—as well as our student assistants Svenja
Budde and Clara Föller for proofreading and supporting the editorial
process. Finally, I am also highly indebted to Anne-Kathrin Birchley-Brun,
Ashwini Elango and Anca Pusca of Palgrave for their continuous support,
encouragement and great patience as well as to the anonymous reviewers
for their inspiring and thoughtful input.

Bamberg, Germany Johannes Muntschick

October 2021
 Contents

Part I Introduction
1 Introduction and Theorising: Regionalism and External
Actors 3
Johannes Muntschick

Part II Comprehensive Mapping Studies

2 Regional Trade Regimes in Africa: Exploring
Organisational Overlap and Externalities 35
Malte Brosig
3 External Actors and Security Regionalism in Africa:
A New Dataset on External Funding 61
Fredrik Söderbaum and Sören Stapel

Part III Case Studies

4 Actors and Ambitions in the European Union’s
Security Policies Towards Africa 83
Gorm Rye Olsen
5 France, EU and the Security (Dis)integration
of the African Union 107
Habibu Yaya Bappah

ix
x CONTENTS

6 Desert Rose or Fata Morgana? The G5 Sahel and Its

Partnership with the European Union 127
Julian Bergmann
7 Evaluating the Effectiveness of the ECOWAS–EU
Interregional Partnership on Peace and Security
in the Context of the Mali Crisis 155
Friedrich Plank
8 Causes and Effects of External Support
to Regional Organisations: The Case of EU
Support to the ECOWAS Commission in Customs
and Free Movement 189
Lukas Maximilian Müller

Part IV Conclusions
9 Conclusion 221
Johannes Muntschick

Index 239
 Notes on Contributors

Bappah Habibu Yaya is a lecturer at the Department of Political

Science/International Studies, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria.
He has also had extensive practical experience working in the Depart-
ments of Political Affairs, Peace and Security and Finance of the Commis-
sion of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). His
research and publications draw on his ECOWAS experience, particularly
the Organisation’s institutional development (reforms) and programmes
on peace, security, stability and governance, human rights, democracy
and development. One of his publications in the South African Journal
of International Affairs is titled ECOWAS protagonists for peace: An
internal perspective on policy and community actors in peace-making
interventions (2018).
Bergmann Julian is a senior researcher at the German Institute of
Development and Sustainability (IDOS) in Bonn, Germany. His research
interests include the EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy, EU
development policy, crisis prevention, conflict management and interna-
tional mediation. He has published widely on these topics, including in
the Journal of Common Market Studies, Journal of European Public Policy,
Cooperation and Conflict, European Security, and International Nego-
tiation. He is the author of The European Union as an International
Mediator (Palgrave, 2020).

xi
xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Brosig Malte is Professor in International Relations at the Department of

International Relations at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johan-
nesburg. He joined the Department in 2009 after he received his Ph.D.
from the University of Portsmouth. His main research interests focus on
issues of international organisation interplay and peacekeeping in Africa.
He is the author of The Role of BRICS in Large-Scale Armed Conflicts
and Africa in a Changing Global Order: Marginal but Meaningful? both
published with Palgrave Macmillan.
Muntschick Johannes is a researcher and lecturer in the Department of
Political Science at the Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Germany.
His research interests include regional and global governance institutions,
regionalism and external influence, war economies, conflict manage-
ment and politics in sub-Saharan Africa. His research has been published
in various international and national journals, including the Journal of
Common Market Studies and the Politische Vierteljahresschrift. He is
the author of the book The Southern African Development Commu-
nity (SADC) and the European Union (EU): Regionalism and External
Influence (Palgrave, 2018).
Müller Lukas Maximilian is the advisor for the Lake Chad Region for
Caritas Germany. Previously, he was a research associate at the University
of Freiburg, where he completed his Ph.D. on policy processes in ASEAN
and ECOWAS. His work has been published in the Pacific Review, Euro-
pean Journal of East Asian Studies, and German Journal of Political
Science. His monograph The Rise of a Regional Institution in Africa.
Agency and Policy-formation within the ECOWAS Commission will be
published with Routledge in 2022.
Olsen Gorm Rye is Professor in international politics at the Department
for Social Science and Business, Roskilde University, Denmark. He has
written widely on European Union-Africa relations and on EU security
politics. Recently, he has published on transatlantic relations and on the
foreign policy of the United States. His research has been published in a
range of international journals such as Politics and Governance, European
Security, Journal of European Integration, Third World Quarterly, Defence
Policy and International Politics.
Plank Friedrich is a post-doctoral research fellow and lecturer at the
Department of Political Science at the University of Mainz, Germany. His
main research interests include EU Foreign and Security Policy, peace and
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii

conflict studies, comparative regionalism and Africa–EU interregionalism.

His work has been published, among others, in International Studies
Review, Journal of Common Market Studies, European Security, Politische
Vierteljahresschrift, Civil Wars, and Journal of Contemporary European
Research. He is currently co-speaker of the Early Career Group, Interna-
tional Relations Section of the German Political Science Association.
Söderbaum Fredrik is a professor in peace and development research at
the School of Global Studies, University of Gothenburg. His research
interests include comparative regionalism, regional and global gover-
nance, politics and development in Africa, and the EU as a global player.
Recent books include Rethinking Regionalism (Palgrave Macmillan,
2016) and Intersecting Interregionalism (Springer, 2014). Together with
Sören Stapel, and with funding from the Swedish Research Council, he
conducted the project “External Funding to Regional Organizations in
Africa”.
Stapel Sören is a post-doctoral researcher at the University of Freiburg,
Germany. His research interests include global and regional governance,
norm and policy diffusion, and overlapping regionalism. He recently
published Regional Organizations and Democracy, Human Rights, and
the Rule of Law (Palgrave Macmillan, 2022) and Comparing Regional
Organizations (Bristol University Press, 2020, with Diana Panke and
Anna Starkmann). Together with Fredrik Söderbaum, and with funding
from the Swedish Research Council, he conducted the project “External
Funding to Regional Organizations in Africa”.
 Abbreviations

ACLED Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project

ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific
ADB African Development Bank
AEC African Economic Community
AfCFTA African Continental Free Trade Area
AfDB African Development Bank
AfDF African Development Fund
AFISMA African-led International Support Mission to Mali
AGA AU African Governance Architecture
AMIS AU Mission in Sudan
AMISOM AU Mission in Somalia
AMU Arab Maghreb Union
APF EU African Peace Facility
APSA African Peace and Security Architecture
AQIM Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ASF Africa Standby Force
AU African Union
BADEA Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa
CAR Central African Republic
CDC ECCAS Defence and Security Commission
CE Conseil de l’Entente
CEMAC Communauté Économique et Monétaire de l’Afrique Centrale
CEMOC Comité d’État-Major Opérationnel Conjoint
CEN-SAD Community of Sahel-Saharan States
CEPGL Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries

xv
xvi ABBREVIATIONS

CET ECOWAS Common External Tariff

CEWARN IGAD Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism
CEWS Continental Early Warning System
CFA Coopération Financière en Afrique
CFSP EU Common Foreign and Security Policy
COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
CSAMAP Sahelian Center for Threat Analysis and Early Warning
CSDP EU Common Security and Defence Policy
CSS Collège Sahélien de Sécurité
CT Sahel EU Contre Terrorisme Sahel Intervention
DG EU Commission’s Directorate-General
DG DEVCO EU Commission’s Directorate-General for International Coop-
eration and Development
EAC East African Community
EASF East African Standby Force
EC European Community
ECCAS Economic Community of Central African States
ECOWARN ECOWAS Early Warning and Response Mechanism
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States
EDF European Development Fund
EEAS European External Action Service
EEC European Economic Community
EMP Euro-Mediterranean Partnership
EPA Economic Partnership Agreement
ERM Early Response Mechanism
ETLS ECOWAS Trade Liberalization Scheme
EU European Union
EUCAP EU Capacity Building Mission
EUFOR EU Force
EUMS EU Military Staff
EUMSS EU Maritime Security Strategy
Eurostat European Statistical Office
EUTF EU Emergency Trust Fund for Africa
EUTM EU Training Mission
FMM Free Movement of Persons and Migration in West Africa project
FOCAC Forum of China-Africa Cooperation
FOMAC ECCAS Multinational Force of Central Africa
FPA Foreign Policy Analysis
FTA Free Trade Area
G5 Sahel Great 5 Sahel (Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger)
GIZ German Agency for International Cooperation
HR/VP High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and
Security Policy
 ABBREVIATIONS xvii

HST Hegemonic Stability Theory

ICGLR International Conference on the Great Lakes Region
ICMPD International Centre for Migration Policy Development
IcSP EU Instrument contributing to Stability and Peace
IDA International Development Association (World Bank)
IfS EU Instrument for Stability
IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development
IO International Organization
IOC Indian Ocean Commission
IOM International Organization for Migration
JAES Joint Africa-EU Strategy
JF G5 Sahel Joint Force
MARAC ECCAS Early Warning Mechanism of Central Africa
MERCOSUR Mercado Común del Sur (Southern Common Market)
MICEMA ECOWAS Mission in Mali
MICOPAX ECOWAS Missions in the Central African Republic
MIDWA Migration Dialogue for West Africa
MINUSMA UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali
MNJTF Multinational Joint Task Force
MNLA National Movement for the Liberation on Azawad
MRU Mano River Union
NAFTA North American Free Trade Area
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NAVFOR EU Naval Force
NEPAD AU New Partnership for Africa’s Development
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
OAU Organization of African Unity
OCT Overseas Countries and Territories
ODA Official Development Assistance
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OFID Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries Fund for
International Development
OHCHR UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights
Organ SADC Organ for Politics, Defence and Security
PIP G5 Sahel Priority Investment Programme
PSC AU Peace and Security Council
PSO Peace Support Operations
RACC Regional advisory and coordination cell
RCA Central African Republic
RCC Regional Coordination Cell
REC Regional Economic Community
REWS SADC Regional Early Warning System
RIO Regional International Organization
xviii ABBREVIATIONS

RIP Regional Indicative Program

RO Regional Organization
SACU Southern African Customs Union
SADC Southern African Development Community
SIPRI Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
UAE United Arab Emirates
UEMOA West African Economic and Monetary Union
UK United Kingdom
UMA Union du Maghreb Arabe (Maghreb Arab Union)
UN United Nations
UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNSC United Nations Security Council
US United States of America
WAEMU West African Economic and Monetary Union
WAMU West African Monetary Union
WATIP German-EU project Promoting West African Trade Integration
WB World Bank
WTO World Trade Organisation
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Transformation of a genuine regional dilemma-type

situation into a suasion game with attractive external
option (for country B) 20
Fig. 2.1 World trade and regions (USD in trillion per annum) 43
Fig. 2.2 Percentage of internal trade per bloc 44
Fig. 2.3 Percentage of internal trade for each REC 45
Fig. 2.4 Share of intra-REC trade of all African trade 50
Fig. 3.1 Regional ODA to regional projects and RIOs (2002–2016) 67
Fig. 3.2 Security-related ODA to regional projects and RIOs
(2002–2016) 68
Fig. 3.3 Security-related ODA disbursements according to recipient
RIO (2002–2016) 69
Fig. 3.4 Security-related aid disbursements to regional projects
by top donors (2002–2016) 73
Fig. 3.5 Security-related aid disbursements to RIOs by top donors
(2002–2016) 75
Fig. 7.1 ECOWAS member states 162
Fig. 7.2 Africa–EU and West Africa–EU relations 163
Fig. 7.3 Fatalities in Mali (2011–2015) 174
Fig. 8.1 Causal model underlying exchange of external institutional
support 196

xix
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Intra-African trade 2017 (USD in billion and percentages

of total trade) 51
Table 2.2 Institutional consolidation and externalities 52
Table 2.3 The largest five export destinations 2017 53
Table 3.1 Security-related aid activities in regional projects by top
donors (per year) 72
Table 3.2 Security-related aid activities in RIOs by top donors
(per year) 74
Table 5.1 AU Budget 2010–2016 Financial Years 112
Table 6.1 Comparison of the military and economic strength of G5
Sahel member states 141
Table 6.2 EU and member states funding to G5 Sahel countries
(in million e) 146
Table 7.1 Goals of the partners in the West Africa–EU partnership
on peace and security 169
Table 8.1 Budgets for regional indicative programs (RIPs)
by the EU Commission 197
Table 8.2 EU projects conducted with the ECOWAS Commission
in the period of observation 202

xxi
 PART I

Introduction
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction and Theorising: Regionalism

and External Actors

Johannes Muntschick

Over the past few decades, there has been a wave of new regionalism with
new or renewed regional organisations being born across the globe. At
the same time, the relations and interactions between world regions grew
stronger and the modes of institutionalised cooperation between regional
organisations (ROs) intensified significantly. There is little doubt that the
end of the Cold War paved the ‘road to regionalism’ (Börzel et al., 2012)
and that globalisation and growing patterns of regional and inter-regional
interdependence had a catalytic effect on new regional integration initia-
tives. Above all other world regions, the Global South and notably Africa
experienced a mushrooming of regionalism in the 1990s. This reflects not
only in the sheer number of regional institutions and cooperation projects
in a wide array of policy areas but also in the phenomenon of overlapping
regionalism that we observe today (Panke & Stapel, 2018).

J. Muntschick (B)
Institute of Political Science, Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz,
Germany
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 3

Switzerland AG 2022
J. Muntschick (ed.), Regionalism in Africa and External Partners,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10702-3_1
4 J. MUNTSCHICK

Many countries and ROs in the Global South, however, show distinct
patterns of asymmetric extra-regional interdependence with external
actors—mainly in the northern hemisphere—in various policy areas
(Muntschick, 2013, 2018). This is most evident in the area of the
economy and reflects inter alia in the patterns of trade, foreign direct
investment flows or donor funding (see Brosig, Chapter 2; Söderbaum &
Stapel, Chapter 3). Whether this pattern of asymmetric extra-regional
interdependence is a lasting legacy of colonialism is not entirely clear.
It is most evident, however, between African countries or African ROs
and their counterparts in Europe (Axline, 1977; Krapohl & Fink, 2013;
Stapel & Söderbaum, 2020).
Against this background, there is good reason to believe that such
a ‘shadow-structure’ of asymmetric extra-regional interdependence has
an impact on the emergence, dynamics, institutional design, and perfor-
mance of regionalism in Africa, the Global South or anywhere else where
such patterns exist. Surprisingly, mainstream integration theories have
neglected this important external dimension so far. The aim of this
volume is to address this research gap and provide theoretical models,
theory-informed case studies, empirical insights and explanations on the
phenomenon of African regionalism and external actors/partners.
While the African continent somehow became a laboratory of region-
alism, North-South relations between Europe and Africa also gained
momentum increasingly, broadened in scope, and deepened in substance
in the recent past. Based on experience and its own success story, the
European Union (EU) showed a very keen interest in regionalisms
outside Europe (Farell, 2007). This not only led to growing interde-
pendence and interaction but also materialised in various forums and
institutionalised cooperation initiatives, trade and partnership agreements,
training missions and development support programmes in cooperation
with regional partner organisations in Africa. For the latter, Brussels
became not only a mentor and strategic cooperation partner but also a
key donor and supporter over the recent years. This reflects inter alia in
the Joint Africa-EU Strategy, adopted in 2007, and various EU-Africa
partnership and cooperation programmes such as the 2014 Pan-African
programme, the 2004 African Peace Facility (APF), or the 2015 European
Union Emergency Trust Fund.1

1 European Commission: Africa-EU cooperation. https://ec.europa.eu/international-

partnerships/africa-eu-cooperation_en (24 February 2022).
 1 INTRODUCTION AND THEORISING … 5

It is noteworthy in this context that the field of security and associ-

ated regional cooperation projects in Africa have increasingly attracted the
attention of external actors, notably the EU, over the past two decades.
This is not least reflected in the growing number and volumes of donor
supported security-related programmes and projects in African ROs (see
Söderbaum and Stapel, Chapter 3). What looks like a paradigm shift in
the EU’s cooperation and development policy towards the continent and
regionalism in Africa, described by some as a securitisation of develop-
ment policy and foreign aid (Brand, 2010; Brown & Grävingholt, 2016),
clearly emphasises the growing importance of the issue of security in inter-
national cooperation initiatives in general and in the EU’s external policy
towards its near and far neighbours in particular. The edited volume’s
research focus on matters of security is therefore not only topical but also
highly relevant.
The asymmetric nature of the various dimensions of these (institu-
tionalised) relationships between Africa and the EU implies that Brussels
obtained a position of a powerful external actor vis-à-vis its African coun-
terparts, namely ROs, over the recent years. Historically grown disparities,
mainly in the realms of economy and security, often dating back to
colonial times, have certainly contributed to this structural imbalance
and power inequality between both continents. While the EU’s growing
interest in African regionalism and its cooperation with and supporting of
numerous regional projects with African ownership certainly raised great
expectations within the target group, one should neither forget about the
EU’s great responsibilities nor the various channels for potential external
influence entailed in such cooperative and seemingly altruistic European
policies. This becomes even more critical in the politically most sensible
policy area of security.
The strong asymmetry in the Europe–Africa relationship in combi-
nation with a growing intensity of cooperation between the EU and
African ROs, namely in security matters such as conflict management,
is a key motivation for this volume’s research agenda. Little is known
about the details or what works and why in the EU-partnerships with
African regionalisms, notwithstanding the existing research gaps on the
topic of regionalism and external actors in general. Besides, it remains
puzzling whether the EU and its member states are indeed ‘just’ benev-
olent supporters and donors to regional security cooperation projects in
African ROs—or whether there exist hidden ‘dark sides’ inherent to these
6 J. MUNTSCHICK

asymmetric relationships that eventually imply negative side effects or put

the much-praised European engagement into perspective.
Against this background, the key research objective of this volume is to
explore the relation between regionalism and external actors and explain
the logic and impact of external influence on regionalism in Africa. Given
its key importance, the policy field of security shall be at the centre of the
analysis.
In this context, the term ‘external’ will be used synonymously with
‘extra-regional’, which refers to a relation to any actor (country or organ-
isation) that is not part of a group that has been previously defined as a
(geographically or politically) confined region (Zimmerling, 1991: 57).
The academic relevance of the topic has been sketched above and will
be further elaborated on in the following sections. Individual chapter
contributors additionally highlight the research gaps and the relevance
of their research in the context of their specific case studies, thus
contributing to the overall picture. The societal relevance of the topic
relates to the fact that there is consensus that ROs are of key importance
in addressing and solving acute regional security problems and become
stabilising factors in Africa in the longer term. Given the strong (donor)
dependence of African regionalisms on the EU, it is not least crucial to
understand how and why external actors influence regional cooperation
projects and integration initiatives, and whether or not external partner-
ships or support initiatives work. This is associated with questions about
institutional effectiveness and goal attainment. Generating systematic
knowledge about the logic of regionalism and external actors/influence
can help to identify structural areas of concern inherent to such relation-
ships and thus contribute to improving external actors’ policy initiatives
and support programmes. Moreover, it can increase awareness in African
ROs about the potential risks, gateways and consequences of powerful
external actors getting involved and exerting influence.

State of Research: Regionalism

and External Actors
Regionalism and external actors is an important and increasingly rele-
vant topic in international relations. Taking the example of the EU in
Africa, we observe external involvement and influence on regional integra-
tion processes and institution-building on the African continent at various
 1 INTRODUCTION AND THEORISING … 7

levels in many areas in recent years, notably in the economy and increas-
ingly in the field of security. Yet, academic research on this subject is
still in its infancy compared to the study of (comparative) regionalism
and interregionalism, which is reflected in a growing body of academic
literature.
The scientific debate on regionalism has been strongly influenced by
academic research on Europe and the EU for decades. Accordingly, main-
stream regional integration theories have been developed and designed on
the unique European case (Haas, 1958; Moravcsik, 1998). With the rise
of the so-called new regionalism in the 1990s (Hettne & Söderbaum,
1998; Robson, 1993), political science and international relations studies
paid increasing attention to this new phenomenon, which showed most
dynamics in economically less developed regions in the Global South.
Besides the growing scholarly attention and research over the past years,
there exist still few theory-driven studies that explicitly aim at analysing
and explaining regional integration beyond Europe, which should include
attempts to overcome the specific scope conditions and inherent Euro-
centrism of mainstream integration theories (Hettne & Söderbaum,
1998). The following paragraphs sketch out the advancement of political
science research on regionalism over the past years.
Systematic research on regionalism outside Europe probably began
with the so-called ‘new regionalism approach’ (Hettne & Söderbaum,
1998; Robson, 1993). This school of thought focussed on the global
South—mainly sub-Saharan Africa—and attempted to analyse and explain
regional cooperation and institution-building through a multifaceted
approach that also referred to non-state actors, transnational networks,
micro-level cooperation and informal institutions. One approach among
other innovations was certainly that it recognised the conditions of limited
statehood in many parts of the southern hemisphere. Consequently, the
focus was not only on the state as a central actor but also on non-state
actors and less formalised modes of regional cooperation (Bach, 2003;
Grant & Söderbaum, 2003). However, the new regionalism approach
did not explicitly consider patterns of extra-regional dependency nor the
potential role and influence of external actors.
International political economy approaches to the study of regionalism
are not inherently Euro-centric and claim universal validity. In general,
they assume that an adequate combination of demand and supply factors
is crucial for successful regionalism. Driven by an economically moti-
vated demand for regional (economic) integration, regionalism shows
8 J. MUNTSCHICK

institutional dynamics and good performance if demand is met by polit-

ical supply (Mattli, 1999). Others emphasise that globalisation and the
emergence and expansion of global markets are the key driving force
for regional (economic) integration and block-building, which countries
see as means to meet and master global (economic) challenges (Schirm,
2002). These works take regionalism in the southern hemisphere explic-
itly into account but fall short to include references to external actors and
their potential influence. Moreover, they focus entirely on the economic
dimension of regionalism.
Theories on diffusion recognised the horizontal dimension in region-
alism research and highlighted the importance of interregional relations.
Their contribution was to explain how ideas and norms of regionalism
spread across the globe and manifested in new or renewed regional organ-
isations in various parts of the world (Börzel & Risse, 2009; Farell, 2007).
Based on the key assumption that the EU is the most successful and global
model of regionalism, diffusion theory argues that the EU is more or
less actively involved in promoting its own model of regionalism to other
regions and regional organisations. While theories on diffusion take an
external dimension into account, their perspective and explanatory logic
are yet rather Euro-centric. Going beyond this weakness, the governance
transfer approach assumes that regional organisations rather borrow from
a ‘global script’ whereby it is ultimately the (member) states that select
and adopt from these global values, norms and standards what suits their
needs to consolidate and advance legitimate governance (Börzel & van
Hüllen, 2015: 10–14). While this approach contributes to understanding
the variance in institutional designs of different ROs across the world,
it does not explicitly investigate how external actors exert influence on
regionalism.
To date, research on interregionalism mostly focused on the EU and
its inter-regional relations (Hänggi et al., 2006; Teló et al., 2015). In
this context, it explores the nature of inter-regional relationships as well
as their role and functions in the architecture of global governance.
While the emergence of a new governance space at the interregional
level gained scholarly attention, literature on interregionalism does not
explicitly conceptualise or investigate the role and influence of external
actors on regionalism (Doidge, 2011). Both are rather implicitly part of
the research on interregionalism. Due to theoretical eclecticism, however,
there is still little systematic and (comparative) empirical research, namely
on the logic and impact of interregionalism on regional organisations
 1 INTRODUCTION AND THEORISING … 9

involved (Grimmel & Rüland, 2015: 42; Mattheis, 2020; Mattheis &
Litsegård, 2018).
So far, comparably little theoretical or empirical research has considered
explicitly and systematically the importance of extra-regional relations and
the role and potential impact of external actors and external influence on
regionalism. This is surprising given the fact of structural imbalances and
asymmetric patterns of interdependence between countries and regional
actors across the world, not to forget that power and political influence
are key factors in international relations theory and research (Keohane &
Nye, 2001; Waltz, 1979). Axline (1977) and Zimmerling (1991) are
among the few who noted several decades ago that exogenous factors
deserve analytic attention because they are relevant for regional integra-
tion processes, particularly in economically dependent and less developed
countries and regions. However, only a few scholars explicitly referred
to external actors and impact in their research on regionalism, often in
an African context (e.g. Brosig, 2011; Haastrup, 2013; Klingebiel, 2005;
Lenz & Burilkov, 2017). In terms of theory, Muntschick (2013, 2018)
developed a modified situation-structural approach to theorise and explain
regionalism and external influence, and applied it to the analysis of region-
alism in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) across
various policy areas. Other works followed, including an edited volume
with comparative case studies and a focus on the economy (Krapohl,
2017). More recently, detailed studies on external donor funding and
the finances of regional organisations in the Global South have been
published (Engel & Mattheis, 2020; Söderbaum, 2017).
In light of the gaps and research state outlined above, there is a
strong need for theory-guided and systematic research on regionalism
which takes into account the specific nature of extra-regional relation-
ships and the role and impact of external actors. With respect to theory,
this implies going beyond mainstream integration theories and inherent
Euro-centrism. It also means developing and applying theoretical models
that have good explanatory power regardless of geography and the level
of socio-economic development.
In addition to research gaps in political science theory regarding
regionalism and external actors in general, there exists yet comparably
little knowledge and academic literature about security cooperation in
African ROs. This is surprising, given the fact that the number of conflicts
in Africa rose significantly in the past two decades (Palik et al., 2020).
At the same time, empirical observation indicates that African ROs have
10 J. MUNTSCHICK

increasingly embarked on institutionalised security cooperation, coopera-

tive military operations and peacekeeping initiatives to address and settle
violent conflicts on the continent. Part of the existing academic literature
describes in detail the competences and legal frameworks of African ROs
(e.g. Söderbaum, 1996; Tavares et al., 2008), while other works focus on
their conflict prevention mechanisms and mediation capabilities and prac-
tices (Engel, 2012; Furness & Olsen, 2016; Hentz, 2018). Some studies
provide empirical details on ROs, notably on the African Union (AU) and
its African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) (e.g. de Albuquerque,
2016; Engel, 2018; Engel & Porto, 2014). However, they rarely provide
theory-driven analyses and usually do not focus on the role and impact of
external actors. This also applies for most publications by African scholars
(e.g. Apuuli, 2015; Nathan, 2016; van Nieuwkerk, 2006, 2011). Among
the welcome exceptions are some recent studies that touch on the topic of
external actors and influence insofar as they explore the impact of interna-
tional organisations on security institutions and cooperative peacekeeping
in Africa (Arthur, 2017; Bergmann, 2019, 2020; Brosig, 2015; Diez &
Tocci, 2017).
In the following sections, this chapter presents some thoughts on
terminology and theory. This includes coining key terms to advance a
common understanding of regionalism regardless of whether we observe
the phenomenon in the Global South or North. Moreover, it intro-
duces a theoretical framework that seems viable to systematically analyse
and explain the role and impact of external actors and their influence
on regionalism in Africa—and beyond. This may contribute to advance
theory-driven research on regionalism and external actors, but it is
neither a predefined nor a common theoretical framework that intends to
govern the empirical case study analyses of this edited volume. Instead of
interfering with the authors’ individual research approaches and sophisti-
cated analytical frameworks, the major objective of the following sections
is to propose complementary ideas and contribute valuable theoretical
concepts to the debate on regionalism and external influence.

Terminology: Regionalism, Regional

Organisations and Regional Governance
Speaking of regionalism always implies a clear reference to a certain
region. This regional component differentiates regional cooperation from
a much broader understanding of international cooperation. In general,
 1 INTRODUCTION AND THEORISING … 11

a region is a spatial area that shares a set of common characteris-

tics by which it can be distinguished from other areas. In Geography,
most definitions of a region generally accentuate geographical proximity
(Cahnman, 1944). In Sociology, however, a region is an area with a
certain socio-cultural homogeneity in terms of e.g. ethnicity, language,
customs or religion (Cox, 1969). The importance of geographical prox-
imity in defining regions, however, is obvious in international politics.
The United Nations (UN) geoscheme, for example, divides the world
into five macro-geographical regions (Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe, and
Oceania)—and each of them into various sub-regions. The UN’s system
of regional groupings, which mainly serves to provide for a balanced
distribution of membership quotas in UN bodies, such as e.g. the Security
Council, also takes into account geographic proximity as the key ordering
principle.

Regionalism
In political science and IR studies, regions are often conceptualised as
macro-regions, which are intergovernmental or supranational subsystems
within the international system. Their constituents are states that share
some degree of interdependence in one contiguous region (Hettne, 2005:
544; Nye, 1968: VII). A good working definition of regionalism should
therefore include geographic proximity as a key criterion. Without such
a geographic delimitation “the term ‘regionalism’ becomes diffuse and
unmanageable” (Hurrell, 1995: 333). It could not be differentiated from
any other international group of countries or governance institution.
Against this background, regionalism shall be understood as a planned,
multilateral and state-led organisation of interdependence within a
confined regional space that manifests in various, multidimensional or
specific regional projects and accompanying formal institutions (Bach,
2003: 22; Breslin & Higgot, 2000: 344; Stein, 1993: 316). The EU is
a good example of this understanding because one can perceive it as a
state-driven multi-layered system of nested cooperation projects and issue-
specific institutions—sometimes on a variable geometry basis—under the
umbrella of a common organisational superstructure and regional gover-
nance institutions (Gehring, 1994: 216; Moravcsik, 1998: 15). This
state-centric concept of regionalism might be limited in a way, as it does
not account for socially constructed and informal regional governance
institutions. It acknowledges, however, the fact that states are (still) the
12 J. MUNTSCHICK

central actors in the international system according to major parts of IR

literature and mainstream theories. This accommodates the analysis of
structural features and causal relations on the macro-level in regionalism
research.
The dynamic processes that lead to the development and manifesta-
tion of regionalism include regional cooperation and integration activities.
Regional cooperation is less formal and may occur in any issue area where
countries’ actions “are brought in conformity with one another through
a process of policy coordination” (Keohane, 1984: 51) to generate mutu-
ally beneficial effects. This does not need to include the creation of formal
cooperative institutions, which implies that joining or leaving such loose
regional cooperation arrangements generally does not entail high adjust-
ment costs for the countries involved. Regional integration, in contrast,
is of a more determined and binding character. It implies the estab-
lishment of formal institutions and often includes a (partial) transfer of
states’ sovereignty rights to a superior, regional level. This corresponds
perfectly to Haas’ definition of ‘political integration’, which he under-
stands to be a “process whereby political actors in several distinct national
setting are persuaded to shift their loyalties, expectations and political
activities toward a new centre, whose institutions possess or demand
jurisdiction over the pre-existing national states” (Haas, 1958: 16). Such
new centres, obviously including regional organisations, may prosper and
achieve various degrees of actorness over time—and eventually are impor-
tant players in the international arena, such as the European Union (e.g.
Niemann et al., 2018).
Many scholars recognise a rather descriptive classification of the
phenomenon of global regionalism into two categories: old and
new regionalism (Hettne & Söderbaum, 1998; Warleigh-Lack, 2008).
According to Söderbaum (2016), there are three types with an additional
category of early regionalism preceding old regionalism.
Early regionalism refers to the formal and political organisation of
regional interactions in pre-modern and modern times. The construc-
tion of regions and political communities with a regional focus is indeed
an early phenomenon in history and includes geographically more or
less confined entities such as empires, kingdoms, trade and military
pacts/alliances or other forms of political unions. Voluntary or coerced
integration processes led to the formation of early regionalisms such as,
for example, the Kalmar Union, Deutscher Zollverein or the West African
Another random document with
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capable of producing so much sound. I have never observed this
habit upon a dull or cloudy day.”
Mr Nuttall having presented me with the nest of this species
attached to the twig to which the bird had fastened it, my amiable
friend Miss Martin has figured it for me, as well as the plant, about
which these lovely creatures are represented. The nest, which
measures two inches and a quarter in height, and an inch and three
quarters in breadth, at the upper part, is composed externally of
mosses, lichens, and a few feathers, with slender fibrous roots
interwoven, and lined with fine cottony seed-down.

Trochilus rufus, Gmel. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 497.

Trochilus collaris, Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. i. p. 318.
Trochilus (Selasphorus) Rufus, Swainson.
Cinnamon or Nootka Humming Bird, Richards. and Swains. Fauna Bor.-
Amer. vol. ii. p. 324.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXXIX. Figs. 1, 2.

Bill long, straight, subulate, somewhat depressed at the base, acute;
upper mandible with the dorsal line straight, the ridge narrow at the
base, broad and convex toward the end, the sides convex, the edges
overlapping, the tip acuminate; lower mandible with the angle very
long and extremely narrow, the dorsal line straight, the edges erect,
the tip acuminate. Nostrils basal, linear.
Head of ordinary size, oblong; neck short; body slender. Feet very
small; tarsus very short, feathered more than half-way down, toes
small; the lateral equal, the middle toe not much longer, the hind toe
a little shorter than the lateral, anterior toes united at the base; claws
rather long, arched, compressed, laterally grooved, very acute.
Plumage soft and blended; feathers on the throat, fore part and sides
of the neck oblong-obovate, with the filaments towards the end
thickened and flattened, with metallic gloss, those on the sides of the
neck elongated and erectile. Wings rather short, extremely narrow,
falcate, pointed; the primaries rapidly graduated, the second being
longest, but only slightly longer than the first; these two quills taper to
a point; the rest are broader, and gradually become less pointed; the
secondaries are extremely short, and only five in number. Tail rather
long, broad, graduated, the lateral feathers four and a half twelfths of
an inch shorter than the central; the latter are extremely broad,
measuring four and a half twelfths across, and the rest gradually
diminish to the lateral, which are very narrow; all obtusely pointed.
Bill brownish-black; toes brown, claws dusky. The general colour of
the upper parts is bright cinnamon or reddish-orange; the head
bronzed green, the wings dusky, the coverts glossed with green, the
primaries with purplish; each of the tail-feathers has a narrow
longitudinal lanceolate median streak toward the end. The loral
space, a narrow band over the eye, another beneath it, and the
auriculars are reddish-orange; the scale-like feathers of the throat
and sides of the neck are splendent fire-red, purplish-red, yellowish-
red, greenish-yellow or yellowish-green, according to the light in
which they are viewed; behind them, on the lower part of the neck, is
a broad band of reddish-white; the rest of the lower parts are like the
upper, the abdomen inclining to white.
1/2
Length to end of tail 3 7/12 inches; bill along the ridge 7 /12, along
the edge of lower mandible 9 1/4/12; wing from flexure 1 7 1/4/12; tail
1 3 1/2/12; tarsus 1 1/2/12; hind toe 1 1/2/12, its claw 1 1/4/12; middle toe
2 1/4/ , its claw 1
1/2
/12.
12

Adult Female. Plate CCCLXXIX. Fig. 3.

The Female has the bill and feet coloured as in the male. The upper
parts are gold-green, the head inclining to brown; the wings as in the
male; the tail-feathers reddish-orange at the base, brownish-black
toward the end, the tip white. The lower parts are white, tinged with
rufous, of which colour, especially, are the sides; the throat marked
with roundish spots of metallic greenish-red.

Length to end of tail 3 7 1/2/12 inches; bill along the ridge 8 3/4/12; wing
from flexure 1 10/12; tail 1 1 1/2/12.

The above descriptions are from two individuals shot by Dr

Townsend on the “Columbia River, 30th May 1835.” A “young male,
Columbia River, 29th May 1835,” resembles the female as above
described, differing only in having the metallic spots on the throat
larger. A “young female, Columbia River, June 10th 1835,” differs
from the adult only in wanting the metallic spots on the throat, which
is spotted with greenish-brown.

Cleome heptaphylla.

The beautiful plant represented in the plate belongs to Tetradynamia

Siliquosa of the Linnæan arrangement, and to the genus Cleome,
characterized by having three nectariferous glandules at each corner
of the calyx, the lower excepted; all the petals ascending; the
germen stipitate; the siliqua unilocular, two-valved. The species, C.
heptaphylla, is distinguished by its septenate leaves, of which the
leaflets are lanceolate, acuminate, and of a deep green colour. It
grows in South Carolina and Georgia.
 TENGMALM’S OWL.

Strix Tengmalmi, Gmel.

PLATE CCCLXXX. Male and Female.

I procured a fine male of this species at Bangor, in Maine, on the

Penobscot River, in the beginning of September 1832; but am
unacquainted with its habits, never having seen another individual
alive. Dr Townsend informs me that he found it first on the Malade
River Mountains, where it was so tame and unsuspicious, that Mr
Nuttall was enabled to approach within a few feet of it, as it sat
upon the bushes. Dr Richardson gives the following notice
respecting it in the Fauna Boreali-Americana:—“When it accidentally
wanders abroad in the day, it is so much dazzled by the light of the
sun as to become stupid, and it may then be easily caught by the
hand. Its cry in the night is a single melancholy note, repeated at
intervals of a minute or two. Mr Hutchins informs us that it builds a
nest of grass half-way up a pine tree, and lays two white eggs in the
month of May. It feeds on mice and beetles. I cannot state the extent
of its range, but believe that it inhabits all the woody country from
Great Slave Lake to the United States. On the banks of the
Saskatchewan it is so common that its voice is heard almost every
night by the traveller, wherever he selects his bivouac.”

Strix Tengmalmi, Gmel. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 291.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. i. p.
65.
 Strix Tengmalmi, Tengmalm’s Owl, Swains. and Richards. Fauna Bor.-
Amer. vol. ii. p. 94.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXXX. Fig. 1.

Bill short, very deep, strong; upper mandible with its dorsal line
curved from the base, its ridge convex, as are the sides, the edges
sharp and incurved anteriorly, the tip very acute, and at its extremity
nearly perpendicular; the cere short, and bare on its upper part; the
lower mandible has the angle broad and short, the dorsal line slightly
convex, the edges inflected, towards the end incurved, with a notch
on each side close to the abruptly-rounded tip. Nostrils broadly
elliptical, oblique, in the fore part of the cere, which bulges
considerably behind them.
The head is extremely large, roundish, when viewed from above
somewhat triangular; the eyes large. The conch of the ear very large,
of an elliptical form, extending from the base of the lower jaw to near
the top of the head, being an inch and a quarter in length, with an
anterior semicircular operculum stretching along its whole length,
and an elevated margin behind. The neck is very short and thin; the
body very slender; but both appear very full on account of the vast
mass of plumage. The feet are rather short, and strong; the tarsi and
toes covered with very soft downy feathers, the extremities of the
latter with two scutella. The claws are slender, tapering to a fine
point, compressed, and curved.
The facial disk is complete, as is the ruff. The plumage is full, very
soft, and blended; the feathers broadly oblong and rounded. The
wings are rather long, very broad, much rounded; the third primary
longest, the fourth almost equal, the second four-twelfths of an inch
shorter, the first equal to the seventh; the barbs of the outer web of
the first, of half the second, and the terminal part of the third, free
and recurved. Tail of moderate length, arched, slightly rounded, of
twelve broad, rounded feathers.
Bill greyish-brown, yellowish-white at the end; claws yellowish-
brown, their tips dusky. The general colour of the upper parts is
greyish-brown tinged with olive. The feathers of the head have an
elliptical central white spot; those of the neck are similarly marked
with larger white spots, of which some are disposed so as to form a
semicircular band; the scapulars have two or four large round spots
near the end, and some of the dorsal feathers and wing-coverts have
single spots on the outer web. All the quills have marginal white
spots on both webs, arranged in transverse series, there being six
on the outer web of the third quill. On the tail are five series of
transversely elongated narrow white spots. The disk is yellowish-
white, anteriorly black; the ruff yellowish-white, mottled with dusky.
The throat is brown, the chin white. The general colour of the lower
parts is yellowish-white, longitudinally streaked with brown, some of
the feathers of the sides have two white spots near the end; the
tarsal and digital feathers greyish-yellow, with faint transverse bars of
brown.
Length to end of tail 11 inches; wing from flexure 6 10/12; bill along
the ridge 1; tarsus 11/12; hind toe 5/12, its claw 5/12; middle toe 9/12, its
claw 8/12.

Adult Female. Plate CCCLXXX. Fig. 2.

The Female resembles the male, but is considerably larger.
 SNOW GOOSE.

Anser hyperboreus, Bonap.

PLATE CCCLXXXI. Adult Male and Young Female.

The geographical range of the Snow Goose is very extensive. It has

been observed in numerous flocks, travelling northward, by the
members of the recent overland expeditions. On the other hand, I
have found it in the Texas, and it is very abundant on the Columbia
River, together with Hutchins’s Goose. In the latter part of autumn,
and during winter, I have met with it in every part of the United States
that I have visited.
While residing at Henderson on the Ohio, I never failed to watch the
arrival of this and other species in the ponds of the neighbourhood,
and generally found the young Snow Geese to make their
appearance in the beginning of October, and the adult or white birds
about a fortnight later. In like manner, when migrating northward,
although the young and the adult birds set out at the same time, they
travel in separate flocks, and, according to Captain Sir George
Back, continue to do so even when proceeding to the higher
northern latitudes of our continent. It is not less curious that, during
the whole of the winter, these Geese remain equally divided, even if
found in the same localities; and although young and old are often
seen to repose on the same sand-bar, the flocks keep at as great a
distance as possible.
The Snow Goose in the grey state of its plumage is very abundant in
winter, about the mouths of the Mississippi, as well as on all the
muddy and grassy shores of the bays and inlets of the Gulf of
Mexico, as far as the Texas, and probably still farther to the south-
west. During the rainy season, it betakes itself to the large prairies of
Attacapas and Oppellousas, and there young and adult procure their
food together, along with several species of Ducks, Herons, and
Cranes, feeding, like the latter, on the roots of plants, and nibbling
the grasses sideways, in the manner of the Common Tame Goose.
In Louisiana I have not unfrequently seen the adult birds feeding in
wheat fields, when they pluck up the plants entire.
When the young Snow Geese first arrive in Kentucky, about
Henderson for instance, they are unsuspicious, and therefore easily
procured. In a half-dry half-wet pond, running across a large tract of
land, on the other side of the river, in the State of Indiana, and which
was once my property, I was in the habit of shooting six or seven of
a-day. This, however, rendered the rest so wild, that the cunning of
any “Red Skin” might have been exercised without success upon
them; and I was sorry to find that they had the power of
communicating their sense of danger to the other flocks which
arrived. On varying my operations however, and persevering for
some time, I found that even the wildest of them now and then
suffered; for having taken it into my head to catch them in large
traps, I tried this method, and several were procured before the rest
had learned to seize the tempting bait in a judicious manner.
The Snow Goose affords good eating when young and fat; but the
old Ganders are tough and stringy. Those that are procured along
the sea-shores, as they feed on shell-fish, fry and marine plants,
have a rank taste, which, however suited to the palate of the epicure,
I never could relish.
The flight of this species is strong and steady, and its migrations over
the United States are performed at a considerable elevation, by
regular flappings of the wings, and a disposition into lines similar to
that of other Geese. It walks well, and with rather elevated steps; but
on land its appearance is not so graceful as that of our common
Canada Goose. Whilst with us they are much more silent than any
other of our species, rarely emitting any cries unless when pursued
on being wounded. They swim buoyantly, and, when pressed, with
speed. When attacked by the White-headed Eagle, or any other
rapacious bird, they dive well for a short space. At the least
appearance of danger, when they are on land, they at once come
close together, shake their heads and necks, move off in a contrary
direction, very soon take to wing, and fly to a considerable distance,
but often return after a time.
I am unable to inform you at what age the Snow Goose attains its
pure white plumage, as I have found that a judgment formed from
individuals kept in confinement is not to be depended upon. In one
instance at least, a friend of mine who had kept a bird of this species
four years, wrote to me that he was despairing of ever seeing it
become pure white. Two years after, he sent me much the same
message; but, at the commencement of next spring, the Goose was
a Snow Goose, and the change had taken place in less than a
month.
Dr Richardson informs us that, this species “breeds in the barren
grounds of Arctic America, in great numbers. The eggs of a
yellowish-white colour, and regularly ovate form, are a little larger
than those of the Eider Duck, their length being three inches, and
their greatest breadth two. The young fly in August, and by the
middle of September all have departed to the southward. The Snow
Goose feeds on rushes, insects, and in autumn on berries,
particularly those of the Empetrum nigrum. When well fed it is a very
excellent bird, far superior to the Canada Goose in juiciness and
flavour. It is said that the young do not attain the full plumage before
their fourth year, and until that period they appear to keep in
separate flocks. They are numerous at Albany Fort in the southern
part of Hudson’s Bay, where the old birds are rarely seen; and, on
the other hand, the old birds in their migrations visit York Factory in
great abundance, but are seldom accompanied by the young. The
Snow Geese make their appearance in spring a few days later than
the Canada Geese, and pass in large flocks both through the interior
and on the coast.”
The young birds of this species begin to acquire their whiteness
about the head and neck after the first year, but the upper parts
remain of a dark bluish colour until the bird suddenly becomes white
all over; at least, this is the case with such as are kept in captivity.
Although it is allied to the White-fronted or Laughing Goose, Anser
albifrons, I was surprised to find that Wilson had confounded the
two species together, and been of opinion that the Bean Goose also
was the same bird in an imperfect state of plumage. That excellent
ornithologist tells us that “this species, called on the sea-coast, the
Red Goose, arrives in the river Delaware, from the north, early in
November, sometimes in considerable flocks, and is extremely noisy,
their notes being shriller and more squeaking than those of the
Canada, or common Wild Goose. On their first arrival, they make but
a short stay, proceeding, as the depth of winter approaches, farther
south; but from the middle of February, until the breaking up of the
ice in March, they are frequently numerous along both shores of the
Delaware, about and below Reedy Island, particularly near Old Duck
Creek, in the State of Delaware. They feed on roots of the reeds
there, which they tear up like hogs.”
This species is rare both in Massachusetts and South Carolina,
although it passes over both these States in considerable numbers,
and in the latter some have been known to alight among the
common domestic Geese, and to have remained several days with
them. My friend Dr Bachman, of Charleston, South Carolina, kept a
male Snow Goose several years along with his tame Geese. He had
received it from a friend while it was in its grey plumage, and the
following spring it became white. It had been procured in the autumn,
and proved to be a male. In a few days it became very gentle, and
for several years it mated with a common Goose; but the eggs
produced by the latter never hatched. The Snow Goose was in the
habit of daily frequenting a mill-pond in the vicinity, and returning
regularly at night along with the rest; but in the beginning of each
spring it occasioned much trouble. It then continually raised its head
and wings, and attempted to fly off; but finding this impossible, it
seemed anxious to perform its long journey on foot, and it was
several times overtaken and brought back, after it had proceeded
more than a mile, having crossed fences and plantations in a direct
course northward. This propensity cost it its life: it had proceeded as
far as the banks of the Cooper River, when it was shot by a person
who supposed it to be a wild bird.
In the latter part of the autumn of 1832, whilst I was walking with my
wife, in the neighbourhood of Boston in Massachusetts, I observed
on the road a young Snow Goose in a beautiful state of plumage,
and after making some inquiries, found its owner, who was a
gardener. He would not part with it for any price offered. Some
weeks after, a friend called one morning, and told me that this
gardener had sent his Snow Goose to town, and that it would be sold
by auction that day. I desired my friend to attend the sale, which he
did; and before a few hours had elapsed, the bird was in my
possession, having been obtained for 75 cents! We kept this Goose
several months in a small yard at the house where we boarded,
along with the young of the Sand-hill Crane, Grus Americana. It was
fed on leaves and thin stalks of cabbage, bread, and other vegetable
substances. When the spring approached, it exhibited great
restlessness, seeming anxious to remove northward, as was the
case with Dr Bachman’s bird. Although the gardener had kept it four
years, it was not white, but had the lower part of the neck and the
greater portion of the back, of a dark bluish tint, as represented in
the plate. It died before we left Boston, to the great regret of my
family, as I had anticipated the pleasure of presenting it alive to my
honoured and noble friend the Earl of Derby.
There can be little doubt that this species breeds in its grey plumage,
when it is generally known by the name of Blue-winged Goose, as is
the case with the young of Grus Americana, formerly considered as
a distinct species, and named Grus Canadensis.

Anas hyperborea, Gmel. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 504.—Lath. Ind. Orn. vol. ii. p.
837.
Snow Goose, Anas hyperborea, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. viii. p. 76, pl. 68,
fig. 3, Male, and p. 89, pl. 69, fig. 5, Young.
Anser hyperboreus, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p.
376.
Anser hyperboreus, Snow Goose, Richards. and Swains. Fauna Bor.-
Amer. vol. ii. p. 467.
Snow Goose, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 344.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXXXI. Fig. 1.

Bill about the length of the head, much higher than broad at the
base, somewhat conical, compressed, rounded at the tip. Upper
mandible with the dorsal line sloping, the ridge broad and flattened at
the base, narrowed towards the unguis, which is roundish and very
convex, the edges beset with compressed, hard teeth-like lamellæ,
their outline ascending and slightly arched; lower mandible
ascending, nearly straight, the angle long and of moderate length,
the dorsal line beyond it convex, the sides erect, and beset with
lamellæ; similar to those of the upper, but more numerous, the
unguis obovate and very convex. Nasal groove oblong, parallel to
the ridge, filled by the soft membrane of the bill; nostrils medial,
lateral, longitudinal, narrow-elliptical, open, pervious.
Head of moderate size, oblong, compressed. Neck rather long and
slender. Body full, slightly depressed. Feet rather short, strong,
placed about the centre of the body; legs bare a little above the joint;
tarsus rather short, strong, a little compressed, covered all round
with hexagonal, reticulated scales, which are smaller behind; hind
toe very small, with a narrow membrane; third toe longest, fourth
considerably shorter, but longer than the second; all the toes
reticulated above at the base, but with narrow transverse scutella
towards the end; the three anterior connected by a reticulated
membrane, the outer having a thick margin, the inner with the margin
extended into a two-lobed web. Claws small, arched, rather
compressed, obtuse, that of the middle toe bent obliquely outwards,
and depressed, with a curved edge.
Plumage close, full, compact above, blended beneath, as well as on
the head and neck, on the latter of which it is disposed in longitudinal
bands, separated by narrow grooves; the feathers of the lateral parts
small and narrow, of the back ovato-oblong, and abruptly rounded, of
the lower parts curved and oblong. Wings rather long, broad;
primaries strong, incurved, broad, towards the end tapering, the
second longest, but only a quarter of an inch longer than the first,
which scarcely exceeds the third; the first and second sinuate on the
inner web, the second and third on the outer. Secondaries long, very
broad, rounded, the inner curved outwards. Tail very short, rounded,
of sixteen broad rounded feathers.
Bill carmine-red, the unguis of both mandibles white, their edges
black. Iris light brown. Feet dull lake, claws brownish-black. The
general colour of the plumage is pure white; the fore part of the head
tinged with yellowish-red; the primaries brownish-grey, towards the
end blackish-brown, their shafts white unless toward the end.
Length to end of tail 31 3/4 inches, to end of claws 33 1/2, to end of
wings 31 3/4, to carpus 14; extent of wings 62; wing from flexure
19 1/2; tail 6 1/4; bill along the ridge 2 5/8, along the edge of lower
mandible 3 1/4; bare part of tibia 3/4; tarsus 3 5/8; hind toe 1/2, its claw
4 1/2/ ; middle toe 3, its claw 4/12. Weight 6 3/4 lb.
12

Young Female, in first winter. Plate CCCLXXXI. Fig. 2.

The colours of the young bird, in its first plumage, are unknown; but
in its second plumage, in autumn and winter, it presents the
appearance exhibited in the plate. The bill is pale flesh-colour, its
edges black, and the unguis bluish-white; the feet flesh-colour, the
claws dusky. The head and upper part of the neck are white, tinged
above with grey, the lower part of the neck all round, the fore part of
the back, the scapulars, the fore part of the breast, and the sides,
blackish-grey; paler beneath. The hind part of the back and the
upper tail-coverts, are ash-grey; as are the wing-coverts; but the
secondary coverts are greyish-black in the middle; and all the quills
are of that colour, the secondaries margined with greyish-white; the
tail-feathers dusky-grey, broadly margined with greyish-white. The
dark colour of the fore part of the breast gradually fades into greyish-
white, which is the colour of the other inferior parts, excepting the
axillar feathers, and some of the lower wing-coverts, which are white.
Length of an individual in this plumage, kept four years, to end of tail
26 inches, to end of claws 25; extent of wings 55; bill along the ridge
2 1/4, from frontal angle 2 1/2; tarsus 2 7 1/2/12; hind toe 6/12, its claw
4 1/2/12; middle toe 2 1/4, its claw 4/12. Weight 2 lb. 13 oz. The bird
very poor.
In an adult male preserved in spirits, the roof of the mouth is
moderately concave, with five series of strong conical papillæ
directed backwards. The posterior aperture of the nares is linear,
margined with two series of extremely slender papillæ. The marginal
lamellæ of the upper mandible are 25, of the lower about 45. The
tongue is 2 inches 5 twelfths long, nearly cylindrical, with strong
pointed papillæ at the base, and on each side a series of flattened,
sharp lamellæ, directed backwards, together with very numerous
bristle-like filaments. It is fleshy, has a soft prominent pad at the base
above, and towards the end has a median groove, the point rounded
thin, and horny. The œsophagus; which is 17 inches long, has a
diameter of 9 twelfths at the upper part, and at the lower part of the
neck is dilated to 1 inch. The proventricular glands are cylindrical,
simple, and arranged in a belt nearly 1 inch in breadth. The other
parts were removed.
The reddish tint on the head affords no indication of the age of the
bird, some individuals of all ages having that part pure white, while
others have it rusty. The same remark applies to our two Swans.
 SHARP-TAILED GROUS.

Tetrao Phasianellus, Linn.

PLATE CCCLXXXII. Male and Female.

This is another species of our birds with the habits of which I am

entirely unacquainted. Dr Richardson’s account of it is as follows:
—“The northern limits of the range of the Sharp-tailed Grous is Great
Slave Lake, in the sixty-first parallel; and its most southern recorded
station is in latitude 41°, on the Missouri. It abounds on the outskirts
of the Saskatchewan plains, and is found throughout the woody
districts of the Fur Countries, haunting open glades or low thickets
on the borders of lakes, particularly in the neighbourhood of the
trading paths, where the forests have been partially cleared. In
winter it perches generally on trees, in summer is much on the
ground; in both seasons assembling in coveys of from ten to sixteen.
Early in spring, a family of these birds select a level spot, whereon
they meet every morning, and run round in a circle of fifteen or
twenty feet in diameter, so that the grass is worn quite bare. When
any one approaches the circle, the birds squat close to the ground,
but in a short time stretch out their necks to survey the intruder; and,
if they are not scared by a nearer advance, soon resume their
circular course, some running to the right, others to the left, meeting
and crossing each other. These “Partridge dances” last for a month
or more, or until the hens begin to hatch. When the Sharp-tailed
Grous are put up, they rise with the usual whirring noise, and alight
again at the distance of a few hundred yards, either on the ground,
or on the upper branches of a tree. Before the cock quits his perch,
he utters repeatedly the cry of cuck, cuck, cuck. In winter they roost
in the snow like the Willow Grous, and they can make their way
through the loose wreaths with ease. They feed on the buds and
sprouts of the Betula glandulosa, of various willows, and of the
aspen and larch; and in autumn on berries. Mr Hutchins says that
the hen lays thirteen white eggs with coloured spots early in June;
the nest being placed on the ground and formed of grass, lined with
feathers.”
Dr Townsend informs me that while crossing the north branch of the
Platte (Lorimie’s Fork), he found this species breeding, and that as
an article of food it proved to be a very well-flavoured and plump
bird, considerably superior to any of the other larger species that
occur in the United States.

Tetrao Phasianellus, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 273.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol.
ii. p. 635.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 127.
Tetrao Phasianellus, Sharp-tailed Grous, Ch. Bonaparte, Amer. Ornith.
vol. iii. p. 37, pl. 19.
Tetrao (centrocercus) Phasianellus, Swains. Sharp-tailed Grous,
Richards. and Swains. Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol. ii. p. 361.
Sharp-tailed Grous, Nuttall, Manual, vol. i. p. 669.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXXXII. Fig. 1.

Bill short, strong, as broad as high; upper mandible with the dorsal
line arcuato-declinate, the ridge narrow at the base on account of the
great extent of the nasal sinus, which is feathered, the sides convex
toward the end, the edges overlapping and thin, the tip declinate and
blunt, but thin-edged; lower mandible with the angle of moderate
length and width, the dorsal line ascending and convex, the edges
sharp and inclinate, the tip obtuse.
Head rather small, oblong; neck of moderate length; body full. Feet
rather short, stout; tarsus roundish, feathered, bare and reticulated
behind. Toes of moderate size, with numerous scutella above, but
covered over at the base by the hair-like feathers which grow from
the sides and the intervening basal membranes, laterally pectinate
with long slender projecting flattened scales; first toe small, second a
little longer than fourth, third much longer. Claws slender, arched,
moderately compressed, rather obtuse; that of the third toe with the
inner edge dilated.
Plumage dense, soft, rather compact, the feathers in general broadly
ovate; those on the head and upper part of the neck short, but some
on the upper and hind part of the former elongated and forming a
slight crest. There is a papillate coloured membrane over the eye, as
in the other species; and on each side of the neck is a large bare
space, concealed by the plumage, which I have no doubt is inflated,
as in Tetrao Cupido and T. Urophasianus, during the love season.
Wings rather short, concave, much rounded; the primaries stiff and
very narrow, so as to leave large intervals when the wing is
extended; the third quill longest, the fourth next, the second shorter
than the fifth, the sixth longer than the first. Tail short, much
graduated, of sixteen feathers, of which the lateral are three inches
shorter than the central; all the feathers are more or less concave,
excepting the two middle worn along the inner edge, obliquely and
abruptly terminated, the two middle projecting an inch beyond the
next.
Bill dusky above, brown beneath; iris light hazel; superciliary
membrane vermilion; toes brownish-grey, claws brownish-black. The
upper parts are variegated with light red or brownish-orange,
brownish-black and white; the black occupying the central part of the
feathers, the light red forming angular processes from the margin,
generally dotted with black, and a lighter bar near the end; the white
being in terminal, triangular, or guttiform spots on the scapulars and
wing-coverts. The alula, primary coverts, secondary coverts, and
quills are greyish-brown, the coverts spotted and tipped with white;
the primaries with white spots on the outer web, the inner tipped with
white, as are all the secondaries, of which the outer have two bars of
white spots, and the inner are coloured like the back. The tail is
white, at the base variegated, and the two middle feathers like the
back. Loral space, and a line behind the eye, white; a dusky streak
beneath the eye, succeeded by a light coloured one. The throat is
reddish-white, with some dusky spots; the fore part and sides of the
neck barred with dusky and reddish-white: on the lower part of the
neck and fore part of the breast, the dusky bars become first curved,
and then arrow-shaped, and so continue narrowing on the hind part
of the breast, and part of the sides, of which the upper portion is
barred; the abdomen, lower tail-coverts, axillar feathers, and most of
the lower wing-coverts, white. The hair-like feathers of the tarsi are
light brownish-grey, faintly barred with greyish-white.
Length to end of tail 17 1/2 inches, to end of wings 14, to end of
claws 17; extent of wings 23; wing from flexure 8 1/4, tail 4 1/2; bill
along the ridge 10 1/2/12, along the edge of lower mandible 1 1 1/2/12;
1/2 1/2
tarsus 1 7 /12; hind toe 6/12, its claw 6/12; middle toe 1 7 /12, its
claw 7/12.

Adult Female. Plate CCCLXXXII. Fig. 2.

The Female is considerably smaller, but is coloured like the male,
the tints being duller.
 LONG-EARED OWL.

Strix otus, Linn.

PLATE CCCLXXXIII. Male.

This Owl is much more abundant in our Middle and Eastern Atlantic
Districts than in the Southern or Western parts. My friend Dr
Bachman has never observed it in South Carolina; nor have I met
with it in Louisiana, or any where on the Mississippi below the
junction of the Ohio. It is not very rare in the upper parts of Indiana,
Illinois, Ohio, and Kentucky, wherever the country is well wooded. In
the Barrens of Kentucky its predilection for woods is rendered
apparent by its not being found elsewhere than in the “Groves;” and
it would seem that it very rarely extends its search for food beyond
the skirts of those delightful retreats. In Pennsylvania, and elsewhere
to the eastward, I have found it most numerous on or near the banks
of our numerous clear mountain streams, where, during the day, it is
not uncommon to see it perched on the top of a low bush or fir. At
such times it stands with the body erect, but the tarsi bent and
resting on a branch, as is the manner of almost all our Owls. The
head then seems the largest part, the body being much more
slender than it is usually represented. Now and then it raises itself
and stands with its legs and neck extended, as if the better to mark
the approach of an intruder. Its eyes, which were closed when it was
first observed, are opened on the least noise, and it seems to squint
at you in a most grotesque manner, although it is not difficult to