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Global Issues in Water Policy 19
Bryan R. Jenkins
Water
Management in
New Zealand’s
Canterbury Region
A Sustainability Framework
Global Issues in Water Policy
Volume 19
Editor-in-chief
Ariel Dinar, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California,
Riverside, California, USA
Series editors
José Albiac-Murillo, Zaragoza, Spain
Stefano Farolfi, CIRAD UMR G-EAU, Montpellier, France
Rathinasamy Maria Saleth, Chennai, India
Guillermo Donoso, Department of Agricultural Economics, Pontificia Universidad
Católica de Chile, Macul, Chile
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8877
Bryan R. Jenkins
Water Management in New

Zealand’s Canterbury Region
A Sustainability Framework
Bryan R. Jenkins
Hyde Park, SA, Australia
ISSN 2211-0631 ISSN 2211-0658 (electronic)

Global Issues in Water Policy
ISBN 978-94-024-1212-3 ISBN 978-94-024-1213-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1213-0
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017957640
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
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Printed on acid-free paper
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The registered company is Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
The registered company address is: Van Godewijckstraat 30, 3311 GX Dordrecht, The Netherlands
This book is dedicated to the people of
Canterbury; may you continue to work
together to find a sustainable solution to
water management in the region.
Preface
The first motivation for this book was to document the development and implemen-
tation to date of the Canterbury Water Management Strategy. Reliance on the pro-
cesses of the legislative framework under New Zealand’s Resource Management
Act (RMA) was found to be an inadequate basis for sustainable water resource
management in the Canterbury region. The RMA was designed when water was a
relatively abundant resource. However, the expansion of irrigation in Canterbury,
primarily associated with conversions to dairying, led to sustainability limits being
reached for water availability and for cumulative effects on water quality. A new
paradigm for water management was needed. A sustainability framework based on
nested adaptive systems and collaborative governance underpins this new
paradigm.
The second motivation for this book was to document the sustainability frame-
work used in Canterbury. Other regions in New Zealand are experiencing pressures
on their water resources. Other parts of the world are also experiencing pressures on
their water resources. Water globally is an economic and environmental issue. Water
crises have been in the top three of global risks in the last five annual Global Risks
Reports of the World Economic Forum. Global freshwater nutrient loads are consid-
ered to be beyond the safe operating space for the planet. Global freshwater use is
considered to have limited safe operating space remaining which is already largely
committed to cover the expected water demands for food production to meet pro-
jected population increases. There is a need for a sustainability framework, like the
one in this book, that links socio-economic systems with natural resource systems
at multiple spatial and time scales.
Dr Jenkins has recently retired from the position of Professor, Strategic Water Management at the
University of Canterbury and Lincoln University in Christchurch, New Zealand. Prior to that he
was chief executive of the Canterbury Regional Council and was responsible for introducing
collaborative governance to water management in Canterbury
vii
viii Preface
The third motivation was to reflect on the Canterbury experience. There has cer-
tainly been a paradigm shift in water management in the Canterbury region.
However, sustainability analysis in the book demonstrates that there is still more to
be done to achieve sustainable management. The book provides insights to the fur-
ther changes needed.
Hyde Park, SA, Australia Bryan R. Jenkins

Acknowledgements
The development and implementation of the Canterbury Water Management

Strategy (CWMS) would not have been possible without the support and dedication
of the people and communities of Canterbury that have constructively engaged with
the collaborative approach. The fact that this paradigm is still underpinning the
approach to water management in the Canterbury region is confirmation of Ostrom’s
thesis that self-governing communities can be an enduring institutional basis for
sustainable management.
The CWMS required significant contributions from the staff of Environment
Canterbury in strategy development, community engagement, scientific investiga-
tions, plan development and regulation of water. Particular mention needs to be
made of the contributions from Ken Taylor and Christina Robb.
There were significant creative contributions from Geoff Henley to the commu-
nity engagement and strategy development process; Phil Driver, the creator of Open
Strategies and its application in Canterbury; Gerald Midgley for advice on strategic
decision-making; John Friend, the creator of Strategic Choice and the workshop
leader of its use in Canterbury; and Martin Ward, Barry Sadler and Shona Russell,
the creators of the sustainability appraisal process and its application in Canterbury.
I wish to thank Environment Canterbury, firstly, for my appointment as chief
executive for more than 7 years and the opportunity to introduce collaborative gov-
ernance to the region, develop the CWMS and commence its implementation; sec-
ondly, for funding a professorial fellowship at the University of Canterbury which
provided the opportunity to commence the book, further develop the sustainability
framework and teach sustainable water management; and, thirdly, for continuing to
implement the CWMS.
The documentation of the paradigm would not have been possible without the
opportunity to teach a postgraduate course in water resource planning and manage-
ment. The students in the course over the last 5 years provided the stimulus to refine
the explanation of nested adaptive systems and collaborative governance. Also, their
discussion of the concepts in class, their application of the concepts in assignments
and their feedback throughout the course were invaluable in improving the
ix
x Acknowledgements
e xposition of the concepts. I would particularly like to thank Vicky Southworth who
reviewed a draft of the book and provided many helpful comments.
Thanks also go to Ariel Dinar, the series editor, and Fritz Schmuhl, my Springer
editor.
I wish to thank Ruth Spearing and the staff at Christchurch Hospital for their
medical treatment that enabled me to recover from a debilitating blood cancer.
Special thanks are due to my wife Janet whose support not only throughout the
writing of the book but also through earthquakes, repairs to a damaged house, medi-
cal treatments and everything else in life made it possible to complete the book.
Contents
1 Introduction�� 1
1.1 Context�� 1
1.2 Scope of the Book�� 2
1.2.1 Part I: Institutional and Theoretical Framework �� 4
1.2.2 Part II: Failure Pathway Analysis�� 7
1.2.3 Part III: Sustainability Methods�� 12
1.2.4 Part IV: Implications for Water Management �� 15
References�� 18
Part I Institutional and Theoretical Framework

2 Water Management Framework in New Zealand�� 21
2.1 New Zealand Institutional Arrangements �� 22
2.2 RMA Legislative Provisions �� 24
2.3 RMA Practice�� 27
2.4 Current Developments�� 30
2.4.1 Land and Water Forum �� 30
2.4.2 Central Government Initiatives Based on the Land
and Water Forum Recommendations�� 32
2.4.3 Central Government Initiatives in Governance
of Local Government�� 34
2.4.4 Resource Management Act: Proposals for Change�� 34
References�� 36
3 Water Management in Canterbury�� 37
3.1 Water Situation in Canterbury�� 38
3.1.1 Significance of Water in Canterbury�� 38
3.1.2 Types of River Systems�� 39
3.1.3 Demand for Water�� 40
3.1.4 Pressure on River Systems�� 40
3.1.5 Pressure on Aquifer Systems�� 42
3.1.6 Cumulative Effects�� 42
xi
xii Contents
3.2 Development of the Canterbury Water Management Strategy�� 45

3.2.1 Paradigm Shift Needed in Water Management�� 45
3.2.2 Stage 1: Availability of Water �� 46
3.2.3 Stage 2: Potential Major Storage Sites�� 47
3.2.4 Stage 3: Multi-stakeholder Review of Storage Options�� 49
3.2.5 Stage 4: Development of an Integrated Water
Management Strategy �� 51
3.3 Implementation of the Canterbury Water Management Strategy�� 57
3.3.1 Implementation Framework�� 57
3.3.2 Implementation Progress�� 58
3.3.3 Provision of Storage�� 60
3.3.4 Water Use Efficiency�� 62
3.3.5 Environmental Flow Adjustments�� 64
3.3.6 Reduction of Nutrients from Land Use Intensification�� 66
3.3.7 Water Quality Management for Vulnerable
Freshwater Bodies�� 68
3.3.8 Farm Environment Plans and Audited
Self-Management�� 71
3.3.9 Biodiversity Enhancements�� 72
3.3.10 Kaitiakitanga �� 73
3.3.11 Trends and Emerging Issues �� 74
References�� 79
4 The Collapse of the Maya and the Development
of a Sustainability Framework �� 83
4.1 The Classic Maya Collapse�� 83
4.1.1 Tainter’s Themes for Explaining Collapse�� 84
4.1.2 Diamond’s Multi-factor Approach�� 85
4.1.3 Webster’s Analysis of Copan and Other Mayan Cities �� 87
4.1.4 Lucerno’s Analysis of Water Vulnerability �� 90
4.2 Resilience Framework Based on Nested Adaptive Systems �� 90
4.2.1 Sustainability as an Adaptive Cycle�� 90
4.2.2 Four Types of Sustainability Issues�� 92
4.2.3 Nested Adaptive Systems�� 94
4.2.4 Societal Collapse in Adaptive Cycle Framework �� 94
4.2.5 Pathways and Connectedness �� 99
4.2.6 Resource Potential�� 101
4.2.7 System Resilience and Management Intervention
to Prevent Failure�� 101
4.2.8 Sustainability Approaches�� 103
4.2.9 Sustainability Approaches in a Nested Adaptive System�� 104
References�� 108
Contents xiii
5 Application of Sustainability Framework�� 111

5.1 Failure Pathway Analysis�� 112
5.1.1 Management of Irrigation �� 112
5.1.2 Public Water Supply for Christchurch City�� 118
5.1.3 Extraction of Gravel from the Bed
of the Waimakariri River�� 124
5.1.4 Key Points from Examples �� 129
5.1.5 Collapsing Panarchies and Maladaptive Cycles �� 131
5.2 Chapters on Failure Pathways�� 132
5.2.1 Cumulative Effects at the Catchment Scale�� 133
5.2.2 Biophysical System Failure Pathways
at the Regional Scale�� 134
5.2.3 Socio-economic Failure Pathways�� 134
5.2.4 Waterborne Disease Pathways�� 135
5.2.5 Regional Socio-economic Failure Pathways�� 136
5.3 Sustainability Strategy Development�� 136
5.3.1 Canterbury Water Management Strategy
in the Sustainability Framework �� 137
5.3.2 Resilience Analysis of Te Waihora/Lake Ellesmere �� 139
5.4 Chapters on Sustainability Strategies�� 146
5.4.1 Sustainability Assessments �� 146
5.4.2 Decision Making for Sustainability�� 147
5.4.3 Implications for Water Management in Canterbury �� 147
Part II Failure Pathway Analysis

6 Cumulative Effects at the Catchment Scale�� 153
6.1 Water Availability�� 154
6.1.1 Supply/Demand Analysis�� 154
6.1.2 The Search for Sustainable Storage Options�� 155
6.1.3 Effects of Storages on the Mainstems of Alpine Rivers �� 157
6.1.4 Alternatives to Major Surface Water Storage �� 162
6.2 Cumulative Environmental Effects of Use�� 168
6.2.1 River Flows �� 168
6.2.2 Groundwater �� 173
6.2.3 Water Quality�� 184
6.3 Natural Variations and Cumulative Effects �� 197
6.3.1 Groundwater Variation�� 197
6.3.2 Climate Variation�� 198
6.3.3 Effects of Abstraction and Climate Variability �� 199
xiv Contents
7 Biophysical System Failure Pathways at the Regional Scale �� 205

7.1 Implications of Climate Change �� 206
7.1.1 New Zealand’s Greenhouse Gas Emission Profile�� 206
7.1.2 Projected Temperature Change �� 207
7.1.3 Projected Changes in Seasonal Rainfall �� 208
7.1.4 Projected Changes in Snowfall �� 209
7.1.5 Potential Evapotranspiration Deficit �� 210
7.1.6 Implications of Climate Change Projections
for Water Management in Canterbury�� 211
7.1.7 Changes in Irrigation Reliability in the Waimakariri
Catchment Under Climate Change Scenarios�� 212
7.2 Climate Change Response�� 214
7.2.1 New Zealand’s Legislative Response
to Climate Change�� 214
7.2.2 Current and Projected Emissions Compared
with Targets�� 216
7.2.3 Mitigation Approaches and Offsets Available
for Agricultural Emissions�� 217
7.3 Drought and Its Management�� 222
7.3.1 Ability of Farm to Resist Drought (Increase Resilience)�� 223
7.3.2 Flexibility of Farm System to Deal with Drought
(Enhance Adaptive Capacity)�� 224
7.3.3 Minimising the Impact of Drought
(Reduce Vulnerability)�� 224
7.3.4 Adjustments to Farm Structure
(Enhance Transformability)�� 224
7.3.5 Socio-economic Responses�� 225
7.3.6 Political and Economic Context�� 225
7.3.7 Summary of Sustainability Strategies�� 226
7.4 A Resilience Approach to Flood Management �� 226
7.4.1 Traditional Approach�� 227
7.4.2 Resilience Approach �� 228
8 Socio-economic Failure Pathways�� 237
8.1 Governance Arrangements�� 238
8.1.1 Regional Councils�� 238
8.1.2 Land and Water Forum �� 239
8.1.3 Theoretical Developments in Governance�� 240
8.1.4 Institutional Design for Common Pool Resources�� 241
8.1.5 Styles of Planning and Governance�� 243
8.1.6 Evolution of Environmental Governance
in Other Countries�� 246
8.1.7 Post-regulatory State�� 247
8.1.8 Restorative Justice�� 247
8.1.9 Governance and Indigenous People�� 248
8.1.10 Overview of Evolving Practices�� 250
Contents xv
8.2 Infrastructure Management�� 252

8.2.1 Central Government Role �� 252
8.2.2 Evaluation of Government Role in Water Infrastructure�� 253
8.2.3 Canterbury Water Infrastructure �� 254
8.3 Compliance Approaches �� 257
8.3.1 Regulatory Approach to Compliance
and Its Limitations�� 257
8.3.2 Voluntary Industry Initiatives�� 259
8.3.3 Limitations of Voluntary Approaches �� 262
8.3.4 The Concept of Audited Self-Management�� 263
8.3.5 Applications of Audited Self-Management
to Water Management in Canterbury�� 264
8.3.6 Concluding Comments �� 266
8.4 Individual Commitment�� 267
8.4.1 Exercising Authority and the Dornbusch
and Scott Evaluation Process Model�� 267
8.4.2 Application of the Dornbusch and Scott Model
to Regulatory Function �� 268
8.4.3 Barriers to Compliance �� 269
8.4.4 Facilitation of Behaviour Through Motivation �� 270
8.4.5 Application of the Lawler and Porter Model
to Improved Water Management�� 271
8.4.6 Alternative Approaches to Enforcement:
Application of Restorative Justice�� 272
8.4.7 Need for a Water Ethic�� 273
9 Management of Waterborne Disease�� 277
9.1 Disease Pathways�� 278
9.1.1 Ingestion of Drinking Water�� 279
9.1.2 Water Contact Recreation �� 281
9.1.3 Toxic Algal Blooms�� 283
9.1.4 Seafood Contamination�� 284
9.2 Management Approaches�� 286
9.2.1 Management of Drinking Water�� 286
9.2.2 Management of Contact Recreation Disease Pathway �� 289
9.2.3 Management of Cyanobacteria in Recreational
Fresh Waters�� 291
9.2.4 Shellfish Management�� 295
9.3 Analysis of Approaches�� 297
9.3.1 Analysis of Approach to Drinking Water�� 297
9.3.2 Analysis of Approach to Management
of Contact Recreation �� 301
9.3.3 Analysis of Approach to Management
of Cyanobacteria �� 302
xvi Contents
9.3.4 Analysis of Approach to Commercial Shellfish

Management �� 302
9.3.5 Issues to Be Addressed�� 303
10 Regional Level Socio-economic Failure Pathways�� 311
10.1 Regional and National Economic Analysis�� 312
10.1.1 Regional Economic Analysis�� 312
10.1.2 Externalities of Dairying Conversions �� 313
10.1.3 National Economic Analysis�� 313
10.1.4 Virtual Water�� 315
10.2 External Intrusion�� 317
10.2.1 Conflict in Relation to Access to Water �� 325
10.2.2 Conflict in Relation to Access to Land�� 326
10.3 Social Effects of Changing Technology�� 329
10.3.1 Social and Community Considerations
in the Waianiwaniwa Storage Proposal�� 332
10.3.2 International Examples�� 334
Part III Sustainability Methods

11 Sustainability Assessments�� 341
11.1 Sustainability Assessment Framework�� 341
11.1.1 Vulnerability Assessment �� 342
11.1.2 Sustainability Strategies �� 345
11.2 Sustainability Assessment of Six New Zealand Lakes �� 347
11.2.1 Lake Eutrophication as a Nested Adaptive System�� 347
11.2.2 Failure Pathway Analysis of the Lakes�� 350
11.2.3 Overview of Critical Variables �� 353
11.2.4 Current Management Interventions for Each Lake�� 355
11.2.5 Adequacy of Management Interventions�� 360
11.3 Management Interventions to Achieve Sustainability�� 363
11.3.1 An Intervention Framework �� 363
11.3.2 Overview Comments�� 364
12 Decision Making for Sustainability�� 377
12.1 Multi-stakeholder Decision Processes�� 377
12.1.1 Types of Decision Making Processes�� 377
12.1.2 Decision Making for Canterbury Water Management �� 381
12.1.3 Community Engagement Process
for the Canterbury Water Management Strategy�� 384
12.1.4 Identification of Uses and Benefits�� 386
12.1.5 Public Consultation and Reporting on Principles
and Uses and Benefits�� 386
Contents xvii
12.1.6 Achievement of Depth and Sophistication

of Strategies�� 387
12.1.7 Public Engagement on Strategy Options�� 388
12.1.8 Strategic Framework and Implementation
Programme �� 390
12.2 Strategic Choice�� 391
12.2.1 Decision Characteristics for Strategy Development�� 391
12.2.2 Concept of Strategic Choice�� 392
12.2.3 Shaping and Designing Modes�� 394
12.2.4 Comparing Mode�� 400
12.2.5 Choosing Mode, Commitment Package
and Implementation�� 400
12.3 Sustainability Appraisal�� 402
12.3.1 Introduction�� 402
12.3.2 Sustainability Appraisal in the Evolution
of Impact Assessment�� 403
12.3.3 Sustainability Appraisal Framework Used
in the CWMS�� 404
12.3.4 Sustainability Appraisal Process�� 408
12.3.5 Sustainability Appraisal Outcomes�� 410
12.3.6 Discussion�� 417
12.4 Implications for Decision Making to Achieve Sustainability�� 418
12.4.1 The Value of Community Engagement
as Decision Making�� 418
12.4.2 Decision Frameworks for Sustainability�� 419
12.4.3 Evaluation Methods for Sustainability �� 420
12.4.4 Problems with Effects-Based Approaches �� 422
Part IV Implications for Water Management in the Canterbury Region

13 Biophysical Limits and Sustainable Management�� 433
13.1 Biophysical Sustainability Limits �� 434
13.1.1 Evolution of Strategic Thinking in Canterbury�� 434
13.1.2 Insights from CWMS on Water Availability�� 435
13.1.3 Implementation Progress on Water Availability�� 436
13.1.4 Water Availability Matters Still to Be Resolved�� 437
13.1.5 Impacts of Use�� 441
13.1.6 Implications of Climate Change�� 445
13.2 Sustainable Management�� 447
13.2.1 Spatial Variation of Issues�� 448
13.2.2 Sustainable Management Practices�� 449
13.2.3 Management of Extremes�� 451
13.2.4 Managing to Limits Is Not Enough�� 451
xviii Contents
14 Socio-economic Issues and Collaborative Governance�� 463

14.1 Socio-economic Issues�� 464
14.1.1 Evolution of Collaborative Governance in Canterbury�� 465
14.1.2 Reviews of Collaborative Governance Arrangements
in Canterbury�� 477
14.1.3 Legislation and Organisational Arrangements �� 485
14.1.4 Economics�� 495
14.2 Evaluation �� 499
14.2.1 Multiple Bottom Lines and Multiple Actors�� 499
14.2.2 Sustainability Appraisal�� 500
14.2.3 Tiered Assessment for Sustainability �� 500
15 Concluding Comments�� 505
15.1 Implications for Canterbury Water Management�� 506
15.1.1 Need for Proactive Measures�� 506
15.1.2 Management Based on Adaptive Cycles�� 507
15.1.3 Water Use Efficiency�� 507
15.1.4 Water Quality Improvements�� 508
15.1.5 Delivery of the Social Contract of the CWMS�� 509
15.1.6 Climate Change Adaptation and Greenhouse
Gas Emission Reduction�� 509
15.1.7 Affordability as a Constraint on Adaptive Capacity�� 510
15.1.8 Implementation and Funding of Proactive Measures�� 511
15.1.9 Water Framework Legislation and Regional
Sustainability Strategies �� 512
Glossary�� 513
Index�� 519
List of Figures
Fig. 3.1 River types in Canterbury (Environment Canterbury)�� 39

Fig. 3.2 Land use changes in Canterbury (Environment Canterbury)�� 41
Fig. 3.3 Development in the Rakaia-Selwyn groundwater allocation
zone since 1990 (m3 × 106/year) (Environment Canterbury)�� 42
Fig. 3.4 Groundwater zones for Canterbury (Environment Canterbury)�� 43
Fig. 3.5 Aquatic ecology health of lowland streams
(Environment Canterbury)�� 44
Fig. 3.6 Trends in nitrate nitrogen concentrations in Canterbury
groundwater 1995–2004 (Environment Canterbury)�� 44
Fig. 3.7 Summary map of supply and demand situation in Canterbury
(Morgan et al. 2002)�� 48
Fig. 3.8 Potential storage sites in Central Canterbury
(Aqualinc Research Limited 2008)�� 49
Fig. 3.9 Possible major storage sites for the Canterbury region
(Aqualinc Research Limited 2008)�� 50
Fig. 3.10 Preferences for strategic options from public consultation
Fig. 3.11 Nitrate modelling in shallow groundwater
(Bidwell et al. 2009)�� 55
Fig. 3.12 Comparison of sustainability profiles for all options
(Russell and Ward 2010)�� 56
Fig. 3.13 Off River Storage adjacent the Rangitata River under
Construction (John Bisset)�� 61
Fig. 3.14 Waitohi tributary storage proposal (Chris Hansen
Consultants 2012)�� 62
Fig. 4.1 Population history of Copan (Webster 2002)�� 88
Fig. 4.2 Graphic representation of an adaptive cycle (Adapted from
Gunderson and Holling 2002)�� 91
Fig. 4.3 Changes in properties throughout the adaptive cycle
(Gunderson and Holling 2002)�� 93
xix
xx List of Figures
Fig. 4.4 Four types of sustainability issues (Jenkins 2016)�� 94

Fig. 4.5 Nested adaptive systems of bioregion/watershed/land parcels
(Gunderson and Holling 2002)�� 95
Fig. 4.6 Collapse pathways in a nested adaptive cycle framework�� 96
Fig. 4.7 Webster failure pathway (Adapted from Webster 2002)�� 100
Fig. 4.8 Resource outcomes for coupled socio-economic
and biophysical systems�� 105
Fig. 4.9 Framework for classifying approaches to sustainability�� 106
Fig. 5.1 Adaptive cycle for irrigation at the catchment level
(Jenkins 2015)�� 114
Fig. 5.2 Adaptive cycle for irrigation at the irrigation scheme level
(Jenkins 2015)�� 116
Fig. 5.3 Adaptive cycle for irrigation at the farm level
(Jenkins 2015)�� 116
Fig. 5.4 Irrigation as a nested adaptive system (Jenkins 2015)�� 117
Fig. 5.5 Adaptive cycle for groundwater supply at the catchment level
(Jenkins 2015)�� 119
Fig. 5.6 Main inflows and outflows for the lower reaches
of the Waimakariri River (White et al. 2011)�� 120
Fig. 5.7 Adaptive cycle for groundwater supply at the unconfined
aquifer level (Jenkins 2015)�� 120
Fig. 5.8 Schematic of groundwater system
(Environment Canterbury 2000)�� 121
Fig. 5.9 Inflows to the Christchurch – West Melton aquifer
Fig. 5.10 Outflows from the Christchurch – West Melton aquifer
Fig. 5.11 Adaptive cycle for groundwater supply at the extraction level
(Jenkins 2015)�� 123
Fig. 5.12 Groundwater supply as a nested adaptive system
(Jenkins 2015) 124
Fig. 5.13 Adaptive cycle for gravel extraction at the catchment level
(Jenkins 2015)�� 126
Fig. 5.14 Adaptive cycle for gravel extraction at the extraction level
(Jenkins 2015)�� 127
Fig. 5.15 Adaptive cycle for gravel extraction at the coastal level
(Jenkins 2015) 128
Fig. 5.16 Gravel extraction as a nested adaptive system (Jenkins 2015)�� 129
Fig. 5.17 Lake Ellesmere catchment showing location of lake
and surface water catchments (Taylor 1996)�� 139
Fig. 5.18 Days lake level is low between December and April
(Horrell 2011)�� 145
List of Figures xxi
Fig. 6.1 Natural state and high naturalness areas

Fig. 6.2 Comparison of Waitaki River in 1943 (left) and 2001
(right) at Old Ferry Road (Jenkins 2007)�� 160
Fig. 6.3 Thermal stratification in lakes (Gibbs and Hickey 2012)�� 160
Fig. 6.4 Dissolved oxygen levels in Lake Opuha in Summer
2003/4 (Opuha Dam Limited 2004)�� 161
Fig. 6.5 Soil moisture profile for Camden Farm property
(Davoren 2008)�� 163
Fig. 6.6 Effect of macropore flow on irrigation effectiveness
(Davoren 2008) 164
Fig. 6.7 Actual and ideal irrigation for farms with and without
storage (Duncan et al. 2010)�� 165
Fig. 6.8 WUA curves for native fish and invertebrates at the Pareora
River Huts Site (Golder Associates 2008)�� 169
Fig. 6.9 Determination of A block allocation limits
Fig. 6.10 Rakaia River water allocation and banding system
(Dysart et al. 2008)�� 171
Fig. 6.11 Hapua at Mouth of Ashburton River (Hart 2011)�� 172
Fig. 6.12 Simulation of antecedent recharge allocation
for Rakaia-Selwyn groundwater zone 1960–2008
(Williams et al. 2008)�� 177
Fig. 6.13 Stream Depletion Effect (Pattle Delamore Partners 2000)�� 178
Fig. 6.14 Longitudinal section of gaining and losing reaches
of the Selwyn River (Larnard 2013)�� 179
Fig. 6.15 Effect of groundwater abstraction on flow permanence
in the Selwyn River (Burrell 2011)�� 180
Fig. 6.16 Cross section of downward seepage of sea water
into Woolston/Heathcote Groundwater (Hertel 1998)�� 182
Fig. 6.17 Recovery of bore levels and conductivity
in Woolston/Heathcote Groundwater
(Scott and Wilson 2012)�� 183
Fig. 6.18 Interpretative cross section of groundwater for the Central
Canterbury Plains (Hanson and Abraham 2009)�� 185
Fig. 6.19 Cross section of nitrate-nitrogen in groundwater
in the Central Canterbury Plains
(Hanson and Abraham 2009)�� 186
Fig. 6.20 Nitrate-nitrogen concentrations recorded in 2012 survey
Fig. 6.21 Detection of Faecal contamination in Groundwater
Fig. 6.22 Enrichment status for Canterbury Rivers for dissolved
inorganic nitrogen (Environment Canterbury)�� 189
xxii List of Figures
Fig. 6.23 Te Waihora/Lake Ellesmere: Trophic Level Index

(Robinson 2015)�� 192
Fig. 6.24 Wairewa/Lake Forsyth: Trophic Level Index
(Environment Canterbury 2015b)�� 193
Fig. 6.25 Annual Trophic Level Index for Wainono Lagoon
(Norton and Robson 2015)�� 193
Fig. 6.26 Groundwater depth variations for the Courtenay Road
monitoring bore (1951–2016) (Environment Canterbury)�� 197
Fig. 6.27 Southern Oscillation Index from 1999 to 2007
Fig. 6.28 Rainfall deviation (%) from long-term mean for 2005
(an El Nino year) and 2006 (a La Nina year) for Canterbury
rainfall measurement sites (Environment Canterbury 2008)�� 199
Fig. 6.29 Actual and modelled groundwater levels for monitoring
bore L36/0023 (Environment Canterbury 2008) 200
Fig. 7.1 New Zealand average surface temperature (°C) NIWA
data (O’Donnell 2007)�� 207
Fig. 7.2 Projected changes in annual mean temperatures (in °C)
in 2040 relative to 1990 average over 12 climate
models for A1B emission scenario
(Ministry for the Environment 2008)�� 208
Fig. 7.3 Projected changes in seasonal mean rainfall (in %) for 2040
relative to 1990: Average over 12 climate models for A1B
emission scenario (Ministry for the Environment 2008)�� 209
Fig. 7.4 Change in winter snow (in kg/m2) between 1980–1999
and 2080–2099 under scenario A2
(Ministry for the Environment 2008)�� 210
Fig. 7.5 Average change in annual accumulated PED (mm)
between current climatology and projected climatology
for 2080s using Hadley Model Scaled to IPCC 75%
global warming (Mullen et al. 2005)�� 211
Fig. 7.6 Monthly average flows for scenarios
(Srinivasan et al. 2011)�� 213
Fig. 7.7 Nitrification inhibitor: Point of intervention in nitrogen
cycle in soil profile (McLaren and Cameron 1996)�� 218
Fig. 7.8 Nitrous oxide flux reduction due to nitrification inhibitor
(Di et al. 2007)�� 218
Fig. 7.9 Nitrate leaching reduction due to nitrification inhibitor
(Di and Cameron 2004)�� 219
Fig. 7.10 Flood risk to the main urban areas of Christchurch
Fig. 7.11 Main works of flood management scheme for Christchurch
List of Figures xxiii
Fig. 7.12 Return of flood flows to the Waimakariri River

Fig. 7.13 Multiple lines of defence strategy (Lopez 2006b)�� 233
Fig. 8.1 Results of initial compliance inspections of dairy farm
consents in Canterbury from 2006/7 to 2012/3
Fig. 8.2 Progress towards meeting the Dairying and Clean Streams
Accord targets (2007/08–2010/11) (Fonterra et al. 2013)�� 261
Fig. 8.3 Bacterial levels in best practice catchments
(Wilcock et al. 2007)�� 262
Fig. 8.4 Regulatory spectrum (Environment Canterbury)�� 266
Fig. 8.5 Evaluation process for exercising authority
(Dornbusch and Scott 1975)�� 268
Fig. 8.6 Expectancy theory of motivation (Lawler and Porter 1967)
(Reprinted with permission from Elsevier)�� 270
Fig. 8.7 Phosphorus reduction in the Pahau catchment
Fig. 9.1 Coastal current flows for South Island (Hay et al. 2000)�� 285
Fig. 9.2 Status of drinking water supplies in Canterbury (Environment
Canterbury)�� 288
Fig. 10.1 Map of Jordan River Basin (adapted from
UNEP/DEWA/GRID 2016)�� 323
Fig. 10.2 Main elements of Central Plains Water Scheme consent
application (Taylor Baines in Association with Fitzgerald
Applied Sociology and People & Places 2007)�� 333
Fig. 11.1 Disaster failure and recovery sequence
as an adaptive cycle�� 343
Fig. 11.2 Location of lakes (Jenkins 2016)�� 348
Fig. 11.3 Lake and catchment as nested adaptive cycles
(Jenkins 2016)�� 349
Fig. 11.4 Socio-economic system framework to develop
management interventions to achieve sustainability�� 364
Fig. 11.5 Management interventions for each phase of the
biophysical system�� 365
Fig. 11.6 Management intervention pathways to achieve
sustainability (Jenkins 2016)�� 365
Fig. 11.7 Aral Sea basin (Severskiy et al. 2005)�� 367
Fig. 11.8 Exploitation and accumulation phases of increased irrigation
for cotton in the Aral Sea basin�� 368
Fig. 11.9 Decline in Lake Area of the Aral Sea 1957–2000
(Rekacewicz 2005)�� 369
Fig. 11.10 Connection of the Aral Sea basin scale to the Aral
Sea scale�� 370
Fig. 11.11 Adaptive cycle for shift from delta ecosystems
to desert ecosystems�� 371
xxiv List of Figures
Fig. 11.12 Adaptive cycle for salinity effects on fish ecology�� 371
Fig. 11.13 Links of biophysical and socio-economic systems for Aral Sea
at multiple spatial scales�� 372
Fig. 12.1 The strategic choice process (Adapted from Friend
and Hickling 2005)�� 394
Fig. 12.2 Alpine storage decision scheme (Environment Canterbury)�� 398
Fig. 13.1 Bacterial contamination at Chamberlains Ford and Coes
Ford on the Selwyn River (Robinson and Stevenson 2012)�� 444
Fig. 13.2 Managing to limits allowing for natural variability
and uncertainty�� 454
Fig. 13.3 Nested adaptive cycles for algal blooms in rivers�� 457
Fig. 14.1 Planning and project authorisation framework�� 489
Fig. 14.2 Comparison of current process and proposed
process incorporating strategic assessment�� 490
Fig. 14.3 Cost of mitigation measures to achieve nitrate reductions�� 498
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Main steps in RMA Schedule 1 process for policies

and plans and process for notified consents�� 26
Table 3.1 Comparison of regional potential evapotranspiration deficit
(Mullan, personal communication)�� 38
Table 3.2 Major Canterbury rivers mean flows (m3/s)
(Morgan et al. 2002)�� 40
Table 3.3 Relative pressure on river systems: allocation as a proportion
of MALF (Morgan et al. 2002)�� 41
Table 3.4 Rivers on flow restrictions during January 2006
Table 3.5 Nitrogen leaching rates from agricultural land uses
(Di and Cameron 2004)�� 45
Table 3.6 Zone committee formation and preparation of zone
implementation programmes
(Environment Canterbury 2016b)�� 59
Table 3.7 Nutrient load limits and current estimates for Hurunui
catchment in draft ZIP (Environment Canterbury)�� 67
Table 3.8 Agricultural load scenarios for Te Waihora catchment�� 68
Table 4.1 Categorisation of Failure Pathways by Type of Sustainability
Issue and Geographic Scale (Jenkins 2016)�� 99
Table 4.2 Sustainability approaches�� 103
Table 4.3 Classification of sustainability strategies for a nested
socio-economic and biophysical system�� 107
Table 5.1 Flow statistics for Waimakariri River
Table 5.2 Waimakariri River Allocation Regime
Table 5.3 Components of a storage approach to water availability
in Canterbury�� 137
xxv
xxvi List of Tables
Table 5.4 Key components of a sustainability strategy for water

availability in Canterbury�� 138
Table 5.5 Water quantity adaptive cycle�� 142
Table 5.6 Water quality adaptive cycle�� 142
Table 5.7 Bird guilds and lake levels�� 143
Table 5.8 Modelling results for lake openings (Horrell 2011)�� 145
Table 6.1 Potential for resources on a weekly basis
(Morgan et al. 2002)�� 154
Table 6.2 Potential for resources on an annual basis
(Morgan et al. 2002)�� 155
Table 6.3 Economic comparison of storage options in the Hurunui
catchment (Aqualinc Research Limited 2008)�� 156
Table 6.4 Water use efficiency of different irrigation systems
Table 6.5 Crop water requirements for different irrigation technologies
Table 6.6 Storage reductions with efficiency and reallocation
gains (Dark 2010)�� 166
Table 6.7 Groundwater allocation limit for the Chertsey Zone�� 175
Table 6.8 Major land use changes in Canterbury�� 185
Table 6.9 Comparison of water quality for Hapua and Waituna-type
Coastal Lagoons (Samuel and Jenkins 2012)�� 194
Table 6.10 High country lakes: Trophic Level Index
Table 6.11 Nutrient loadings for Lake Clearwater
(Wadworth-Watts 2013)�� 196
Table 7.1 Projected precipitation in A1B 2040 scenario (in mm)
and percentage change from 1990 condition
(Srinivasan et al. 2011)�� 213
Table 7.2 Modelled water stored as snow (in mm): Average
over 20-year period (Srinivasan et al. 2011)�� 213
Table 7.3 Average duration (days) of longest continuous restriction
over 20-year period (Srinivasan et al. 2011)�� 214
Table 7.4 Alignment of drought response approaches with
sustainability approaches (Chapin et al. 2009
and Burton and Peoples 2008)�� 223
Table 7.5 Summary of drought response strategies�� 226
Table 8.1 Governance characteristics before and after
CALFED (Booher and Innes 2010)�� 245
Table 8.2 Co-evolution of corporate and political governance�� 246
Table 8.3 Evolving governance practices�� 251
Table 8.4 Agencies and institutions with water infrastructure roles�� 255
List of Tables xxvii
Table 9.1 Notification rates for New Zealand in 2014 of diseases

where exposure to water was reported as a risk factor
(ESR 2015a)�� 278
Table 9.2 Drinking water standard exceedances in Canterbury
groundwater monitoring wells (Environment
Canterbury 2012)�� 281
Table 9.3 Guideline values of microbial quality of recreational waters
(World Health Organization 2003)�� 282
Table 9.4 Recreational site gradings for New Zealand freshwaters
(Till et al. 2008)�� 283
Table 9.5 Alert level framework for cyanobacteria (Ministry for the
Environment and Ministry of Health 2009)�� 292
Table 9.6 Number of days when cyanobacteria levels in rivers
exceed 20% substrate cover�� 294
Table 9.7 Plankton blooms in recreational lakes for summer 2014/15
(Bolton-Ritchie and Robinson 2016)�� 294
Table 9.8 Bacteriological standards for shellfish growing areas�� 297
Table 9.9 Phytoplankton trigger and shellfish biotoxin levels�� 298
Table 9.10 Achievement against drinking-water standards 2013/14�� 305
Table 10.1 New Zealand water footprint for consumption (Mm3/year)
(Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2011)�� 316
Table 10.2 New Zealand water footprint for production (Mm3/year)
(Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2011)�� 317
Table 11.1 Wastewater adaptive cycle phases and potential
interventions for Lake Waitawa (Jenkins 2015)�� 347
Table 11.2 Critical variables on water quality failure pathways
for the lakes (Jenkins 2016)�� 354
Table 11.3 Summary table of current management interventions
(Jenkins 2016)�� 361
Table 11.4 Aral Sea decline in inflow, volume, area and depth
(Bortnik 1999)�� 368
Table 11.5 Threshold values for groundwater levels in delta ecosystems
(Novikova 1999)�� 370
Table 11.6 Decline in commercial fish catch from the Aral Sea
(Letolle and Mainguet 1993)�� 372
Table 12.1 Living Streams programme as a multi-stakeholder
decision process�� 380
Table 12.2 Options for infrastructure�� 396
Table 12.3 Decision options for infrastructure�� 397
Table 12.4 Evolving paradigm of impact assessment (Sadler 2002)�� 403
Table 12.5 Sustainability appraisal process steps�� 411
Table 12.6 Provisional ‘asset’ list for Canterbury Water Management�� 412
Table 12.7 Space-and-Time matrix�� 413
xxviii List of Tables
Table 12.8 Evaluation criteria�� 414

Table 12.9 Example of evaluation criteria and scale descriptors�� 415
Table 12.10 Summary of scores for the four options�� 416
Table 13.1 Adaptive cycle phases and management interventions
for periphyton in rivers�� 458
Table 14.1 Four stages of collaborative approaches in Canterbury
water management (Jenkins 2017)�� 469
Table 14.2 Extent to which process conditions for deliberation
are satisfied by CWMS development process
(Lomax et al. 2010)�� 478
List of Boxes
Box 2.1 Christchurch City Sewage Outfall: An Example

of the RMA Schedule 1 Process in Action�� 29
Box 3.1 Equity in Allocation of Nutrient Limits�� 76
Box 6.1 Allocation Status for the Chertsey
Groundwater Zone�� 174
Box 6.2 Application of Trigger Levels to New Consents�� 176
Box 6.3 Decline in the Pareora Groundwater Table�� 181
Box 7.1 Use of Environmental Impact Assessment to Manage
Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Development
Proposals in Western Australia�� 220
Box 7.2 Case Study of Hurricane Katrina�� 230
Box 8.1 Governance for Resilience: CALFED as a Complex
Adaptive Network for Resource Management
(Booher and Innes 2010)�� 244
Box 8.2 Private Sector Agreements to Facilitate the Barrhill
Chertsey Irrigation Scheme (BCIwater 2015)�� 256
Box 9.1 Akaroa Water Safety Plan�� 287
Box 9.2 Management of an Aquaculture Farm
in Menzies Bay�� 298
Boxes provide case studies that show either (a) specific Canterbury examples to illustrate a
sustainability issue in more detail (Boxes 2.1, 3.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 8.2, 9.1, 9.2, 12.1 and 13.1);
(b) international examples that give additional insight to the application of the sustainability
framework to water issues (Boxes 7.2, 8.1, 9.3, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 11.1 and 14.1); and
(c) examples of management interventions adopted in other countries that could be applied in
Canterbury (Boxes 7.1, 12.2 and 14.2).
xxix
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of the meteorological conditions, while I quickly “took the sun,” which
showed that we were about 87° 50′ north.
It appeared to us that the plane lay safe and sound and
Ellsworth and I decided to walk across to N 25. We expected that by
walking along by the water-lane we would be able to cover the
distance in one and a half hours, and for safety’s sake took the
canvas boat along with us. We did not bother about provisions or
anything else. Before we started we hoisted our brave Norwegian
flag on the top of the iceberg.
Ellsworth and I set out most confidently, but reaped our first bitter
experience of marching on the polar ice. It looked difficult to get
along, but it proved to be still more so. We climbed up and down
icebergs, carrying our canvas boat, of which we had to take the
utmost care so that no sharp piece of ice should tear a hole in it.
Soon we had to use the boat as a bridge in order to cross a small
crack filled up with broken ice and mush—or as an aid to fighting our
way through thin new ice in somewhat broader ditches. At last we
got full use of the boat in a broad water-lane, where we paddled
along a good distance. Now and again we got sight of N 25 above
the icebergs as we approached. Suddenly we saw the propeller
moving. We were therefore certain that the crew and also the plane
were “all right,” and as the new ice was completely blocking our
course, we decided to return to N 24. With the same toil (and after
we had tumbled into the water several times) we returned tired and
fagged out.
Omdal awaited us with steaming chocolate and it tasted
excellent. Whilst we had been away he had discovered that several
exhaust pipes of the aft engine had become clogged, so they had to
be exchanged for spares. He expected that the work would take two
or three days. Meantime the ice started to close in round the plane,
which we therefore decided to turn round with the nose pointed out
of the water-lane so that, if necessary, we could leave by only using
the “fore” engine.
It was easier said than done because, first of all, the ice had to
be broken round about the flying machine, and more than once we
got thoroughly drenched. But after three hours’ work the plane was
in the desired position. The question now was whether the crew of
N 25 had seen us. We presumed they had seen our flag, but of
course this was not certain. If everything was in good order, they
would start off to join us as soon as they had been able to take
careful observations. Anyway we were sure that they would see us
when they started out, and so we climbed a little higher than we
already were. We had nothing else to do but to put our engines in
order as quickly as possible, to be ready at the earliest moment. We
therefore put our tent up “on the land” of the ice-plain, and took the
necessary mess requisites and sleeping bags with us. In addition we
also armed ourselves with a gun and revolver, in case we should be
surprised by a polar bear. A seal we had already seen, and a bear
might also be lurking about. Omdal was to work solely on the motor,
helped if necessary by Ellsworth and myself, whilst we had to do the
cooking, take observations, keep a lookout and now and again pump
the boat free of water. The leakage proved to be less than I
expected, but still large enough to make us prefer to stick to our tent.
This was quite small and light, made of thin aeroplane cloth. The
bottom was of the same material. It was quite snug and warm when
the Primus stove was lit, but when the snow underneath started to
melt, on account of the heat in the tent, it got damp on the floor. We
were of course entirely cut off from wood, leaves or branches of
trees.
At midday—still on the 22nd—the sky got overcast and we could
no longer see N 25. With our lack of experience in the ice regions
Ellsworth and I had the impression that we were quite safe where we
were. Omdal, who had some experience from his sojourn in Alaska,
was not quite so calm about it, but thought that the new ice where
we lay would in any case act as a protection against possible drift
ice.
In the afternoon the weather cleared again for about an hour and
it seemed to us that we could see the top of N 25 again. Later the
sky was overcast with threatening snow squalls. It was clear that the
ice was constantly on the move. Meantime the water-lane was so
broad that we were not afraid of it closing in. What concerned us
most was the uncertainty about N 25 and its crew. We reasoned out
and imagined every possible theory. If everything was all right, they
would of course fly down to join us in this place, where they could
land without difficulty. If the machine had been hopelessly damaged,
they would come on foot over the ice to us. We ruminated thus,
because it seemed to us that they must have seen our flag, and, as
meantime we saw nothing of them, we presumed that they had some
necessary repairs to effect.
The whole night, until the morning of the 23rd of May, we had
snow—with bad visibility. Omdal worked at the motors while
Ellsworth and I pumped. The leakage appeared to be getting
gradually worse. We had a northerly breeze and about -10° c.
At midday the weather cleared and the sun shone out from a
clear sky. In the course of the day I was able to make two good
observations, although the spirit level which Ellsworth had brought
with him was too small and besides was of a very unsuitable
construction. I had already pointed this out at Spitzbergen, but there
was no opportunity of getting a new one. I must admit that I was
disappointed with the result of our observations. I had believed that
we were considerably nearer the Pole. The others thought the same.
Judging by the flying and our speed through the air, we must have
had a very strong wind current against us. At that time, however, we
did not doubt that we could continue northwards as soon as the
motors were in working order again.
At midday we saw N 25 again. It had drifted nearer to us, and we
noticed that tarpaulins had been put over the motor-gondolas and
that the flag was flying over it. If only the weather would remain clear
now, they ought to be able to see us. We tried several times to
attract their attention by using smoke-bombs, and now and again we
fired a gun.
The part of the water-lane where we were encamped froze up
more and more, a condition which rather pleased us as we expected
that we would soon be able to make a start from the ice.
In the afternoon we at last noticed that N 25 must have observed
us because we noticed a flag being waved backwards and forwards.
This was the customary sign used in the Navy for starting flag-
signaling. I was not slow in taking up the challenge, and soon a
connection was established. The distance was so long that we had
to use glasses, and as these had to be dried continuously the
signaling took some time. At last we got the following message: “We
are frozen in twenty meters from the water-lane—working in order to
get free. If your position hopeless come to us, bring food, axes,
deflection instruments, engine O.K.” We replied: “Expect we can
start on the ice from here, but are leaking badly, therefore longer
sojourn on the water impossible.”
I think few can imagine what relief it was to us to have
established signal-communication with each other. I immediately
gave a grateful thought to Riiser-Larsen and to my naval education.
The whole night, until the morning of the 24th of May, we had a
fresh breeze with drifting snow, the temperature being -11° to -12°. It
was bitterly cold in the tent and the wind was blowing right through it.
The sleeping-bags were very excellent, but really only meant for
summer use. We had the “Thermix” heating apparatus with us. It
was really extraordinarily good, but, as we had hardly any petrol to
spare, we did without the comfort of a heated tent. On our flight
northwards we had been exceedingly economical regarding the
consumption of petrol, and we therefore still had half a drum more
than half our original quantity. But one could not tell how much might
be required for our return journey.
In the course of the day (24th of May) the whole fjord was frozen
over. The leakage in the boat got continually worse, and thus we
were quite pleased to see the ice freezing round our machine as it
would form a resting place for the wings, and would prevent the
machine sinking further, even if we should stop pumping-work, which
took up much time and prevented us from performing other
necessary tasks.
During the course of the afternoon Omdal finished changing the
exhaust ventilators, and we thought that the motors were now all
ready. The fact that they would not start in the severe cold, and
especially in the strong wind which hindered the warming of the
motors, did not concern us greatly. Spring was on the way, and the
temperature would soon rise.
The movements of the ice, however, disturbed us very much. We
had the feeling that the icebergs on the other side of the water-lane
had come somewhat nearer, and the whole “landscape” seemed to
change from time to time. In order to be on the safe side we decided
to put all our provisions and outfit ashore. We started this
immediately, and in the course of the forenoon everything was on the
ice-plain near the tent.
Gradually the ice began to encroach more and more. To our joy
we noticed that the two machines got nearer together, and we
decided to try and get into communication with N 25. We were
anxious to find out their position in order to discuss things with our
leader, the only one with experience of drift ice, and the only one
who could judge the situation.
On account of the uncertain conditions we did not want to leave
more of our equipment behind than was absolutely necessary. We
tried first of all to put our canvas boat (loaded with provisions, etc.)
on the ski-sledge. This was the course we should have to adopt if for
one reason or another we had to march southwards. After a few
hundred meters of toil, fighting our way amongst the icebergs, we
realized that it would be quite impossible to get along in a
reasonable time, handicapped by this outfit, so we therefore took
only the most necessary things in our knapsacks. All the same it
amounted to forty kg. each, and with this on our backs we started off
on our skis. We toiled forward over high icebergs and ice-clumps,
and crossed the most fantastic and uneven territory, where skis of
course could not be used. Therefore we carried them again, and
jumped over the water-lanes or crossed the new ice which moved
under our weight. This was very exciting and tiring and I admired the
progress made by Ellsworth, who is not a skiing man. (In addition to
his many excellent qualities he is also a true sportsman.) Omdal’s
Alaskan experiences also came in handy. He was very clever in
finding the easiest and safest passages, and we progressed without
accident. N 25 was getting nearer and nearer with every minute’s
march. After we had traveled about half the distance a long water-
lane covered with very thin new ice stopped our progress. It was
right across our path, about a quarter of a mile broad, and reached
as far as the eye could see. On the other side lay N 25. We were so
near that Riiser-Larsen and I could signal to each other without
difficulty and without using glasses. We received word that they
considered it impossible for us to get across, and we had nothing
else to do but to go back the way we had come. Before leaving we
arranged that we should signal to each other the next day at ten
o’clock Greenwich mean time.
After seven hours’ toil we were back again at N 24. It was lying
just as we had left it and all three of us went to “bed.” It was bitterly
cold, but we got the first decent sleep since we had left Spitzbergen.
We had gradually got more accustomed to the use of sleeping-bags;
it required a good deal of practice to get down into them with the
thick clothes we had to wear, for while sleeping we had to be clad in
as many clothes as possible.
The 25th of May dawned with the same hopeless overcast sky
as before. Now and again we had heavy snowdrifts. The
temperature was about -10° c. After having tried in vain to start the
aft motor, Omdal worked some time at the engine, but still it would
not start. At 10 a.m. they signaled from N 25 that it appeared as if we
could now manage to get to them if laden only with small packages
and taking extreme care. We replied that we first wanted to try our
engines and endeavor to get N 24 on to the ice-plain beside the tent,
where it would be quite safe under any circumstances. We therefore
started to prepare a slide over which we could push the machine.
Whilst busy with this we received a further communication from N 25
that they required help as soon as we were ready to give it. We
replied that we now expected an early result, and that we then would
cross at the first opportunity in order to help them.
Meantime the aft engine was out of order and remained so.
Compression was poor and Omdal poured buckets of warm oil on
the valves, lighting all the Thermix apparatus and setting them in the
motor gondola in the hope that the engine might start. The water-
lane where we had landed was now nearly closed, and the icebergs
on the other side were encroaching nearer so that the situation was
not particularly bright. Until now we had lived only for lunch and
dinner, eating the traveling provisions which Director Knutsen had
given us and taking a cup of chocolate as well. For dinner we had a
cup of pemmican soup, but instead of using one and three-quarter
tablets per man, which was the original calculated ration, we only
used two tablets altogether. In order to be on the safe side we
started rationing the biscuits by allowing each man six biscuits
served in threes, twice a day, although none of us expected then that
we should remain here for weeks.
After a hard day’s work we sat again in the tent enjoying a pipe
of tobacco after our evening meal, when I started to blink as my eyes
suddenly began to smart. At first I thought it was the smoke, but the
smarting did not stop; it got worse and worse. Tears flowed slowly
and scaldingly. There could be no doubt about it. I had become
snow-blind. It had come on me without any warning. We had had an
overcast sky and snow most of the time, but it had never dawned on
me to use snow-glasses. It seemed therefore that I would have to lie
like a wreck for a few days, and I admit it now seemed to me that the
situation was fairly precarious. I did the only things possible, namely,
to get into my sleeping-bag and shut my eyes. Notwithstanding the
pain and the trepidation, nature craved its right after the last day’s
toil and mental strain, and I slept soundly. Late in the forenoon the
following day I wakened somewhat confused in my head. To my
great joy I could open my eyes. I noticed that it was twelve o’clock,
but whether day or night I did not know. The other two slept, but as
Ellsworth awakened at that moment, I learned that it must be
midday, as he had crept into his sleeping-bag about 11 P.M. and had
slept a long time. My eyes pained a little, but I could see all right, and
I put on my spectacles immediately. We had a quiet meal and then
arose the question of how to start the engine. We worked and
worked, but there was no result. Probably it had been so warm that
the valves must have got jammed, and it would take Omdal a week
to take the cylinders off and put things right. After this discovery
there was only one thing to do. We must secure the machine in the
best possible way and try to get across to N 25. We presumed that
with united efforts, we could have it ready for flight in the course of a
few days, and then Feucht could remain with Omdal and help him to
get the aft motor going.
AMUNDSEN—BEFORE THE
TRIP
AMUNDSEN—AFTER
ELLSWORTH—BEFORE
ELLSWORTH—AFTER
We started the first motor, therefore, and with the help of this got
the machine as far as possible up the slip. Ellsworth and Omdal
worked like heroes in order to turn the machine, whilst I worked the
engine. But what could three men do with such a heavy machine?
We got it well up onto the ice-floe so that only the after-end and part
of the propeller remained in the water-lane. It could not sink now in
any case, and the new ice outside would in all probability prevent the
drift-ice from getting near it while we were away. We considered
under the circumstances that it was lying in as safe a position as
possible, and we got ready to go across to N 25. The ice in the
water-lane did not look very safe and N 25 had drifted somewhat
nearer. We lightened our packs, but they still weighed forty kg. It was
impossible to know beforehand how long the trip would take us. First
there was one thing and then another which we thought we ought to
have with us. Off we went right across the water-lane, although it
presented such an uncanny appearance. Omdal led. I followed, and
then came Ellsworth. As soon as we had to leave the new ice, it was
a case of climbing up and down high icebergs, where in addition to
other things we had to carry our skis. We remained as near as
possible to the edge of the water-lane, and everything went well until
we were near the other machine. We were already going to start
boasting, as we had no idea of any danger, when I suddenly found
myself immersed in water up to my neck. I noticed that my skis had
disappeared, but my knapsack, which weighed forty kg., was very
embarrassing. I shouted loudly as soon as I fell through, and Omdal
quickly turned round. I had hardly seen his face when he also
disappeared like magic. There we both were. I managed to get my
gun up over the ice, which had broken several times under my
hands. I got a good firm hold and remained as quiet as possible
because I knew that Ellsworth would soon be with me—unless he
also tumbled in. The current was strong and pulled my legs up in
front of me under the ice so that my boot-tops actually touched it. To
get out by my own efforts with the heavy knapsack was hopeless. I
was not going to risk losing my knapsack, before I knew how it stood
with Ellsworth. Omdal called for assistance in the hope that the crew
of N 25 would come and help. In a little while Ellsworth, who had
saved himself by getting out of the water-lane, came to my rescue.
He came creeping along, and handed me a ski, which I got hold of,
and by its help I wriggled along to the edge of the firm ice. In a
second I managed to slip off my knapsack and its precious contents,
and got it onto the ice, and I scrambled up after it with Ellsworth’s
help. Then Ellsworth dashed off to Omdal, who was getting weaker
and weaker. I stumbled to my legs and ran as quickly as my tired
condition allowed me. Omdal was so exhausted that it was
exceedingly difficult to get him out. I got my knife and cut the straps
of his knapsack, whilst Ellsworth held him up, and with our joint
efforts we at last got him safely onto the land. He could not stand on
his legs. We had both had a narrow escape, and we have to thank
Ellsworth’s self-possession and quickness that we escaped with our
lives. The honor which he received later—the gold medal for bravery
—pleased Omdal and myself as much as it pleased him. It was well
earned.
RIISER-LARSEN—BEFORE
RIISER-LARSEN—AFTER
DIETRICHSON—BEFORE
DIETRICHSON—AFTER
Our foresight in unstrapping the laces of the skis and putting our
boots loosely into the ski-shoes, putting on our air-filled lifebelts was
what made it possible to save us at all. How we blessed this, our
own farsightedness! By way of curiosity I may mention that Riiser-
Larsen and I bought the lifebelts in Bodö just as we were on the
point of starting. A man came on board and announced himself as
the manufacturer of the lifebelt “Tethys.” He brought a sample which
appealed to us, and so we ordered six belts. It is strange how life is
full of chance actions which lead to fateful results.
About forty minutes after the accident we reached the N 24. We
received a hearty reception, and as Omdal and I got a good drop of
spirit and some dry clothes, we soon started talking. Answers to
innumerable questions tripped off our tongues. I can well remember
that I said, “I am glad to see you again,” when I pressed Roald
Amundsen’s hand. It is a saying which generally does not mean
much, but I believe Amundsen understood. These few words, and
still more the handshake, were an expression of joy at being again
with our beloved leader, whose insight, experience and great
capability, in conjunction with his untiring energy, overcame all
difficulties. I have the impression that Amundsen’s few words to me,
“same here” (“i like maate”), were just as sincere. All three of us from
N 24 had arrived with a whole skin, and we could report that the
machine in the meantime at least was safe, and, with our combined
efforts, could be got ready to start in a few days’ time.
N 25’s position was such that only our united strength could save
it from its precarious situation. It had made a forced landing and was
lying worse than N 24, but both its motors were in working order. If
the machines had by chance separated instead of coming close
together we would probably not have been able to get into contact
with one another and one crew, unless reënforced by the other,
could hardly have managed to start its machine alone.
Even now, although we were six men all told, it seemed to us
something of a riddle how we, with our primitive implements, should
manage to get the machine onto the great ice-plain, which was our
goal. But in this difficulty our leader’s wide experience and inventive
mind was put to its full use. It became apparent that if six men are
working on a matter of life and death they can accomplish the
unbelievable. Most of us soon knew that our only salvation lay in
getting one or both machines in a good position to start. A march
southwards would (no matter which way we chose) have very little
chance of success.
Our work and our mode of life in the weeks which followed are
described in another chapter, so I shall only add that we were
disappointed in our hopes of being able to get N 24 ready as soon as
we had finished with N 25. Instead we had weeks of strenuous work
to get N 25 into readiness for flight. It was absolutely a game of “cat
and mouse,” but it was a game in which life and death were the
stakes.
The thought of leaving our machine there behind us, in the ice,
was very bitter at first. But as time passed and we saw the difficulties
we had to contend with on every side, the bitterness gradually got
less and less—especially when we found that it would be necessary
to use N 24’s supply of petrol to augment the other supply for the
homeward flight and for the various attempts to start which had to be
made before N 25 finally got clear away.
I might mention too that the absence of landing places made it
seem advisable for the return journey to be accomplished with one
machine. The risk of having to make a forced landing would thus
only be half as great, and the forced landing of one of the machines
would have meant a catastrophe for the whole expedition. (I
personally did not share this opinion, for in spite of the misfortune to
the aft engines my trust in both of these was great, as they had gone
like clockwork during the entire northward flight.) Circumstances
however settled the question of choice, and as we at last, on the
15th of June, found ourselves in our right element again, it was only
a passing thought which we gave to our dear N 24 as it disappeared
behind us in the fog.
Part V
WHILST WE WAIT
LEAVES FROM THE DIARY OF FREDRIK

RAMM
From May 21st to June 18th
WHILST WE WAIT
LEAVES FROM THE DIARY OF FREDRIK
RAMM
From May 21st to June 18th
Ny-Aalesund, King’s Bay. Thursday, 21st May. Now they have

gone! The daring journey has started! At five o’clock in the afternoon
Amundsen, Riiser-Larsen and Feucht were on board N 25, Ellsworth,
Dietrichson and Omdal on N 24, and we began to say farewell. Each
one shook hands and received a nod of courage from all who should
remain behind. To speak was impossible because of the noise from
the four engines, which had all been working for a couple of hours,
making such a din that our very words appeared to be torn in pieces
and thrown into the snow spray which was whirled up by the
propellers. At 5:15 N 25 glides out on to the ice. We are astonished,
for there is no signal. Riiser-Larsen simply lets his engine out; the
propeller whirs and the machine glides down from the strand onto
the ice. The forward movement continues, and before we realize
what is happening, the machine is gliding over the snow-clad plain
and swings out onto the ice, suddenly giving a mighty swerve right
round, and with continued speed rushes forward. One second—or is
it a minute?—before Dietrichson’s machine follows? It disappears
onto the ice in a cloud of snow making us wonder whether we are
standing on our heads or our heels!
But what is this?
N 24 remains absolutely still on the plain, and where is N 25?
There! A little gray fleck on the ice traveling towards the foot of the
glacier. Will they have to lighten it? No! now it is in the air! No! Yes!
Yes, it is! Just the fraction of a second passes, and we know that the
start is successful in spite of the heavy load. We shout “Hurrah” as
we see the space between the ice and the gray machine increasing
and increasing till at last, there, high above the iceberg, and with the
sky for a background, they swing round and set their course direct
across the fjord. N 24 remains quite still. We cannot understand why
and are about to cross over to make inquiries. But almost before we
start the machine rises high into the clear blue sky and follows N 25
far out over the fjord. The two machines, so far as we can judge, are
about 300 to 400 meters high, with N 25 a few hundred meters in
front of N 24. We hear the even humming of the engines, echoing
quite clearly on account of the high hills on the fjord’s opposite side
—the noise decreases, ’tis now only like the humming of a fly. We
follow the machines through binoculars, clearly seeing the
propellers, the motor gondolas, the wings, and even the heads of the
observers and pilots. Their speed must be 150 kilometers per hour.
The two machines get smaller and smaller—the hum of the motors
fainter and fainter. At last they have disappeared altogether. We look
at the clock, they had left according to program and are in the air at
5:22—seven minutes after N 25 glided down onto the ice—both
flying boats out of sight! Seven minutes.... It might almost have been
seven hours. So much has happened.
Later
We remained standing as though suddenly realizing the
difference in the work of those six on board the machines and
ourselves. Till now we have all appeared to be actual members of
the expedition. We have felt that there was no great difference in our
desires to reach a common goal. We have lived under the same
roof, fed in the same mess, have shared the same work, but now the
others have gone, and we have become the land party again! The
six ought to return after a few days’ absence and we should again be
part of the expedition. But the few hours which have passed since
5:15 this afternoon have opened a tremendous gulf between us. The
six may now be fighting for their very lives, while we hang around
here exactly as we did yesterday, the day before, and every other
day in the six weeks we have been in Ny-Aalesund. We have
suddenly become superfluous! Until this afternoon we had tasks to
perform, but from now we can only wait, just like all the rest of the
world, for the six who have gone—and we know that we can give
them no more help than any one else can. We have become
passive.
The humming of the motors can still be heard in our dreams; in
fact the whole occurrence appears only as a dream. Could it have
really been we who saw them off? We, who are now packing up and
getting ready to go on board the “Fram” and the “Hobby,” which lie
ready by the quay to set off northwards to Danskeöen. The
landscape is unchanged. The sun still shines high in the light blue
polar sky, making the glacier scintillate with lovely colors. But the six
have gone! At the end of the fjord’s north side lies Cape Mitra—that
pointed corner which is one of the best landmarks in the world.
During the evening meal on board the “Fram” we talk of nothing
but the start. We listen with pride to Schulte-Frohlinde’s praise
regarding the pilots’ management of the two heavy machines. He
says no one could have done it better, and we agree with him
unanimously, although we don’t know the difference between a
sporting and a bombarding machine. He has walked across the ice
and examined the trails, and noted that the ice was broken into small
pieces at the spot where Dietrichson stuck, and the same was the
case in a 200–300 meter length along Riiser-Larsen’s track before
he had been able to rise. The starting track was about 1,400 meters
long, and Schulte-Frohlinde says that the trail gets less and less until
towards its end it might only have been marked in the snow with
one’s little finger.
For the first two hours after the machines had disappeared we
scanned the heavens with our binoculars as, before starting,
Amundsen had told Captain Hagerup of the “Fram” that if everything
should not be in order, the machines would return again; and if one
machine had had to make a forced landing, the other would fly back
to King’s Bay and warn the ships to go quickly to their aid. It is seven
o’clock. It is now eight, and no machine is to be seen, so now we
know that all is well. Eleven o’clock, and “Fram’s” bunkers are well
filled; the ship leaves the quay. Half an hour later, when “Hobby” is
ready, we steer out of the fjord. We pass Cape Mitra, steering past
the seven glaciers. So far as we can see northwards, it appears to
be clear. The sea lies calm as a mirror. There is hardly any swell,
and for the first time in the open sea we are all at the same moment
free from seasickness. Westward above the horizon lies a low
cloudbank. We ask Bjerknes and Calwagen what it can be; can this
gray cloud-mass threaten danger to the airmen? No! It can’t do that,
for it is only the dispersing fog which has hung over King’s Bay
during the last days, and which was blown away by the northeast
wind, making a start possible. During the night we passed drift-ice.
We all stand on the bridge looking northwards every second.
Here we pass along the Coast over which the two machines flew
this afternoon.
“The small hours begin to grow.” We bless the “Fram’s” steward,
who brings us coffee, and we go to our bunks. “Fram” is no
passenger boat, but we are quite happy to sleep wherever we can
find a comfortable spot.
Virgo-havn between Danskeöen and

Amsterdamöen. Friday, May 22nd
For the rest of the night and the early morning hours “Fram”
steers northwards, along the glacier coast. At 6:30 we enter South
Gate Sound, between Danskeöen and Spitzbergen’s mainland,
where we lie until midday. “Hobby” continues northwards, sailing
round Amsterdamöen towards Norskeöene to study the ice
conditions, returning to fetch “Fram” after the inspection. And now
the two ships steer towards Virgo-havn, and we drop our anchor at
three o’clock in the afternoon. The entire time on both ships we have
kept a sharp lookout from the bridge, carefully searching the horizon
westward and northward for any sign of life. It might have been
possible that both boats, on account of motor trouble, had been

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Textbook Water Management in New Zealand S Canterbury Region A Sustainability Framework 1St Edition Bryan R Jenkins Auth Ebook All Chapter PDF

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Water Management in New Zealand s

Canterbury Region A Sustainability

New Environmentalism Managing New Zealand s

NZ Frenzy North Island New Zealand Scott R Cook

NZ Frenzy South Island New Zealand Scott R Cook

Water Resources Management of the People s Republic of

Water Resources Management in Central Asia Igor S. Zonn

Women s Entrepreneurship in Former Yugoslavia

Water Energy Food Sustainability in the Middle East The

Hiking Tramping in New Zealand 8th Edition Lonely

Water Management in New

ISSN 2211-0631 ISSN 2211-0658 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017957640

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Hyde Park, SA, Australia Bryan R. Jenkins

The development and implementation of the Canterbury Water Management

Part I Institutional and Theoretical Framework

3.2 Development of the Canterbury Water Management Strategy��������� 45

5 Application of Sustainability Framework���������������������������������������������� 111

Part II Failure Pathway Analysis

7 Biophysical System Failure Pathways at the Regional Scale �������������� 205

8.2 Infrastructure Management�������������������������������������������������������������� 252

9.3.4 Analysis of Approach to Commercial Shellfish

Part III Sustainability Methods

12.1.6 Achievement of Depth and Sophistication

Part IV Implications for Water Management in the Canterbury Region

14 Socio-economic Issues and Collaborative Governance������������������������ 463

Fig. 3.1 River types in Canterbury (Environment Canterbury)���������������������� 39

Fig. 4.4 Four types of sustainability issues (Jenkins 2016)�������������������������������� 94

Fig. 6.1 Natural state and high naturalness areas

Fig. 6.23 Te Waihora/Lake Ellesmere: Trophic Level Index

Fig. 7.12 Return of flood flows to the Waimakariri River

Table 2.1 Main steps in RMA Schedule 1 process for policies

Table 5.4 Key components of a sustainability strategy for water

Table 9.1 Notification rates for New Zealand in 2014 of diseases

Table 12.8 Evaluation criteria�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 414

Box 2.1 Christchurch City Sewage Outfall: An Example

LEAVES FROM THE DIARY OF FREDRIK

Ny-Aalesund, King’s Bay. Thursday, 21st May. Now they have

Virgo-havn between Danskeöen and

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Hyde Park, SA, Australia Bryan R. Jenkins

3.2 Development of the Canterbury Water Management Strategy�� 45

5 Application of Sustainability Framework�� 111

7 Biophysical System Failure Pathways at the Regional Scale �� 205

8.2 Infrastructure Management�� 252

9.3.4 Analysis of Approach to Commercial Shellfish

12.1.6 Achievement of Depth and Sophistication

14 Socio-economic Issues and Collaborative Governance�� 463

Fig. 3.1 River types in Canterbury (Environment Canterbury)�� 39

Fig. 4.4 Four types of sustainability issues (Jenkins 2016)�� 94

Fig. 7.12 Return of flood flows to the Waimakariri River

Table 12.8 Evaluation criteria�� 414

Box 2.1 Christchurch City Sewage Outfall: An Example