Module 4 - Evaporation

Discuss the Identify factors Demonstrate the
fundamental affecting use of selection

principles of evaporation and computation
evaporation and rates in a
sequence for
its importance in watershed; and
evaporation.
the hydrologic
cycle;
➢Evaporation is the process of water converted into water
vapor.
• Potential Evaporation – quantity of water evaporated per unit area

per unit time from an idealized, extensive free water surface under
existing atmospheric conditions.
• Reference Crop Evaporation – rate of evaporation from an
idealized grass crop with a fixed crop height of 12 cm, an albedo
of 23% and surface resistance of 69 sm-1
➢Latent Heat of Vaporization (λ) – unit is in MJ/kg
𝜆 = 2.501 − 0.002361 𝑇𝑠
where: Ts – surface temperature

➢Latent Heat of Vaporization (λ)
𝜆 = 2.501 − 0.002361 𝑇𝑠
Molecular exchange occur

between liquid water and water
vapor.
➢Evaporation is the difference between vaporization rate and
condensation rate. It occurs until these two are equal –
therefore air is saturated.
17.27𝑇
Saturated Vapor Pressure: 𝑒𝑠 = 0.611exp( ) in kPa
237.3+𝑇
𝑑𝑒𝑠 4098𝑒𝑠
Δ= = in kPa/°C
𝑑𝑇 237.3+𝑇 2
𝑷
Density of Moist Air: 𝝆𝒂 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟖𝟔( ) in kg/m3
𝟐𝟕𝟓+𝑻
➢Net short-wave radiation = incident radiation – losses
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆𝑡 (1 − 𝛼) in MJ/m2-day
➢Incoming Radiation is measured from measured sunshine hours
𝑛
𝑆𝑡 = (𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠 )𝑆𝑜 in MJ/m2-day
𝑁
where:
as – fraction of extraterrestrial radiation So on overcast day (n=0)
as+bs – fraction of extraterrestrial radiation So on clear days (for average climate: as = 0.25; bs = 0.50)
n/N = cloudness fraction (n – bright sunshine hours per day; N – total day length in hour)
So – extraterrestrial radiation in MJ/m2-day
➢Both ground and atmosphere emit as black body. Earth is warmer than
atmosphere. Net loss of energy as thermal radiation by long wave. This
radiation wavelength is in the range of 3 – 100 μm.
𝑳𝒏 = 𝑳𝒊 − 𝑳𝒐 = −𝒇𝜺 ′
/ 𝝈 𝑻 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟐
𝟒 in MJ/m2-day
where:
Lo – outgoing long-wave radiation (ground to atmosphere)
Li – incoming long-wave radiation (atmosphere to ground)
f – adjustment for cloud cover
ε’ – net emissivity between atmosphere and ground
σ – Stefan-Boltzman constant (σ = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2k4)
T – mean air temperature in Celsius
Ln – net long-wave radiation
➢Calculation of net emissivity and cloud cover adjustment
𝜺′ = 𝒂𝒆 + 𝒃𝒆 𝒆𝒅 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟏𝒆𝒙𝒑 −𝟕. 𝟕𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑻𝟐
𝑺𝒕 𝒏
𝒇 = 𝒂𝒄 + 𝒃𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟏
𝑺𝒕𝒐 𝑵
where: ed – vapor pressure in kPa
ae and be – correlation coefficients (ae = 0.34 to 0.44 and be = -0.14 to -0.25)
St – measured solar radiation
Sto – solar radiation with clear sky
ac and bc – long wave radiation coefficient for clear skies
(ac = 1.35 and bc = -0.35 for arid areas) and (ac = 1.0 and bc = 0.0 for humid areas)
➢Measurement by instruments
𝑹𝒏 = 𝑺𝒏 + 𝑳𝒏 in MJ/m2-day
𝒏 𝒏
𝑹𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟓 𝑺𝒐 − 𝟎. 𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒆𝒅 𝝈𝑻𝟒
𝑵 𝑵
The incoming radiation intensity on a lake is 200 W/m2.
Calculate the net radiation into the lake if the albedo (𝛼) is
equal to 0.06, the surface temperature is 30oC, considering
cloud cover adjustment is 1.0 and the emissivity is 0.97
ANSWER: -276.8058 W/m2

➢Measurement of Liquid Water Loss
𝑽𝑹 +𝑽𝑺 +𝑽𝑳
𝑬= 𝑷 − in mm
𝑨
where:
E – net ET
P – net precipitation (or irrigation)
VR – net volume leaving (or entering)
VS – change in liquid water stored
VL – leakage (error in measurement)
A – effective area (surface area is necessary part of measurement)
➢Evaporation Pan is widely used Class-A Evaporation Pan
because of simplicity
➢Pan Coefficient – pan data are

widely used for irrigation, so the
empirical pan coefficient has been
derived:
𝑬𝒓𝒄 = 𝑲𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝑬𝑨𝒑𝒂𝒏 in mm/day
➢Lysimeter – 0.5 to 2 m. in terms of diameter, may it be planted with
vegetation, isolated hydrologically. It determines either drainage or
water storage, but it is difficult and expensive to install.
➢Aerodynamic Method
➢Energy Balance Method (Bowen Ratio Method) – more accurate than
aerodynamic technique.
𝑯 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝚫𝑻
𝑩𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒏 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐, 𝜷 = = =𝜸
𝝀𝑬 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝚫𝒆
𝑹𝒏
𝑬𝒓 =
𝝀𝝆𝒘
If the net radiation is 200W/m2 and the air temperature is 30°C,
estimate the rate of evaporation in mm/day using the energy
balance approach. The density of water at 30°C is 996 kg/m3.
ANSWER: 7.1392 mm/day

Analogy with Electrical Resistance
𝒌 𝒆𝒔 −𝒆 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑽
𝑬= 𝒓𝒔 = (in sm-1) 𝒊=
𝒓𝒔 𝑳 𝑹
where:
E – evaporation flux rate k – constant to account for units
L – leaf area index hc – mean height of the crop
L = 24hc 0.05 < hc < 0.15 m. for clipped grass
L = 5.5+1.5ln(hc) 0.1 < hc < 0.5 m. for alfalfa
Using the Priestley-Taylor equation to estimate reference crop
evaporation rate in arid climate with net radiation of 200 W/m2,
air temperature 25 °C, relative humidity 20% and wind speed
3m/s, all recorded at height of 2 m and atmospheric pressure
101.3 kPa. Assume that there is no sensible heat or soil heat
flux.
ANSWER: 9.09 mm/day

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Discuss the Identify factors Demonstrate the

fundamental affecting use of selection

• Potential Evaporation – quantity of water evaporated per unit area

where: Ts – surface temperature

Molecular exchange occur

ANSWER: -276.8058 W/m2

➢Pan Coefficient – pan data are

ANSWER: 7.1392 mm/day

ANSWER: 9.09 mm/day

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