Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00693

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Short communication

Characterization and thermal performance assessment of earthen

adobes and walls additive with different date palm fibers
Abdellah Mellaikhafi a, *, Mohamed Ouakarrouch c, Abderrahim Benallel a,
Amine Tilioua a, *, Mahmoud Ettakni b, Abdelhak Babaoui a, Mohammed Garoum c,
Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Hamdi b
a
Research Team in Thermal and Applied Thermodynamics (2.T.A.), Mechanics, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energies Laboratory (L.M.3.E.R.),
Department of Physics, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques Errachidia, Moulay Ismaïl University of Meknès, B.P. 509, Boutalamine, Errachidia,
Morocco
b
Faculty of Sciences, Department of Physics, Moulay Ismail University of Meknès, Meknes, B.P. 11201 Zitoune, 5000 Meknes, Morocco
c
Materials, Energy and Acoustics TEAM, Higher School of Technology in Salé, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Morocco

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study deals on the one hand, with experimental characterization of the thermophysical
Thermal insulation properties of adobes made from raw earth reinforced with five different plant waste fibers from
Date palm fibers palm trees in the Drâa-Tafilalet region in southeastern Morocco (Pinnate leaves, Palm fiber mesh,
Adobe
Palm trunk, Petiole and Palm cluster) and on the other hand, with numerical simulation based on
Thermal properties
Wall heat flux
the one-dimensional numerical model to evaluate the effect of the wall constructed in studied
Time lag adobe on the heat flux and the thermal comfort of the building. The results of the experimental
Decrement factor study show that the thermal properties of the samples improve and are different depending on the
type of fibers incorporated. Indeed, the thermal insulation property improves at least by about
30% for a mass fraction of 6% of the petiole and palm fiber mesh and at most 48% for 6% of the
pinnate leaf fibers. Moreover, the adobes containing the Pinnate leaf fibers offer the best insu­
lation property compared to those containing the other four fibers with thermal conductivities of
about 0.312 W/(m.K) and 0.265 W/(m.K) respectively for the two mass fractions of 3% and 6%,
as well as its rate thermal damping of diffusion is maximum due to its low value of thermal
diffusivity. Numerical simulation results show a maximum decrease of about 46% of the flux
through the walls contained the fibers of pinnate leaves. In addition, the heat flux time lag and the
heat flux decrement factor improve, ensuring good energy efficiency.

1. Introduction

In Morocco as in the whole world, the stakes of reducing energy consumption and CO2 emissions encourage the construction sector
in general and that of materials in particular to turn to local and bio-based materials. Raw earth materials can reduce the environ­
mental impact of buildings [1–4] while improving their energy efficiency and thermal comfort [5–10]. Nevertheless, the scientific
characterization of raw earth materials and the evaluation of the thermal impact of the addition of fibers to earth materials, are more
necessary for a better recognition by all the actors of the construction. In this context, several authors have worked on the thermal and

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Mellaikhafi), [email protected] (A. Tilioua).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00693
Received 24 May 2021; Received in revised form 29 July 2021; Accepted 7 September 2021
Available online 14 September 2021
2214-5095/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Mellaikhafi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00693

mechanical characterization of raw earth construction materials. F. Hadji et al. [11] aimed to determine the thermal conductivity, by
the hot wire method, of traditional construction materials obtained by mixing two types of earth used in Algeria with different
quantities of straw. They showed that the thermal conductivity of all tested samples, with and without straw, is between 0.1 W/(m2.K)
and 2 W/(m2.K). To evaluate of the thermal impact of adding sawdust with different percentages to clay materials on earthen building
envelopes was performed by M.Charai et al. [12]. In determining the thermal diffusivity, volumetric specific heat and thermal con­
ductivity of sawdust-earth samples using the hot disc method, they showed that the thermal conductivity decreases of 30% and the
thermal resistance of earthen building envelopes improves of 31%, for an addition of 10% sawdust. K.Rashid et al. [13] observed in
their work, a reduction in bulk density and thermal conductivity up to 18% with an increase in water absorption for earth bricks
containing bamboo, jute, coir, sisal and polyester fibers, the thermal conductivity was estimated using finite element simulation on
ANSYS platform and the other parameters are measured experimentally. S. Ajouguim et al. [14] sought to improve the mechanical
properties and thermal insulation of compacted earth bricks using natural, alkali-treated fibers extracted from the Alfa plant harvested
in Northern Morocco (Oujda region). The measurement of thermal conductivity was carried out on the HOT DISK TPS type 150
apparatus, using cylindrical samples (1.3 cm × 1.3 cm). The results show that compacted earth bricks with 1 wt% of alkali treated
esparto fibers have better mechanical properties with low thermal conductivity. In this context, a study of improvement of the me­
chanical and thermal properties of earthen bricks has been carried out by E. Olacia et al. [15], but this time by adding seagrass fibers.
From the results of mechanical tests and measurements of thermal conductivity, they showed an improvement of about 30% that is
achieved when this marine plant in this natural arrangement is included at a content of 1.50% or 3% but the thermal conductivity is
high compared to that of straw reinforced samples. In addition, P. Muñoz et al. [16] has shown the feasibility of an earthen adobe
reinforced with residues from the paper and pulp industry (PPR). They concluded that the thermal conductivity is reduced of about
30% for an addition of 12.5% of PPR while the compressive strength can improve up to 190%. There are also studies that have aimed at
improving the hygrothermal performance of construction materials. In this axis, a building plaster has been realized by S. Liuzzi et al.
[17] using olive fibers incorporated in the clay matrix. Using experimental hygrothermal measurements validated by a simulation
performed by the WUFI Plus software on a test building, analyzing the results in a typical Mediterranean climate, the authors showed a
significant energy saving achieved in terms of humidification and dehumidification using this material of biological origin. In this
sense, A. Laborel-Préneron et al. [18] have shown that the addition of 6% by weight of straw slightly limits the transport of moisture
and reduces of 75% the thermal conductivity of the bricks compared to the earth without any vegetable aggregate. On the other hand,
in the oases in southeastern Morocco known by its semi-arid climate, hot in summer and cold in winter, the economy is based primarily
on the exploitation of the date palm, which leads to the availability of large quantities of plant waste from renewable parts of date
palms without exploitation. According to data from the Regional Directorate of Agriculture of Drâa-Tafilalet, the overall number of
palm trees across the region is 4.889 million (May 2019), while the planted area is 47,293 Ha [19]. This leads to an average production
of 85,000 tons of dates per year, which produce some 75,000 tons of palm waste each year [20]. In addition, these oases are also known
by the presence of various constructions based on raw earth of great value in terms of thermal comfort ensuring coolness in summer
and a temperate atmosphere in winter and in terms of historical and architectural culture that characterizes the oasis buildings [21].
From the above, the exploitation of date palm waste fibers for the improvement of thermal properties of building materials and earthen
plasters, can be considered as a solution improving the energy efficiency of buildings and as an income-generating activity that can
improve the standard of living of oasis farmers by marketing of this product. In this context, a thermomechanical study of raw earth
bricks, stabilized with lime and reinforced with aggregates of a mixture of waste components of date palm was conducted by D.
Khoudja et al. [22] in Biskra, Algeria, their study, shows an improvement in thermal insulation, with a thermal conductivity of 0.342
W/(m.K) for bricks containing 10% of aggregates while maintaining a minimum performance required by the standards of earth
construction. However, the present paper deals with the influence of the nature of plant rejects from the renewable parts of date palms
in the oases of the Drâa-Tafilalet region in southeastern Morocco, and their content on the thermal properties of the soil adobes. Five
plant fibers, Pinnate leaves, Palm fiber mesh, Palm trunk, Petiole and Palm cluster were added to five soil matrices to obtain weight
percentages from 0% to 6%. An experimental study was conducted to present the effects of the addition of each fiber and its content on
the following thermal properties: thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, volumetric heat capacity and thermal effusivity. Based on
these results, a numerical simulation adopted to solve the heat equation with boundary and initial conditions was carried out to
evaluate the effects of the addition of date palm fibers on the thermal performance of the earthen walls from the study of the variation
of heat flux passing through each wall as well as the time lag of heat flux and the decrement factor. This numerical study was based on
the work done by H. Asan et al. [23], X. Jin et al. [24] and C.R. Ruivo et al. [25].
This study therefore aims to compare the thermal properties of adobes containing different fibers of date palm wastes in the oasis of
Drâa Tafilalet. The aims is to select and enhance the most energy efficient fibers that could be used by the inhabitants of the oasis as
building materials to reduce energy consumption that has been increased in recent years because of the use of cement-based building
materials.

2. Materials and procedures

2.1. Raw materials and manufacture of the samples

The raw soil used in this study was extracted from an area located in the oasis of Tafilalet in southeastern Morocco. This soil was
chosen for the study because of its abundance and its traditional use for the manufacture of adobes and rammed earth of good quality
by the local population. The five different date palm fibers used: pinnate leaves, Palm fiber mesh, trunk, petiole and cluster, are
released from the cuttings of the rejects of palm trees of Tafilalet oasis on the edge of the Wadi Ziz valley in southeastern Morocco (see

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Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00693

Fig. 1. The five date palm fibers (1) and parts (2) used: (a) cluster, (b) pinnate leaves, (c) trunk, (d) palm fibers mesh and (e) petiole.
A. Mellaikhafi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00693

Fig. 2. Picture of soil samples containing palm fibers studied.

Fig. 1). Prior to its use, the fibers were washed with water in order to remove polluting particles. Then, these fibers were dried in the
sun for five days, then in an oven at 70 ◦ C until dry. The fibers were cut using a grinding machine and were sieved to remove the grains,
then the fibers whose length ranged from about 5–10 mm were selected.
Due to low fiber density, we limited the mass fraction to 6% to avoid affecting the mechanical strength of the composite materials.
Thus, the weight ratios of 0%, 3%, and 6% of fibers to the dry weight of the soil were tested. From the SEM shown in Fig. 9, we found
that the diameters or widths of the fibers are not uniform, and then we measured the volume and mass of compacted fibers to
determine its densities using a graduated cylinder and a balance. The range of diameter, volume and density of the fibers used are
showed in Table 4.
For sample preparation, the soil was sieved to obtain particle sizes <2 mm and then manually mixed with the fibers without
preferential orientation to obtain a homogeneous mixture between the fibers and the soil. We have manually mixed the soil containing
the fibers for twenty minutes with 31% water to the dry weight of the soil to obtain a homogeneous mixture with appropriate plasticity
for molding the samples.
The amount of water was determined using relationship Eq. (1):
W(%) = (WL + WP )/2 (1)

Where WL is the liquid limit and WP is the plastic limit. This value has been used in previous works [26,27]. Cylindrical molds of
110 mm diameter and 22.5 mm thickness were made. These molds were filled with the obtained mixture and the same manual
compaction was applied on three layers. The samples were then left to dry in the open air and in the shade for 30 days before being
tested in order to avoid thermal shocks which could cause cracks in the clayey matrix (Fig. 2). For comparison purposes, we prepared
and characterized a fiber-free sample.

2.2. Experimental procedures used

2.2.1. Physical, chemical and mineralogical characterization of raw materials

The particle-size analyses of used soil were carried out, according to two techniques, the particle-size analysis by wet sieving of the
elements of dimensions higher than 80 µm according to the French standard NF P94-056 [28] and the particle-size analysis by
sedimentation of the particles passing through the sieve of 80 µm of opening by using the difference of fall of the particles, in a test tube
of 2 l of distilled water according to the French standard NF P94-057 [29]. This last analysis completes the particle size analysis by
sieving of a soil. The geotechnical soil characteristics were determined by measuring the Atterberg limits and the water content of the
soil leading to the maximum drying density for a compaction energy of 2.7 MJ/m3 obtained by a modified Proctor test.
X-ray diffraction (XRD), were implemented to evaluate the mineralogical composition of the soil. Measurements were made ac­
cording the powder method using the PANalytical X′ pert Pro MRD diffractometer and the results of the analyses are provided by X′ Pert
HighScore software. This instrument is equipped with a copper anticathode and uses the copper Kα line with wavelength
λ = 1.540456 Å. This identification of clay minerals from raw soil powder samples (<80 µm) was performed at CNRST (National
Center for Scientific and Technical Research) in Morocco. Morphological analysis of soil and date palm fibers and semi-quantitative
analysis of chemical elements were performed using a Quanta 200 scanning electron microscope (SEM) coupled to an energy
dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDX) in the CNRST scanning electron microscopy laboratory. The SEM instrument operates at 30 KV
while the EDX is attached to the SEM, and has a microanalysis resolution of 133 eV.

2.2.2. Thermo-physical characterization method

2.2.2.1. Thermal conductivity measurement. The thermal conductivity of all samples was measured using the hot plate method in
steady-state regime. The principle of this method is illustrated in Fig. 3. Its experimental device consists of a heating element inserted

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Fig. 3. Schema of hot plate method in a steady-state regime.

Fig. 4. Schema of flash method.

between the characterized sample and an insulating polyethylene foam, having an electrical resistance Re = 38 Ω and a size
(150 × 150 × 0.2) mm3. The assembly is placed between two aluminum blocks to have a constant temperature on the unheated faces.
The heating element emits a uniform thermal flux through the front faces of the sample and the insulating foam. K-type thermocouples
positioned in the center of the faces record the temperature evolution of the faces. The heat flows transmitted through the polyethylene
foam ϕP and the sample ϕS are assumed to be unidimensional. The thermal conductivity of the sample is calculated when the steady
state is established, using Eq. 2 and Eq. 3.

U2
ϕT = = ϕS + ϕP (2)
Re S
[ 2 ]
eS U λP
λS = × − (T0 − T2 ) (3)
T0 − T1 Re S eP

Where λp and λs are the thermal conductivity of the polyethylene foam and the characterized sample, respectively. U, Re = 40Ω and S
are the heating element voltage, the electrical resistance and the heating element surface, respectively. ep and es representthe thickness
of the polyethylene foam and the characterized sample, respectively. T0 is the temperature at the center of the bottom surface of the
heating element, T1 is the temperature measured on the unheated face of the sample, and T2 is the temperature of the unheated face of
the polyethylene.

2.2.2.2. Thermal diffusivity measurement. The thermal diffusivity of the samples has been estimated using the flash method in a
transient thermal regime. Its principle is described in Fig. 4. A high-power light flux is sent on one of the faces of a parallel sample for a

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Fig. 5. The heat transfer in the studied walls.

very short time (td = 8 s). The sample has been tinted in black in order to absorb the totality of the light flux received by its surface.
Then, it is surrounded by a polystyrene ring to minimize the thermal losses on the sides (Fig. 4). A thermocouple in contact with the
back face allows recording the rise of its temperature from the moment when the front face received the flash. A model of heat transfer
in the sample has allowed several authors to propose methods for estimating the thermal diffusivity from the experimental thermo­
grams. In this work, the method developed is based on global minimization. Considering that the absorbed light flux is uniform over
the entire front face of the sample, the lateral heat losses are negligible, the heat transfer is one-dimensional and the initial temperature
T0, at t = 0, is equal to the ambient temperature. We can then write:

∂2 T(x, t) 1 ∂T
= (4)
∂x2 a ∂t
⎧( ) ⎫
⎪
⎪
⎪
∂T(x, t) ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ = − h1 .T(0, t) + ϕ0 .g(t) ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∂x x=0 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ( ) ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∂T(x, t) ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ = − h2 .T(e, t) ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ ∂x x=e
⎪
⎬
Où: ⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪ 1 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎨ if 0 < t < td ⎪ ⎬ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ g(t) = td ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 0 if td < t ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩ T(x, 0) = 0 ⎭

Where: a denotes the thermal diffusivity, h1 and h2 are the overall heat transfer coefficients of the two faces of the sample under study,
ϕ0 presents the thermal energy absorbed at the boundary face (x = 0), g(t) is the time dependence of the thermal energy generation.
ϕ0 .g(t) refers to the finished pulse of a flash duration td.
The transformation of Eq. 4 in Laplace space will give the following equation:
j. Tmax .F(p)
θ(e, p) = [ √̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅
[ ]] (5)
Cosh( jp ) (bi1 + bi2 ) + Sinh( jp ) jp + √(b̅̅̅i1 .bi2 )
jp

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e2
With:j =
a
F(p) indicate the Laplace transform of g(t), bi1 and bi2 present the Biot numbers, Tmax is the adiabatic limit temperature and e is the
sample thickness.
1 − e− p.td h1 e h2 e ϕ
F(p) = ; bi1 = ; bi2 = and Tmax = 0
p.td λ λ ρce
The expression of the theoretical temperature Th of the backside of the sample was obtained by the numerical inversion of Eq. 5 as a
function of the parameters a, e, bi1, bi2, Tmax and t which will be estimated from the experimental data. Their optimal values can be
obtained by minimizing the squared distance between the thermogram and the theoretical experimental thermogram (Eq. 6) as
described in [30]. A computational code has been implemented in the Mathematica language that allows us to solve the minimization
equation.
∑
N
[ ]2
M(e, Tma , a, bia , bi2 ) = Texp (ti ) − Tth (e, Tma , a, bi1 , bi2 , ti ) (6)
(i=1)

2.3. Mathematical and numerical model

The heat transfer in the wall shown in Fig. 5 is assumed to be one-dimensional. The exterior and interior wall surfaces are subject to
convective heat flow with the exterior and interior air respectively.
The heat transfer equation in the wall is expressed by Eq. 4.
The boundary conditions at the inner and outer wall surface are as follows:
∂T
− λ = hext (Tsa − Te ) For x = 0 (7)
∂x

∂T
− λ = hint (Ti − Tint ) For x = e (8)
∂x

Where hext and hint are the two convective heat transfer coefficients at the exterior surface and interior surface respectively and a is the
thermal diffusivity. Te, Ti and Tint are the temperatures of the exterior wall surface, interior wall surface and indoor air respectively. In
addition, the outdoor temperature Tsa was considered as the solar-air temperature, which is assumed to have sinusoidal variations
during a 24-hour period [23]. Tsa is calculated by the relation (Eq. 9):
( )
Tmax − Tmin 2πt π Tmax − Tmin
Tas (t) = sin − + + Tmin (9)
2 P 2 2

Where, Tmax and Tmin are the maximum and minimum outdoor temperatures, respectively and P the period.
In this study, we considered the model cited in [24], Tmax = 35 ◦ C, Tmin = 25 ◦ C, Tint = 26 ◦ C, hext = 18.6 W/(m2. K) and
hint = 8.7 W/(m2. K). The initial condition of the temperature in the wall is assumed to be linear at the beginning and it is given as
follows
(Tint − Tmin ).x
T(x, t = 0) = Tmin + (10)
e
The numerical approach adopted to solve Eq. 6 with boundary and initial conditions, is the finite difference method supported by
the explicit formulation. To evaluate the effects of the addition of date palm fibers on the thermal performance of the studied walls, we
proposed to study the variation of the heat flux passing through each studied wall φc, the outdoor heat flux φe and the indoor heat flux
φi as well the heat flux time lag ϕ and the decrement factor fd. These last two parameters are calculated by the following Eq.11 and
Eq.12.
φ = τϕi,max − τϕe,max (11)

ϕi,max − ϕi,min
fd = (12)
ϕe,max − ϕe,min

Where τϕi,max is the time that the interior surface heat flux of the wall is being maximum and τϕe,max is the time that the exterior surface
heat flux of the wall is being maximum. ϕi,max and ϕi,min are the maximum and the minimum heat flux of the interior surface of the wall,
respectively. ϕe,max and ϕe,min are the maximum and the minimum heat flux of the exterior surface of the wall, respectively.

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Table 1
Comparison of simulation results between the method cited in [24] and the method used in this work.
Method used by maximum exterior surface heat flux Maximum interior surface heat flux heat flux time lag Heat flux decrement
(W/m2) (W/m2) (h) factor

[24] 37.8 10.8 10 0.1154

Present 37.42 10.77 9.79 0.1185
Relative difference 1 0.28 2.1 2.68
(%)

Fig. 6. XRD pattern for the soil studied.

Table 2
Identified patterns list of the soil studied.
Compound Name Chemical Formula Mineral percentages (%)

Calcite CaCO3 32.2

Quartz SiO2 26.5
Nimesite-Brindleyite (Ni2Al) (AlSi) O5 (OH)4 18
Muscovite H2 K Al3 Si3 O12 15.44
Zeolite X-FAU Na17.52 Al24 Si24 O96 H6.48 7.86

Table 3
Results of particle size distribution analysis, plasticity test and modified Proctor test.
Particle size distribution Recommended limits of adobe [31] Atterberg limits (%) Recommended limits of adobe[31] Modified Proctor tests

55% sands 50–70% PI 16 10–25% OMC (%) 15.1

25% Silt 15–25% WP 23 10–25% γdmax (g/cm3) 1.8
17% Clay 10–20% WL 39 25–45% γs (g/cm3) 2.60

In order to validate the numerical model, a comparison was made with the numerical results published by X. Jin et al. [24] for a
wall of 240 mm thickness with thermal conductivity of 0.62 W/(m.K), and thermal capacity of 1.512 MJ/(m3.K). This work showed
the variations of temperatures and heat fluxes of the wall every two hours during a day using the discretization of the heat equation by
the finite deference method and the implicit scheme is applied in time. The results of the comparison are shown in Table 3. The
simulation results obtained from the two methods presented in Table 1 show a maximum relative difference of about 2.7%.

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Table 4
Chemical composition [33], diameter, density and volume of each type of fiber.
Fibers Total Extractives Cellulose Hemicelluloses Lignin Diameter or Density (kg/ Volume (3%) Volume (6%)
(%) (%) (%) (%) width (μm) m3) (cm3) (cm3)

Trunk 25.15 39.37 30.31 30.32 536–908 186 51.0 101.9

Pinnate 32.86 47.14 16.13 36.73 780–1210 196 48.4 96.7
leaves
Cluster 9.75 43.05 27.48 29.47 290–540 265 35.8 71.5
Palm fibers 7.78 47.50 12.64 39.86 201–856 201 47.1 94.3
mesh
Petiole 24.90 43.05 31.34 25.61 94–212 181 52.3 104.7

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Mineralogical and geotechnical characterization of the soil

The mineralogical composition of the studied clays was determined by means of X-ray diffraction analyses, the measurements of
which are plotted in Fig. 6. The conversion of the peaks into D-spacings of the spectra presented in this figure, allowed us to identify the
minerals existing in the studied soil and the results of the analyses are presented in Table 2. The presence of high contents of calcite
(CaCO3) and quartz (SiO2) minerals estimated at 32.2% and 26.5% respectively is noted. This result is confirmed by the high peaks of
calcite and quartz in the spectrum of Fig. 6. Moreover, Nimesite ((Ni2Al)(AlSi) O5(OH)4), Muscovite (H2KAl3Si3O12) and Zeolite X
(Na17.52 Al24 Si24 O96 H6.48) are also significantly present in the studied soil in estimated contents respectively of 18%, 15.44% and
7.86%. On the other hand, the soil EDX presented in Fig. 7.b indicates the presence of chemical element Ti contents probably cor­
responding to the mineral titanium antigorite presented in rod-shaped form observed on SEM in Fig. 7.a or the mineral titanium
dioxide TiO2 [21].
The particle size analysis, (see Fig. 8), shows that the studied soil is composed of 4% gravels, 55% sands 25% silt and 17% clay.
According to the seismic regulations for earthen constructions in Morocco [31], the manufacture of adobes requires a particle size
distribution in the area limited by the contents of clay 10–20%, silt 15–25% and sand 50–70%. This soil is well recommended then for
the manufacture of adobes and contains clay content necessary for the cohesion of its elements. The plasticity test indicated that this
earth is moderately plastic. Indeed, the plasticity index (PI), the liquid limit (WL) and the plasticity limit (WP) were respectively 16%,
39% and 23%. According to the seismic regulations for earthen constructions in Morocco [31], a good adobe must have Atterberg
limits composed of PI and WP are between 10% and 25% and WL between 25% and 45%. This indicates that the studied earth plasticity
was consistent with adobe construction. The results of the modified Proctor tests carried out on the soil allow us to construct the
variation of the dry density γ d as a function of the moisture content W(%) by using a series of experimental points. We then obtained a
curve whose shape can define a maximum value of dry density noted γd max which corresponds to an optimum moisture content noted
OMC. We found γdmax = 1,8 (g/cm3) and OMC = 15.1% and γs = 2.6 (g/cm3) which presents the dry density of soil used. Table 3
summarizes the results of the geotechnical tests performed on the soil studied, which are shown above.

3.2. SEM micrographs, EDX analysis spectrum and chemical composition of fibers

The EDX analysis spectrum (Fig. 9) of the fibers from the five dried date palm rejects reveals a very high amount of carbon and
oxygen as constituents of these materials. The other minor constituents are clay minerals, potassium oxide, chlorine, and calcium in all
fibers and quartz, aluminum, and magnesium in the fibers, petiole, palm, and pinnate leaf fibers. These minerals may be contami­
nations that were not removed by washing. This result was confirmed by the presence of the shiny particles adhering to the surface of
the date palm fibers, indicated by the SEM images Fig. 9. In addition, SEM micrographs of these fibers also show in Fig. 9 veins oriented
parallel to the fiber axis and rough fiber surfaces. These structures may favor their mechanical coupling with the clay matrix and this
may influence the post-pic behavior of adobes [26]. In addition, the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) constitutes, for the Saharan and
pre-Saharan regions of Morocco, the essential element of the oasis ecosystem [32]. The chemical compositions of the five date palm
fibers are presented in Table 4 [33].

3.3. Thermo-physical characterization

In this section, the effects of different date palm fibers on the thermophysical properties of the composite material in the dry state
are presented. Thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, apparent density, volumetric heat capacity and thermal effusivity are dis­
cussed. The prepared samples (see Fig. 2) were dried in an oven at a constant temperature of 105 ± 1 C with an ambient humidity of
about 28%. The drying was stopped when the mass of the sample was constant at ± 2 g.

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Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00693

Fig. 7. a) SEM images of studied soil: antigorite rod particle [21], quartz and calcite b) energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) of studied soil.
A. Mellaikhafi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00693

Fig. 8. Particles size distribution of used earth.

3.3.1. The apparent density of studied samples

In this study, the apparent density was determined after the drying of the samples by considering the ratio between the mass of the
cylindrical block of soil, measured with a balance, and its volume, which is calculated from the measurement of diameter and thickness
by means of an electronic caliper with a systematic error of ± 0.01 mm. Table 5 shows the variation of the apparent density of the
manufactured samples as a function of the contents of the five date palm fibers. It was found that the density decreased with the
increase of the fibers. The highest decrease was noticed for the sample containing petiole fiber estimated to be about 22% for 3% and
29% for 6% of this fiber. In addition, the other four samples containing Palm fiber mesh, pinnate leaf fibers, trunk fibers and cluster
fibers, present almost the same decrease in density estimated on average at about 20% for 3% and 25% for 6% of these fibers.

3.3.2. Thermal conductivity of studied samples

Thermal conductivity is an important quantity to characterize the capacity of construction materials to conduct heat. Fig. 10.a
shows the variation of thermal conductivity as a function of incorporated fiber content for the different biocomposites prepared. We
notice firstly, a decrease of the thermal conductivity with the increase of the fiber content and secondly, that the samples containing
pinnate leaf fibers present a good insulation property compared to the other samples, because of the decrease of the thermal con­
ductivity from 0.512 W/(m.K) for the sample without fibers to 0.312 W/(m.K) for the sample containing 3% of these fibers and to
0.265 W/(m.K) for the one containing 6%, which leads to an improvement of thermal insulation performance estimated respectively of
39% and 48%. In addition, the thermal conductivities of the other samples prepared with fibers of, trunk, Palm fiber mesh, petiole and
cluster are also decreased respectively until 0.304 W/(m.K), 0.355 W/(m.K), 0.354 W/(m.K) and 0.355 W/(m.K), for the case of a fiber
content of 6%. These results can be explained, on the one hand, by the progressive increase in the amount of fibers with very low
thermal conductivity and by the decrease in the density of the samples (Fig. 10. b) due to the increase in the content of fibers
incorporated in the composites that can create pores in the sample that fill with air [23]. On the other hand, by the high contents of
cellulose that presents insulating properties characterized by the high permeability of air in the fibers [34] noticed from SEM mi­
crographs of fibers in the form of pores.
This last explanation remains limited and depends on other parameters such as the fragmentation of fibers and the homogeneity of
cellulose in the fibers [cellulose2]. Indeed, the fibers of the pinnate leaves have the highest cellulose content which confirms the lowest
thermal conductivity of the samples containing these fibers, while the trunk has a lower cellulose content of 39.37% than the other four
fibers. However, the sample containing these fibers has a lower thermal conductivity and density than those containing petiole, bunch
and palm fiber (see Table 4).

3.3.3. Thermal diffusivity and volumetric thermal capacity of studied samples

Fig. 11.a shows the evolution of thermal diffusivity, which characterizes the speed of heat propagation in a material, as a function
of the date palm fiber content of the different composite materials studied. This figure shows that the heat diffusion in the sample
containing 6% fibers of, pinnate leaves, petiole, cluster, trunk and Palm fiber mesh, is reduced to 26%, 22%, 20%, 15% and 10%
respectively. This damping of heat diffusion is due to the alveolar structure of the fibers which is opposed to the heat flow and to the
creation of pores within the biocomposites [35]. This characteristic of the fibers in the adobe is important in the thermal insulation to

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(caption on next page)

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A. Mellaikhafi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00693

Fig. 9. SEM micrographs of fibers of: a1) Palm trunk, b1) Petiole, c1) Palm fiber mesh, d1) Pinnate leave and e1) Palm cluster. EDX analysis
spectrum of fibers of: a2) Palm trunk, b2) Petiole, c2) Palm fiber mesh, d2) Pinnate leaves, and e2) Palm cluster.

delay the transmission of heat. The volumetric thermal capacity of a material is its capacity to store heat related to its volume; it
characterizes the thermal inertia of construction materials. The volumetric thermal capacity ρ.c of the studied composite materials was
calculated from the results of experimental measurements of thermal conductivity λ and thermal diffusivity a, with the relation (Eq.
13).
λ
ρ.c = (13)
a
Fig. 11.b shows the variation of the volumetric thermal capacity of the samples as a function of the fiber contents of the five
different palm fibers added. On the one hand, we observe a decrease, in general, of the volumetric thermal capacity with the increase of
the content of fibers and on the other hand, the samples containing the fibers of pinnate leaves and the fibers of trunk, present the same
decrease of the volumetric thermal capacity ρ.c until 973 kJ/(m3. K) for 3% of these fibers followed by a slight increase estimated of
about 1010 kJ/(m3. K) for 6% of these fibers. Whereas, ρ.c increases slightly to 1480 kJ/(m3. K) for the sample containing 3% cluster
fibers before decreasing to 1263 kJ/(m3. K) for 6%. These results are due firstly, to the combined effects of thermal conductivity and
thermal diffusivity on the volumetric heat capacity and secondly, to the decrease in density ρ due to the increase in the formation of
pores that fill with air, caused by the increase in fiber contents.

3.3.4. Thermal effusivity of studied samples

The thermal effusivity b of a material characterizes its capacity to exchange thermal energy at its surface with its environment. b is
calculated from the results of conductivity measurements and the calculated values of the volumetric heat capacity, by the relation (Eq.
14).
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
b = λ.ρ.c (14)

Fig. 12 shows the variation of thermal effusivity as a function of fiber content. It can be seen that the thermal effusivity of the five
studied samples, decreases with increasing fiber content. This decrease is significant in both cases of the addition of pinnate leaf fibers
and the addition of trunk fibers and is estimated at 40% and 36% respectively, for 6% of these fibers. However, the thermal effusivity of
the other samples is decreased by about 27%, 22% and 21% for 6% of the palm fiber mesh, cluster and petiole fibers respectively. These
results show that the composite material containing pinnate and trunk fibers can retain heat for quite a long time because it slowly
dissipates from its surface as soon as the temperature of its environment decreases.

4. Numerical simulation results

In this section, we are limited to investigate the effects of thermal properties of pinnate leaf, trunk and cluster fibers on the variation
of the heat fluxes of the wall constructed by earthen adobes and on the variations of heat flux time lag and heat flux decrement factor.

4.1. Variations and distribution of temperatures and heat flux in the wall constructed by earthen adobes without fibers

Fig. 13 shows the variations of temperatures Text, Te, Tc, Ti and Tint and heat fluxes φe, φc and φi of wall constructed by earthen
adobes without fibers during four days of simulation. Tc is the temperature in the center of the wall. The thermal conductivity and
volumetric heat capacity of the wall, assumed to be those of the earthen adobe without fibers studied above, are 0.512 W/(m.K) and
1446.33 KJ/(m3. K) respectively, and the thickness of the wall is 0.24 m.

Table 5
Apparent density as a function of fibers content in samples.
Fibers Fibers content (%) and apparent density of the manufactured samples (kg/m3)

0% 3% 6%
Palm cluster 1586.3 1262.9 1173.2
Palm fiber mesh 1285.6 1167.1
Palm leaf pinnate 1261.2 1197.8
Petiole 1240.5 1122.3
Palm trunk 1249.7 1186.8

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Fig. 10. Thermal conductivity as a function of: a) fibers content in samples and b) density of samples.

As shown in this figure, we have noticed periodic variations of temperatures and fluxes in the wall. These variations have maximum
outdoor air, exterior surface, and interior surface temperatures of approximately 35 ◦ C, 33.5 ◦ C, and 27 ◦ C, respectively, and
maximum exterior wall surface and interior wall surface heat fluxes of approximately 34.6 W/m2 and 9 W/m2, respectively. The heat
flux time lag is about 10.8 h, and the decrement factor of the heat flux is about 0.14.

4.2. Effect of thermophysical properties of fibers on heat flux through the wall

The adding of palm fibers to the earthen construction material has influence not only on the temperature distribution in walls and
but also on the heat flux passing through these walls. Fig. 14a shows the different variations of heat flux ϕc passing through the walls
constructed using different adobes containing the following palm fibers, pinnate leaf fibers, and trunk fibers and cluster fibers. The
thickness of the wall is 0.24 m. It can be seen that the maximum flux passing through the earth wall without fibers is the highest at
about 14.2 W/(m2. K) and the maximum flux passing through the earth wall containing the fibers of pinnate leaves is the lowest at
about 8 W/(m2. K). In addition, the maximum flux is about 10.4 W/(m2. K) in the case of cluster fiber walls and about 9.2 W/(m2. K) in
the case of trunk fiber walls. These results are confirmed by Fig. 14b which shows the hourly average heat flux per day ϕcm passing
through the studied walls. It indicates that the fluxes ϕcm of the walls constructing by earthen adobes without fiber, earthen adobes
containing 6% of cluster fibers, earthen adobes with 6% of trunk fibers and earthen adobes with 6% of pinnae leaf fibers are about
71.1 W/(m2. K), 49.1 W/(m2. K), 45.6 W/(m2. K) and 38 W/(m2. K), respectively. Consequently, we have shown a significant
reduction in the average flux through the studied walls of about 30.87%, 35.83% and 46.52% respectively in the three cases of adding
the fibers indicated above. This result can be explained by the decrease in thermal conductivity which reduces the total heat flux

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Fig. 11. a) Thermal diffusivity and b) Volumetric heat capacity as a function of percentage of fibers of samples.

Fig. 12. Thermal effusivity as a function of fibers content of samples.

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Fig. 13. The variations of temperatures and heat fluxes in the wall built with clay bricks without fibers: a) Temperatures and b) heat fluxes.

passing through the wall and the fluctuation of the heat flux will also be lower [24].

4.3. Effect of thermophysical properties of composite on heat flux through the wall, heat flux time lag and decrement factor

The two parameters allow quantification of the thermal inertia of a building, the heat flux time lag ϕ, which expresses the capacity
of a construction element to store and release energy during the daily cycle, and the decrement factor fd, are deduced from Fig. 15
which shows the temporal variations of the heat flux of the exterior surface and the variations of the heat flux of the interior surface of
the studied walls. Fig. 16 shows the effects of adding date palm fibers to the studied earthen adobes on the two previous factors.
According to Fig. 16.a, the heat flux time lag is higher for the walls constructed by adobes made of earth reinforced with palms
fibers in comparison with the one constructed by earth without fibers. It reaches the highest value of about 11.98 h for the case of walls
constructed by earth mixed with pinnate leaf fibers; however, the values 11.21 h and 11.79 h were reached by the case of cluster and
trunk fibers, respectively. These results can be explained by the effect of the two quantities thermal conductivity λ and volumetric
thermal capacity ρ.c on the heat flux time lag. ϕ increases with the decrease of λ and with the increase of ρ.c [24]. Indeed, even though
the thermal conductivity of wall constructed of earth reinforced with trunk fibers (λtrunk= 0.304 W/(m2. K)) is lower than that of case
of reinforcement with cluster fibers (λcluster= 0.355 W/(m2. K)), the heat flux time lag in the first case was higher than that in the
second case. This due to the effect of the volumetric thermal capacity which is important in the walls containing cluster fibers ((ρ.
c)cluster= 1263 KJ/(m3. K)) in comparison with that for the case of walls containing trunk fibers ((ρ.c)tronc= 1010 KJ/(m3. K)). It is
important to note that the higher values of the time lag of the heat flow ensure that the interior surface temperature of the wall reaches
its maximum values during the night hours in summer. As the air temperature in the room reaches its minimum values around these
night hours, there is a significant heat transfer from the wall surface to the indoor air and, consequently a lower consumption of
electrical energy during the peak hours for cooling [24]. According to Fig. 16.b, the decrement factor fd is higher for the walls

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Fig. 14. Effects of various palm fibers used on: (a) the heat flux through the wall and (b) the average hourly heat flow through the wall per day φcm,
φc1 heat flow through the wall without fibers, φc2 heat flow through the wall containing pinnate leaf fibers, φc3 heat flow through the wall con­
taining trunk fibers and φc3 heat flow through the wall containing cluster fibers.

Fig. 15. Effects of various palm fibers used on the exterior surface heat flux and on the interior surface heat flux. φe1 and φi1 heat flux of the
exterior and exterior surface of the wall without fibers, φe2 and φi2 heat flux of the exterior and exterior surface of the wall containing cluster fibers,
φe3 and φi3 heat flux of the exterior and exterior surface of the wall containing trunk fibers, φe4 and φi4 heat flux of the exterior and exterior
surface of the wall containing pinnate leaf fibers.

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Fig. 16. Effects of various palm fibers used on: (a) the heat flux time lag and (b) the heat flux decrement factor.

constructed with earth without fibers about 0.14 compared to the one constructed with earth reinforced with palm fibers. In addition,
fd is lower for the case of pinnate leaf fibers about 0.11 followed by the case of cluster fibers and then the case of trunk fibers.

5. Conclusions

This work focused initially on an experimental study of the thermophysical properties of adobes based on raw earth reinforced with
different date palm fibers: Pinnate leaves, Palm fiber mesh, Palm trunk, Petiole and Palm cluster, obtained from palms of the Drâa-
Tafilalet region (Morocco). These fibers were added to five earth matrixes to obtain weight percentages from 0% to 6%. In a second
step, a numerical simulation was carried out to evaluate the thermal performance of the walls built with these adobes. It is then a
continuation of the work done on adobes containing a mixture of palm fibers. Our contribution is a comparative experimental and
numerical study of the effects of the thermal properties of each fiber of the five parts of date palm wastes on the thermal performance of
adobes and walls containing these fibers. The experimental study revealed on the one hand that the density of the samples containing
3% and 6% date palm fiber decreases on average by about 22% and 25% respectively. On the other hand, the thermal properties of the
samples varied depending on the nature of the palm waste fibers and the fiber content. It was found that the thermal insulation im­
proves by about 30% for a 6% mass fraction of petiole, palm fiber mesh and cluster fibers and by about 40% and 48% for a 6% mass
fraction of trunk fibers and of pinnate leaf fibers respectively. In addition, the thermal damping is significantly improved for the
samples containing the fibers of penna leaves, as its thermal diffusivity was reduced by about 26% and its thermal effusivity is
decreased by up to 40%. The results of the numerical simulation show first of all a significant reduction of the hourly average heat flux
per day passing through the walls constructed with adobes made of earth mixed with date palm fibers. This reduction is maximal for
the walls contained the pinnate leaf fibers of about 46%. In a second time, the two parameters, the heat flux time lag and the the heat

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flux decrement factor, are determined to evaluate the thermal performance of the studied walls. It can be seen that the first parameter
increased from 10.78 h to 11.98 h and the second decreased from 0.14 to 0.11 for the walls built with adobes made of raw earth mixed
with 6% of the pinnate leaf fibers. As a result, a significant improvement in the thermal insulation and performance of earthen adobe
and walls containing pinnate leaf fibers with a content of 6% has been observed.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

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