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BA-2ND (History) - History of India (1207-1757 AD)
BA-2ND (History) - History of India (1207-1757 AD)
(1207-1757AD)
BA (History)
Second Semester
(ENGLISH EDITION)
MA [Political Science]
Second Semester
PS 202
English Edition
Dr Nirja Sharma
Assistant Professor,
University of Delhi, Ph.D (Chaudhary Charan Singh University)
Authors:
Eesha Narang, Units (1.5, 2.2-2.3) © Eesha Narang, 2016
Dr Shubhra Singh & Dr Sumit Verma, Units (2.5.5, 4.3) © Dr Shubhra Singh & Dr Sumit Verma, 2016
Neeru Sood, Units (1.2, 4.4) © Reserved, 2016
Vikas Publishing House, Units (1.0-1.1, 1.3-1.4, 1.6-1.10, 2.0-2.1, 2.4 -2.5.4, 2.6-2.10, Unit 3, 4.0- 4.2, 4.5-4.10)
© Reserved, 2016
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Unit III
Unit 3: Rise and Fall of the
1. Consolidation of Mughal Rule and Akbar: Conquest, Administration
Mughal Empire
& Revenue Reforms
(Pages: 113-168)
2. Rajput and Religious Policy: Akbar & Aurangzeb
3. Cultural Development under the Mughals: Art, Architecture, Literature
4. Fall of the Mughal Empire
Unit IV
1. Rise of the Sikhs-Mughal—Sikh Relations till 1720 Unit 4: Rise of Regional Powers
2. Rise of Shivaji: Mughal–Maratha Relations till 1707 (Pages: 169-202)
3. Murshid Quli Khan: Land Revenue & Administration
4. English East India Company’s Relation with Alivardi Khan & Siraj-
ud-Daula: Battle of Plassey
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1-2
INTRODUCTION
The culture and history of India are undoubtedly dynamic, unique and intriguing. It NOTES
is one of the first civilizations to have come into existence. Historical records trace
the beginnings of this nation to the Indus Valley Civilization — one of the oldest
known civilizations in the world and an architectural marvel.
India was plundered and invaded repeatedly by foreign rulers such as Timur
and Mahmud Ghazni. These invasions laid the foundation for the establishment of
Muslim rule in India by Qutubuddin Aibak. He was the first ruler of the Delhi
Sultanate and also the founder of the Slave dynasty. Aibak was followed by Iltutmish,
who was followed by Razia Sultan — the first female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
However, she could not rule for long and the reigns ultimately went into the hands
of Jalal-ud-din-Firuz Khilji. He established the Khilji Sultanate. Alauddin Khilji
was the most able ruler of the Khilji dynasty. After his death, the Delhi Sultanate
was left without any leader. The subsequent rulers were defeated by Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq. His victory led to the transfer in power of the Delhi Sultanate. Muhammad-
bin-Tughlaq and Feroz Shah Tughlaq were the two famous rulers of this dynasty.
This dynasty was followed by the Sayyid and Lodhi dynasties. However, none of
them could hold on to power for long and eventually Babur—the first Mughal
emperor of India — defeated and conquered them.
Babur (AD 1526–30), who founded the Mughal empire in India, was the
descendant of Timur as well as Ghenghiz Khan. Ousted by his cousins, he came to
India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last Lodi Sultan, in AD 1526 at the First
Battle of Panipat. There was a short break (AD 1540–1555) in Mughal rule when
Babur’s son Humayun was dethroned from Delhi by an Afghan ruler, Sher Shah
Suri. Babur’s grandson, Akbar, consolidated political power and extended his
empire over virtually the whole of north India and parts of the south. Akbar was
followed by three illustrious Mughal emperors, namely, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and
Aurangzeb. In western India, Shivaji succeeded in forging the Marathas into an
efficient military machine and instilled in them a sense of national identity. They
adopted guerrilla tactics to beat the Mughals and engaged them in too many
conquests that eventually drained their economic resources. After the death of
Shivaji, his successors soon faded away. Several foreign powers like the French,
Dutch, Portuguese and English endeavoured to enter India. The advent of the
Europeans for the purpose of trading later led to the invasion of the British in India
who ruled over India for a long time. During the reign of the British, India was
exploited for its economic resources to a great extent.
This book, History of India (1207–1757 AD) introduces the students to
the history of India from the Delhi Sultanate till the arrival of English East India
Company in India. In this book, you will study about the rise and fall of the Delhi
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Introduction Sultanate, rise of provincial kingdoms–Vijayanagar and Bahmani, emergence and
disintegration of the Mughal empire, and the rise of regional powers in India till
1757.
This book has been written in the self-instructional mode (SIM) wherein
NOTES
each unit begins with an Introduction to the topic followed by an outline of the
Unit Objectives. The detailed content is then presented in a simple and an organized
manner, interspersed with Check Your Progress questions to test the understanding
of the students. A Summary along with a list of Key Terms and a set of Questions
and Exercises is also provided at the end of each unit for effective recapitulation.
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The Delhi Sultanate
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The tenth and the eleventh centuries in north India were featured with the emergence
of small regional kingdoms. Beyond the north-west frontiers of India, in Central
Asia, kingdoms and empires were rising to prominence under the Islamic influence.
During that process, two kingdoms emerged prominent centred on the two cities of
Ghazna and Ghur. The situation in Central Asia brought the rulers of these two
kingdoms to India leading to the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate. In the tenth and
eleventh centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established
the Delhi Sultanate by the beginning of the thirteenth century. The Slave Dynasty
managed to conquer large areas of northern India approximately equal to the ancient
Gupta regime of the Guptas, while the Khilji empire was also able to conquer most
of central India. However, they were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering most of
the subcontinent, until the onset of the Mughals.
During the medieval period, invasions against India could be launched easily
from the North-Western frontiers. Foreign invaders came through this route only
during the ancient and medieval periods. Therefore, all the rulers of our country
tried to devote attention towards guarding this frontier according to their ability and
competence. This frontier comprises of the Hindu Kush mountains along with the
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The Delhi Sultanate regions of Kabul, Gazani and Gandhar. Tribes like Khokkar, inhabiting the salt ranges
in the north of Indus Sea Doab, often plundered Central Punjab. Due to this, it was
compulsory, though difficult, to guard the frontier.
In this unit, you will study about the sources of medieval Indian history, the
NOTES establishment of the Delhi Sultanate under Iltutmish, Razia Sultan and Balban; reforms
and assessment of Alauddin Khilji, Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq
and the North-West frontier policy of Balban and Alauddin Khilji.
The medieval period of Indian history is one of the most important periods because
of the several developments that took place in the field of architecture, religion and
culture. The medieval period also saw other religions come into India and its impact
on the people of India. The medieval period began when the ancient age ended and
several small kingdoms and dynasties rose to power. The medieval period is also
referred to as post-classical era of the Indian history and spanned from the sixth
century to the eighteenth century. During the early medieval period, there were
several wars among small regional kingdoms. In the late medieval period, India was
invaded by Mughals, Turks and Afghans who then established their rule in India. At
the end of the fifteenth century, the Europeans established trade links with India and
by the middle of the eighteenth century; they were able to consolidate their power
as a major political force in the country. This marked the end of the medieval period
of the Indian history.
A large number of sources are available to study the history of medieval
India. These sources provide a great deal of information about the medieval times—
the art and architecture, history and literature, agriculture, industry, commerce and
trade, civilization, philosophy and religion. These sources cover the socio-economic
aspects of medieval India.
The chief sources of history of medieval India include the following:
Official Records: Official records have been found relating to the history
of the Turko-Afghan and the Mughal rule in India. These are apparently
the most valuable and reliable source materials for the said period.
Historical accounts of the writings of scholars on paper: A lot of
information about medieval India can be gathered from the writings of
4 Self-Instructional Material
contemporary chroniclers. The famous Arab scholar Al Beruni wrote The Delhi Sultanate
chronicle called ‘An Enquiry into India’. It dealt with the affairs of India
when Sultan Mahmud invaded India. Another important work called
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri was written by Minhaj-ud-din Siraj. It narrates the story
of Muslim India up to the sixties of the thirteenth century. Other NOTES
contemporary chronicles include the works of Amir Khusro, Fatuah-i-
Firoz Shahi, by the Sultan himself and Fatuah-us-Salatin by
lsami. Regarding the source materials of the Mughal period, the most
remarkable works are the Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari by Abdul Fazal.
Historical accounts by foreign travellers: The earliest African traveller
who visited Muslim India was Ibn Battuta. His Rehala on travels furnishes
details of the various aspects of the Tughlaq-sahi period. Another important
traveller was Abdur Razzaq who left us valuable information about the
Vijaynagar kingdom.
Literary accounts: A lot of information about the period can also be
obtained from memoirs and biographies. In the Sultanate period, Firoz
Shah Tughlaq wrote his biography called Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi. Sultan
Mahmud and Timur had their own biographies. Chand Bardai became
famous for his lyrical ballad called Prithviraj Raso. The most important
memories and biographies of the Mughal India are the memoirs of Babar
and Jahangir and biographical sketch of Humayun by Gulbadan Begum.
Archaeological sources: The monuments of the medieval period are
important sources of information about the medieval Indian history. They
are an indispensable aid to the proper understanding of the artistic, cultural
and even economic history of medieval India.
Coins and inscriptions: During the period of the Delhi Sultanate and
Mughal India, various kinds of coins were introduced by the Sultans and
the Mughal emperors. From the standard of the metals used and from the
engravings on them, it is quite possible to understand the economic condition
of the time. Besides, these contain evidences relating to the year of
accession, the extent of the dominions of the Sultans and their relations
with the neighbouring powers and so forth.
1.2.1 Literary Sources of History of Medieval India
In north India, in the early medieval period, Sanskrit continued to be the language of
literature. In this period, two famous works were written by writers of Kashmir.
These were Kathasaritsagara by Somadeva and Rajataringini by Kalhana.
Rajataringini is a famous work because it is the first historical work which was
written in India. Another famous literary work is Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda. This
poem written in Sanskrit is one of the finest works of the medieval period of the
Indian history. Sanskrit also formed the basis for the development of another language,
Hindi. One of the earliest works in an early form of Hindi is Prithiviraj Raso by
Chand Bardai. This work is all about the heroic deeds of Prithviraj Chauhan, one of
the important rulers of the Rajput clan. Bilhana was another important Sanskrit
writer who wrote Vikramankadeva Charita which is a biography of Vikramaditya
VI who was a Chalukya king. Self-Instructional Material 5
The Delhi Sultanate This period also saw development of Dravidian languages and many writers
and scholars wrote their works in the Dravidian languages. Kavirajmarga was a
great Kannada work written by Nripatunga. Adipurana was written by Pampa. In
this work, he described the life of the first Jain Tirthankara. Pampa also wrote
NOTES Vikramarjuna-Vijaya which was based on the Mahabharata. The legendary history
of the sixteenth Jain Tirthankara was written by Ponna in Shantipurana. Ranna was
also a Kannada writer and was a contemporary of Pampa and Ponna. He wrote the
Ajitapurana and Gadayuddha. The Ramayana was written in Tamil by Kamban.
The period also saw the writing of hymns of Alvars and the Nayanars. Thus, Kannada
and Tamil emerged as important languages during this period. Language and literature
also saw great development under the Delhi Sultanate. Languages like Khari Boli
and Braj Bhasha were used in the court as well as in literary compositions. Rajasthani
also emerged as a language. Two famous Rajasthani ballads Alha Udal and
Vishaldeo Raso were composed in this period. Awdahi as a language of literature
also emerged in this period and the oldest poem of this language called Chandayana
was written by Mulla Daud.
In the court of the Delhi Sultanate, the language used was Persian. Persian
historical works are written by several Turks who came to India. Tarik-i-Firoz
Shahi was written by Ziaudin Barani. This historical work gives an account of the
rule of the Khiljis and the Tughlaqs. Ziauudin Barani also wrote Fatawa-i-Jahandari
which was a work on the political theory of the medieval times. Amir Khusro was
perhaps the most important literary figure of this period and of this language. Amir
Khusro was a poet, musician, mystic and a historian. Some of his works include the
Ashiqa, Nuh Siphir, Qiranal Sadayan and Khazain-ul-Futuh. He also wrote
several other poems. Babur, the founder of the Mughal empire, was the pioneer of
Turkish poetry and also wrote a biography in Turkish called Baburnama. The
Humayun Nama was written by Gulbadan Begum who was a sister of Humayun.
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri was the autobiography written by Jahangir. Aurangzeb also wrote
several literary works. Bahadur Shah Zafar was a great Urdu poet.
Hindi as a language of literature made advancements during Akbar’s reign.
Tulsidas and Kalidas were great writers and poets of this time and wrote several
books and poems on the theme of love. Dohas or couplets were written by Rahim
in this period and are famous till date. Abul-Fazal wrote Akbarnama and Ain-i-
Akbari which were works on the life of Akbar and his reign. Akbar also carried out
translation works of the Mahabharata, Ramayana, the Atharva Veda, the Bhagvadgita
and also the Panchatantra stories. Urdu was one of the main languages which were
developed during this time. The medieval period was one of the richest periods in
the literature of India and also the world at large.
1. The Chronicles
The chronicles of medieval India that gives us information are discussed in this
section.
Tarikh-i-hind: Al-Beruni came to India as a traveller and took up service
under Mahmud of Ghazni. Al-Beruni had great knowledge of Arabic, Persian
medicine, logic, mathematics, philosophy, theology and religion. He stayed in
6 Self-Instructional Material
India for a long time and during his stay learnt Sanskrit. He also studied The Delhi Sultanate
Hindu religion and philosophy. His knowledge of Sanskrit and Arabic was par
excellence and he even translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic. He wrote
Tarikh-ul-Hind in Arabic with great accuracy and scholarly presentation.
This literary work gives an account of the literature, science and religion of NOTES
the Hindus in the eleventh century. This book also gives an account of the
position of India and the life of its rulers and people when Mahmud of Ghazni
invaded India.
Chachnama: The Chachnama is a historical work of great importance. It
gives the details about the Arab conquest of Sindh. Chachnama was originally
written in Arabic and was later translated into Persian. The book throws light
on Sindh before and after the invasion of Muhammad bin Qasim. The book
also lists the names of the places and details of important incidents during the
Afghan invasion of Sindh.
Kitab-ul-Yamini: Kitab-ul-Yamini was written by Aby Naser-bin-
Muhammad al Jabbarul Utbi. This literary work gives information about the
reign of Subuktigin and Mahmud of Ghazni up to AD 1020.
Khazain-ul-Futuh: The Khazain-ul-Futuh was written by Amir Khusro.
Amir Khusro was a well-known poet, composer and a historian. He was a
contemporary of almost all rulers of the medieval Indian period till his death in
AD1325, and therefore, his works throw light on a lot of information about
this period. Amir Khusro was also an eye witness to several incidents of the
medieval era and so his works are of great importance in gathering information
about the history of this period.
Taj-ul-Maasir: Taj-ul-Maasir was written by Hasan Nizami. The book
describes the medieval era between AD 1192 and 1228. The book provides
an insight into the life and career of Qutubuddin Aibak and early years of
Iltutmish. The book is an important source of information regarding the early
years of the Delhi Sultanate.
Tabqat-i-Nasiri: Minhaj-Us-Siraj wrote Tabqat-i-Nasiri and completed it
sometime in AD 1260. The book gives an account of the conquest of India by
Muhammad Ghori. Minhaj was the chief Qazi in Delhi during the Delhi
Sultanate period under the rule of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud. Therefore, this book
by him gives important information into the early history of the Delhi Sultanate.
Kitab-ur-Rahlab: Kitab-ur-Rahlab is a book written by the famous traveller,
Ibn Battuta. Ibn Battuta was a Moorish traveller who travelled across northern
Africa, Arabia and Iran. He came to India in AD1333 and stayed in India till
AD1342. Ibn Battuta also served as the chief Qazi of Delhi under Muhammad-
bin-Tughlaq. He held the post for almost eight years. Ibn Battuta was
imprisoned because the ruler was displeased with him and was later released
and sent to China in AD1342 as an ambassador. The book Kitab-ur-Rahlab
is written in Arabic. This book is a major source of information on the reign of
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. The book also gives a detailed account of the
manners, customs and the condition of India during the Delhi Sultanate period.
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The Delhi Sultanate Tarikh-i-Firozshahi: Ziauddin Barani wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi which
states the life and career of Firoz Shah Tughlaq. Barani was a contemporary
of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
Therefore, his work gives an insight into the Tughlaq dynasty. His work started
NOTES when Balban was the ruler and was completed in the reign of Firoz Shah
Tughlaq. Hence, this book also throws light on the Khilji dynasty. The book
provides information on the Khilji period, the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
and a part of Firoz Tughlaq’s reign. Ziauddin Barani also worked in the revenue
department during this period and so his book also gives first-hand information
about the revenue system of this period.
Tarikh-i-Masumi: Tarikh-i-Masumi or Tarikh-i-Sindh was written by Mir
Muhammad Masum or Bhakkar. The book gives details about the Arab
conquest of Sindh and a detailed account of Sindh till the reign of Akbar. The
book also gives a detailed account of how the land was conquered by
Muhannad-bin-Qasim and the condition of Sindh before and after the Arab
invasion.
Tajur Masir: Tajur Masir was written by Hassan Nizami. This literary
work holds great importance since it is the first historical work that gives
details about the beginning of the Muslim rule in India. The book provides
details about the war technology used by Qutubuddin Aibak from AD1192 to
1206. The book also highlights the events of Iltutmish’s reign up to AD1217.
Autobiography of Firoze Tughlaq: The autobiography of Firoz Tughlaq
called Futuhat-i- Firoze Shahi is a thirty-two page brochure that provides
insight into the life, career and military campaigns of Firoz Tughlaq.
Tuzuk i Mubarak Shahi: Tuzuk-i-Mubarak Shahi was written by Yahaya
bin Ahmed Sirhindi. The work is the only work that gives details of the Sayyid
dynasty. The book gives an account of the rise of the Ghori dynasty and the
conquest of northern India by the Turks.
Futuhus Salatin: Futuhus Sultani was written by Khwaja Abdullah Malik
Isami. This book written in AD1349–50 provides a detailed account of the
Turkish rule in India. It gives details of the rule of Ghazni and also the Tughlaq
dynasty.
2. Travel Stories
Several travellers came to India during the medieval period. These travellers wrote
their stories. These travel stories are of great importance and provide a lot of information
on the history of medieval India. Al-Beruni, a Turkish traveller, was one of the earliest
travellers in India. He wrote the book Al-Beruni’s India that provides a lot of information
about the various rulers of the medieval period and their reign. Nicolo Conti was an
Italian traveller who travelled to India in AD1520. He wrote his travel stories which
give an account of the manners, customs and conditions of the people of India.
Domingos Paes was a Portuguese traveller. He visited south India and his
travel stories provide a detailed description of Vijaynagar. Another traveller who
visited India was Eduardo Barbosa. He visited India in AD1516 and gives a description
8 Self-Instructional Material
of Vijaynagar and southern India of that period.
Marco Polo visited south India in the thirteenth century and wrote books and The Delhi Sultanate
travel stories. The travel books written by Marco Polo give a detailed account of the
Delhi Sultanate. Another Persian traveller who came to India was Abdur Razzaq.
Abdur Razzaq came to India as an envoy to the king of Vijaynagar and he stayed
here for one year. In his travel stories, Abdur Razzaq gives a detailed account of NOTES
political, administrative, economic and cultural account of Vijaynagar.
Other literary works like Qiran-us-Sadain by Amir Khusro and and Ain-ul-
Mulk Multani’s Munsha-i-Mahru are also important information sources of medieval
Indian history.
1.2.2 Archaeological Sources
Ancient ruins, remains and monuments recovered as a result of excavation and
exploration are great sources of history of the medieval period. The archaeological
remains are subjected to scientific examination of radiocarbon method for its dates.
Archaeological sources give us some knowledge of the life of the medieval era.
The following are the main archaeological sources of medieval history:
Medieval temples: The medieval period temples or early temples as they
were known had varied architectural styles. The temples and the religious
places built then were symbolic of the ruler and his richness and devotion.
The temples were built with inscriptions on them. The temples of the medieval
period are important historical sources as they can give information about the
period of the king’s rule, his accession and religious preferences. Some of the
important temples that can be used as information sources include Khajuraho
Temples, Dilwara Temple and the Sun Temple at Konark. The medieval
temples offer a glance into the conglomerate society that shaped India. The
structural designs of the medieval temples are a blend of foreign and Indian
styles.
Medieval mosques, forts and monuments: The Turks and the Afghans
introduced new styles and techniques of architecture. When fused with the
existing Indian style, they gave birth to the Indo-Islamic style of architecture.
Palaces, mosques, forts and towers were constructed in this new style.
Quwwat-ul-lslam mosque was built by Qutubuddin Aibak. It is the first mosque
in India built on Indo-Islamic pattern.
Qutub Minar was built in the memory of Shaikh Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki
by Qutubuddin Aibak. It was completed by lltutmish. Originally, it was four-storey
and 225 feet in height. Firoz Tughlaq replaced the fourth storey which was damaged
by lightening, by adding two smaller storeys raising its height to 240 feet. Alai Darwaza
was built by Alauddin Khilji. This door to the Qutub Minar contains a dome which
for the first time was built on correct scientific lines.
Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty, had a fine aesthetic taste, though
he did not find enough time to build many buildings. However, he built two mosques
one at Sambhal in Rohilkhand and the other at Kabulibagh in Panipat. A third mosque
in the old Lodhi Fort at Agra has also survived. In the early years of his reign,
Humayun built a city at Delhi called Dinpanah. The real phase of Mughal architecture
Self-Instructional Material 9
The Delhi Sultanate began with Akbar and he combined the Persian and Indian traditions of architecture.
Humayun’s tomb at Delhi was built by his widow Haji Begum in AD 1565–1569. It
has the first slightly bulbous double domed structure made of marble. Placed in a
garden, this is the prototype of the Taj.
NOTES Akbar built the Agra Fort in red sandstone. His other forts are at Lahore,
Ajmer and Allahabad. During Akbar’s reign a palace-cum-fort was built at Sikri,
later named Fatehpur after the victory at Gujarat. The Jama Masjid at Fatehpur
Sikri has been described by Fergusson as a romance in stone. In its courtyard is the
tomb of Sheikh Salim Chisti. The massive gateway to the masjid is the Buland
Darwaja built by Akbar in AD1573 to commemorate his victory at Gujarat. It stands
176 feet in height.
Other important buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are Jodha Bai’s palace (influence
of Hindu style) Anup Talao, (peerless pool) Birbal’s house, palace of Mariam, Diwan-
i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas and Panch Mahal (pyramidal structure in five stories, shows
influence of Buddhist vihara). Two other remarkable buildings of his period are the
Palace of Forty Pillars at Allahabad and Akbar’s Mausoleum at Sikandara (started
by Akbar himself) which shows influence of Buddhist viharas.
During the reign of Jahangir, his wife Nurjahan built Itmad-ud-Daullah’s tomb
at Agra. A new technique borrowed from Golmandal temple at Udaipur, Pietra Dura
was introduced here (decoration of walls with floral designs made of semiprecious
stones). This tomb was entirely made of marble. Jahangir built the Moti Masjid in
Lahore and his own tomb at Shahadra near Lahore. During the reign of Shah Jahan,
Mughal architecture reached its supreme exuberance. Shah Jahan built the famous
Taj Mahal in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Its chief architect was Ustad
Ahmad Lahori.
Mosque building also reached its climax under Shah Jahan— the noteworthy
being the Moti Masjid in the Agra Fort, built entirely in marble and the Jama Masjid
at Delhi built in red sandstone (AD1644). In AD1638, Shah Jahan began at Delhi
the construction of a new capital city named Shahjahanabad, which was completed
in AD1648. The Diwan-i-khas and Rang Mahal are the two most conspicuous
buildings inside the Red Fort. Aurangzeb built the Moti Masjid in the Red Fort at
Delhi and the Badshahi mosque at Lahore. The tomb of Aurangzeb’s queen Rabia-
ud-durani at Aurangabad erected in AD1679 is an obvious imitation of the Taj Mahal.
Ruins of medieval buildings like Hastinapur, Firozabad, Tughlaqabad also throw
light on the lifestyle of the kings of the medieval period. These ruins depict the rich life
that the rulers of medieval India led. Paintings in medieval Indian history had seen
widespread cultural development, especially in the field of miniature paintings. These
paintings tell us about the customs, food habits, dress and jewellery of the period.
1.2.3 Coins
Coins are very important for the study of the medieval period. These give us dates
of the important events in the history. Drarya-Pariksha is a book on coins, which
was written during the Delhi Sultanate period. It lists the coins minted during that
time. Ancient coins were mostly made of gold, silver, copper or lead. Some of the
10 Self-Instructional Material
coins contain religious and legendary symbols which highlight the culture of that The Delhi Sultanate
time. Coins also contain the figures of kings and gods. Some coins contain names
and dates of the rulers. Coins also provide information about the economic life of
ancient people.
NOTES
1.2.4 Inscriptions
Inscriptions provide valuable historical facts about the medieval Indian period. The
study of inscriptions is called epigraphy. The study of the writings on ancient
inscriptions and records is called palaeography. Inscriptions are seen on rocks, pillars,
stones, slabs, walls of buildings and body of temples. They are also found on seals
and copper plates. There are various types of inscriptions that convey monarchical
orders regarding administrative, religious and major decisions to the public in general.
These are called royal proclamations and commandments. Some inscriptions are
written by the followers of major religions. These followers convey their devotion
on temple walls, pillars, stupas and monasteries. The achievements of kings and
conquerors are recorded in prasastis, that is, eulogies. These are written by their
court poets, who never speak of their shortcomings. Political, administrative and
religious matters are gathered from such sources.
Ruins of Cities
Vijaynagar city has a great historical value in India. The Vijaynagar empire was
established by two brothers Harihara and Bukka in the middle of the thirteenth
century. It continued for three centuries and successfully prevented the influence of
Muslim Sultanates in southern India. The history of Vijayanagar empire was an
unbroken period of bloody battles with Bahamani and other Muslim sultanates.
Krishanadev Raya was the best ruler of Vijaynagar empire; he was always unbeaten
in the wars throughout his reign. He finished the Muslim power of southern India
and organized a great administration system. The ruins of Vijaynagar city can be
seen today near Hampi in Karnataka.
Towards the end of the ninth century, feudal lords of Persian origin ruled over
Transoxiana, Khorasan and some parts of Iran. They had to engage constantly in a
fight against the Turkish tribes on their northern and eastern frontiers. This conflict
led to the emergence of a new type of soldier known as Gazi. The Turks were
Self-Instructional Material 11
The Delhi Sultanate mostly worshippers of natural forces and so were Kafirs in the eyes of the Muslims.
Therefore, the Gazi soldiers fought against them for political and religious causes.
With the passage of time, many Turks became Muslims and started propagating and
protecting Islam. They came into conflict with the non- Muslim Turkish tribes. A
NOTES Turkish slave of the Samanid dynasty named Alaptigin, who was the governor of
Khurasan, supported the opposing faction in the struggle for succession in Bokhara.
Fearing punishment, he proceeded towards Gazni and subsequently consolidated his
position there. He occupied certain parts in Central Asia and laid the foundation of
an independent dynasty at Gazni and started ruling from Gazni as his capital.
On the other side, the Samanid dynasty fell and the Gaznavids undertook the
task of protecting the Islamic regions against the non-Islamic tribes of Central Asia.
After Alaptigin, his son Abu Izhak and then slaves such as Baltagin, Pirai and Subuktugin
became his successors. Subuktugin was the only one who was successful. Subuktigin
(AD 977–999) turned his attention towards India. Around AD 980, he dispatched a
Turkish army against Jaipal in which Jaipal’s army had to suffer a heavy loss and he
was forced to surrender for peace. He is said to have occupied the whole of Balkh
Khurasan, Afghanistan and in addition, the north-western frontier of India before his
death. He was succeeded by his son Mahmud (AD 999–1030) to the throne of Gazni.
With his accession, a new chapter started in the history of Islam. He defeated the ruler
of Seitain, Khalif-bin- Ahmad and obtained the title of Sultan. Though his empire and
his title enjoyed the sanction of the Khalifa but the basis of his power was conquest.
Medieval Indian historians consider Mahmud of Ghazni as a soldier of Islam because
of his struggle against the tribal invaders of Central Asia.
Many scholars consider Mahmud Ghazni as the first Sultan-i-Azam. This title is
not found inscribed on his coins where he is simply referred to as Amir Mahmud and
also, this title was not given to him by the Khalifa. The saying of historian Barthold
appears to be correct that in the times of Mahumd Ghazni the Ghaznavid empire
appeared in its best form. He first obtained the province of Mansur from Caliph Kadir
and then acquired legal recognition and prestige for his empire. The sentiment of
Gazni became more consolidated during his reign. Besides, at this time, the Turks
gained predominance in the army and administration taking place at this time. The
proud Persians had never accepted the language and culture of the Arabs. Thus,
before their advent in India, the Turks had not only become the followers of Islam but
also had become Persianized. This very culture was propagated by them in India from
AD 1200 onwards. Between AD 1000 and AD 1026, Mahmud of Ghazni carried out
seventeen invasions of India. His chief invasions were against the Hindushahi rulers
of Punjab—Jaipal (AD 1000– 1001) and Anandpala (AD 1008–1009), against Nagarkot
(Kangra) (1009), Thaneswar (AD 1014), Mathura and Kanauj (AD 1018–1019), against
Kalinjar (AD 1021), and Somnath (AD 1020). Mahmud Gazni died in AD 1030 (see
Figure 1.1).
12 Self-Instructional Material
The Delhi Sultanate
NOTES
Historians do not agree on the motives inspiring Mahmud of Ghazni for his
Indian invasions. Some historians describe him as a soldier in the cause of Islam and
say that he exhibited his religious fanaticism by breaking the idols of Hindu Gods and
forcibly converting the people to Islam. However, nowadays this opinion is not
accepted. Actually, his main ambition was to acquire wealth even though he was a
breaker of idols. He had no wish to squander away this wealth in India itself. He
wanted to utilize it for establishing a vast central Asian empire. This is accepted
without any controversy that he had no wish to establish a permanent empire in
India because he always returned to Ghazni. He made no arrangements regarding
his conquered areas nor did he annex the conquered areas to his empire. Only
Punjab and Multan were made an integral part of his Ghaznavid empire.
The question now arises that if Mahmud had so desired, he could have
established his empire in India. It is not easy to answer this question. From one point
of view, it can be said that it was impossible for him to do so because neither did he
Self-Instructional Material 13
The Delhi Sultanate desire it himself nor perhaps was it possible to keep a vast country like India under
control. There were no Muslim settlements at that time. The small number of people
who had embraced Islam had not perhaps done so willingly and apart from other
problems, language itself presented a serious problem. Probably, his soldiers also did
NOTES not want to stay permanently in India. Under such circumstances, it was not possible
for him to set up a permanent empire in India. On the other hand, seeing the
contemporary political conditions, it can be maintained that if he wanted he could
have done it because there was no powerful central government in India at that
time. The country was divided into many small states and they were jealous of each
other. The feeling of nationalism was totally absent and they gave more importance
to their selfish interests than to the national interest. Hindu society was suffering
from many evils like the caste system; the special prerogatives were acceded to the
Brahmins and Kshatriyas. This also could have been a boon for Mahmud. However,
the historical fact is that Mahmud could not take advantage of this situation. The
credit for this goes to Ghori and his successors. In fact, Mahmud was a conqueror
and not an empire builder. Hence, neither did he evince any interest in it nor could he
do it.
Muhammad Ghori (who is also known as Muizuddin Muhammad bin Sam)
was the younger brother of the ruler of Ghor, Ghiyas-ud-din. He was raised to the
throne of Ghazni in AD 1173. Still, he remained loyal to his brother and kept good
terms with him. Though he ruled over Ghazni virtually as an independent ruler till
AD 1206, he got his brother’s name inscribed on the coins and behaved towards him
as a feudatory does towards his lord. He invaded India only as his brother’s associate
and opened the way for the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
After Muhammad Ghori, his slave Qutubuddin Aibak sat on the throne of
Lahore on 25 June AD 1206.
1.3.1 Iltutmish
After the sudden death of Qutubuddin Aibak (AD 1210), disorder became rampant
in the Delhi Sultanate. A few amirs raised Aram Shah to the throne in Lahore.
However, the people of Delhi and the Turkish amirs opposed him for many reasons.
Probably, they wanted the highest possible offices for themselves. Perhaps because
of Aram Shah being luxury loving and an incapable ruler, he was also opposed.
There was controversy whether Aram Shah was Aibak’s son or not. Many Amirs
declared themselves as independent rulers, for example, the Qubacha of Multan
and Uchh and Alimardan of Bengal. The Turkish chiefs invited the governor of
Badayun and Iltutmish to come to Delhi which he accepted readily. Aram Shah
proceeded against him as the head of a big army from Lahore to Delhi, but Iltutmish
defeated him and Iltutmish became Sultan with the name of Shamsuddin.
Problems Facing Iltutmish
Iltutmish ruled for about twenty-six years (AD 1210–1236). From AD 1210–1220,
he solved the internal problems and the years AD 1221–1227 were devoted to the
solution of external problems. Among the internal problems of Iltutmish were the
Qabacha of Multan and Uchh, those Hindu and Turkish chiefs had ceased to pay
14 Self-Instructional Material
tribute, Alimardan of Lakhnauti, and the rulers of Kalijar, Gwalior, Jalor and The Delhi Sultanate
Ranthambhor. The external problems included the acquisition of Mansur from the
Caliph of Baghdad and the problems arising out of Mongol invasions. During the last
eight years of his reign, that is, AD 1228–1236, Iltutmish worked for personal and
dynastic reorganization. Following measures were adopted by Iltutmish to solve his NOTES
problems and consolidate the Sultanate.
War with Tajuddin Yaldauj: After the death of Qutubuddin Aibak, Tajuddin
Yaldauj of Ghazni who had been driven from there by the Shah of Khwarizam,
in turn drove out Qabacha from Lahore to southern Punjab and proceeded
towards Delhi. Iltutmish stopped him at the battle of Tarain in AD 1215–16
and defeated him. Probably, he was taken prisoner and later assassinated in
Badayun.
This was a great victory for Iltutmish. Historian A.K. Nizami has written
rightly that it was a double victory for Iltutmish. The last enemy to challenge
his authority was done away with when the relations with Gazni were severed
which made the independent existence of the Delhi Sultanate definite.
Nasiruddin Qabacha: After Yaldauz’s death, Qabacha was appointed as
governor of Lahore but he was still unwilling to stay in subordination to Iltutmish.
On his showing a tendency to conquer Sirhind, Iltutmish in order to teach him
a lesson, attacked him in AD 1217. Lahore came under Iltutmish’s occupation.
He appointed his son Nasiruddin as the governor there but Qabacha continued
to still rule over Sind.
External problems: At this time, the Shah of Khwarizam had been defeated
by the Mongols and had run away towards the Caspian Sea. His son Jalaluddin
Magharai, fearing the wrath of the famous Mongol leader, Changez Khan,
went away to Punjab after crossing the Indus. He requested Iltutmish to help
him against the Mongols. Iltutmish was foresighted enough to reject it. His
main objections were firstly, not to incur the hostility of the Mongols and
second, to safeguard his own position from being threatened by the claims of
the Shah of Khwarizam. Thus, he gave no help to Jalauddin Magbarni and in
AD 1226 Jalaluddin went back from India. The problem was solved itself and
Iltutmish heaved a sigh of relief.
Sind: In order to completely crush the power of Qabacha, Iltutmish had to
attack him again in AD 1227 because he could pose a danger to the Sultanate
at any time. Qabacha was defeated and the fort of Uchh came under the
dominion of Iltutmish. He fled and hid in the fort of Bhakkar (Sind). Ultimately,
Qabacha sent his son Masud Behram to extend peace but he was arrested.
Qabacha tried to save himself by swimming across the river Indus but he
could not and was drowned. This ended another major problem of Iltutmish.
His hold was established over Multan and Uchh. Thus, the frontier of the
Delhi Sultanate once again reached till the river Indus. This conquest
strengthened the frontier of the Delhi Sultanate in the west and Iltutmish
could devote his attention elsewhere.
Self-Instructional Material 15
The Delhi Sultanate Khilji chiefs of Bengal and Bihar: Immediately after the death of
Qutubuddin Aibak, the Khilji chief of Bengal and Bihar Ali Mardan had
proclaimed his independence and had issued coins in his own name. In AD
1211, however, he was assassinated and Musamuardin Aliwaz Khiliji was
NOTES placed on the throne. He also declared his independence and assumed the
title of Ghiyasuddin. Aliwaz also extracted Kharaj from the areas of Jajnagar,
Tirhut and Kamrup. Iltutmish could not tolerate the independence of Bengal
and Bihar so he sent an army against Bengal under the command of his son
Nasarruddin Mahmud. In AD 1226–27, Aliwaz (Khilji) was defeated near
Lakhnauti. Bengal and Bihar were brought under the control of Delhi once
more. Nevertheless, it was not easy to maintain a hold over them permanently
and they challenged Delhi repeatedly.
War against the Rajputs: About this time, Iltutmish started making efforts
for conquering Gwalior, Bayana, Ajmer and Nagore. In AD 1227, Ranthambhor
and Mander came under Iltutmish’s control.
Recognition by the Caliph: On 18 February in AD 1229, the representative
of the Caliph of Baghdad came to Delhi and he accorded investiture to
Iltutmish. The Caliph gave him the title of Sultan-i-Azam. Undoubtedly, this
was a mere formality. Nonetheless, it increased Iltutmish’s prestige and fulfilled
his longstanding desire. For the Indian Muslims he again formally became the
legal Sultan. Iltutmish has described himself as the representative of the Caliph
in his coins.
Conquest of Jalor, Gwalior and Malwa: In AD 1229, Iltutmish occupied
Jalore followed by successful attacks on Bayana, Ajmer and Nagore. In AD
1231, he launched an attack on Mangaldev of Gwalior and after a long siege
of eleven months brought it under his control. In AD 1234–1235, he attacked
Malwa. Iltutmish acquired a lot of wealth from Bhilsa and Ujjain and forced
the Rajputs kings of Katehar, Doab and Oudh to give him tribute. Iltutmish
died on 30 April AD 1236.
Achievements or Assessments of Iltutmish
The achievements of Iltutmish can be analysed as follows:
Iltutmish as a person: Iltutmish had a very attractive personality. He was
kind-hearted, very efficient and capable. The greatest proof of his capability
is that on his own merit, he achieved a constant progress and reached the
post of the Sultan of Delhi. Medieval historian Minhajus-Siraj writes in his
praise that a ruler as able, kind-hearted, wise and religious as Iltutmish had
not sat on the throne of Delhi. According to well-known British historian
Wolsey Haig, Iltutmish was the greatest ruler of the Slave dynasty.
Iltutmish as a soldier and commander: Iltutmish was a brave soldier and
an able commander. He forcibly suppressed the rebel chiefs in the vicinity of
Delhi. He defeated Yaldauz in AD 1215 in the battle of Tarain. In AD 1217,
he drove away Qabacha from Punjab and in AD 1227, forced him to jump
into the river Indus in a bid to run away from Sind. He cleared Bengal of the
Khilji chiefs and conquered Malwa, Gwalior, Ranthambhor, Mandu and Ujjain.
16 Self-Instructional Material
A review of Iltutmish’s military achievements shows that he achieved The Delhi Sultanate
commendable success in the given circumstances. He, by his conquests,
reunited the disintegrating Delhi Sultanate. Though he did not attain quick
victories, but wherever he sent his armies he achieved victory.
Iltutmish as an empire builder: He was a foresighted ruler. He consolidated NOTES
and organized the newly formed Turkish Sultanate in Delhi. The Sultanate
which was disintegrating after Aibak’s death was not only reorganized by
him but was extended as an administrative organization and was established
in a better way than before. Though he came at the helm of affairs of the
Sultanate after Aibak chronologically, but he is considered the real founder of
the Turkish Sultanate because he was the first Sultan to shift the capital from
Lahore to Delhi which remained the capital of the empire more or less
continuously till Babar’s invasion. He also brought to an end those powerful
rivals of the Sultanate whom Aibak had been unsuccessful in subjugating
completely. These rivals were Yaldauj, Qabacha and so forth. He was the
first one again to receive an investiture from the Caliph of Baghdad.
Iltutmish was the first one to get the title of Nasir Amirul Mominin or assistant
of Khalifa. Thus, he was the first Sultan to gain a formal and a legal recognition
as the Sultan of Delhi. To consolidate the Sultanate and to arrange for his
security, he got trusted Turks settled in jungles or strategic areas. He
encouraged the Turks to settle in Doab and Khokkar areas. He was responsible
for introducing new golden and silver Arabic type coins called the Tanka
which increased the confidence of the people in the stability of the new regime.
He organized the Forty, and introduced the Iqta system. This institution or the
Forty remained very powerful before and after the death of Balban. Iqta
system continued throughout the Sultanate period. Describing him as the real
founder of the Delhi Sultanate, A.B.M. Habibulla, historian and writer, says
that Iltutmish made the outline of the frontiers of the Sultanate and its
sovereignty. Iltutmish was undoubtedly its first Sultan. Historians like Wolsely
Haig who otherwise try to minimize the achievements of Iltutmish in comparison
with Aibak, also maintain that the credit for the achievements of Aibak was
also due to Muhammad Ghori but whatever Iltutmish achieved was on his
own merit. The opinion of historian R.P. Tripathi appears to be correct that
the beginning of Muslim sovereignty in India can be traced back to Iltutmish.
He was the first one to emphasize that the ruler is sovereign in India. He
achieved complete success in making the Amirs follow him rather than himself
following the Amirs.
Iltutmish as a ruler and administrator: Iltutmish not only secured and
extended the newly established Turkish empire but also gave to the people an
able administration, and thus, showed himself to be an able ruler and
administrator. Whatever time he got after his military campaigns was utilized
by him in reforming the administrative system. In addition to introducing new
coins, Iqta system, organization of Forty he also brought about reforms in the
judicial administration. Ibn Battuta who came to India during the reign of
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq writes about his judicial system that the Sultan had
Self-Instructional Material 17
The Delhi Sultanate got a bell tied in front of his palace so that the poor should not have any
difficulty in reaching their request before him. Iltutmish is considered one of
the best rulers of early medieval India.
Iltutmish as a patron of art and literature: Iltutmish was a great lover of
NOTES art. He completed the Qutub Minar started by Qutubuddin. This Minar is a
242 feet high grand specimen of the Turkish architectural style. He got a new
mosque constructed at Ajmer and got many roads constructed. In addition to
being a patron of art, he was also a patron of scholars. He gave patronage to
Minhaf-us-Siraj Ruhani who was the author of Tabqai-I-Nasiri, Malik
Tajuddin Rewaz, and so forth.
1.3.2 Razia Sultan
Razia, better known as Razia Sultana, succeeded her father Shams-ud-din Iltutmish
to the Delhi Sultanate in AD 1236. Iltutmish was the first Sultan to nominate a
woman as a successor when he chose his daughter Razia as his heir. However, the
Muslim nobility was not happy with the decision made by Illtutmish. When Illtutmish
died on 29 April, AD 1236, Razia’s brother, Ruknuddin Feroze Shah, succeeded his
father.
Ruknuddin indulged himself a lot in personal pleasure and debauchery. On 9
November, both Ruknuddin and his mother Shah Turkaan, were assassinated.
After initial reluctance, the nobility allowed Razia to reign as the Sultan of
Delhi. It is said that she was active in the affairs of the state even during her
father’s reign. Whenever, Illtutmish used to go away from his capital, he used to
appoint Razia to look after the state affairs. Thus, as a Sultan she proved to be an
excellent administrator and was well versed with state affairs. During her reign,
there was complete law and order in her state.
As a child and teenager, Razia did not learn the customary behaviour of
women in the Muslim society. Razia preferred to wear a man’s tunic and headdress,
which was contrary to the custom of Muslim society.
She was a good fighter on the battlefield. Razia was also said to be a shrewd
politician as she managed to keep her nobles in check. She was able to gain the
support of her army as well as subjects. One of her greatest achievements on the
political front was to manipulate rebel groups into opposing each other.
Due to all these reasons, everyone expected her to become one of the most
powerful rulers of the Delhi Sultanate. However, Razia’s relationship with one of
her advisers, Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut, an Abyssinian Siddi (Habshi) slave, created a lot
of problems. According to some critics, Razia and Yaqut were lovers while others
simply called them close confidants. Whatever be the reality, but her favouritism
towards Yaqut, appointing him (a non-Turk) as the Superintendent of the Stables,
provoked the jealousy of the Turkish nobility. Eventually, a number of provincial
governors rebelled against her and refused to accept Razia’s authority.
A battle between Razia and Malik Altunia (her childhood friend) took place.
In this battle, Yaqut was killed and Razia was imprisoned. In order to escape death,
18 Self-Instructional Material
Razia agreed to marry Altunia. By this time, Razia’s brother, Muizuddin Bahram The Delhi Sultanate
Shah, had seized the throne. Altunia and Razia decided to take back the Sultanate
from Bahram, but both Razia and her husband were defeated. Both of them fled to
Delhi and reached Kaithal where their forces abandoned them. They fell into the
hands of Jats and were killed. This is how Razia’s reign came to an end. NOTES
1.3.3 Balban
Balban, like Iltutmish, was an Ilbari Turk. His grandfather was the head of about
10,000 families of Ilbari Turks. It shows that he was born in a high family. In his
childhood only he fell into the hands of the Mongols who sold him to Khwaja
Jamaluddin, a merchant of Basra. Jamaluddin gave him good education and in AD
1232, sold him to Iltutmish. He progressed on the basis of his merit and became first
the personal servant of the Sultan and, later, a member of the organization of Turkish
nobles named the Forty. Impressed by his ability, Iltutmish married his daughter to
Balban. Sultan Razia appointed him on the important post of Amir-i-Shinkar (Lord
of the Hunt). Bahram Shah assigned to him the Jagirs of Rewari and Hansi. In the
time of Sultan Masud Shah, Balban impressed everybody by his ability in driving out
the Mongols. In collision with the other members of the Fort, Balban dismissed
Masud and in AD 1246, seated Nasiruddin Mahmud on the throne. This Sultan
appointed Balban to the post of chief minister (Wakil or Naib-i-Mumlikat) in AD
1249, that is, three years after his accession. Nasiruddin Mahmud gave all the powers
to Balban but put two conditions on him:
He would not do any such act for which he would be unable to reply before
God.
He would not do such act which should imperil the prestige of the state.
Balban’s Policy of Blood and Iron
The rigid measures adopted by Balban as the chief minister and the Sultan to save
the Sultanate and suppress his personal enemies and rivals are known in history as
his policy of Blood and Iron. He used his sword to deal with his personal enemies,
rebels of the Sultanate, thieves, dacoits and foreign invaders. He made their blood
flow in every possible way or suppressed them completely. It can be said that with
the exception of that one year (AD 1253–1254) when Rehan was made the Prime
Minister in his place, from the time of Nasiruddin Mahmud (AD 1246–1266) to his
own period of reign (AD 126–186), that is, a time span of about forty years, he
almost followed this policy and protected the Delhi Sultanate through this policy. To
understand his policy of Blood and Iron, it is proper to study in detail the rebels and
opponents whom he suppressed.
Balban as a Chief Minister
The tasks performed by Balban as a chief minister are as follows:
Suppression of the Khokhars: The Khokhars had caused terror in the
hilly cities of Jud and Jhelum by their acts of loot and plunder. Balban proceeded
against them as the head of a big army in AD 1246, defeated them and
Self-Instructional Material 19
The Delhi Sultanate annexed the entire area to the Delhi Sultanate. Minhaj-us-Siraj writes in this
context that he just overturned that hilly area on the basis of the strength of
his sword. He massacred the rebels in large numbers.
Rigid policy towards the insurgent Hindus of Doab and Rajasthan: He
NOTES followed a rigid policy towards the insurgent Hindu rulers and leaders in the
Ganges-Yamuna Doab. After a fierce battle in the Tohsandah fort near Kanauj,
they were conquered. The rebels of Kara and Kalijer were also suppressed
likewise. The Rajputs of Mewat, Gwalior, Ranthambhor, Chanderi, Malwa
and so forth were also suppressed rigidly. He created confidence among the
people by suppressing the Mewat inhabiting the vicinity of Delhi who had
created terror, thereby plundering the area. The Sultan was very happy and
honoured him with the title of ‘Ultugh Khan’.
Suspension and re-employment of Balban and suppression of the
rebels by him: The increasing power of Balban was inimical to those Turkish
chiefs who wanted to maintain their influence on the administration by taking
advantage of the fact that Nasiruddin was young and inexperienced. They
organized a plot under the leadership of Imadduddin Rehan (leader of the
Hindu converts and the Indian Muslim faction) and made the Sultan agree to
dismiss Balban from the post of the chief minister. In his place, Imadduddin
Rehan was appointed. Balban left this post but quietly organized his supporters.
Soon after he succeeded in winning over some of his supporters and the
Sultan again gave him the post of Wakil-i-Mumlikat. Rehan was appointed
the ruler of Badayun. Balban made efforts to keep these rebels farther and
farther away from Delhi. Rehan was transferred from Badayun to Bahareech.
Another rebel Turkish chief Kultugh Khan was sent to Oudh. He soon after
raised the banner or revolt against the Sultan. Balban suppressed even this
revolt very severely. Other rivals were also done away with proper or improper
means. In AD 1265 Sultan Mahmud died. Some historians say that Balban
prisoned and also murdered him. In AD 1260, he became Sultan under the
name of Bahauddin Balban. With his accession started the period of a powerful
central government.
Balban as a Sultan
Though Balban had exercised great power as the Prime Minister of the Delhi
Sultanate and had completely dominated the administration, when he became Sultan
he was welcomed by all classes of people. Still, he had to face many difficulties.
Probably because he solved these problems with a severity that could enable him to
lay claim to being the best among the Ilbari Sultans of Delhi. He had to face the
following problems:
Problem of looseness of the Sultanate: After Iltumish’s death there was
indiscipline and disorder everywhere because of the incapability of the Sultans,
ambitions of the selfish nobles and the aspiration of more and more power by
the ‘Forty’. Thus, Balban had the problem of how to tackle this looseness of
the empire.
20 Self-Instructional Material
Increasing the prestige of the office of the Sultan: Balban had to somehow The Delhi Sultanate
increase the glory and prestige of the office of the Sultan so that the Amirs
considered him above them and behave accordingly.
Problem of empty treasury: Due to recurrent rebellions in various parts of
the empire, a large part of revenue was being spent on the army. On account NOTES
of the independent attitude of the provincial officials of the far-flung parts of
the empire and because of the Guerilla warfare by the Hindus of Mewat,
Katechar and Doab, the revenue of the state was being increasingly diminished.
So, one of the major problems before Balban was of an empty treasury.
Problem of the ‘Forty’: Balban, though himself a member of the ‘Forty’,
had witnessed in the last thirty years that this organization was doing less
constructive and more destructive work for the Sultanate. Though as chief
minister of Nasiruddin Mahmud, he had placed a check on the power of
majority of the Amirs, they could still become a danger for him and the Sultanate
by reorganizing themselves any time.
Problem of Hindu chiefs and landlords: Though Balban had suppressed
many Hindu rebels in the vicinity of Delhi, still they had not forsaken their
activities of plundering the royal treasure and many a time forcibly deprived
people of their jewellery and committed other such acts.
Problem of the Mongols: Besides the above mentioned internal problems,
Balban had to face the problem of the Mongols as well. They had crossed the
Indus and had appointed their deputies in parts of Sind and the Punjab. Balban
had a major problem in dealing with the Mongols.
Balban as Problem-Solver
Balban had a belief that the internal and foreign problems can be solved by enhancing
the prestige and honour of the royal office and he constantly strived to achieve it
through various means as follows:
He propagated the idea of Divine right in the Sultanate.
To further strengthen his claim to the throne he propagated that he was the
successor of the legendry Afrasiad.
Balban projected himself as the foremost among all nobles and permitted
only the Amirs of a high lineage to see him.
He did not let anybody share his power.
Gradually Balban ended the power of the ‘Forty’ and poisoned one of the
members of the group named Sher Khan. He rigidly enforced law and order
and severely punished the rulers of Badayun and Oudh on the charge that
they had ill-treated their slaves.
He spread a net of spies and increased his control over them. The spy who
failed to perform his duty was put to death
Balban made his life simple and disciplined. He used to appear in the royal
court in the royal attire attended by his bodyguards. He neither joked with
anybody in the court nor did he allow anybody else to do it.
Self-Instructional Material 21
The Delhi Sultanate He decorated his court lavishly like that of the Shah of Iran.
He started the practice of Sijda.
All such efforts led to increase in the prestige of the Sultan.
NOTES Suppression of the Rebels of Mewat, Oudh and Katehar
Mewat: First of all, Balban suppressed the rebels of Mewat. With a big
army, he encircled their hold, a vast forest and making way through the forest,
they were either murdered or sold as slaves. About a lakh Mewatis were
murdered. Balban constructed a strong fort at Gopalgiri and appointed loyal
soldiers there so that in future, the Mewatis could be dealt with easily.
Oudh: After dealing with the rebels of Mewat, he turned his attention towards
Oudh. He divided Oudh into many areas, assigned each area to a separate
official, and ordered them that forests should be cleared and roads should be
constructed to end the basis of the rebels. Following the policy of Blood and
Iron, thousands of rebels were killed. The posts of the Afghan soldiers were
set up in Bhojpur, Patiali and Kampil. They had to help in revenue collection
and in maintaining peace and order.
Katehar: There was a revolt in Katehar under the leadership of the Rajputs.
Balban proceeded to suppress it. The colonies of the rebels were burnt. Women
and children were imprisoned and all the males (above nine years of age)
were done to death. According to Muslim historian and political thinker Barani,
several rebels were murdered in Katehar.
Balban and Turkish Amirs and Officials
1. Sher Khan: Balban summoned the governor of the frontier province to the
court because he was believed to be hatching a conspiracy with the Mongols.
When the governor did not admit the fact and the matter carried, ultimately,
he was poisoned to death. He dismissed Tatar Khan of Bengal and in his
place appointed Tughril Beg as the ruler of that place. It proved that in a
distant province like Bengal also, Balban had complete control.
2. Tughril Beg: For many years, he ruled in Bengal peacefully but hearing of
Balban’s sudden illness in AD 1279 and also the news of his pre-occupation
with the Mongols in the North-West Frontier Province, Tughril Beg suddenly
revolted. He declared himself the Sultan of Lakhnauti. Balban at first sent
the ruler of Oudh, Amin Khan to suppress the revolt. He was unable to
suppress the revolt and was killed. Next, an army was sent under Tirmati
who was also killed. Then Balban himself proceeded to Bengal to deal with
the rebel. Tughril Beg was so terrified that at the news of the approach of
Sultan, he ran away to the jungles of East Bengal. After establishing his
control over Lakhnauti, Sultan hunted for Tughril Beg in the forests and got
him beheaded. For two miles in the market town of Lakhnauti, Sultan hanged
all the supporters of Tughril Beg. Historian Barani writes that this massacre
continued for two-three days and even the onlookers were intensely terrified.
Balban appointed his son Bugra Khan as the ruler of Bengal.
22 Self-Instructional Material
Control over the Amirs and Jagirdars The Delhi Sultanate
To set the financial situation of the state right, Balban not only arranged to collect
the revenues rigidly but also increased his control over the Amirs and Jagirdars. He
put an end to the tradition of hereditary control over the Jagirs and the Jagirs in
NOTES
control of the old, the women or minors were brought under the government’s rule.
He issued orders that whichever Jagirdar or Iqtadar did not obey the instructions
given to him, his Jagir would be confiscated.
Separation of religion and politics
Undoubtedly, Balban was a devout Muslim. However, he wanted to restrict the
Ulemas only to the religious sphere. Therefore, he issued instructions to Ulemas
that he would not tolerate their interference in politics at all.
Solution of the problem of Mongols
The pressure of the Mongols was increasing during the time of Balban. He took
many successful measures to withstand the invasion of Mongols. After poisoning
the governor of the North-West Frontier Province to death, he gave the responsibility
of the defence of the frontier to his sons—Muhammad and Tatar Khan. The fort of
Lahore was strengthened, many forts were constructed at other necessary places
and the old forests were repaired. He reorganized the army. A loyal official called
Imadulmulk was appointed as the Diwan-I-Arz or chief military official. Probably,
Balban started the practices of branding the horses and writing the description (Hulia)
of the soldiers. He got the forts of Bhatinda, Sunam and Sammana repaired and
posted a powerful army over there so that the Mongols could be defeated at the
other bank of river Vyas only. He sent his ambassador to Halaku and his ambassador
at Delhi was accorded a grand welcome. In AD 1285, when the Mongols invaded
India, Balban’s son Muhammad thwarted their invasion successfully. However, he
died in the campaign. Probably, Balban’s own death in AD 1289 was caused largely
due to the grief and shock of the death of his son.
Character and Achievements of Balban: An Assessment
Balban was a rigid and despotic ruler. He increased the glory and prestige of the
office of the Sultan. He not only adopted a serious attitude befitting a king but also
laid down rules for the Amirs visiting his court. Balban himself appeared in the court
in a full royal dress. He organized a powerful army and recruited young, able and
experienced soldiers in the place of old and incapable soldiers who were expelled
from the army. Balban appointed his trusted official Imadulmulk as Diwan-I-Arz
and kept him free of the control of the Wazir in religious matters. He took personal
interest in the recruitment of soldiers. Balban thought it fit to give cash salary to both
military and civil officials. Though he could not end the Iqta system he gave special
attention to the construction and repair of the forts. Balban was careful in the matter
of weapons. As an able ruler, he suppressed all rebels either Hindu or Turk or non-
Turkish Muslims. He distributed equal justice to everybody. According to Barani
‘Balban considered justice to be the highest responsibility of administration’. This
was a characteristic of his despotic rule, which must have earned for him the sympathy
and praise of the common people.
Self-Instructional Material 23
The Delhi Sultanate He gave an appropriate punishment to the jagirdar of Badayun, Malik Baq
for stripping his servant to death. Likewise, the governor of Oudh, Haibat Khan was
ordered to be killed on the charge of having murdered one of his slaves. Though the
governor saved his life by paying 20,000 gold Mohar to the wife of the dead slave.
NOTES These events prove the statement of Barani that Balban showed no favour to his
relatives, colleagues or servants as far as justice was concerned. Like an able ruler,
he organized an efficient spy system. If imbued with greed or fear, any spy who
tried to hide anything was killed. When the spy posted in Badayun did not convey to
the Sultan the news of the governor, Malik Baq having killed one of his servants by
stripping him, the spy was hanged at the entrance gate of Badayun city. Balban
himself went to inspect the work of the officials of many places visiting them on the
pretext of hunting.
Undoubtedly, he himself fully followed the policy of Blood and Iron as a ruler.
He imparted justice, peace and order to the people. However, even he could not
defend the northern frontier of India completely from the onslaughts of the Mongols.
Besides adopting a narrow outlook, if we accept the statement of Barani made in
Tarikh-i-Firoz Shah about Balban that whenever, he saw any men belonging to a
mean birth his eyes burnt with anger, his hands reached his swords to kill him. We
would have to agree that Balban’s not appointing the non-Turks on high offices was
followed by a policy of making the basis of administration narrow which led to
discontent among the people which became manifested in the revolts occurring
after Balban’s death. The increase in the prestige of royal authority brought about
by Balban was based not on public welfare but on army, espionage system and
terror.
Balban was not handsome. Infact he was quite ugly. Undoubtedly, he was
despotic and severe as a ruler but personally, he was liberal and kind. He loved his
family very much. Like a foresighted father, he did not want to see a civil war
amongst his children. Therefore, he declared his son Muhammad as his successor
but when he died in AD 1285 fighting the Mongols, Balban also died the next year,
grief-stricken. He wanted to make his second son Bugra Khan as his successor but
when the latter returned to Bengal without taking any permission, Balban decided to
make Kaikhsro, the son of Muhammad and his own grandson as his successor, who
was engaged at that time in the task of defending the frontier region.
He not only loved the people of his family but also loved the poor and needy.
He gave an example of his kindness by giving all sorts of help to the refugees
coming from Central Asia.
He offered namaz regularly and observed rozas in the days of Ramzan. He
gave up wine and luxuries after becoming the Sultan. He never disrespected the
Ulemas though he did not permit them to interfere in politics. He respected poet
Amir Khusro who lived in his court. He also patronized the famous poet Amir Hassan.
However, his patronage was limited to the higher classes only. That is why he did
not give any high posts to the majority of Indian Muslims and did not even consent to
meet or exchange gifts with the lower classes.
24 Self-Instructional Material
Balban as a Commander and Conqueror The Delhi Sultanate
Balban was a great commander and a brave soldier. He earned fame in the army of
Sultan Masud Shah. As a brave commander, he defeated the famous Mongol leader,
Mangu. While working as a chief minister under the Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud
NOTES
also, he suppressed many revolts. He suppressed the Hindu rebels of Doab Meus of
Mewat and the Rajputs of Kanauj, Ranthambhor and Gwalior. The revolt of many
Muslim officials was also suppressed. For example, Izuddin in Nagore (AD 125)
Subedar of Oudh Kuttulugh Khan (AD 1255) and, later the revolt of the governor of
Sind, Kishlu Khan. In AD 1257, he foiled the invasion of the Mongols under Nuin
Sari. After becoming the Sultan, he reorganized the army. He increased the pay of
the army, gave them good ration, uniform and weapons. In order to end corruption in
the army, he started the practice of branding the horses and writing the descriptive
rolls of the soldiers. He repaired the old forts and constructed new ones. He
suppressed the dacoits, rebels and plunderers of Mewat.
The rebels of the Doab were suppressed mercilessly when they revolted the
second time. He cleared the Mongols. He got the forts of the rebels broken,
constructed police posts at many places and posted Afghan soldiers there. He
suppressed the rebellion in Kampil, Patiali and Bhojpur, got the rebels of Katehar
killed in large numbers. When he proceeded himself to suppress the Subedar of
Bengal, Tughril Beg, he ran way before the Sultan could reach. Balban reached him
and killed him, though it took him about six years to suppress the revolt of Tughril
Beg and had to recruit two lakh more untrained soldiers. Not only that, even as a
commander he could not protect the western frontiers of the empire from the Mongols
completely, and also, he was quite unsuccessful in conquering Ranthambor and
Gwalior. It is said that the Bhatti Rajputs inhabiting Mewat succeeded in freeing
Bayana from the Turkish hold. Actually, he believed more in consolidating the frontiers
of the Sultanate rather than excluding their empire and it can be said undoubtedly
that he was successful in most of his military expeditions.
Place of Balban in History
Balban was the best among the Ilbari Turks and the Slave Sultans though historians
like Wolsey Haig have described Iltutmish as the real founder of the Muslim rule in
India and the greatest Sultan of the Slave dynasty. Nevertheless, their opinion seems
to be partly correct and partly wrong. Undoubtedly, Iltumish was the real founder of
the Muslim rule in India but Balban suppressed the rebels of the Sultanate and
extended the Delhi Sultanate by conquering new areas. However, he was not the
greatest of the rulers of the Sultanate. Famous historian P.S. Sharma has rightly said
that it could be agreed that Iltutmish was the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate but
it would be an exaggeration to consider him the greatest Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.
This epithet should be reserved for Balban only. If one tries to sum up all of Balban’s
achievements in one word, it can be said to be ‘consolidation’. He did whatever he
considered proper for its consolidation during his twenty years as Sultan. Not only
did he defend the frontier of the Sultanate and preserved its dignity, but even after
his lifetime, he tried to maintain its glory and consideration. Dr. Ishwari Prasad,
Indian historian, has written correctly about Balban that as a great soldier, ruler and
Self-Instructional Material 25
The Delhi Sultanate politician, Balban prevented the rising Muslims state from destruction. In fact, if a
Sultan of determination, experience and talent was not there on the throne of Delhi,
it was difficult that the existence of Delhi Sultanate would have been preserved. He
considered it his primary duty to indulge in the public welfare activity. The basic
NOTES principles of his kingship were peace and order. After his death, though his dynasty
came to an early end but the Delhi Sultanate continued for years. On adopting and
extending the policies of Balban, Allauddin became a successful and great ruler. In
fact, the achievements of Khilji dynasty were possible only because of the system
established by Balban. Balban was not only the ablest Sultan of his dynasty but also
the forerunner of a great Sultan like Alauddin Khilji.
Balban’s Theory of Kingship
Balban was probably the only Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate who expressed his ideas
about kingship in detail. Whenever, he got the opportunity, he said something or the
other about the high office and responsibility of the ruler. This act by Balban is
attributed to many causes:
Balban believed that the only way to face the internal or the external dangers
was to increase the prestige and power of the Sultan.
He repeated his ideas of kingship repeatedly and instructed his sons in order
to establish the crown on a high level.
He had seen how the members of the ‘Forty’ and the Turkish Amirs were
busy in mutual quarrels, opposition and intrigues during the period of Iltutmish’s
successors. In fact, he thought it essential to put an end to all the possibilities
of opposition and conflict with the nobility.
Balban’s Chief Principles of Kingship
Balban’s chief principles of kingship are as follows:
Royal descent: Since Balban knew very well that people believed at that
time that it was only the prerogative of royal and ancient royal families to rule
and exercise power, he declared that he was the descendant of the popular
Turkish warrior Afrasiyab. The opinion of scholars like Habibulla was that he
took this step to remove this blemish. According to him, knowing that he
lacked a hereditary claim on the throne, he proclaimed himself the descendant
of the legendry Turkish warrior Afrasiyab in order to increase his prestige.
Divine theory of kingship: To increase the prestige of kingship, Balban
said that king was the representative of God on this earth. He repeatedly
proclaimed it before his Maliks and the Amirs, majority of whom had been his
colleagues, that kingship was a divine institution. Professor Habib and Nizami
say that he did this in order to remove the blemish of being the murderer of
the king from his head. According to Balban, king was the replica of God or
Zill-I-Allah and his heart is the repository of divine inspiration. He did this to
make the Amirs believe that he had the crown or the kingship not through
their mercy but through the mercy of God. He could guise his rigidity and
despotism only by means of this religious proclamation.
26 Self-Instructional Material
Difference between descendants of noble lineage and commoners: The Delhi Sultanate
Balban always stressed the difference between the descendants of royal
lineage and the commoners. Probably, that is why he accepted only the
members of the high families on the offices of prestige in his reign.
A grand court essential for the prestige of kingship: Balban also believed NOTES
that it was necessary for the effect and prestige of the kingship that the royal
court should be grand. He decorated his court on the Persian pattern. He
enforced Persian etiquette and formality in his court. He himself appeared in
the court with all the royal fanfare. His personal attendants also never saw
him without royal attire, socks or crown. Whenever, he went out, his bodyguards
went with him with swords in their hands.
Appearance of dignity and prestige was also essential for kingship:
Balban thought that the appearance of dignity and prestige was essential for
increasing the prestige of the Sultanate. He prohibited dance, music, wine
drinking and other activities in social gatherings. Even for the Amirs and the
high officials, he made the practice of Sizda ansd Pabos compulsory (kneeling
before the Sultan and kissing his feet). Though these practices and appearances
were non-Islamic, yet Balban enforced them, so that he could reduce the
influence of the Turkish Sirdars. Historian Satish Chandra is of the opinion
that the people or the Amirs did not dare oppose it because when Balban was
imposing these non-Islamic customs, at that time, due to the invasion of Mongols,
most of the Islamic states of central and western Asia had come to an end
and Balban and Delhi Sultanate had come to be looked upon as the leader of
Islam.
Following Persian tradition: It is said that Balban believed that the glory of
kingship was not possible without the Persian traditions and he followed those
traditions carefully in his personal and public life. Balban named his sons born
before his accession as Muhammad, after becoming the Sultan he named his
grandsons after the Persian kings as Kaikubad, Kaikhusru and Kaikaus.
Recognition of tripartite relationship: Balban wanted to make as the
basis of kingship the tripartite relation between God, ruler and the people.
According to the description of Barani, it can be said that he had advised his
sons Muhammad and Bugra Khan to do this and said that the Sultan should
exercise his authority fearing God keeping the welfare of the public in mind.
The Sultan should exercise his power at appropriate occasions. On one
occasion when his son Muhammad had come after suppressing the revolt of
Bengal, Balban told him that when he ascended the throne he should consider
himself as a representative of God and keep his desires under control. The
money of the treasury should be spent for public welfare only. Balban had
followed these principles himself. He gave up drinking after becoming the
Sultan and gave patronage and help to the scholars and the poor as far as
possible.
Justice is the highest responsibility of the ruler: According to Balban,
impartial justice and severe punishment was the highest responsibility of the
Self-Instructional Material 27
The Delhi Sultanate ruler. He gave practical shape to this principle and earned the Iqtadars of
Badayun and Oudh. Nonetheless, he never cared about justice, honesty and
Shariat in the case of a quarrel between the state and an individual.
Contact with the Caliph: Another important principle of Balban’s theory of
NOTES kingship was that he stressed the formal recognition from the Caliph in his
exercise of power. Even after knowing about the demise of the Caliph of
Baghdad, he inscribed the name of dead Khalifa in his coins and read the
Khutba in his name only. In brief, the theory of kingship of Balban was based
upon power and justice. Balban not only restored the lost prestige of the
Delhi Sultanate but also gave justice, strength and order to the people. His
theory of kingship even though could not keep his dynasty safe, but it
consolidated the Delhi Sultanate, which helped Allaudin Khilji to achieve many
successes.
32 Self-Instructional Material
Alauddin Khilji introduced several measures and policies during his reign, some of The Delhi Sultanate
which are as follows:
1. Theory of Kingship
Alauddin Khilji was the first Sultan of Delhi who did not pursue Islamic principles in NOTES
matters of the state. He acted as the ultimate and absolute monarch and with unlimited
powers he believed that the Sultan was above all, and that all powers of the state
emanate from him. Above all, he had all the capability to act as an absolute monarch.
Historian K. S. Lal writes, ‘in a word, like Louis XIV of France, Alauddin Khilji
regarded himself to be all in all in the state. During his reign, there was centralisation
of the administration and despotism touched its highest mark.’
2. Policy towards Hindus
Historians have different views regarding the policy of Alauddin Khilji towards Hindus.
We understand that his treatment of Hindus, mostly by his policy of taxation,
particularly revenue, affected the Hindus. Historian U. N. Dey has said that the
taxation policy of Alauddin was comparatively not severe, though of course it
destroyed the prosperity of the Hindus and peasants. According to him, ‘The khuts
and muqaddams at no stage of Indian history ever reached that stage of poverty as
is told about his reign.’ He further writes, ‘The statement of Ziauddin Barani that the
wives of the khuts and the muqaddams were forced to seek jobs in the houses of
the musalmaans and earn their wages because of poverty, is rather absurd.’ Dr
Dey is of the opinion that the policy of Alauddin was in no way severe or disrespectful
towards Hindus.
Fig. 1.2 Tomb of Alauddin Khilji at the Qutub Minar Complex in Delhi
Self-Instructional Material 33
The Delhi Sultanate ascended the throne. However, he too did not last long as some dissatisfied officers,
led by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, defeated and killed him in a battle. Thus, only four
years after the death of Alauddin, the Khilji dynasty came to an end and the power
passed into the hands of the Tughlaqs. The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was
NOTES Ghazi Malik who ascended the throne as Ghiyas ud-din Tughlaq in AD 1320 and
ruled till AD 1412. Ghiyas-ud-din rose to an important position in the reign of Alauddin
Khilji and eventually died in AD1325, when a pavilion built by his son collapsed.
There are conflicting accounts on whether this was an accident or a conspiracy by
his son to usurp power, so it remains a bit of a mystery. After his death his son
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq proclaimed himself the Sultan.
Three days after the death of Gayasuddin Tughlaq, Prince Juna Khan (Ulugh
Khan) declared himself the Sultan of Delhi under the title Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
(Figure 1.3). After a period of forty days, one morning he decided to celebrate his
coronation in Delhi. According to medieval writer Imami, he assured the people that
he would follow the footsteps of his father. He distributed gold and silver coins in the
public and many titles among the Amirs. Muhammad Tughlaq’s reign started and
ended with many changes and revolts.
Just after a few months of the accession of Muhammad Tughlaq, there was the
invasion of Mongol leader Tarmashirin. According to medieval writer Farishta, the
invasion occurred in AD 1326–1327, whereas another medieval writer, Yahiya bin-
NOTES
Ahmad Sirhindi describes it as having taken place in AD 1328. Probably, the Sultan
defeated the Mongols and concurred Kalanaur and Peshawar.
3. Revolt of Kishlu Khan (AD 1328)
While in Devgiri (which Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq renamed Daulatabad and made
his capital), the Sultan heard of the revolt by the governor of Multan, Kishlu Khan.
Ibn Battuta and Yahiya bin Ahmed Sirhindi attributed two different reasons to this
revolt. Moroccan traveller and writer Ibn Battuta says that when the stuffed corpse
of Bahauddin Garshasp reached Multan, Kishlu Khan though it un-Islamic and got
him buried. The Sultan did not like this act and ordered him to present himself in his
court. He revolted against this order. Sirhindi says that Khishlu Khan did not construct
a house in the new capital of Daulatabad for his residence there. The Sultan dispatched
Ali Khatati to exhort him not to do so. However, Kishlu Khan got him murdered.
Then Kishlu Khan received summons from the Sultan to present himself before him
(that is, Sultan), and for the fear of punishment, Kishlu Khan revolted. As soon as
the Sultan received the news of the revolt, heading a big army from Delhi, he advanced
towards Multan. Kishlu Khan could not withstand the attack by the vast army of the
Sultan. He was killed in the battle and his supporters were accorded severe
punishments. The Sultan hung the severed head of Kishlu Khan at the gate of the
palace where he himself was staying. According to Ibn Battuta, he saw the head
still hanging at the gate when he visited India.
4. Revolt of Gayasuddin Bahadur (AD 1330)
Muhammad Tughlaq, after becoming the Sultan, had appointed Gayasuddin Bahadur
as the ruler of East Bengal (Sonargavan) on the condition that on his coins, he would
inscribe Sultan’s name as well as would keep his son as a hostage with the Sultan.
Gayasuddin Bahadur had been a prisoner at the time of Muhammad Tughlaq’s father,
Gayasuddin. Bahadur kept his other promises but did not send his son as a hostage
to Delhi on the pretext that his son refused to accept the command of his father. The
Sultan sent his brother Bahram Khan, the ruler of Lakhnauti, against Gayasuddin
Bahadur and dispatched an army to assist him. Gayasuddin Bahadur was defeated.
The Sultan also got his skin stripped.
5. Revolt in Kamalpur (Sind) (AD 1332)
According to Ibn Battuta, other revolt in Muhammad Tughlaq’s reign occurred
because of the intrigues of the Qazi and Khatib of Kamalpur. The revolt was
suppressed and the rebel’s skin was extracted.
6. Revolt of Retain in Sehawan (AD 1333)
It is said that Ratan, in order to get some Muslim chiefs assassinated raised a false
alarm about thieves at night and when the Amirs came out, his soldiers killed these
Self-Instructional Material 35
The Delhi Sultanate Muslim chiefs. The Sultan sent the governor of Sind, Imad-ul-Mulk to seize him and
he was subjected to the same treatment as the rebels before him.
7. Revolt in Mahabar (AD 1335)
NOTES Governor of Mahabar, Hakim Sayyid Ahsan Shah had declared himself independent.
According to Barani, the army which was dispatched from Delhi itself stayed in
Mahabar. The historians refer from the statement that probably Ahsan bribed the
army to join him. The Sultan then proceeded himself towards Mahabar. In Warrangal,
the Sultan as well as his army fell a victim to cholera. Due to a famine in Delhi and
Malwa and news of a revolt in Lahore, the Sultan marched back to Delhi. Mahabar
became independent and its ruler Ahsan Shah founded an independent empire.
8. Revolt of Hashing
The governor of Daulatabad, Hashing revolted on hearing a rumour that Sultan
Muhammad Tughlaq had died of cholera; however, when he came to know that
Sultan was alive, he became very fearful and sought refuge with a Hindu chief who,
however, handed him over to the Sultan. As Hashings had revolted under a delusion,
he was pardoned; however, he was relieved of his post of the governorship of
Daulatabad and Qutlugh Khan was appointed as its new governor.
9. Revolt of Hulajun and Gulchandra in Lahore
When the Sultan was in Mahabar, he got the news of the revolt in Lahore. Hulajun
Mengol and Gulchandra tried to assassinate the governor of Lahore and set
themselves up as the rulers. However, the governor of Sind, Khwaja Jahan frustrated
these attempts and accorded them death punishment.
10. Establishment of the Independent Kingdoms of Vijaynagar and Warrangal
in the Deccan
It is said that in the region to the South of the Krishna river, two brothers Harihar
and Bukka set up the independent kingdom of Vijaynagar when Muhammad Tughlaq
marched against Mahabar. They guessed that it was not possible for the Sultan to
keep Deccan under control. Probably, in the beginning, they did not call themselves
as ‘kings’; however, they gradually increased their power. Similarly, in Warrangal,
Kanhayya drove away the governor appointed by the Sultan with the help of his
supporters.
11. Revolt of Fakhruddin Mubarakshah in Bengal (AD 1337)
After the death of Gayasuddin Bahadur, the new governor of Sonargavn, Fakhruddin
Mubarkshah revolted. The governor of Lakhnauti, Kadir Khan, tried to suppress it
but he was killed. The Sultan was busy in relief measures for the victims of famine
in the famine stricken areas. As a result, Bengal became independent. Sultan
Muhammad Tughlaq issued instructions to the governor of Oudh, Ainul Mulk, to
proceed to Daulatabad as the governor of the place that had revolted but he refused
to abide by the orders. Muhammad Tughlaq suppressed this revolt of Oudh. Figure
1.4 shows the extent of Delhi Sultanate under Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
36 Self-Instructional Material
The Delhi Sultanate
NOTES
NOTES Reforms
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq tried to bring about many reforms but most of his plans
failed because he was not practical in his thinking. Some of his plans or experiments
that failed are the following:
1. Transfer of Devgiri or the transfer of capital
One of the most misunderstood of the plans of the Sultan was his transfer of the
capital. Muhammad Tughlaq wanted to make Devgiri, which he renamed Daulatabad,
his capital in place of Delhi. The objectives of this scheme are said to be the following:
According to Barani, the Sultan made Devgiri his capital because it was
situated comparatively in the middle of his empire. It had equal distance from
Delhi, Gujarat, Lakhnauti, Sonargavn, Telangana, Mabar, Dwarasmudra and
Kampila. Barani wants to say that from Devgiri, the Sultan could keep a
more effective control over the whole of Deccan.
According to Ibn Battuta, the people of Delhi wrote contemptuous letters to
Muhammad Sultan. The Sultan, in order to punish them, ordered them to
march to a distance of about 700 miles to Devgiri. However, the historians do
not agree with this statement of Ibn Battuta because they say that at the time
of transfer of the capital, Ibn Battuta had not even reached Delhi. Secondly,
even if for the mischief of a few persons, it does not seem logical that he
would have punished the entire population of Delhi.
According to Isami, the Sultan was ever suspicious and annoyed with the
people of Delhi and it was to completely suppress their power that he had
decided to drive them towards the South. The historians are of the opinion
that Isami constantly tried to show that in all his schemes, the Sultan was
inspired by a feeling of hostility towards his people. A dispassionate look at
history does not prove this assertion because the Sultan did take many steps
for the welfare of the people as well.
According to historian Gardner Brown, the Sultan made Devgiri instead of
Delhi as his capital because of the constant invasions by the Mongols. However,
this argument does not carry much weight because by the time of Muhammad
Tughlaq and his accession, the invasions of the Mongols had almost stopped.
Also, this policy of escapism would have further encouraged the Mongols.
In the opinion of some scholars, the Sultan decided to transfer his capital to
Deccan after the revolt of Bahauddin Gurshasp so that a strong administration
could be established in the Deccan and adverse circumstances could be met
with.
Another view is that poets like Khusro had instigated in the heart of the
Sultan a love for the beauty of Devgiri. That is why the Sultan made Devgiri
his capital.
38 Self-Instructional Material
According to Mehdi Hassan, the Sultan made Devgiri in Deccan another The Delhi Sultanate
major administrative centre so that the Muslim population there could be
increased.
So, it can be maintained that Muhammad Tughlaq made Devgiri his capital so
that a central effect could be established over a vast empire and the rebellion in the NOTES
South could be suppressed easily.
Nature of Transfer of Capital
As with the causes and objectives of the transfer of capital, historians differ also as
to the nature of the transfer of capital. Barani says that the Delhi city and its rest
houses, neighbouring areas and villages up to five kilometres of Delhi were all
desolated. This statement of Barani seems to be exaggerated. The desolation of
entire city is really unimaginable. In fact, even after the transfer of the capital, Delhi
continued to be a densely populated city. The strongest proof of it is that even when
Devgiri was made the capital, coins continued to be minted in Delhi and even in the
subsequent period, contact was maintained between Delhi and Daultabad. Thus,
both Delhi and Devgiri continued to be major administrative centres.
As against Barani, Yahya Sirhind in fact, writes that on his way from Delhi to
Daulatabad, the Sultan constructed rest houses at the distance of every two kilometres
and the whole desolated area buzzed with activity. The Sultan, Yahya writes, gave
agricultural land to the people inhabiting these areas and planted trees on both the
sides of the road. According to him, first the royal household and treasury, Amirs,
soldiers went to Devgiri followed by the Ulemas and the scholars. However, according
to Barani, the transfer of the capital was effected in summer with the result that due
to the tiredness of a long journey, scarcity of water and other factors, a large number
of people died and were ordered to go back. Nowadays, the historians hold that the
Sultan ordered them to return to Delhi because the Amirs and Ulemas who had
gone to Daulatabad from Delhi had not completely forgotten the charm of Delhi and
became increasingly more discontented and kept on urging the Sultan to go back to
Delhi. The Sultan understood their sentiments and after a few years, allowed them
to go back to Delhi.
Consequences
The immediate effect of the measure went against the Sultan. The people who
were forced to go away from Delhi became annoyed with the Sultan. They
contributed towards increasing the discontentment against the Sultan. The transfer
led to a waste of money, time and human lives because being summer, people were
really put through great hardship. Nevertheless, the long-term effects of the transfer
were advantageous. As there being two administrative centres in the empire, new
roads were constructed. The obstacles to the contacts between north and south
India were removed, which led to the migration of many Sufi saints, Ulemas and
other scholars to the South. As a result, the Sultan imbibed the Muslim culture, and
after some time, the powerful Bahmini empire rose there. It led to a cultural integration
of the country.
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The Delhi Sultanate 2. Use of token currency
After the transfer of the capital, the second scheme of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
was the introduction of token currency.
NOTES Causes
According to Barani, Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq was very spendthrift. When
he wanted to conquer many regions, he was forced to issue copper currency.
Though this statement of Barani cannot be accepted entirely, it would have to
be conceded that the Sultan planned to conquer Khurasan. For this purpose,
he had collected a vast army and had given it advance salary for one year.
This statement of Barani is devoid of any truth that the royal treasury had
become absolutely empty because when the people cheated the government
by manufacturing fake coins, the Sultan had given them gold and silver coins
from the royal treasury only in return for those fake coins.
According to Nissen, the Sultan planned to issue a token currency because of
scarcity of silver throughout the world, including India. So, silver could neither
be procured from the foreign countries, nor from the mines of Bengal. That is
why the Sultan issued copper coins.
According to some scholars, Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq issued copper coins
because the Mongol Emperors of China had issued paper currency in China
in the thirteenth century and the Persian Emperor Gaikhadu had conducted a
similar experiment in AD 1294. Muhammad Tughlaq also wanted to
demonstrate his originality by issuing such currency.
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Consequences The Delhi Sultanate
The control of the Sultanate was, till the thirteenth century, largely confined to more NOTES
towns heavily fortified with soldiers. These towns were also later known as garrison
towns. It would have been extremely difficult for the Sultans to continue with the
system of revenue extraction of an earlier period. For one, they were new to the
territory and came from entirely different ruling backgrounds. Therefore, in the
beginning at least, a major part of the revenue of the Sultanate came from the tribute
and plunder of the territories surrounding the garrison towns. When Balban took
over in AD 1265, the Sultanate was finally provided with a determined ruler who
aimed at consolidating the hinterlands or the area adjacent to the garrison towns
from which revenue and resources could be extracted. Under him, huge forest
areas were cleared in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and these lands were given to the
peasants. Many new towns and fortresses were also built to provide shelter to the
Muqti (iqta-holders) and the soldiers. Later, under leaders like Alauddin Khilji and
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, the Sultanate extracted revenue from the peasantry, the
traders and, in some cases, from the local rulers of the far-flung areas as well.
The Mongol Threat
The Mongols, who resided in the steeps beyond the desert of Godi in North Asia,
had become a major menace to the security of India. Their aim was to enter India
from the North-West and then penetrate deep into the Indian territory. The Delhi
Sultanate was more than well aware of the imminence of Mongol invasions. The
ninety-year-period between the reigns of Iltutmish and Alauddin Khilji was a peculiarly
Mongol invasion ridden period.
To be more precise, the political history of medieval India to a great extent
has been shaped by the North-West frontier policy. The Turks, and later the Mughals,
had also entered India from this frontier. For the Sultans of Delhi, control over the
Hindukush flanked Kabul-Ghazna-Qandaha line was tremendously important not
only for stabilizing the ‘scientific frontier’ but also because it connected India with
the major silk-route threat which compelled the Delhi Sultans to confine themselves
to the Chenab, while the Sutlej region became the bone of contention. Thus, the
Indus alone remained the cultural boundary of India, and for all practical purposes,
the line of control was confined to the west of the river Indus.
Existent problems were further exacerbated by the hostile and hard-to-control
Khokar tribes which inhabited the region between Lahore and Kabul. These tribes
were a constant source of trouble to the Delhi Sultans. They not only eluded attempts
by the Sultans to subjugate them but also actively aided the Mongol raiders by inviting
them to raid the country. They would often ferment rebellion and indulge in activities
like raiding and plundering the Sultanate fortresses in the frontier. The Khokar problem
had virtually delimited the western boundary of the Sultanate to the line of the Ravi
river. This was to a great extent instrumental in depriving the Sultanate of the advantages
of the scientific frontier, which would have extended at least to the Hindukush and the
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The Delhi Sultanate passes. The lack of a scientific frontier posed a constant problem as the frontier
required aides like forts and military garrisons and other equipment kept in perfect
order in order to keep enterprising marauders from invading it. Another great problem
of the Sultanate, with respect to the Mongols, was that these hordes were perpetually
NOTES at loggerheads with each other. These rulers were entirely independent and they
controlled various principalities in Central Asia. Negotiations and peace treaties between
them were largely a futile bid as they covered only a particular section of the Mongols,
leaving other groups entirely free to launch an invasive attack whenever they liked it.
Scholar and historian, Peter Jackson suggests that these Mongol attacks were
primarily ‘seasonal migrations between summer pastures in the upland of Ghur and
Ghazna and winter quarters in the Punjab and beyond’. Their campaigns were
designed to both seize and amass slaves or to gather booty including horses. Andre
Wink (Professor of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison) highlights a very
valid point in this regard. He is of the view that the Mongols never intended to
actually rule India and one of the most important reasons was probably ‘the lack of
sufficient good pasture land’.
Scholar and historian, K.A. Nizami has categorized the response of the
Sultanate towards the Mongol challenge into three distinct phases:
Policy of aloofness under the early Turkish Sultans
Policy of appeasement under Razia and Nasiruddin
Policy of resistance under Balban and Alauddin Khilji
One of the first such invasions took place in AD 1221 under Chengez Khan
when Iltutmish had not yet consolidated the position of Punjab. Chengez Khan reached
the Indian frontiers in pursuit of the crown prince, Jalaluddin Mangbarni. Iltutmish
followed the policy of ‘aloofness’ and did not assist Jalaluddin. He feared a possible
alliance with Qubacha and the Khokhars with Mangbarni. Although Qubacha and
Mangbarni could not remain friends for long, a matrimonial alliance cemented the
bond between the Mangbarnis and the Khokhars.
This strengthened the Mangbarni position in the North-West. These
developments compelled Iltutmish to remain aloof and he did not try to enter the
North-West region. Habibullah argues that Chengez Khan refrained from further
operations in India out of reciprocity for Iltutmish’s neutrality. An understanding of
non-aggression against each other might also have possibly been arrived at. However,
Peter Jackson suggests that the control of India was not the immediate objective of
Chengez Khan and the pacifying [of] Khwarazm, Transoxiana and Ghazna were
more important in his priority.
There was a swing from Iltutmish’s policy of ‘aloofness’ to ‘appeasement’
during the reign of Razia. The extension of the Sultanate frontier up to Lahore and
Multan had exposed the Sultanate to Mongol incursions. There was no buffer state
between the Sultanate territory and the Mongol area of influence. This could become
possible because the Mongols had no wish to get involved with the Delhi Sultanate
in the immediate future as they were preoccupied with West Asia.
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The Delhi Sultanate
NOTES
Only when they were done with West Asia, the Mongols embarked upon the
policy of annexing India between AD 1240 and 1266. By AD 1246, the Mongol
outpoints were established in Ghazna, Peshawar and other places in what is now
known as Afghanistan and the Indus had disappeared as a practical boundary. Delhi’s
administrative frontier had been pushed back to modern Punjab. For the rest of the
century, the Delhi Sultanate was thrown in the defensive and its forward policy in
this direction aimed only at extending control over the Chenab basin rather than
reaching the scientific frontiers. However, till AD 1295, the Mongols did not show
much enthusiasm about wanting to occupy Delhi.
In AD 1241, Tair Bahadur invaded Lahore and completely destroyed the city.
Two successive invasions took place in AD 1245 and AD 1246. As a result of these
recurrent Mongol invasions, various policy changes were made by Balban and the
rulers who followed. He adopted a policy of what is called ‘resistance’. K.A. Nizami
says that he made use of ‘force and diplomacy’ against the Mongols. For one, the
garrisons were strengthened. Then the forts at Bhatinda, Sunam and Samana were
reinforced to check Mongol advances beyond the Beas river.
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The Delhi Sultanate After AD 1256, when Balban was the de-facto ruler of Delhi, a little goodwill
was guaranteed between the Mongols and the Sultanate by a marital alliance between
Balban’s son and the Mongol leader, Halagu’s daughter. Nevertheless, not all Mongol
principalities were under Halagu’s tutelage and they could not be expected to respect
NOTES this alliance. The problem remained even when Balban became the dejure Sultan.
Balban kept trying to counter the Mongol menace by getting a double chain of
fortresses built and renovating old fortresses in the border towns of Dipalpur, Lahore
and Uchh. These forts were garrisoned and army was kept in perfect readiness.
Vigilance was kept so that any crisis that happened to arise on the routes joining
these places with the rest of the empire could effectively be dealt with. Worthy and
capable generals were deployed on the border towns to ward off the Mongol attacks.
Balban also tried to crush the Khokars who had, on many occasions, helped the
Mongols to raid the frontier province. Thus, notwithstanding K.A. Nizami’s sharp
criticism of Balban’s North-West frontier policy, Balban deserved praise for his
astute understanding of what was perhaps the most taxing problem of the frontier
defence, and the measures he took to deal with the issues involved. Peter Jackson
mentions that he established a separate army designed especially to combat the
Mongols. Rumours about the Delhi Sultanate being equipped with a huge military
had a profound impact upon the Mongols. The late thirteenth century geographer
Ibn mentions that ‘the Mongols were unable to conquer India because of the number
of men and elephants at the Sultan’s disposal’.
However, the advantage was lost when the Sultan simply got rid of his capable
generals as well as the nobility. Now, the Sultanate border towns fell into the hands
of the iqtadars who were no match for the Mongols. In AD 1286, the Mongols
struck at Prince Muhammad, the heir apparent. However, Balban’s defence measures
kept the Mongols at bay even during the turmoil following his death. The Sultanate
was, thus, able to repulse another Mongol invasion during Kaiqubad’s reign.
By this time, the Mongols had firmly established themselves over the greater
part of Punjab and also along the western banks of the lower Indus river. The
Mongols evinced a marked aversion to Delhi. It is possible that their disinclination
stemmed from peculiar military reasons or emerged from a larger political plan
which they alone understood. Peter Jackson feels that the ‘disintegration of the
Mongol empire into a number of rival Khanates’ seriously weakened the Mongols’
capacity to expand further into India. The Khilji dynasty helped them to find a strong
base in Punjab from where a series of determined assaults were launched upon the
capital. In AD 1290, Jalaluddin Khilji became the next Sultan. He had for long been
the warden of the frontier. Eventually, he crushed the Mongols. Jalaluddin, however,
was now an old man. He no longer had the strength to stop the operation of the
invaders and this enabled them to penetrate India right upto Delhi itself with no
hindrance of any kind placed upon them.
Historians like K.S. Lal consider it a misfortune for India that the most
devastating invasions took place during the reign of Alauddin Khilji who failed to
stop the Mongols from entering the India subcontinent. The Mongols entered India
when Alauddin Khilji was planning to conquer the world and become Sikaner-I-
Sani. The royal army was caught unaware and the Mongols seized Delhi. Alauddin
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Khilji received a rude shock and decided to fight back. The next thing that Khilji did The Delhi Sultanate
was to send expeditions every year to Kabul and its neighbouring areas. This threw
the Mongols into defence. Thus, thanks to the measures taken by Alauddin Khilji,
the Delhi Sultanate remained free after AD 1308 from any further Mongol invasions
till almost the close of the century. NOTES
It is important to know that the North-West frontier invasions and the success
of the Mongols in penetrating as far as Delhi impressed upon Alauddin Khilji the need
for a better defended and more strengthened frontier. Constant Mongol attacks led
Alauddin Khilji to look for a more lasting solution. He recruited fresh troops, created a
huge standing army and strengthened the frontier fronts to counter the Mongols. Funds
came from an increased revenue collection and by introducing the system of direct
collection, thereby effectively plugging any fund leakages to intermediaries. Alauddin
Khilji imposed the Islamic Kharaj over a considerable area of northern India, setting it
at nearly 50 per cent of the produce. Alauddin repaired the old forts in Punjab, Multan
and Sind and had more forts constructed. All of these forts were kept in perfect
readiness. An additional army, charged with the responsibility of guarding the frontiers,
was deputed under the warden of Marches. To counter the threat of repeated invasions,
Alauddin Khilji reinforced Balban’s defence measures of a double chain of fortresses
which had largely fallen into disuse. Alauddin Khilji also maintained a well-organized
standing army of 4, 75,000 troops. Every effort was made to keep the army happy and
the economic reforms in the form of market regulators were directed primarily towards
the welfare of the standing army. The prices were kept low and stable and these
measures enabled the soldiers to live contented in whatever salary they were given. It
is more than obvious that the funds for such a large army came from the grounding tax
structure under Alauddin.
Khilji’s policies aimed at removing the fear of Mongol invasions which was
deeply ingrained in the minds of the people. A number of Mongols, who had been
kept captive by Khilji, were crushed to death by elephants. Thus, the myth of Mongol
invincibility was finally laid to rest.
Mongol aggression constituted a significant problem for the Delhi Sultanate
and it also had profound effect in determining the political and economic policies of
the Sultanate. Balban and Alauddin Khilji, the two powerful Sultans of Delhi, remained
largely preoccupied with the threat of Mongol invasions, which greatly diverted
attention from domestic problems. They also prevented the Sultan from following an
expansionist policy. This is why till about AD 1308 or so, the boundaries of the
Turkish state remained more or less the same as those acquired by Muizuddin, more
than a century ago. Domestic problems also could not receive their due against the
iqtadars who coveted nothing but power, even if it could be attained only at the
expense of the state. Even the slightest opportunity would have led to a direct
confrontation with the nobility and would have caused the weakening of the institution
that was supposed to act as an effective bulwark against the Mongols. The Sultan
would have taken a tougher stance against the nobility had it not been for the Mongol
threat that loomed large on the horizon of North-West frontier.
The constant threat posed by the Mongols also necessitated the construction
of a host of fortresses and ramparts in the North-West frontier along with the
Self-Instructional Material 55
The Delhi Sultanate maintenance of a large standing army. All of this resulted in huge expenses for the
state. In the reign of Alauddin Khilji, Mongol intrusions extended further and for the
first time ever in AD 1299, under the tutelage of Qutlugh Khwaja, Delhi came under
the Mongol sway. Following this, Delhi became a regular target for the Mongols.
NOTES Qutlugh Khwaja launched a second attack upon Delhi at a time when Alauddin
Khilji was busy in his Chittor campaign. The Mongols besieged Delhi and Alauddin
Khilji could not enter the city. This forced the beleaguered Sultan to look for a more
lasting solution. He recruited a huge standing army and strengthened the frontier
forts. These measures yielded results and the Mongols were held back in AD 1306
and AD 1308. Another reason for the reversal in Mongol fortunes was the death of
Dawa in AD 1306, followed by the Mongol civil war. It weakened the Mongols
greatly, and the situation helped the Delhi Sultans to extend their frontier.
As far as the Tughlaqs were concerned, the first Mongol invasion took place
during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. The last significant Mongol invasion was
under the leadership of Tarmashirin during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
He promptly sent reinforcements to Gurshasp, the governor of Samara, who defeated
the Mongols in two engagements and drove them out. Satish Chandra feels that
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, in a bid to counter the Mongols, took the concerted measure
of hiring as many as 3,75,000 soldiers and undertook the Khurasan expedition. The
probable motive of his campaign was to push the Mongols back and extend the area
of influence of the Delhi Sultanate up to Kabul and Ghazna.
The power of the Mongols declined rapidly and they tried to reestablish ties
with Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Tarmashirin, his contemporary at Transoxiana, met
with a crushing defeat at Ghazna in AD 1324–26. He fled towards India in order to
seek Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq support. He was at first guaranteed asylum, but later
was sent away with the gift of 5000 dinars. From then onwards, the Mongols
maintained friendly relations with the Sultans of Delhi. After Muhammad-bin-
Tughlaq’s death, his large army, whom his personality had kept together, stood
disorganized and the Mongols joined hands with the Sind rebels.
The Mongol invasion is a very significant moment in the history of the Delhi
Sultanate. It helped the Delhi Sultans to gain the support of the masses in the name
of the impending danger. Further, the chaos in Central Asia, caused by the Mongols,
led to an exodus of learned people, who then found refuge in India. These people, in
addition to being master craftsmen, then came to form part of the administrative
personnel of the Sultan.
However, finally, the last nail in the coffin was dug by the Timur invasion of
AD 1398 which gradually eroded the basis of the two-hundred-year-old Sultanate.
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1.6 SUMMARY
The tenth and the eleventh centuries in north India were featured with the
emergence of small regional kingdoms. NOTES
The medieval period of the Indian history is one of the most important periods
because of the several developments that took place in the field of architecture,
religion and culture.
At the end of the fifteenth century, the Europeans established trade links with
India and by the middle of the eighteenth century; they were able to consolidate
their power as a major political force in the country. This marked the end of
the medieval period of the Indian history.
In north India, in the early medieval period, Sanskrit continued to be the
language of literature. In this period, two famous works were written by
writers of Kashmir.
Hindi as a language of literature made advancements during Akbar’s reign.
Tulsidas and Kalidas were great writers and poets of this time and wrote
several books and poems on the theme of love.
Several travellers came to India during the medieval period. These travellers
wrote their stories. These travel stories are of great importance and provide
a lot of information on the history of medieval India.
Ancient ruins, remains and monuments recovered as a result of excavation
and exploration are great sources of history of the medieval period. The
archaeological remains are subjected to scientific examination of radiocarbon
method for its dates.
Towards the end of the ninth century, feudal lords of Persian origin ruled over
Transoxiana, Khorasan and some parts of Iran. They had to engage constantly
in a fight against the Turkish tribes on their northern and eastern frontiers.
After the sudden death of Qutubuddin Aibak (AD 1210), disorder became
rampant in the Delhi Sultanate. A few Amirs raised Aram Shah to the throne
in Lahore.
Iltutmish ruled for about 26 years (AD 1210–1236). From AD 1210–1220, he
solved the internal problems and the years AD 1221–1227 were devoted to
the solution of external problems.
Razia, better known as Razia Sultana, succeeded her father Shams-ud-din
Iltutmish to the Delhi Sultanate in 1236.
Balban, like Iltutmish, was an Ilbari Turk. His grandfather was the head of
about 10,000 families of Ilbari Turks.
The rigid measures adopted by Balban as the chief minister and the Sultan to
save the Sultanate and suppress his personal enemies and rivals are known in
history as his policy of Blood and Iron.
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The Delhi Sultanate Alauddin Khilji’s original name was Ali Gurshasp. After plotting to murder his
uncle, he assumed the title of Abul Muzaffar Sultan Alauddin-duniya-va-din
Muhammad Shah Khilji.
Alauddin was a brave soldier, a most capable military commander,a shrewd
NOTES diplomat, a great conqueror, a successful administrator and a powerful and
ambitious Sultan.
Three days after the death of Gayasuddin Tughlaq, Prince Juna Khan (Ulugh
Khan) declared himself the Sultan of Delhi under the title Muhammad-bin-
Tughlaq.
According to Ibn Battuta, other revolt in Muhammad Tughlaq’s reign occurred
because of the intrigues of the Qazi and Khatib of Kamalpur. The revolt was
suppressed and the rebel’s skin was extracted.
One of the most misunderstood of the plans of the Sultan was his transfer of
the capital. Muhammad Tughlaq wanted to make Devgiri, which he renamed
Daulatabad, his capital in place of Delhi.
After the transfer of the capital, the second scheme of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
was the introduction of token currency.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq was a cousin of Muhammad Tughlaq. He was born in
AD 1300. His father was Sipahsalar Naib and mother was Bibi Naila (or
Nayala).
Firoz Tughlaq made a very weak effort to reconquer the areas lost under
Muhammad Tughlaq. With this purpose, he carried out military in Bengal and
Sind whereas no effort was made to regain Madura, Bahamani or Vijaynagar
kingdoms.
Though Firoz Tughlaq could not prove to be a very capable general, his internal
policy was very successful because of his able administration and reform
measures.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq introduced many changes in the currency system as well.
The control of the Sultanate was, till the thirteenth century, largely confined
to more towns heavily fortified with soldiers.
There was a swing from Iltutmish’s policy of ‘aloofness’ to ‘appeasement’
during the reign of Razia. The extension of the Sultanate frontier up to Lahore
and Multan had exposed the Sultanate to Mongol incursions.
Historians like K.S. Lal consider it a misfortune for India that the most
devastating invasions took place during the reign of Alauddin Khilji who failed
to stop the Mongols from entering the India subcontinent.
Jagir: It was a type of feudal land grant in South Asia bestowed by a monarch
to a feudal superior in recognition of his administrative or military service.
NOTES
1.8 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’
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The Delhi Sultanate
1.9 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
NOTES
1. What are the various sources of medieval Indian history?
2. Why was Razia Sultan believed to be one of the most powerful rulers of the
Delhi Sultanate? Give reasons for your answer.
3. What are Balban’s chief principles of kingship?
4. Prepare a short note on the reforms and assessment of Alauddin Khilji.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Describe the advent of the Delhi sultanate and the Turkish rule in India.
2. Evaluate the consolidation efforts made by Iltutmish.
3. ‘Balban was not only the ablest Sultan of his dynasty but also the forerunner
of a grest Sultan like Alauddin Khilji.’ Explain.
4. Compare the reforms introduced by Muhammed bin Tughlaq and Firoz Shah
Tughlaq.
5. Analyse the North-West frontier policy of Balban and Alauddin Khilji.
Chandra, Satish. 2009. History of Medieval India. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan.
Prasad, Ishwari. 1925. Medieval India. India: Indian Press.
Majumdar, R. C. 1948. An Advanced History of India. India: Macmillan.
Mahajan, V.D. 1991. History of Medieval India, Part I. New Delhi: S. Chand.
Jackson, Peter. 2003. The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Islam, Misbah. 2008. Decline of Muslim States and Societies. Philadelphia: Xlibris
Corporation.
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Disintegration of the
2.0 INTRODUCTION
NOTES
2.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES
The period from AD 1206–1526 is known as the Sultanate period in the history of
India. During this period of about 320 years, five ruling dynasties ruled successively
namely, the Slave dynasty (AD 1206–1290) the Khilji dynasty (AD 1290–1320), the
Tughlaq dynasty (AD 1320–1414), the Sayyid dynasty (AD 1415–1451) and the Lodhi
dynasty (AD 1451–1526). The average ruling period of each dynasty was about seventy
years. This period is very short in comparison with the reigning period of the Mughals
of 250 years (including fifteen years of the Sur dynasty of Afghan rule). Why was
there a repeated change of dynasty in the Sultanate Period? Why did the Sultanate
decline and disintegrate? It is attributed to several causes which are as follows:
62 Self-Instructional Material
Fig. 2.1 Empire of Delhi Sultanate
(i) Autocracy of the Sultans Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
The Sultans of the Delhi Sultanate were autocratic and despotic. They had in them Rise of Afghans
the powers of the Executive, Legislative and Judiciary combined. There was no
control of any cabinet or representative assembly over them. Many Sultans did not
NOTES
even care about the religious leaders or the Ulemas. They fixed their aim to rule
continuously either on the basis of their military power or the rigid penal code.
Barring a few Sultans like Alauddin Khilji, a majority of Sultans were indifferent to
the public welfare activities. They spent a major portion of their treasury not on
constructive works but on military organization and construction of forts, and military
expeditions. Consequently, the rule of such Sultans could not continue for a long
time.
(ii) Invasions of Mongols
From the time of Ilutmish to the time of Muhammad Tughlaq, there were continuous
severe Mongol invasions. Even though powerful Sultans like Balban and Alauddin
coldly arrested these terrible invasions, the country had to suffer heavy losses in
material and non-material things. The Sultans could not pay any attention towards
administration so that the administration of the Sultanate could not be consolidated.
(iii) Islamic concept of the Sultanate
During the time of the Delhi Sultanate, very often, the Sultans tried to give an Islamic
concept to the state. They exacted Jizia from the non-Islamic people. A majority of
Sultans adopted a rigid policy towards the Hindus. They desecrated the temples and
built mosque on them and hurt the sentiments of the Hindus by breaking the idols.
Some historians think that during the time of Muhammad Tughlaq, Harishar and
Bukka founded the Vijaynagar empire so that the Hindus could be protected. This
empire became very powerful within a few years.
(iv) Weakness in the Sultanate army
The rulers of the Delhi Sultanate did not modernize their army. They paid attention
towards new war techniques and building up of artillery. Gradually, they stopped
paying adequate attention to the defence of the North-West frontiers. During their
reign (a period of 320 years) they never thought of preparing a national army. Like
the Hindu rulers, they also included elephants in their army which proved very harmful
in the battle of Panipat. They were defeated in the first battle of Panipat as they did
not possess artillery.
(v) Lack of a definite law of Succession
An important cause of the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate was the lack of a definite
law of succession. If we see the history of the Delhi Sultanate, we would find that
the struggle for throne started right from the time of the Slave dynasty. Qutubuddin
Aibak had to struggle against Yaldauz and Qabacha. To save the Sultanate from a
civil war, Iltutmish declared his eldest child Razia as the Sultan but the Amirs did not
comply with it, and she had to wage a war to seize the throne from her brother
Ruknuddin Firozshah. The last of the Slave Sultans was assassinated by his own
general Jalaluddin. Alauddin Khilji acquired the throne by assassinating his uncle
Self-Instructional Material 63
Disintegration of the and father-in-law. Gyasuddin Tughalq had also acquired the throne forcibly by
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans assassinating the last Sultan of the Khilji dynasty. It is said that Juna Khan had
plotted very cleverly to kill Gayasuddin in which he succeeded. Briefly, then, it can
be said that there were no clear and definite laws of succession among the rulers of
NOTES the Delhi Sultanate and the succession was decided on the basis of sword and
intrigues. Due to these constant struggles and intrigues, Delhi Sultanate had to suffer
tremendous loss of men and money which weakened the Sultanate and its downfall
was accelerated.
(vi) Responsibility of Muhammad Tughlaq
Due to the fantastic plans and certain drawbacks of his nature, there were repeated
rebellions in different parts of his empire. He had to work hard to suppress the
revolts in Bengal, Mabar, Warrangal, Kampila, Avadh, Gujarat and Sind. Being of a
suspicious nature, Muhammad Tughlaq ran from one part of his empire to the other,
in order to deal with these rebellions. When he was busy in suppressing the revolts
in the South, his army suffered from plague epidemic which led to two-thirds of his
army to perish. This was a loss which the Sultan could never fulfill. When he came
towards the North, parts of Deccan had become independent.
In the South, Harishar and Bukka laid the foundation of the Vijaynagar empire
and some foreign chiefs founded the Bhamani empire near Daulatabad. During this
time Bengal became independent. Thus, during the lifetime of Muhammad Tughlaq
the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate started due to policies. On account of his
wrong policies not only the provincial governors revolted but there was widespread
discontent even in the army. His liberal religious policy and his indifference towards
the Ulemas, the religious leaders caused annoyance among the fanatic Suuni Muslims.
During that period, Muslim religious leaders had a great influence over Muslim
populace. His scheme of token currency, increase in taxation in the Doab schemes
of conquest of Korasan affected the economic condition of the Sultanate very
adversely.
(vii) Religious fanaticism of Firoz Shah Tughlaq
Firoz Shah Tughlaq adopted a policy of hostility towards the Hindus to please some
fanatic Muslims and the Ulemas desecrated the temples of Jagannath Puri and
Jawalaji and also their idols. Firoz was not even a capable army commander and
organizer. He led two campaigns against Bengal but was unsuccessful both the
times. He achieved success in his campaign against Gujarat after a long campaign
of two years due to the army losing its way in the Rann of Kutch. It had to suffer
heavy losses. He made the military and administrative posts hereditary, the evil
effects of which had to be borne by his successor rulers. His slave system hardened
the Sultanate with the economic burden of looking after about 80,000 slaves. These
very slaves whom he trusted openly participated in the intrigues against them. He
did not try to win over those territories which were a part of the Delhi Sultanate
during the time of Muhammad Tughlaq. Had he done so, the prestige and influence
of the Sultanate might have increased. He blindly distributed Jagirs to please the
Amirs and the Ulemas.
64 Self-Instructional Material
(viii) Incapable successors of Firoz Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
Firoz was succeeded by six rulers of the Tughlaq dynasty namely, Gayasuddin Rise of Afghans
Muhammad Shah (AD 1388–1389), Abu Bakr (AD 1389–1390), Nasiruddin
Muhammad Shah (AD 1390–1394), Nasratshah and Sasiruddin (AD 1394–1414).
NOTES
They were all worthless and pleasure-loving. The Amirs made them puppets in their
hands by their intrigues. The Amirs became so powerful that they could easily usurp
the throne whenever they liked and deposed Sultans at their will. In reality, there
was no one among the successors of Firoz who could retrieve the deteriorating
situation of the Sultanate. As a result, disorder became widespread everywhere in
the Sultanate and revolts broke out in the provinces. One after the other, the states
went on becoming independent in the North and South and the Sultanate collapsed.
(ix) Invasion of Timur
During the last years of the Tughlaq dynasty (AD 1398)Timur invaded India from
Samarqand. This invasion dealt a blow to the Delhi Sultanate. This resulted in heavy
loss of men and money to the country, the dying empire received a heavy blow and
it shrunk only to few miles in the vicinity of Delhi. On the basis of contemporary
historical sources, it can be said that for three months there was no Sultan of Delhi.
Delhi suffered a famine because the Mongol invaders looted the storehouses of
grains. This invasion made the condition of the country so deplorable that it became
impossible to keep the country organized together. Taking advantage of such a
situation, the provincial governors declared themselves independent and power passed
into the hand of Khizar Khan.
(x) Responsibility of the rulers of Sayyid dynasty
After the Tughlaq dynasty, the power in the Sultanate passed into the hands of
Sayyids. Like the successors of Firoz Shah Tughlaq, all the rulers of this dynasty
were incapable and worthless. Since none of them paid any attention to the
administrative reforms or the extension of the empire, disorder spread everywhere
and the country became progressively poorer. During the period of this dynasty
Doab, Katehar, Sirhind, Gwalior became centres of revolts. The Sultans remained
incapable of suppressing them. The last Sultan of this dynasty Sultan Allauddin Shah
went to Badyun leaving his capital so that he could lead a comfortable life over
there. The power passed into the hands of Baholol Lodhi.
(xi) Weaknesses and mistake of the rulers of the Lodhi dynasty
There were three Sultans in the Lodhi dynasty – Baholol Lodhi, Sikandar Lodhi and
Ibrahim Lodhi. Out of these three, Sikandar Lodhi was the only capable ruler. He
tried to re-establish the prestige of the Delhi Sultanate but he could not achieve
much success in this task. He did not follow a liberal policy towards the majority of
the Hindus. He broke many temples and idols. His hot-tempered nature and obstinacy
antagonized all his Amirs and governors. As a result, the powerful officials like
Daulat Khan Lodhi and Alam Khan invited the ruler of Kabul, Babur, to attack India
and the disintegration of the Sultanate was accelerated.
Self-Instructional Material 65
Disintegration of the (xii) Invasion of Babur
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans The immediate cause of the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate was the invasion of
Babur. He defeated the last of the Lodhi Sultan badly in the battle of Panipat in AD
1526. Babur established his control over Delhi and Agra and founded the Mughal
NOTES
empire.
Therefore, there were many causes for the downfall of the Sultanate. We
cannot hold any one Sultan or dynasty responsible for it. There were some problems
in the Sultanate right from the beginning which continued all along like the feudal
nature of the Sultanate, adoption of a religious fanatic policy by majority of rulers,
military power being the basis of the Sultanate, struggles between the Sultan and his
Sirdars and between local administrators and big Zamindars, not following a definite
law of succession, provincial and geographical problems and so forth. Many of the
Sultans tried to solve only some of these problems but they could not find a standing
solution to it. The people did not understand the significance of a powerful central
government. The Sultans of the Sultanate period were in no condition able to bring
about the basis changes in the society. Whenever, the central government became
weak, subversive and regionalists tendencies became manifest. That is why the
economic and administrative conditions of the Sultanate deteriorated day by day and
finally, it fell it disintegrated.
The two brothers, Harihar and Bukka, were both in the service of Pratap Rudra II,
of the Warrangal kingdom. When Gayasuddin Tughlaq conquered Warrangal in AD
1323 they came away to Kampli. In AD 1325, a cousin of Muhammad Tughlaq
named Bahauddin Gurshasp revolted against him in Sagar and the Sultan himself
suppressed the rebellion. Bahauddin sought refuge with the ruler of Kampili. Among
the six officials whom Muhammad Tughlaq took as captives to Delhi were these
two brothers who either voluntarily or forcibly embraced Islam and became the
favourites of the Sultan.
In AD 1327–1328, a chain of revolts started against Muhammad Tughlaq in
Bidar, Daulatabad, Gulberga, Madura, Telengana and Kampili. Muhammad Tughlaq
dispatched Harihar and Bukka to Kampili in the South so that they could quell the
rebellious Hindus and take over the reins of the administration from the governor of
66 Self-Instructional Material
that place. What transpired in South after the departure of these two brothers is not Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
at all clear because of mutual contradictory accounts of Muslim historians and Rise of Afghans
traditional stories of the Hindus.
Still both sources agree on one point; that soon after the two brothers gave up
Islamic religion they founded the Vijaynagar empire. They founded this kingdom in NOTES
Kampili (modern Karnataka state), under the influence of a saint, Vidyaranya, to
immortalize their father’s memory and declared themselves independent of the control
of Muhammad Tughlaq. This empire was ruled by three successive dynasties
between AD 1336 and AD 1565 namely, Sangam Dynasty, (AD 1336–1485), Saluva
Dynasty (AD 1485–1506) and Tuluva Dynasty (AD 1506–1565). Out of these three,
the first two dynasties were contemporaneous with the united Bahmani kingdom
and the third was the contemporary of the five Muslim kingdoms namely, Bidar,
Berar, Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Golkunda which arose on the decline of the Bahamni
empire.
2.3.1 Rise and Extension of the Vijaynagar Empire
Following is a brief account of the rise and fall of the Vijaynagar empire or a brief
political description of its rulers:
Sangam Dynasty (1336–1485)
1. Harihar I (AD 1336–1353): After laying the foundation of the Vijaynagar
empire in collaboration with his brother Bukka, Harihar first of all forced the
area of Gutti and neighbourhood to acknowledge his suzerainty on the southern
bank of the river Tungabhadra at a place called Anegandi. On 18 April, AD
1336 Harihar accomplished his coronation ceremony according to Hindu rites.
With the help of his brother Bukka, Harihar started extension of his empire
rapidly. In AD 1346 Ballal, the last Hoysala king was killed in a campaign
against the Kingdom of Madura. Taking advantage of this situation, Harihar
annexed the Hoysala kingdom to the Vijaynagar empire.
Before his death, Harihar extended his kingdom along the sea coast east to
west in the areas, in the north to river Krishna and the river Kaveri in the
South. In the reign of Harihar I, the first struggle against the Bahmani empire
(established in AD 1346) took place when he established his control over the
fort of Raichur situated between the river Krishna and Tungabhadra. Harihar
compensated to some extent the loss of Raichur fort by attacking the kingdom
of Madura in AD 1356 and achieving success in acquiring certain areas from
Madura. Harihar I not only extended his kingdom but also prepared an outline
of its administrative system. Following the Kakatiya ideal he organized his
kingdom into Sathals and Nadus and appointed Brahmin officials to run the
administration. He also paid attention to the progress of agriculture.
2. Bukka I (AD 1353–1377): According to some scholars, Bukka I had
become a joint ruler with his brother as early as AD 1346 and had his capital
at Gutti but after his brother Harihar’s death in AD 1353, he succeeded him
as the sole heir and ruled till AD 1377. He sent his ambassador to establish
diplomatic relations with China.
Self-Instructional Material 67
Disintegration of the He was mostly engaged in conflict with the Bahmani Sultans, Muhammad I
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans and Mujahid which resulted in great ruin of Vijaynagar. During his time, there
were three conflicts between Vijaynagar and the Bahmani empire (AD 1360,
1365 and 1367). The main cause of the conflict was the ambition of both the
NOTES kingdoms to establish their control over Raichur Doab. Being situated in the
midst of rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra, this area was very fertile. However,
Bukka was not successful in this campaign and he could not regain the Raichur
Doab which was lost during the time of Harihar. When Muhammad II
ascended the throne of Gulbarga in AD 1378, the conflict between these two
states came to a halt because the new Bahmani Sultan was peace-loving. In
the reign of Bukka I, his son Kampan achieved success in defeating the
Sultan of Madura. He forced the northern and southern Arcot to acknowledge
the suzerainty of the Vijaynagar empire.
According to a Sanskrit poem named Madura Vijayam written by Kaman’s
wife Ganga Devi, he achieved success between AD 1365 and 1370.
Bukka I died in AD 1377. He was a great warrior, statesman and a lover of
knowledge. Following a tolerant and liberal policy, he established a feeling of
unity between the followers of Jainism and Vaishnav sects. Undoubtedly, he
could not recover the Raichur area from the Bahmani empire but they did not
lose any area of their empire either.
He got many old temples repaired and with the help of many Hindu scholars,
got literary works composed on religion, philosophy and law, chief amongst
which is the commentary on the Vedas written by Sayanacharya. Praising
the strength and prosperity of the Vijaynagar empire during his time, historian
Farishta writes that the Bahmani rulers maintained their superiority on the
basis of their bravery whereas the rulers of Vijaynagar far excelled them in
strength, wealth and extent of the empire.
3. Harihar II (1377–1404): After Bukka I his son Harihar II ascended the
throne and he ruled for twenty-seven years (AD 1377–1404) and consolidated
the power of Vijaynagar empire in the whole of south India. He assumed the
titles of Maharajadhiraj and Rajparmeshwar. He was a great warrior and
conqueror. He established his control over the areas of Canara, Mysore,
Kanchi, Trichnapalli and Chingliput. In AD 1398, his son Bukka Rai II invaded
the Bahmani kingdom for establishing his control over the Raichur Doab. The
Bahmani ruler Firozshah defeated him. In 1399, a peace treaty was concluded
in which the ruler of Vijaynagar had to pay a big indemnity. Harihar II died in
August AD 1404 and his death was followed by a war for succession amongst
his sons. In this struggle, his third son Devrai I succeeded ultimately. During
the period of struggle, at first, Virupaksha became the ruler from whom the
throne was snatched by Bukka II after only a few months and he ruled for
two years (AD 1405-1406). He was followed by Devrai I on 5 November,
AD 1406.
4. Devrai I (AD 1406–1422): During his reign, Devrai I came into conflict
with the Bahmani Sultan Firozshah. Two causes are attributed to this conflict.
According to one description, it was caused by the firm ambition of Firozshah
68 Self-Instructional Material
to carry on a Jihad (religious war) against Vijaynagar whereas according to Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
Farishta, the blind love of Devrai for a beautiful daughter of a farmer of Rise of Afghans
Mudgal was the cause of this conflict. Whatever be the case, Firoz initially
suffered a defeat in the ensuing conflict, but later on, Devrai was defeated
and according to the terms of the treaty, he had to marry his daughter to NOTES
Firozshah and surrender the fort of Bankapur.
On the other hand, the Reddis of Kondavidu invaded Vijaynagar and took
away Udaigiri which Vijaynagar kings could only reconquer in AD 1413.
During peace time, Devrai gave attention to the construction works. He
constructed a dam on the river Tungabhadra and diverted canals from there
to get away with the water scarcity in the city. The canals were used to
irrigate the neighbouring fields as well. He also built a dam on the river Haridra.
For irrigation purposes, these canals added about 3½ lakhs to the royal revenue.
It was during the time of this ruler that the Italian traveller Nicolo Conti came
to Vijaynagar and he has given a vivid description of the city. During Devrai’s
reign, ample grants were given to the temples and the priests. After the death
of Devrai (AD 1422) for a few months, his son Ramchandra ascended the
throne followed by his second son Vir Vijay Rai.
According to Indian historian Nilkantha Shastri, his reign roughly covered the
period AD 1422–1426. Probably, he suffered defeat at the hands of the
Bahmani ruler Ahmadshah and had to give an enormous sum as the war
indemnity.
5. Devrai II (AD 1426–1446): Vijay Rai was succeeded by his son Devrai II
in AD 1426. In AD 1428, he conquered and annexed the kingdom of
Kondavidu. Then he launched an attack on the Gajpati kingdom of Orissa
because after the integration of Kondavidu kingdom with Vijaynagar, a struggle
ensued amongst their feudatories. However, the struggle between Vijaynagar
and Orissa was not prolonged because of the intervention of Allaureddi of
Rajmundri and a compromise was reached. Later on, Devrai defended the
Reddi kingdom from the Kalinga invading army. Devrai invaded and annexed
the Kerala kingdom to the Vijaynagar empire.
Devrai II was not only a great conqueror but was also a great organizer, and
a patron of art and literature. To reorganize his army he not only recruited
Muslims but also increased the number of horses and arranged for training in
archery. According to Farishta, he recruited about 2,000 Muslims in his army
and gave Jagirs to them. These Muslim soldiers trained the Hindus in the art
of archery but some historians do not accept this statement of Farishta on the
excuse that on the basis of historical sources, it is proved beyond doubt that
there were about 10,000 Muslim soldiers in the army of Devrai. He also
imported horses from Arab countries in very large number. Undoubtedly, the
efforts of Devrai II resulted in an improvement in the army but at the same
time, burdening the state economy. Devrai II extended his patronage to many
literates and poets as well. Famous Telugu poet Shrinath was the court poet
of Devrai II. It is said that he was showered with immense quantity of gold
Self-Instructional Material 69
Disintegration of the coins. Devrai II was probably a liberal from the religious point of view. He
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans gave full freedom to the Muslims to construct mosques in his kingdom. His
reign saw the sojourn of the famous Persian poet Abdurrazaq to Vijaynagar.
He had greatly praised Vijaynagar and Devrai II. This great ruler died in mid
NOTES AD 1446.
6. Mallikarjun or Devrai the elder (AD 1446–1466): After the death of
Devrai II, at first Vijayrai II ascended the throne, followed soon by his own
son Mallikarjun in AD 1447. Mallikarjun is also called Devrai the elder. During
his rule, the decline of Vijaynagar empire started. He was unable to check
the invasions of the Gajpatis of Orissa and the Bahmani Sultans and had to
sign humiliating treaties. Dissensions and disorder became rampant everywhere
in the kingdom. Probably, he died in AD 1465 and Virupaksha II became his
successor. Howsoever incapable Devrai the elder might have been from the
military point of view, he maintained the love of his predecessors towards the
Hindu culture. He gave grants to the Brahmins and the temples.
7. Virupaksha II (AD 1465–1485): He is said to be the last ruler of the
Sangam dynasty. He was a very luxury loving ruler and used to drink
excessively. During his time, both the internal revolts as well as foreign invasions
were accelerated.
A great part of the empire along with the regions of Goa, Damol and Chaol
went over to the Bahmani empire. The greatest blow to his power was dealt
at the eastern coast where his authority was reduced to being only a nominal
leader. However, the powerful chieftain of Chandgiri named Narsinga Saluva
also rendered some valuable services to the Vijaynagar empire. He started a
campaign against the Gajpatis of Orissa, occupied Udaipur, and suppressed
the Kapileshwar. He drove out the Orissians from the eastern Coast and
himself occupied the Godavari regions.
In AD 1485, the eldest son of Virupaksha II assassinated his father but seated
his younger brother Pachha Rao on the throne instead of ascending himself.
He, in turn, assassinated his elder brother and immersed himself in luxury. In
such a situation, Saluva Narsingh of Chandgiri attacked Vijaynagar, conquered
it and began the reign of the Saluva dynasty in Vijaynagar.
8. Saluva dynasty (AD 1486–1505): Saluva Narsingh (AD 1486–1492) founded
the second ruling dynasty of Vijaynagar in AD 1486. He ruled for six years. He
had to spend his time and energy in fighting against many feudatories and
bringing them under control. He achieved success against his integral enemies
but was defeated and captured by Gajpati Purshottam of Orissa. He had to
give over to Purshottam, the fort of Udaigiri and the neighbouring region only
then he was released from the prison but achieved victory over Tulu region and
the port areas of Honavar, Battakul, Baknur and Mangalore so that he could
resume horse trade with the Arab countries. He died in AD 1491. The greatest
contribution of Saluva Narisingh is that he saved Vijaynagar from imminent ruin
and re-conquered the entire area lost by his preceding rulers of Vijaynagar.
70 Self-Instructional Material
9. Regent Narsa Nailk and Immadi Narsingh (AD 1493–1504): Saluva Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
Narisingh was followed on the throne by his eldest son, Immadi Narsingh. He Rise of Afghans
was a minor, therefore, Commander Narsa Naik became his regent. Gradually,
however, he usurped the entire power. When the son came of age, there was
a difference of opinion between the two, whereupon the commander NOTES
imprisoned him in the fort of Penukonda. For the next twelve to thirteen
years, Narsa Naik was the real ruler of Vijaynagar. In AD 1493, he snatched
many forts of Raichur Doab from Kasim of Bidar. However, due to lack of
discipline in the army, the victory soon turned into defeat. Raichur and Mukdala
were again lost. He, however, waged a successful campaign against the
rulers of Bijapur, Bidar, Madura, Shrirangapattam and so forth. From the
inscriptions of his successors, it is proved that he forced the Chera, Chola and
Gajpati rulers to accept the suzerainty of the Vijaynagar empire. In AD 1503,
regent Narsa Naik died and was followed by his son Vir Narsingh who was
also a regent.
10. Tuluva dynasty (AD 1505–1565), Vir Narsingh (AD 1505): According
to some historians, Vir Narsingh founded the Tuluva dynasty in AD 1505.
During his time there were revolts everywhere. He suspected his step brother
Krishna of harbouring rebellious tendencies and ordered his Prime Minister
Saluva Tikka to take out his eyes who, however, freed Krishna, taking merey
on his tender age and befooled Vir Narsingh by showing him the eyes of a
goat. Probably, in AD 1505, Vir Narsingh died and his cousin brother Krishnadev
Rai became the ruler of Vijaynagar, thus, founding the third ruling dynasty of
Vijaynagar in a real sense.
11. Krishnadev Rai (AD 1505–1529): Krishnadev Rai is supposed to be the
real founder of the third dynasty of Vijaynagar. He ascended the throne on 8
August, AD 1505. He had to face many problems at the time of his accession.
Gradually, he overcame all the difficulties and began an era of successes for
Vijaynagar again.
The rebellious feudal chieftain of Ummutur wanted to occupy a very large part of
Karnataka. The Gajpati rulers of Orissa had under their control the north-eastern
districts of Vijaynagar empire and the ruler Prataprudra had assumed an attitude of
open hostility and aggression. Though the Bahmani kingdom had been divided into
five parts, yet there was a pressure from the side of the Bijapur state.
Inspite of all these difficulties, Krishnadev Rai achieved some milestones
during his reign which were as follows:
In AD 1509, he defeated the ruler of Bihar, Sultan Mahmudshah, near Adoni.
He had attacked Vijaynagar seeing Krishnadev Rai surrounded by several
difficulties.
In AD 1510, he suppressed the rebellious chieftain of Ummutur.
In AD 1512, Krishnadev Rai started a campaign against Yusuf Adilshah of
Bijapur and took away the Raichur Doab from him.
Self-Instructional Material 71
Disintegration of the Then he turned his attention towards Prataprudra Gajpatti of Orissa so that
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans the eastern parts of the empire should be snatched from him. He organized a separate
campaign to conquer each fort and arranged for sending of confidential commanders
to organize their administration after their conquests. In AD 1514, he captured the
NOTES fort of Udaigiri and imprisoned the uncle and aunt of the ruler of Orissa. His inscriptions
speak of his achieving success in conquering many small forts like Achhanaki,
Venukonda, Belankonda and Nagarijunkonda. He also occupied the fort of Kondavidu.
He remained in his capital from AD 1516–1519.
The last victory of Krishnadev Rai was against the ruler of Bijapur, Khan
Ismile Adilshah. He tried to reconquer the area of Raichur Doab and dashed to the
ground the famous fort of Gulburga, and thus, the influence of Vijaynagar became
supreme over all the kingdoms of the South. Nevertheless, the results of these
victories were that Krishnadev himself became very adventurous and placed inciting
conditions before the rulers of the defeated kingdoms. He detained the emissary of
Adilshah for about a month in his own kingdom and sent a message at his hands that
if, Sultan Adilshah came and prostrated himself before Krishnadev Rai and kissed
his feet, only then would return all his forts and other areas. The five Muslim kingdoms,
which rose on the disintegration of the Bahmani kingdom, gradually realized the
growing power of Vijaynagar and a feeling of combining against Vijaynagar gained
ground amongst them. Krishnadev Rai died in about AD 1529.
Evaluation of the Achievements of Krishnadev Rai
(a) As a conqueror: Krishnadev Rai was the best ruler of the third ruling dynasty
of Vijaynagar – the Tuluva dynasty, whose mention has been made by Babur
in his Tuzuk-i-Babari. Even the contemporary historians have praised his
personality, administration and able commandership. He defeated most of the
Muslim kingdoms of the Deccan and avenged the defeat of his predecessors.
(b) As a ruler: Krishnadev Rai was as great a statesman, administrator and a
patron of art, as he was a conqueror. He was the all-powerful ruler of his
kingdom. However, for taking advantages from the decentralization of his
empire, he divided his empire into many parts and their administration was
assigned to a governor, who was usually the military commander. The provincial
governors sent annual tributes to the central government, maintained a regular
army and gave military help to the central government in case of need. He
also took a keen interest in the activities of public welfare. He gave equal
respect to all the sects of Hindu religion. He made good arrangements for
providing trading facilities at many ports.
(c) As a literate: Krishnadev Rai himself was a great scholar and a poet. He
wrote a poem ‘Amuktamalyada’ in Telugu. Many literary experts enjoyed
patronage in his court, chief amongst whom was the Telugu court poet Allasani
Peddana.
(d) As a patron of art: He was a great lover of art. He got a new Gopura tower
constructed and the Gopura of Virupaksha temple repaired. He got the
Krishnaswamy temple constructed and got the statue of infant Krishna installed
72 Self-Instructional Material
in it. He built the city of Nagpur. He got many ponds constructed for the Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
irrigation and water facilities. After his death, Vijaynagar empire started Rise of Afghans
disintegrating.
Achyutdev Rai (AD 1529–1542) NOTES
Before his death, Krishnadev Rai nominated his cousin (brother) Achyutdev Rai as
his successor because his own son was just eighteen months old and was incapable
of ascending the throne. But the son-in-law of Krishnadev Rai, Ram Rai did not like
the arrangement. He tried to proclaim the minor son of Krishnadev Rai as the
rightful ruler but Achyutdev Rai, in order to advent the civil war, made Ram Rai a
co-partner in the power. Seeing this internal dissension, all the enemies of Vijaynagar
started attacking it. Prataprudra Gajpati of Orissa attacked Vijaynagar but they had
to retreat. Ismail Adil of Bijapur occupied the forts of Raichur and Mudgal. Sultan
Quli Qutubshah of Golkunda tried to occupy Kondavidu but even he had to return
disappointed because Achyutdev Rai himself led an army against Golkunda.
In AD 1534, he re-conquered Raichur and Mudgal from Bijapur because an
internal conflict was going on there. (After the death of Ismail Adilshah there was a
struggle for the throne between his son Mallu and Ibrahim. Taking advantage of the
absence of Achyutdev Rai, Ram Rai appointed his nominees on some important posts
setting aside those of Achyutdev Rai). It is said that when Achyutudev Rai returned
from the campaign of Bijapur, Ram Rai imprisoned him and proclaimed himself as the
ruler. Nonetheless, seeing the disapproval of the public, he nominally placed his nephew
(the nephew of Achyutdev Rai) Sadashiv Rai on the throne and ran the administration
in his name. Meanwhile, there was a rebellion in the far South and Ram Rai had to
leave the capital to reach there. In his absence, one of his close confidants betrayed
him, freed Achyutdev Rai from the prison and became his chief minister. But the
brother-in-law of Achyutdev Rai set all of them aside and he assumed the reign of
power. Hearing about these events, Ram Rai came back to Vijaynagar. Meanwhile,
the Sultan of Bijapur, Ibrahim Adil Khan started a campaign against Vijaynagar and
dashed Nagpur to ground but due to good luck of Vijaynagar, the ruler of Ahmadnagar
attacked Bijapur and then the ruler of Bijapur himself tried to make Achyutdev Rai
and Ram Rai friends and himself went back to Bijapur. According to the agreement
between the two, Achyutdev Rai became the ruler but Ram Rai was given the right to
take any decision in Gutti without any interferences. However, Achyutdev Rai assigned
many rights to his brother-in-law, Tirumal which led to corruption in the Vijaynagar
empire and people had to bear the burden of many taxes. Rebellious tendencies raised
their head against Vijaynagar in Madura, Jinji and Tanjavur, and on the other hand, the
Portuguese tried to establish their influence on both the sea coasts.
In AD 1542, Achyutdev Rai died. After him, his minor son, Venkata I was
made the ruler of Vijaynagar and his maternal uncle Tirumal became his regent. The
mother of the minor prince, Vardha Devi suspected the intention of her brother
Tirumal and asked help from Adilshah of Bijapur. Adilshah started towards Vijaynagar
but Tirumal bribed him and won him over to his side, while he was on his way to
Vijaynagar. On the other hand, Ram Rai freed the nephew of Sadashiv from the
prison in Gutti and proclaimed him as the ruler of Vijaynagar in agreement with
Adilshah.
Self-Instructional Material 73
Disintegration of the Sadashiv (AD 1542–1565)
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans Sadashiv remained on the throne from AD 1542 to 1565, though the actual power
remained in the hands of Ram Rai. Ram Rai was helped a great deal by his two
brothers, Tirumal and Venkatadri. Ram Rai appointed his supporters on the highest
NOTES
posts after dismissing the old loyal and faithful officials. He suppressed all his rivals
and established the control of Vijaynagar on Travankore and Mastsya. The conflict
between Vijaynagar and the Muslim states of Deccan started with the accession of
Sadashiv only. Ibrahim Adilshah of Bijapur, in collaboration with Burhan Nizamshah
of Ahmadnagar, attacked Vijaynagar and conquered few of its areas. In this situation,
the rulers of Vijaynagar adopted a policy of interfering in the internal affairs of its
enemy Muslim kingdoms. By its diplomacy and strength, Vijaynagar brought about
dissension amongst Bijapur and Ahmadnagar, won Burhan over to its side and with
his support defeated Ibrahim Adilshah successively in three conflicts. By AD 1552,
Adilshah was suppressed completely. Vijaynagar established its control both over
Raichur and Mudgal. In AD 1553, after the death of Burhanshah, his son Hussain
Nizamshah became the Sultan of Ahmadnagar. He, in collaboration with Ibrahim
Qutubshah of Golkunda attacked Bijapur in AD 1555.
On the request of Bijapur, Ram Rai came to his side and forced the armies of
Ahmadnagar and Golkunda to retreat. In AD 1559, Ahmadnagar had to sign a
humiliating treaty. The ruler of Golkunda also had to surrender before Vijaynagar
because he also used to fight against Vijaynagar in league with the rulers of
Ahmadnagar. In this way, Vijaynagar became the supreme power of the Deccan by
AD 1560. For about twenty months, Ram Rai kept his control over the Muslim
rulers. It would not be wrong to say that the military might of Vijaynagar kept under
control the three Muslim kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Golkunda and Bidar and kept
Bijapur at the mercy of Vijaynagar.
Causes of the Decline of Vijaynagar
The Muslim kingdom of Deccan saw it clearly that Ram Rai was taking advantage
of their mutual dissensions. All of them got scared of the growing power of Vijaynagar
and decided to come together, forgetting their mutual differences. All the Muslim
states decided to enter into a confederation against Vijaynagar. Vijaynagar had inflicted
the greatest problems on Ibrahim Qutubshah and Hussain Nizamshah. Therefore,
they took the keenest interest in the formation of the confederation. Historians differ
widely on the causes of the formation of this confederation and the background of
the war of Rakshasa–Tangdi. Farishta writes that the rulers of Vijaynagar had
assaulted the Muslim women, desecrated the mosques and disrespected the Holy
Quran.
However, no independent evidence corroborates this view. Hindu historians
mention that the five Muslim Sultans were in opposition to Ram Rai but Muslim
historians leave out the name of Berar from it. There is difference of opinion also on
the question as to which Muslim Sultans took the lead in forming the great confederation
against Vijaynagar. According to Farishta this plan originated with Adilshah of Bijapur
whereas Shirazi attributes it to Husain Nizamshah of Ahmadnagar. Whatever be the
case, the actual cause of the formation of this confederation was that the power of
74 Self-Instructional Material
Vijaynagar had increased greatly and all the Muslim Sultans of the Deccan felt Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
jealous of it. They realized that they would not be able to rule peacefully unless and Rise of Afghans
until the power of Vijaynagar was suppressed. The haughty behaviour of Ram Rai
of Vijaynagar can also be held responsible for this confederation and the ensuing
war. Whatever be the causes of the war, there is no doubt in the fact that Ibrahim NOTES
Qutubshah of Golkunda took solid steps towards bringing together Ali Adilshah and
Hussain Nizamshah who were engaged in mutual conflict for the control over
Sholapur. Ibrahim Qutubshah made both the rulers give up their mutual hostility for
the common cause of defeating Vijaynagar and consolidated their friendship by a
matrimonial alliance. In accordance with this agreement, Hussain Nizamshah married
his daughter Chand Bibi to Ali Adilshah and gave Sholapur in dowry. The elder son
of Hussain Nizam Shah named Murtaza married the sister of Ali Adilshah. In AD
1559, Ibrahim Qutubshah of Golkunda himself married the daughter of Hussain
Nizam Shah. Ali Bidarshah of Bidar also joined the confederation when the formation
of the confederation was complete. He demanded of the ruler of Vijaynagar that he
should return the forts of Raichur, Mudgal and others. Ram Rai did not heed the
demand.
Then the combined Muslim armies of the Deccan Sultans advanced towards
Vijaynagar (28 December, AD 1564) and encamped at Talikota. According to
Farishta, this battle was fought at Talikota but the actual field of the battle was
between the two village, Rakshasa and Tangdi.
Therefore, historians refer to it not as the battle of Talikota but as the battle of
Rakshsa and Tangdi. Both the armies stood opposite each other for some time and
the actual battle started on 25 January, AD 1565. Initially, the armies of Muslim
confederation were defeated but later on the Muslim artillery wrought ruin on the
Vijaynagar army and its cavalry unsettled them completely.
During this crisis, the Muslim generals in the Vijaynagar army went over to
the side of their co-religionists along with their armies and dealt a fatal blow in the
midst of the battle. Ram Rai was surrounded. Hussain Nizam Shah immediately
imprisoned and murdered him so that Ali Adilshah might not press for his release.
The victors entered Vijaynagar and encamped there for five months and perpetrated
massacre, plunder, desecration and destruction in such a manner that Vijaynagar
whose beauty was praised by all the foreign travellers alike was ruined to such an
extent that its reconstruction was rendered impossible. The period of the glory of
the Vijaynagar empire is said to have come to an end after this war.
Although the Vijaynagar empire continued to shrink and lost its political
significance in south India, the next ruler Tirumal entered into a treaty with the Deccan
Sultans and gave them back all the regions that Ram Rai had snatched from them. It
is said that in AD 1568 Vincent II, the son of the actual ruler Tirumal Rai, who was
ruling in the name of nominal ruler Sadashiv Rai had made Penougonda his new
capital, and murdered the nominal ruler Sadashiv Rai. With this, the third dynasty of
Vijaynagar came to an end and was replaced by the Aravidue dynasty. chief rulers of
this dynasty were – Tirumal Rai (AD 1568–1572), Shir Ranga I (AD 1572–1585),
Venkata Rai Ii (AD 1586–1614), Shir Ranga II (AD 1614–1617), Ramdev Rai (AD
Self-Instructional Material 75
Disintegration of the 1618–1630), Venkata III (AD 1630–1642) and Shir Ranga III (AD 1642–1649). In
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans 1649, this kingdom had to surrender itself before Bijapur and Shri Ranga III stayed on
in Mysore and died there only in AD 1672, dreaming of regaining his lost kingdom.
Self-Instructional Material 79
Disintegration of the 13. Shahabuddin Mahmud III and the Regency (AD 1463–1482)
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans After the death of Ahmad Hassan (alias Nizamuddin III) his younger brother Mahmud
Khan ascended the throne assuming the title Muhammad III. He was only nine
NOTES years old therefore, the regency continued to run the administration even in his time.
One member of the regency, Khwaja Jahan, revolted and for this treachery, the
queen mother punished him by having him hanged. Mahmud Gawan, who was
devoting great attention towards the education of young Sultan was given the title
Amir-ul-Umra and he was ordered to stay in the capital itself. When the Sultan was
fifteen years of age, the queen mother left politics and the Sultan began to rule under
the supervision of Mahmud Gawan. In the Prime Ministership of Mahmud Gawan,
the Bahmani empire not only achieved cultural progress but for the first time it was
extended from the Koromandal Coast to the Arabian Sea Coast. In the reign of
Mahmud III in AD 1472, Bankapur was invaded, whose ruler Virkan surrendered.
Next four-five years were spent in struggle with Orissa in AD 1474–1475 because
of the misbehaviour of the officials at Kondavidu.
The people there had risen in revolt and had murdered the governor. After a
prolonged struggle the ruler Purushotam Gajpati was forced to surrender but, soon
after, in AD 1480–1481, the army posted at Kondavidu revolted and went over to
the side of Vijaynagar ruler Rai Narshingh. The Bahmani Sultan suppressed this
revolt and invaded Vijaynagar to teach the kingdom a lesson. Vijaynagar was defeated
and a major part of it was annexed to the Bahmani empire. This was the last and the
most important achievement of Mahmud Gawan. The Deccanis plotted against him.
To prove the charges framed by them, they got a plain paper stamped and on it a
forged letter was drafted in the name of Raja Purushotam on behalf of Mahmud
Gawan. In it was written that the people were fed up with Sultan Muhammad
because of his cruelty and drunkenness and that he should invade the Bahmani
kingdom. When this letter was shown to the Bahmani Sultan he became very angry.
Though Mahmud Gawan repeatedly asserted that he had no concern whatsoever
with that letter but Sultan paid to heed to it and ordered his Abyssinian Slave Gulam
Jouhar to slay the Wazir at that very spot. It was done on 5 April, AD 1481. Thus,
was killed the only adviser of the Bahmani empire who was honest and able. After
Mahmud Gawan’s death when the Sultan came to know about the plot of the Deccani
nobles against Gawan, he was deeply grieved and himself died within a year on 22
March, AD 1482.
The Successors of Mahmud III and the Decline of the Bahmani
Empire (AD 1482–1527)
Mahmud III was succeeded by his younger son Mahmud Shah as Sultan. He was
very incapable and pleasure-loving person. Since he was only twelve years of age,
he made Nizam-ul-Mulk his regent or Malik Naik. The struggle between the two
sections of the Amirs increased because of their selfish interests. It is said that on
the incitement by the Deccani nobles the Sultan issued the orders of the massacre
of the Turks and about 4000 people were killed. After the domination of the Deccani
nobles for four years, the Sultan made an unsuccessful attempt to get Nizam-ul-
80 Self-Instructional Material
Mulk assassinated during the Telangana campaign so that he should be able to get Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
out of their stranglehold. He became inclined towards the African group. On the Rise of Afghans
other hand, the governor of Telangana revolted and there was revolt in Goa and
Chakan as well which was assisted by Amir Yusuf Adil, staying at Bijapur at that
time. He had left the port of Bidar in anger. Malik Hassan tried to capture the NOTES
treasury for becoming the Sultan himself. The Sultan thereupon ordered the governor
of Bidar Dilpasand Khan to assassinate him. In November, AD 1487 the Deccani
nobles, in alliance with their African counterpart, tried unsuccessfully to slay the
Sultan. In AD 1490, Yusuf Adil Khan of Bijapur and Fathulla Imad-ul-Mulk of Berar
declared their independence in AD 1512. Qutubul Mulk of Golkunda and Barid-ul-
Mulk of Bidar also declared themselves independent as also like the Nizam-ul-Mulk
of Ahmednagar. Sultan Mahmud III and three of his immediate successors (who
were only nominal Sultans) remained a puppet in the hands of Barid-ul-Mulk of
Bidar and after his death that of his son Amir Ali Brid. The last Bahmani Sultan was
Kalimulla Shah. In AD 1527 with his death ended the Bahmani empire as well and
on its ruins arose five independent kingdoms—(1) Baridshashi Kingdom of Bidar,
(2) Adilshashi Kingdom of Bijapur, (3) Nizamshashi Kingdom of Ahmednagar, (4)
Imadshahi Kingdom of Berar and (5) Qutubshahi Kingdom of Golkunda.
Causes for the Downfall of the Bahmani Kingdom
Many causes were responsible for the decline of the Bahmani kingdom. The chief
causes will as follows:
Internal intrigues and Civil Wars: The Bahmani dynasty ruled for 175
years and had in total seventeen sultans, out of which five were assassinated,
three deposed, two blinded and two died of excessive drinking. It can be said,
therefore, that due to lack of any definite rules of succession, incessant intrigue
within the royal household as well as among the high officials caused monetary
and physical damage to it and contributed to the growth of indiscipline. During
the reign of Sultan Shahabuddin Mahmud, the Queen mother ordered Khan-
i-Jahan to be hanged.
Partisanship of the Deccanis (original inhabitants) and the Afaquis
(foreign settlers): Some historians say that the Bahmani kingdom was
founded by those Amirs who had come and settled in India from Persia,
Turkey and so forth. There was deep enmity between them and the original
inhabitants. They wanted to give the entire credit for every success to their
party and put the blame for every failure on the opposite group. In this party
rivalry, an able man like Mahmud Gawan became a victim. He had served
the Bahmani kingdom for thirty-five years but the party politics led to his
assassination and within a short time of his death, the Bahmani kingdom
disintegrated.
Religious fanaticism of some rulers: Some of the Bahmani rulers were
religious fanatics and they did not show real sympathy towards their Hindu
subjects. The Bahmani Sultans considered it their God given duty to propagate
Islamic culture in the Deccan. Since Muslims numbered less than the Hindus,
many a time they raised the slogan of Jihad (crusade) and the Muslim soldiers
lost their lives in large numbers in the ensuing warfare. Fanatic Sultans tried
Self-Instructional Material 81
Disintegration of the to carry out a general massacre of the Hindus quite a number of times which
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans
aroused the fanaticism of the Hindus as well, and thus, the Bahmani empire
grew weak progressively.
Defective Foreign Policy: Bahmani Sultans followed a policy of warfare
NOTES and enmity towards all their neighbouring states like Malwa, Khandesh, Gujarat,
Telangana, Vijaynagar and others. Majority of the Sultans tried to win popularity
by their military achievements; very few of them utilized their time for the
public welfare activities. Their attitude weakened the Bahmani kingdom.
Excessive authority given to Provincial Governors: Ever since the time
of the foundation of the Bahmani empire, the governors of four major provinces
(who were called Tarafs) were given the right to collect revenue and maintain
a big army. The Centre had no great control over them. Mahmud Gawan
tried to divide them into eight parts and tried to bring them under the greater
control of the Centre but the Sultans following him could not arrest their
ambition and soon after his death, they started proclaiming themselves
independent and the central government could do nothing against it.
Financial Disparity: Some historians hold the opinion that an important cause
of the downfall of the Bahmani empire was financial disparity prevailing there.
A Russian merchant Atansiuv Nikitn, who stayed in Bidar in AD 1470–1474
wrote that the population of the empire was too much but the condition of the
common man was miserable, whereas the Amirs were very rich and lived a
luxurious life. Briefly then, the party groupings in the Bahmani court,
administrative defects and a protected struggle against Vijaynagar and other
kingdoms contributed to its downfall.
The Bhakti and Sufi movement in India played an important role in bringing harmony
between the Hindus and the Muslims.
2.4.1 Sufi Movement
Sufism is defined as the inner mystical dimension of Islam and whoever adheres to
the principles of Sufism is called a Sufi.
Sufism, more often is referred to as a way of life, and encompasses mysticism
within it. Being a Sufi is all about being a true human being, free from all bondages
and possessing a clear conscience.
82 Self-Instructional Material
Sufism is based on comprehending how to be a complete person; to exist in Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
total synchronization with the environment, after surrendering to the will of God and Rise of Afghans
to amalgamate one’s distinctiveness with that of God. Sufism is consequently a
matter of conduct. It concerns personal conduct and can be achieved with practice.
It is difficult to define ‘Sufism’ in simple words. It needs to be understood. NOTES
Questions regarding the exact period and the place of its origin remain
unanswered till date. Scholars also differ in their opinion regarding the origin of the
word ‘sufi’. The majority of them agree that the word was derived from ‘Suf’
which is the Arabic term for wool. They base their theory on the fact that the early
Sufis wore coarse woollen garments as an act of austerity, and hence, the name
‘Sufis’. The minor group holds the view that sufi is derived from ‘safh’ which
means cleanliness or purity as the Sufis laid great stress on the wholesomeness of
mind, body and behaviour.
At around the turn of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, most Muslim rulers
led a luxurious life; courtesy the vast empires formed as a result of annexation and
plundering the wealth of the defeated kingdoms. This heightened the need of a more
sober way of life based on values and not just the desire for materialistic contentment.
It was believed that Sufism had originated in the midst of Muslims near Basra in
modern Iraq, and mostly all traditional Sufi schools owe their existence to Prophet
Muhammad via his cousin and son-in-law Imam Ali Ibn Abi Talib. In the midst of
this, the Naqshbandi Order is a notable exception to this rule, as it traces its origin to
Caliph Abu Bakr. The spread of Sufism or to be more precise Sufism as a movement
took place between1200 and1500 CE. In fact, this period is acknowledged as the
conventional phase of Sufism. The Sufi movement was propagated from Baghdad’s
major Shia areas like Khorasa, Iraq, then Persia, the Indian, African subcontinents
and Muslim Spain.
Philosophy of Sufism
The fundamental nature of Sufism is the search and achievement of unconditional
non-existence, a state that needs no existence besides the Almighty. The idea of a
cherished communion of the self with the Eternal actuality is innermost to being a
Sufi. Sufism is a kind of spiritual activation of the person, a development of the self
in harmony with the others. Sufis believe in the evolution of man into an absolute
man by illumination through one’s own experience and understanding.
Sufis embrace that man is God’s greatest and highest form of creation having
his own individuality, acquaintance and bliss, yet he is not perfect. It is said that God
has made human beings in His own image and then there is a reflection of all His
attributes in the human being. Since God Himself is perfect, the desire to accomplish
perfection is reflected overwhelmingly in the human beings.
Man has evolved into a human being after passing from the beginning to the
end through various stages of evolution, which reflect in his being. All that is there in
the universe is reflected in him. Even before his birth, God has blessed man with
these qualities in the most balanced state. Since human beings are not perfect, God
has bestowed upon man the faculty of reasoning to distinguish between good and
Self-Instructional Material 83
Disintegration of the bad and to achieve perfection through practice. God has provided man with all that
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans is necessary to make progress—mind, wisdom and conscience and His Divine
energy, which is called ‘Mercy’. It is the distinguishing quality of God’s grace that
the man is not left alone, only he has to use his effort and will rule to make
NOTES advancement. One may choose the path of downfall by forgetting one’s original
nature and adopting worldly things, and consequently, be converted into a victim of
affliction and pain or one may use his discretion to search for the right path. True
repentance and a wholehearted prayer pave the way for one to reach the right path.
The real meaning of Sufism lies in following the right path and achieving flawlessness.
Leaders of the Sufi Movement
In the thirteenth century the major pioneers of the Sufi movement were four friends
popularly referred to as ‘Chaar Yaar’— Baba Sheikh Farid Shakarganj of Pakpattan
(AD 1174–1266); Jalaluddin Bukhari of Uch Bahawalpur (AD1196–1294) Bahauddin
Zakaria of Multan (AD1170–1267) and Lal Shahbaz Qalandar of Sehwan (AD1177–
1274). The Sufi who left an indelible mark both on India and on the times gone by of
Sufism was Abul Hasan Ali Ibn Usman al-Hujwiri, aknowleged as Data Ganj Bakhsh,
who reached Lahore in AD1035. The religion of the Chistis, founded by Khawaja
Abdal Chisti was introduced in India by Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti.
Teachings of Sufism
The central doctrine of Sufism is Wahdat-al-Wujud, or the ‘oneness of being’. This
is derived directly from the Shahada in Islam which is understood not only as ‘there
is no God but God’, but also as ‘there is no reality except Reality’. One of the names
of God, indeed, is al-Haqq, which means ‘Reality’ or ‘Truth’. The Sufis teach that
the relative has no reality other than in the Absolute, and the finite has no reality
other than in the Infinite. In Islam, man has access to the Absolute and the Infinite
through the Holy Quran, which is the revelation of God to the world, and also through
the Prophet who, within the world itself, is God’s very reflection.
Sufism teaches that God can only be acknowledged when the human ego is
extinguished and done away with as it stands in the way of realization of God. This
does not mean that the immortal essence of the soul has to be destroyed. In fact,
one needs to dissolve the mental chaos, made up of passions and imaginings, which
has a constant tendency to restrict consciousness to the level of temporary
appearances.
When this veil of selfishness is lifted from the Spirit which is hidden underneath,
then for the first time things are seen as they really are. God is seen in His all-
embracing Presence.
The presence of God is, according to Sufi teachings, not the brain but the
heart. The heart is the seat, not of the sentiments, but of the Intellect or Spirit (ar-
Ruh), which penetrates to reality and transcends mental forms.
The consciousness of man is said to be captured in a dream-like state of
forgetfulness acknowledged as Ghafla. It is for this reason that man must be
‘reminded’ of That which he has forgotten, and this is the reason for what is
84 Self-Instructional Material
acknowledged as Dhikr, which the Sufi must practise in a large variety of ways. In Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
essence, Dhikr includes in itself the concepts of means recollection, mindfulness, Rise of Afghans
contemplation and invocation.
Sufism can be considered as a universal faith with liberal teaching and great
tolerance as exhibited in the conduct of most of the Sufis. Sufism does not just find NOTES
expression in merely the mental dimensions, but also in poetry and the visual arts. It
has found great acceptance among its followers mainly because it can speak without
hindrance not only to learned believers, but also to the common man.
Origin of Sufism
Origin of Sufism reveals that it has followed a long period of evolution since the time
of its inception. In fact, Sufism was in existence even before the time of Prophet
Muhammad, despite the fact, it gained recognition and popularity as a dogma only
after the coming of the Prophet.
According to Qushayri (AD 988) and some other scholars like Shihabuddin
Suhrawardi, the term ‘Sufi’ was first used at the end of second century, that is, in
the early AD ninth century. The term Sufi did not find a mention either in the Sihah-
i- Sittah compiled in the ninth and tenth century AD or in the Arabic dictionary, the
Qamus compiled in the early fifteenth century.
The very early period of Islam witnessed it as a religion where reconciliation
and harmony with people was being gently persuaded rather than being coerced into
it. However, the undutiful rule of the Umayyad immediately following the first four
Caliphs created such political and social conditions that many Muslims adopted
asceticism and a life of seclusion to seek peace of soul. Towards the end of the 1st
century Hijri, there were many who moved beyond the life of ascetics and seclusion
to one of contemplation, vision and ecstasy. The life of austerity and poverty, which
was hitherto conceived essential for gaining access to paradise, came to be reconciled
as an expression of devotion to God. Not only that, gradually the focus shifted from
material wealth to the lack of desire for possession, that is, a true detachment from
all worldly things. Most of them were, however, orthodox Muslims in their beliefs
and practices. They had yet not distinguished spirituality from religion and laid great
emphasis on the teachings of the Holy Quran and traditions.
The Sufis in the period immediately subsequent to Prophet Muhammad spent
their lives in fasting and in observing the rules of Sharia (the Islamic code of conduct),
giving up the worldly pleasures—wealth, fame, feasts and women. They spent their
time in solitude away from the society, seeking anonymity, hunger and celibacy.
They more often than not lived on scanty food and wore little clothes. They were
more concerned with the punishments and rewards for the infidels and the believers.
The early Caliphs conquered large areas, accumulated lot of wealth and
became supreme political powers of their time. This resulted in many ancient centres
of learning and particularly the traditional schools of mystical teaching also falling
under their stronghold. Buddhism, by that time, was firmly rooted in Central Asia
that had come under Muslim rule together with north-west India. These external
contacts had their impact on various Sufi practices. They adopted and evolved a
Self-Instructional Material 85
Disintegration of the variety of practices (apparently different from the ritual prayers) to enhance their
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans spiritual experiences and to attain the state of ecstasy.
This evolution of Sufi thinking was greatly influenced by many factors including
emergence of Mutazilis—a rationalist group within Islam, Batinis—an esoteric group,
NOTES Bisheriyas—an antinomian group, Christological sects like the Gnostics and
Manicheans and the mystical groups like the Hermetics and Neoplatonists. Sufi
mystics are reported to have visited monasteries of Christian monks, to study their
devotional literature and had discussions with them on spiritual aspects.
Many Sufis claimed their teachings were acknowledged even before the advent
of Islam. They believed that these were received and handed down from antiquity
through various saints and prophets in the form of knowledge transmitted candidly.
By the end of eighth century, Sufism had evolved to a great extent as an
unorthodox way of realizing the truth. Some of the early great Sufis were Hasan of
Basra, Wasil Ibn Ata, Abdullah Ibn Maymun, Ibrahim Ibn Adham, Rabia of Basra,
Maruful Karkhi, Khabit, Abu Sulaiman Darani, Ahmad Ibn Harith al Muhasibi, Dhul
Nun Misri, Abu Yazid Bistami, Hussain Mansoor Hallaj, Abu Said, Omar Khayyam,
Sanai, Ibn Arabi, Maulana Rumi and Hafiz.
Dhul Nun Misri was a learned person, who often experienced conditions of
ecstasy. He considered devotional music to be a divine influence, which could help
one attain God. He is credited by Jami in Nafhat-ul-Uns to be the first person to
profess the tenets of Sufism. Abu Yazid al Bistami was one of the greatest Sufi
masters of the ninth century, who was the first one to speak about the reality of
Fana, that is, annihilation or merger of one’s identity completely with God. The
pantheistic features of Sufism are attributed to Bayazid. Thus, in the ninth century,
the Sufis recognized that spiritual progress cannot be achieved by following Sharia
alone. It was necessary for guiding their conduct, but not enough. They started
adopting various spiritual practices over and above Sharia, known as Tariqat (the
path). They considered that following Shariat and Tariqat is essential to reach the
Haqiqat (the truth).
The Sufi saints were mystics who came from Persia in the eleventh century
AD. They believed that there is only one God and all people are his children. They
too, like the Bhakti saints, believed in equality and love for the fellow being and
discarded feasts, fasts and rituals. They also emphasized that one can come near
God through love and devotion. A form of devotional music (qawwali) emerged.
They mixed freely with the Hindus, and preached religious tolerance. The Sufis
were organized into twelve orders or Silsilahs.
Moinuddin Chisti
Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti was a Sufi saint who came to India in AD 1192. After
living in Lahore and Delhi for sometime, he shifted to Ajmer. His fame spread far
and wide. He died in AD 1235. His dargah at Ajmer is a place of pilgrimage for
thousands who come every year from all over the country and the world over.
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Baba Farid Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
Baba Shaikh Farid was one of the founding fathers of Chisti Sufi order. He became Rise of Afghans
a disciple of Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, who was a disciple of Sheikh
Moinuddin Chisti. He preached in Haryana and Punjab. He insisted that the only
NOTES
way to love God was through the love of his people. Some of his verses are included
in the Adi Granth and his followers included both Hindus and Muslims.
Nizamuddin Auliya and Salim Chisti
Hazrat Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Nasiruddin Chirag of Delhi and Salim Chisti
of Sikri were the other Sufi saints of fame. They preached that Ishwar and Allah are
the two different names of the same Superior Being. Nizamuddin Auliya lived in
Delhi during the reign of Alauddin Khilji and preached religious tolerance and love
for humanity.
In the later centuries, Sufism was also greatly influenced by the
broadmindedness of the Kashmiris, a composite of Hindu–Muslim culture, in particular
in the fifteenth century. It was for the period of this time that Sufism came to be
influenced by other religious beliefs as well. The ideal of life was considered to
purify the soul, have love, regard and trust in the humanity and to achieve a perfect
harmony of co-existence. There appeared a close resemblance between the lifestyles
of Sufis and Hindu saints as well as Buddhist monks.
It is consequently evident from the ongoing discussions on Sufism that the
Sufis have been in existence since ancient times and Sufism is much older than
Islam. The advent of Islam, with the proclamation of Prophet Muhammad of the
unity of the Supreme Being, that is, there is one God, had the greatest influence on
the Sufis of post-Islamic period.
Principles of Sufism
Principles of Sufism were tabulated by Abdul Khaliq al Ghujdawani one of the
greatest Sufi saints of the Naqshbandi order. These principles essentially comprise
the various basic requirements and objectives of Sufism and the best way to practice
the same. To the list of principles that he compiled, three more were added later by
Muhammad Bahauddin Shah Naqshband.
The basic principles of Sufism were propounded by Abdul Khaliq al
Ghujdawani, who was one of the greatest Sufi masters of the Naqshbandi Order of
Sufis. Till about the sixth century Hijri, the Sufis practised loud Dhikr (Jikr, Japa or
remembrance), that is, they used to recite the name of the Almighty loudly. It was
Shaikh Gujdawani who introduced and propounded the system of silent Dhikr. He
was the first one in the Sufi orders to use silent Dhikr and was later considered the
master of silent Dhikr. He coined the following phrases to which three more principles
were added later by Muhammad Bahauddin Shah Naqshband after whom the order
acquired its name. In his book Faslul Kitab, Shaikh Muhammad Parsa, a friend and
biographer of Shah Naqshband, said that the method of Shaikh Khwaja Abdul Khaliq
al Ghujdawani in Dhikr and the teachings enunciated in his Eight Principles were
embraced and hailed by all the forty Tariqats (Sufi Orders) as the way of truth and
loyalty.
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Disintegration of the The principles of Sufism laid down by him are as follows:
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans Hosh dar Dam (Conscious Breathing): The true seeker should always be
alert that he does not take any breath devoid of God’s remembrance. He
must remain in God’s presence with every breath. Every breath taken
NOTES consciously is alive and every breath taken in recklessness is to be considered
to have been lost. One should ensure with every breath that he does not
indulge in doing a wrong or a sin. It is necessary to be in the presence of the
Almighty with every breath, in order to realize the essence of the Creator. It
is, however, difficult for seekers to secure breath from heedlessness.
Consequently, they must safeguard it by seeking forgiveness, which will purify
and sanctify it and prepare them for the real manifestation of the Almighty
everywhere.
Nazar bar Kadam (Walking Consciously): Each step moved forward should
be taken consciously, that is, one should not do anything which may drag him
down or which may obstruct his spiritual progress. It also means that one
should avoid looking here and there aimlessly as the mind forms its impressions
by seeing things. This is why Sufi saints ask their followers to look at their
feet at the same time as walking. As the mind becomes more and more
purified by various practices, it becomes more and more prone to be afflicted.
A spot on a spotless clean sheet is more likely to be visible and noticed than
on a dirty sheet. The first glance is, however, harmless but a second look, that
is, a deliberate look forms an impression on the mind. One should consequently,
take each step forward thinking about Him. Spiritually, perhaps, it may mean
that one must keep his objective constantly in view and if one does so one is
bound to reach his destination.
Safar dar Watan (Journey Homeward): This means that the seeker must
move from the world of creation to the world of Creator. Moving away from
worldly desires and human weaknesses and acquiring godly characteristics is
known as ‘Safar dar Watan’. The Naqshbandi Sufi Order divides this journey
into two parts. The first is external in which the seeker desires and searches
for the Master. The internal journey begins with the blessing and grace of the
Master. The internal journey leads to the purification of his heart and makes
him eligible to receive the divine grace.
Khilawat dar Anjuman (Solitude in the Crowd): ‘Khilawat’ means
seclusion, both external and internal. External seclusion requires the seeker
to be away from people, staying by himself and spending his time in the
remembrance of God. This helps in gaining control over sensual perceptions
and reaching the state of internal seclusion. Internal seclusion means whether
amidst a crowd, walking or doing anything, one should constantly have his
mind fixed on the Almighty. This is the state that the Sufis need to adopt so
that they remain constantly in the presence of the Almighty. Worldly affairs
do not disturb them.
Yad Kard (Essential Remembrance): ‘Yad’ means remembrance and
‘Kard’ means essence of remembrance. To keep oneself continuously engaged
88 Self-Instructional Material
in reciting the ‘Japa’ (the internal practice as directed by the Master) and in Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
such a manner that the seeker starts feeling the presence of the Master or Rise of Afghans
the Almighty in his heart is the essential remembrance.
Baj Gasht (Returning): The literal meaning of ‘Baj Gasht’ is to return back
to the origin. In its true sense, however, it refers to developments for the NOTES
period of internal practice when the seeker may come across different
experiences such as sighting of light, activation of the mystique centres,
acquiring miraculous powers, and so on. However, these experiences may
often result in the downfall of the seeker as they may arouse the ego.
Consequently, the great masters of this order have recommended the seekers
to keep on praying to the Almighty at regular intervals affirming that He alone
is the objective of the seeker. The seeker should beg the Almighty for his love
and knowledge and to give him strength in whatever condition he finds himself.
Nigah Dasht (Attentiveness): The seeker of God should always keep an
eye on his internal condition so that no doubt or ill ever arises despite the fact
that he constantly keeps on remembering the Almighty. If ever such a doubt
arises, one should immediately clear the doubt as otherwise it will become
difficult to do so later. Sufism is to protect one‘s heart from bad thoughts and
from worldly inclinations.
Yad Dasht (Recollection): It means continuous remembrance. When the
seeker through practice becomes so adept that the remembrance continues
in the heart effortlessly on its own, it is called Yad Dasht.
The following are the three principles added by Muhammad Bahauddin Shah
Naqshband:
Wakoof Zamani (Awareness of Time): The seeker must watch that the
time at his command is spent in the remembrance of the Almighty and he
must make all efforts to make progress on the path of spirituality. The seeker
must recount his actions and deeds and seek His forgiveness for the wrong
doings.
Wakoof Adadi (Awareness of Numbers): According to the principle of
‘Wakoof Adadi’, one should at the same time as holding the breath recite the
name of the God, feeling His Presence in the heart, in odd number, that is,
5,7,9,11,21, and so forth. The real meaning of Wakoof Adadi, however, appears
to be that the Almighty is One and He likes Oneness. It perhaps also means
that one should remember the Almighty alone.
Wakoof Kulbi (Awareness of the Heart): The seeker should always have
an eye on his heart (Kulb) so that his attention is always towards the divine
presence and it is not to be diverted elsewhere.
2.4.2 Bhakti Movement and Socio-cultural Reforms in the
Hindu Religion
The Bhakti Movement was a reform movement within Hinduism. ‘Bhakti’ means
personal devotion to God. It stressed the union of the individual with God.
Self-Instructional Material 89
Disintegration of the Shankaracharya, who preached the Advaita philosophy, was one of the most
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans prominent religious teachers and revivalists of his time in eight century, AD. His
philosophy advocated that knowledge was necessary for worship.
Shankaracharya established four mathas (monastries) at Badrinath, Puri,
NOTES Dwarka and Sringeri. Ramanuja and Madhava were the great philosophers who
flourished during the Cholas. Unlike Shankaracharya, they preached devotion to
God through love and not through knowledge. Ramanuja condemned the caste system
and believed in equality of all men.
Many saints and devotional preachers led the Bhakti movement in different
parts of the country. In South, the sixty-three Nayanars or Shaivite devotees of
Lord Shiva organized and led the movement. They believed in the fact that true
knowledge can be achieved only through selfless devotion and worship of the Supreme
Power. The Bhakti movement of the Vaishnavaites and that of the Shaivaites were
simultaneous and started almost together.
Features of the Bhakti Movement
The Bhakti Movement which originated in south India gained momentum during the
later half of the Indian medieval period from AD 800 to AD 1700 and over the
period of time it gradually, spread to north India. The basic principle which the
movement instilled in the people of India was absolute devotion to God.
A devotee could worship God by love and devotion. One characteristic of the
Bhakti movement was that they downplayed the need to worship idols or to perform
elaborate rituals for seeking His grace. Another feature on which the Bhakti saints
laid stress was the equality of all castes. There was no distinction of high or low
castes as far as the devotion to God was concerned. Moreover, the propounders of
the Bhakti movement favoured Hindu–Muslim unity.
According to these saints, all men, irrespective of their religion are equal in
the eyes of God.
The saints preached in the language of the common people. They did not use
Sanskrit, which was the language of the cultured few. These saints laid stress on
purity of heart and practice of virtues like truth, honesty, kindness and charity.
According to these saints only a virtuous man could realize God. These saints
considered God as omnipresent and omnipotent. Even a householder could realize
God by love and devotion. Some saints regarded God as formless or Nirguna at the
same time as others considered him as having different forms or Saguna.
Many rites and rituals associated with the worship of God like Kirtan at a
Hindu temple, Qawaali at a Dargah (by Muslims), and singing of Gurbani at a
Gurdwara are all derived from the Bhakti movement.
Factors that contributed to the development of the Bhakti Movement
There were a number of factors, which contributed to the rise and growth of the
Bhakti Movement during the medieval period. Some of the factors are as follows:
Destruction and desecration of Hindu temples by the Muslim invaders. They
destroyed idols of Hindu gods and goddesses. The Hindus lost faith in the
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dependability of their religious rites and consequently, chose the path of love Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
and devotion. Rise of Afghans
Persecution of the Hindus by the Muslim rulers, who tried to convert them to
Islam and imposed jazia if they were not prepared to become followers of
Islam. NOTES
Ill treatment of the lower classes in the Hindu society by the upper castes.
The people of the lower castes had to suffer injustice and cruelties.
Preachers of the Bakhti Movement
There were numerous socio-religious reformers who went about preaching the Bhakti
Movement. Some of the prominent preachers were as follows:
1. Ramanuja: The first great exponent of Bhakti was Ramanuja. He lived in
the eleventh century. He asked his followers to worship Vishnu. He did not
believe in Adi Sankara’s Advaita doctrine according to which the universal
soul and the individual soul are one. According to Ramanuja, the individual
souls emerge from him, but are not essentially one with the Supreme Reality.
2. Ramananda: Ramananda propounded the Bakhti movement in north India in
the fourteenth century. He entirely discarded the theory of caste system by
birth. He preached the worship of Rama and Sita. Persons of all castes
became his disciples. Among his chief disciples there was a barber, a chamar
and a weaver. He preached in Hindi, which was the language of the common
man in northern India.
3. Vallabhacharya: Vallabhacharya was a Tailang Brahmin. He preached the
worship of Vishnu in the form of Krishna. He was born in AD1479 in the
Telugu country. He visited Mathura, Vrindavan and many other sacred places
and finally settled at Varanasi.
4. Chaitanya: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, a Bhakti saint from Bengal, rejected the
caste system and preached the importance of devotion for the attainment of
God. He was a devotee of Lord Krishna and a Vaishnavite. He went about
singing and dancing to the beating of the drum, accompanied by a large number
of followers, both Hindus and Muslims. He did not care for rituals or caste
distinctions. He travelled widely throughout Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. He
helped the old and the needy. People sing his hymns even today.
5. Kabir: Kabir probably lived in the fifteenth century and was a disciple of
Ramananda. He was a weaver by trade. His dohe are sung all over the
country even today. Kabir promoted brotherhood among the people and was
against discrimination based on caste or religion. He preached that, ‘God is
one; some call him Ram and some call him Rahim; he is not found in any
temple or mosque but dwells in the heart of man.’ Kabir tried to bridge the
gap between Hinduism and Islam and people of both the religions were his
followers. The followers of Kabir were called Kabirpanthi.
6. Mira Bai: Mira Bai was a Rajput princess who was married into the ruling
family of Mewar. She was a passionate devotee of Lord Krishna. Her songs
Self-Instructional Material 91
Disintegration of the or hymns are famous and sung all over India. Mira made no caste distinction
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans and her doors were open to people of all castes.
7. Sant Jnaneshwar: The greatest saint of Maharashtra was Jnaneshwar, who
preached in the thirteenth century. He wrote the Bhagavad Gita in Marathi.
NOTES He worshipped Vishnu and his message of love spread throughout western
India.
8. Namdeva: Namdeva, another saint from Maharashtra, was first a tailor, a
bandit and later a Bhakti saint. He composed in Marathi, travelled far and
wide and held discussions with the Sufi saints. He had a large number of
followers belonging to all castes.
Guru Nanak, the first guru (divine teacher) of the Sikhs (disciples), was born
at Talawandi in west Punjab in AD 1469. He preached that there is one God, who is
the creator of the Universe, that God is truth. Guru Nanak, like the saints of his time,
refuted the authority of the Brahmins and useless rites and rituals. He was against
the caste system, which separated human beings from each other. In order to remove
caste distinction and bring them closer to each other, he insisted that his followers
must dine from a common kitchen or langar. Nanak saw no distinction between
Islam and Hinduism and tried to bring the followers of the two religions closer to
each other. The teachings of Guru Nanak are written in the form of verses in the
book Adi Granth. He died in AD 1539.
His chosen successor, Guru Angad, gave the community a greater cohesion
and a sense of identity. He had recorded the sayings of Guru Nanak in a specially
devised script called Gurumukhi, meaning from the Guru’s mouth. The third guru
found in Akbar a great patron. During his time, more people converted to this faith.
Sikhism believed in community eating. It did not believe in the purdah system or
caste distinctions. Akbar’s religious tolerance and generosity saw the fourth guru,
Ram Das, the beneficiary of a piece of land on which now stands the sacred Golden
Temple which was completed by Ram Das’ son Arjan, the fifth guru. He named the
city Amritsar (Pool of Immortal Nectar) as there stands the tank filled with sacred
water. Arjan also compiled the Granth Sahib, the sacred book for the Sikhs, and
had it kept safely in the Golden Temple.
Guru Nanak combined the Sufi and Bhakti ideas and had Muslims and Hindus
as followers. God, according to him, was nirankara (without form), akal (eternal)
and alakh (one who could not be known). He used both Hindu and Muslim names
for God, that is, Allah, Ram, Khuda and Govinda.
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Disintegration of the
2.5 SHER SHAH SURI Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans
Sher Shah Suri was the founder of the Sur Empire in north India, with its capital at
Delhi. An ethnic Pashtun, Sher Shah Suri took control of the Mughal empire in 1540. NOTES
After his accidental death in 1545, his son Islam Shah became his successor.
2.5.1 Emergence of Sher Shah Suri
Sher Shah Suri is one of those great men in history who rose to greatness from a
humble position. The dynasty founded by him is known as the Sur dynasty. He was
born in AD 1472. He was one of the eight sons of Mian Hassan Khan Sur, an
employee of the governor of Punjab—Jamal Khan. In the reign of Sikandar Lodi,
Jamal Khan was appointed the governor of Jaunpur. Hassan and his son Farid
accompanied their master. Jamal Khan gave the Jagirs of Khawaspur, Sahasram
and Tanda to Hassan. Farid’s childhood was spent in Sahasram. Later, he migrated
to Jaunpur after being annoyed with the misbehaviour of his stepmother and his
father. He was twenty-two years old at that time. He impressed Jamal Khan with
his scholarly nature and ability, and Jamal Khan pressurized Hassan to appoint Farid
as the manager of the Jagirs of Sahasram and Khawaspur.
Farid earned enough administrative experience by managing these Jagirs.
However, soon he had to leave the place because of the machinations of his
stepbrother and one powerful Afghan chief, Muhammad Khan who wanted that the
Jagirs should be divided between the two of them. Farid, then, entered into the
military service of the governor of south Bihar—Bahar Khan Lohani. It is said that
one day he slew a tiger with the help of a sword and impressed by his bravery,
Bahar Khan gave him the title of Sher Khan and from then onwards, Farid became
famous as Sher Khan. It is said that he entered Babur’s service in AD 1527. Historians
hold that his motive in entering this service was to acquire knowledge of the system
of Mughal warfare and its effects. Babur became suspicious of his activities and
asked his Prime Minister to keep a strict watch on Sher Khan and described him as
a very clever person. Sher Khan is said to have quietly slipped away from there and
again entered the services of Bahar Khan Lohani. He was appointed the tutor and
guardian of Jalal Khan, the minor son of the ruler.
After sometime, Bahar Khan Lohani died and his widow appointed Sher
Khan as the regent of the minor prince. In fact, Sher Khan became the de facto
ruler of Bihar. He invited Mahmud Lodhi, the younger brother of Sultan Ibrahim
Lodhi and made a plan of a military campaign against Babur. However, Babur
defeated him in the battle of Ghagra (AD 1529). Sher Khan and Jalal Khan
surrendered before the Mughals and got back their Jagirs on the condition of paying
an annual tribute to Babur. Gradually, Sher Khan began to add to the number of his
supporters. Meanwhile, the ruler of Chunar, Taj Khan died in AD 1530. Sher Khan
married his widow Lad Malika. This brought him the fort of Chunar and enormous
wealth along with it.
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Disintegration of the Sher Shah was a daring soldier, a successful conqueror and an able
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans administrator. He was an active seeker of knowledge, patron of scholars and a very
good ruler. He was the forerunner of Akbar in many fields, though he was not equal
to Akbar in greatness. Famous historian K.R. Qanungo is right when he says, ‘It is
NOTES doubtful whether he would have done such deeds as Akbar if he had lived for fifty
years more because Sher Shah had the drawbacks from which Aurangzeb suffered.’
2.5.2 Achievements of Sher Shah
Some of the achievements of Sher Shah were as follows:
1. As a man
Apart from being farsighted, Sher Shah Suri was an active seeker of knowledge,
dutiful, disciplined, industrious and a progressive thinker. He had great love for his
mother, as compared to his father because he disliked the partial behaviour of his
father towards his stepmother. He was a well-educated person. Along with studying
Arabic and Persian language, he was also fond of studying history and literature. He
had a great love for architecture. He had compassion for the peasants, poor and
destitute. He was busy for as many as sixteen hours every day in the state business.
Though he became the emperor at sixty-eight years of age, his enthusiasm, ambition
and hard work did not cease. He used to say that great men should always remain
active.
2. As a commander, soldier and conqueror
Sher Shah was an able commander, a great soldier and conqueror. He is said to
have lived like a common soldier in the battlefield. He was an experienced soldier.
He had boundless bravery and patience. He was a great conqueror who annexed
Bihar, Bengal, Punjab, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajputana and Sind. His empire was very
vast. The frontiers of his empire extended from Punjab to Malwa and from Bengal
to Sind.
3. As a ruler and administrator
Founder of Law and Order: Sher Shah had many achievements as an
administrator. He re-established law and order throughout his empire. He
dealt very strictly with those zamindars, thieves and dacoits who broke the
social order or denied paying the land revenue. As an administrator, Sher
Shah Suri had a great impact on his zamindars, officials and chiefs. Historian
Abbas Sherwani writes, ‘The zamindars were so frightened of him that nobody
liked to raise the boundary of revolt against him nor any of them dared to
harass the travellers passing through his territory.’ Though he did not bring
about any change in the administrative units of the Sultanate period, he made
such changes that nobody could be autocratic and harass the people.
He was first ruler of later medieval India who thought it his duty to give a life
of peace and comfort to his subjects, forgetting the difference between the
Hindus and Muslims. He established democratic autocratism. In his central
administration, he did not make any one minister more important than the
others, and thus, minimized the possibilities of mutual jealousy and plotting
94 Self-Instructional Material
against the emperor. He organized his empire at the level of provinces, sarkars, Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
paraganas and villages. He issued certain instructions for provincial rulers so Rise of Afghans
that they did not minimize the importance of central administration. He divided
very big provinces into smaller units and appointed separate officials there.
He did not make the administration of all the provinces uniform because he NOTES
thought that the administration of every province should be according to its
special local needs. He appointed two separate officials of equal level in the
provinces, sirkar and paraganas, so that one was responsible for the
maintenance of law and order and the other for the financial resources.
He left the work of local defence and peace to the local officials, and thus,
not only lessened the work of central administration but tried to involve a
greater number of people in the administration process. He gave evidence of
his administrative ability by delegating the responsibility of arresting thieves,
dacoits and murderers to the village headmen and government officials. During
his time, the arrangement of the life and property of the subjects was more
satisfactory than ever before.
Able land administrator: He gave special attention to land revenue system,
army and judicial system. He fixed the land revenue on the basis of proper
measurement of land, its productivity, actual produce and local prices, and
prepared detailed lists of the amount of the revenue to be paid. He gave an
option to the cultivators to pay the revenue in cash or in kind. He started the
practice of Kabuliat and Patta and gave priority to the Rayatwari system as
compared to the Zamindari and Jagirdari practices prevalent at that time.
A great army administrator and organizer: As a ruler, he devoted attention
to the army administration and organization. He created a vast standing and
efficient army, brought an end to the system of supplying a fixed number of
soldiers to the Centre by tribal leaders and began direct recruitment of soldiers.
He started the practices of Huliya and Dag. He constructed cantonments
among various parts of the empire, and placed a strong contingent army in
each of these cantonments. His army consisted of 15000 infantry, 25000
cavalry armed with bows and arrows, 5000 elephants and an arsenal.
A just ruler: Sher Shah Suri was just in his dealings. He paid special attention
towards the judicial system. He used to say that ‘dispensing justice was the
highest religious duty which should be discharged equally by Kafirs and Muslim
Kings’. Sher Shah gave justice to everyone. He had assumed the title of
Sultan-i-Adil or a just ruler. Sher Shah Suri had established law courts at
various places which were called Dar-ul-Adalat. He never pardoned any
criminal whether he was a big chief, his own caste person or a near relative.
For the establishment of law and order, Qazis were appointed at various
places but like earlier times, village level panchayats and zamindars also heard
civil and criminal cases. In his time, criminal law was very strict and educative
for others.
Supporter of a tolerant religious policy: In spite of being a strict Sunni
Muslim, Sher Shah was not a fanatic. Though he did not end Jizia, he gave
Self-Instructional Material 95
Disintegration of the high offices to Hindus in large numbers. He considered religion to be a personal
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans affair and never let politics and religion to get mixed up. Qanungo writes,
‘Sher Shah’s attitude towards the Hindus was not one of hateful tolerance
but that of respect.’ He was the first Muslim emperor to have a national
NOTES outlook that established a secular state and looked after the welfare of all his
subjects in an impartial manner. In his time religious tolerance like that of
Akbar could not be established. Qanungo writes correctly that during Sher
Shah’s time, he had to struggle against religious and political orthodoxy as
also against well-established traditions of communal Sultanate of the last 300
years. Therefore, he did not have the congenial atmosphere which was inherited
by his successors.
Public welfare activities: As a ruler, Sher Shah performed many acts of
welfare for his subjects. He kept grain stores reserved for helping people at
the time of famines, and established charitable state ‘langar’ for feeding the
destitutes. He planted many trees to provide shade along roads, as well as
constructed roads and schools. He issued pure and high quality coins and
standard weights and measures. He adopted a liberal attitude. At the time of
fixing land revenues he ordered military officials that they should not harm
the standing crops while travelling. He opened government hospitals. Police
and postal arrangements were made for the convenience of the public.
Cultural achievements (as patron of knowledge and art): Sher Shah
had many achievements in the cultural field because he was a great patron of
knowledge, literature and art. He made good arrangements for the education
of his subjects. Financial grants were given to many Hindu schools. For his
Muslim subjects he opened many Makhtabs of Arabic and Persian and also
established Madrassas for higher education. To encourage the pursuit of
knowledge, he made arrangements for scholarships and arranged for the
maintenance of poor students by the state. Sher Shah showed interest in the
field of architecture as well. He constructed many mosques, forts and sarais.
Some scholars hold the opinion that he constructed the Purana Qila desecrating
the Dinapanah city of Humayun. In it he constructed the Qila-i-Kuhana mosque
which is counted amongst his famous buildings in north India. Persian influence
is discernible in the small minarets around the entrance gate and its artisanship.
The other parts of the building are constructed as per Indian motifs.
The mosque in Bihar constructed in the midst of a lake in Sahasram is a clear
example of the Indo-Muslim architecture so far its grandeur, beauty and
proportionate structures are concerned. The outer structure represents Muslim
styles but the inside is decorated with Toranas and pillars representing a
particular Hindu style. Its dome, shining against the blue sky, appears beautiful.
There is a stunning harmony of blue, red and yellow. In every corner there is
the pillared pavilion on top of the second storey. The construction of a lotus
on the top has added to its decoration.
Sher Shah constructed a new city on the banks of river Jamuna as well. Sher
Shah patronized scholars. Some of the best works of Hindu literature like
96 Self-Instructional Material
Padmawat of Malik Muhmmad Jayasi were written during his time. Sher Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
Shah was not a religious fanatic. His social and economic policies are evidence Rise of Afghans
to this fact. In brief, Sher Shah Suri was the first great national ruler. After
him, his dynasty did not last even for ten years, but his sword and diplomacy
had founded such an empire that its policies (especially, currency system, NOTES
land revenue system, judicial and military departments) continued for a very
long time, extended and progressed. The masters of the empire changed
(first the Mughals and then the British) but the institutions of Sher Shah
continued. Erskine says rightly, ‘No Government, not even the British, had
showed that much of wisdom as was evidenced by this Afghan.’
Struggle against Mughals on the fort of Chunar
In AD 1531, when Humayun encircled the fort of Chunar then Sher Shah pretended
to be defeated at the hands of Humayun. In the meantime, he strengthened his
army.
Bihar (AD 1534)
The Lohani chiefs of Bihar became jealous of Sher Shah due to his increasing
power. They won over Jalal Khan to their side and also entered into an alliance with
Mahmud of Bengal. They made a treaty with Mahmud Shah of Bengal in AD 1533,
who himself was eager to check the rise of Sher Shah because it adversely affected
his own prestige and power. However, Sher Shah defeated the combined armies of
the Sultan of Bengal and the Lohanis at Surajgarh in eastern Bihar on the bank of
the river Kieul. Mahmud Shah fled to Bengal and with him fled Jalal Khan and his
associates. Thus, the whole of Bihar came under Sher Shah and he became the sole
master. The victory of Surajgarh was an important event in Sher Shah’s life. Taking
advantage of the absence of Humayun in Agra, (AD 1535–1537) Sher Shah had
further strengthened his position. The Afghans from far and near had congregated
under him. Although he still talked of loyalty towards the Mughals, he had made a
clever plan to drive the Mughals out of India. He had a close contact with Bahadur
Shah of Gujarat. Bahadur Shah helped him with men and money as well. Having
acquired these sources he assembled a capable and vast army so that resistance
against the Mughals could be started at the right time.
Invasion of Bengal
Encouraged by his victory at Surajgarh, Sher Shah launched an attack against Mahmud
Shah of Bengal in AD 1535. Mahmud Shah saved his life by giving a vast sum of
money to Sher Shah but after few years Sher Shah again besieged Gaud, the capital
of Bengal in AD 1537 and by conquering it forced Mahmud Shah to seek refuge with
Humayun. When Humayun started from Agra for the support of Mahmud Shah, Sher
Shah’s son Jalal Khan kept him engaged for about six months at the fort of Chunar on
his way to Bengal. During this period, Sher Shah came back to Bihar after amassing
enough wealth from Bengal. Humayun’s brother, Hindal declared himself as the emperor
at Agra and another brother Kamran came to Delhi from Lahore as the head of 1000
soldiers. When Humayun received this news he started towards Agra from Gaur.
Self-Instructional Material 97
Disintegration of the Battle of Chausa
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans Facing many difficulties, Humayun was somehow advancing towards Agra when
Sher Shah suddenly attacked him at Chausa in AD 1539. About 8000 Mughal soldiers
were killed in this battle. Sher Khan’s spirits were raised as a result of this victory.
NOTES
He assumed the title of Sher Shah Sultan-i-Adil. Now Sher Shah had become the
undisputed master of Bihar and Bengal.
Battle of Kanauj or Bilram (AD 1540)
The following year Humayun made an effort to regain his fortune but despite his
best efforts he could not secure the cooperation of his brother. On 17 May, AD 1540
Mughals and Afghans again confronted each other near Kanauj. Humayun’s army
was defeated badly. Humayun managed to escape somehow. By this conquest,
Sher Shah became the master of Delhi, Agra, Sambhal and Gwalior. This ended the
Mughal dynasty for the time being, and for the next fifteen years, power passed into
the hands of the Surs.
Sher Shah’s Conquests after Becoming the Emperor
Fig. 2.1 Extent of Sher Shah’s Empire and the Roads he Built
Self-Instructional Material 99
Disintegration of the Conquest of Kalinjar and the death of Sher Shah
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans After these conquests, Sher Shah planned an invasion of Kalinjar because its ruler
Kirat Singh had given shelter from the ruler of Riva, Virbhan against the wishes of
the Afghan ruler and then had refused to return him to the Afghans against Sher
NOTES
Shah’s wishes. Due to these causes, Sher Shah besieged the fort in AD 1544.
However, he could not achieve much success. On 22 May, AD 1545, Sher Shah
launched a fierce attack. Sher Shah was inspecting the arsenal when he was
grievously injured by a bomb blast. He ordered to continue the invasion and by
evening the fort was under his control, but Sher Shah was not fated to enjoy this
conquest as he died of the injuries on the same day.
2.5.3 Reforms
Though Sher Shah was given only a period of five years to rule but within this short
span of time he brought changes in the administrative system of such importance
that he is considered as one of the best administrators of India. In fact, he managed
his administration keeping before him a model ideal. Without any religious
discrimination he gave opportunity to all his subjects to lead a comfortable life.
According to him, the major aim of the state was public welfare. He tried to make
the frontiers of the country so strong and powerful that Humayun or any other
power should not be able to bring about any instability in the country. He brought
about many reforms and gave safety to the people against anti-social elements.
Accepting his administrative efficiency, English historian Keive wrote that
none of the rulers, not even the English government evinced so much wisdom as this
Pathan chief. The main features of his administrative system can be studied under
the following heads:
Central Administration
Though Sher Shah tried to follow the Afghan tradition for running the central
administration, yet he tried to bring the office of the Sultan nearer to the Turkish
ideal rather than the Afghan. To some extent, he continued the central administration
present from the time of the Delhi Sultanate and established a despotic rule similar
to that of Balban or Allauddin, but not before getting it endorsed by a committee of
the Afghan chiefs. Thus, his despotism had a democratic base.
Probably, looking at the outer structure of his administration, Qanungo remarked
that Sher Shah Suri did not establish any new administrative system but gave new
shape to the existing institutions. All the power of the state was centred in his hands.
He was the highest official in the field of administration, army, judiciary and law.
There were four main ministers in his central government, namely, Diwan-i-Wizarat
(kept control over the income and expenditure of the state), Diwan-i-Ariz (looked
after military responsibilities), Diwan-i-Rasalat (looked after foreign affairs), and
Diwan-i-Qaza (head of judicial department). Sher Shah himself was so hard working
and efficient that besides deterring the general policy of all the departments, he also
supervised their everyday activities. During his reign he did not let any person or
Amir emerge as an important figure. This might have been due to the fact that
100 Self-Instructional Material
because of the importance given to any one individual, other Amirs would grow Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
jealous of him and their dissatisfaction would lead them to organize revolts against Rise of Afghans
the ruler. Removing corruption, he offered a clean administration to the people.
Provincial Administration NOTES
The outline of the provincial administration under Sher Shah is somewhat dim.
According to Qanungo, ‘There were no provinces during Sher Shah’s time and the
empire was divided in sarkars.’As against this, distinguished medieval Indian historian,
P.Saran holds that there were twelve provinces in Sher Shah’s empire each ruled by
the military governor. According to some historians, provinces did exist before
Akbar’s time but their shape and administrative system was not uniform. Even
during Sher Shah’s time there were many provinces or Subas which were called
Iqtas. Modern historians hold that during Sher Shah’s time there was a definite
provincial organization. According to them, Sher Shah brought about two new
experiments in the provincial administration but they were not so successful as to be
implemented in other provinces. His first experiment was in Bengal in AD 1541.
When Khizr Khan after becoming its governor started behaving like a Sultan, Sher
Shah got him imprisoned and after subdividing Bengal into many parts, appointed
separate officials for each part. An official was appointed so as to maintain peace
and order in the province. Since they were appointed by the centre and their sphere
of work was different, the possibility of any revolt was minimized.
Probably this system was implemented in Malwa, Punjab and Rajputana as
well. His other experiment was the appointment of deputy governors. He appointed
two sub-deputy governors under Haibat Khan of Punjab. During his time, this scheme
was probably implemented in Multan, Baluchistan and Sirhind. During his time, the
provincial governor was probably called Hakim or Faujdar or Amin. But their rights
were not the same. The governor of Punjab, Haibat Khan was probably the most
powerful. He had 30,000 soldiers under him, whereas less powerful governors had
just about 5000 soldiers under them. Sher Shah kept a strict control over the provincial
governors and from time to time supervised their military and administrative activities.
Administration of a Sirkar
Sher Shah Suri organized the local administration at the district, paragana and village
level. The highest unit of the local administration was the district or the sirkar. According
to Ishwari Prasad, ‘Sher Shah had sub-divided his empire into forty-seven parts,
each comprising many paraganas. This part or unit was called a sirkar.’ Each
sirkar had two major officials – Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran or Chief Shiqdar and Munsif-
i-Monsifan or Chief Munsif, responsible respectively, for the maintenance of peace
and order in the sirkar and supervising the officials of the paraganas and dispensing
mobile justice. Sher Shah brought about some important changes in the administration
of the sirkar. First, he established a satisfactory judicial system. Second, he ordered
the officials to always look for the convenience of the people. Third, he made the
Chief Shikdar and the Chief Munsif respectively, the highest but separate officials in
the fields of army and finance. This minimized the possibility of revolt. Fourth, he
kept with himself the right of appointing and dismissing the officials of the sirkar
which strengthened the control of the centre over these units.
Self-Instructional Material 101
Disintegration of the Administration of Paragana
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans Each sirkar or district was subdivided into many paraganas. Here, Shiqdar and
Munsif were responsible for the maintenance of peace and order and the collection
of revenues respectively. Besides these, there was one treasurer and two Karkuns
NOTES
or Munsims—one to keep the land records in Hindi and the other in Persian. The
treasurer or Fotdar kept the cash of the paragana. The Munsif was responsible for
the collection of the revenue of the whole paragana and also its land measurement.
Village Administration
The smallest unit of the empire was the village. In every village, there was a Mukhiya
or Muqaddam. The chief of village collected the revenue from the farmers and sent
it to the treasurer of the paragana. Muqadam was responsible for maintaining peace
and order in the village along with collecting the revenue. He arranged for night
watchmen. If a theft was committed in his area, he had either to catch the thief or
suffer the punishment himself. According to the contemporary historian Abbas,
‘Because of these arrangements, the events of theft or ‘dacoity’ in the empire were
totally nullified and even if an old women travelled from one end of the empire to the
other tossing gold, nobody dared to interfere with her.’
If any traveller or merchant died on the way, the local people gave the
information to the government officials and till they received any instruction from
the government, they kept vigil themselves. This statement might be an exaggeration
but it makes it clear that during Sher Shah’s time, priority was given to the maintenance
of peace and order throughout the empire. He dealt strictly with thieves, dacoits and
with those landlords who refused either to pay the revenue or refuse to obey the
government’s instructions.
Revenue Administration
During Sher Shah’s time there were seven main sources of state income—land
revenue, khams, custom, Jizia, nazrana, royal currency and sales tax. In his time,
one-third of the produce was taken as the land revenue. The peasants paid in cash
or in kind though the state preferred the cash payment. He effected many reforms
in the sphere of land revenue administration. He evolved a system of land revenue
rates called Rai, wherein there were separate rates of land revenue in different
parts of the empire for a different kind of produce. For the payment in cash, a list
was prepared according to the prices, prevalent in the area. Besides the land revenue
administration, he also imposed duties on the import and export of raw materials and
finished products. A ruler like Sher Shah also, did not abolish a tax like Jizia. This
tax was levied on non-Muslims and was an important source of governmental income.
Nazrana or gifts were obtained almost from all tributary rulers, such as zamindars
and government officials. Royal mint was also a good source of the royal income.
Salt tax also yielded considerable income to the state. Sometimes, unclaimed property
also was an important source of income for the government.
Land Revenue Administration
Sher Shah paid great attention towards land revenue system and land administration.
102 Self-Instructional Material
Sher Shah was well acquainted with every level of land revenue system having
managed for many years the Jagir of Sahasram of his father Hassan and then Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
having worked as a guardian of Jalal Khan, the ruler of Bihar. After becoming the Rise of Afghans
emperor, he set the whole land revenue system right with the help of a few able
administrators.
NOTES
Military System
Sher Shah kept a strong army for defence of his vast empire. He knew very well the
importance of the local army. According to the contemporary writer Abbas Sherwani,
‘There were about 150000 infantry, 25000 cavalry, 5000 elephants and artillery in
his army.’ Sher Shah put an end to the practice of supplying a fixed number of
soldiers to the state by the chieftains and instead, started direct recruitment of the
soldiers and fixed their pay according to their ability. The salary was paid in cash.
Promotion was given to soldiers and officials on the basis of their ability and working
capacity. The descriptive role of each soldier was recorded. His horse was also
branded so that it could not be replaced by a horse of inferior quality. Probably, these
practices were adopted by Sher Shah following the example of Allauddin Khilji, who
had first adopted these practices as part of his military reforms. He constructed
many cantonments in different parts of his empire and kept a strong army contingent
in each of them. In addition to a big artillery, Sher Shah made arrangements for
supplying good quality guns to his soldiers. He maintained strict discipline in his
army. He constructed a new fort near Peshawar.
Judicial System
Sher Shah laid great emphasis on the dispensation of justice. He used to say, ‘Doing
justice is the greatest religious work which should be adopted alike by the state of
Kafirs or Momins.’ He never pardoned any criminal whether he was his near relative,
big chief or any powerful person. He established law courts throughout his empire.
At the centre, the Emperor himself was the highest judge and next to him was the
Qazi-ul-Qazt, who was the highest official of the judicial department. Besides big
cities, provinces and their capitals Qazis dispensed justice. In the village the work of
the dispensation of justice was undertaken by the Muqaddam or Mukhiya. The civil
cases were heard by the Munsif, Amirs and Munsifi-Munsifan (Amin and Chief
Aman). In fact, during Sher Shah’s time not many changes were effected in the
judicial system but he inspired all the officials to dispense justice impartially and
fearlessly and did so himself as well.
Police Arrangements
Sher Shah Suri made separate police arrangements. Before him, this function was
also discharged by the army. Due to the police arrangements, it became easier to
trace the criminals. In the sarkars the Chief Shiqdar, in the paragana the Shiqdar and
in the villages Muqaddams used to perform police duties and hand over the criminals
to the law courts. Abbas Sherwani wrote, ‘During the time of Sher Shah, travellers
were free from the botheration of keeping a check over their belongings. Even in
the desert region they had no fear, they could camp freely in a locality whether it
was deserted or not. They could even leave their belongings out in the open. Cattle
could be left to graze freely and the owners slept carefree as if they were in their
home.’ Self-Instructional Material 103
Disintegration of the Espionage System
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans Sher Shah had spread a net of trusted and expert spies who kept on giving him
information about the activities of the whole empire. Therefore, nobody dared to
revolt against the emperor or shirk their duty. The daily report of the prices of
NOTES
commodities in the market used to reach the emperor. Messengers and spies were
appointed in all the major cities and they had the orders to send any urgent message
to the emperor at once.
Currency
Sher Shah brought about many reforms in the currency system and got pure gold,
silver and copper coins minted instead of debased and mixed metal coins. His silver
rupee was so authentic that even after centuries it continued to be used as a standard
currency. Historian V.A. Smith wrote correctly, ‘This rupee was the basis of the
British currency system.’ On the coins, the name of the emperor was inscribed in
Devnagari as well as the Persian script. The coins of Sher Shah were pure, beautiful
and standard. He also issued small copper coins so that people may not have any
difficulty in everyday transactions.
Public Welfare Activities of Sher Shah
For the benefit of the peasants, Sher Shah Suri carried on many land reforms such
as getting the land measured and fixing prices, keeping in view the cultivation of
land, its productivity, the crops grown and the local prices prevalent. The cultivators
were given the option of paying the revenue in cash or in kind. He encouraged the
Ryotwari system in place of the Zamindari system. For the benefit of the trading
community, he affected currency reforms. He showed special interest in the
construction of roads, sarais, public kitchens to name a few. He issued standard
weights and ordered the officials to behave courteously with the traders. He is said
to have constructed about 1700 sarais some of which still exist. Apart from
constructing good roads for travellers, he also planted many shade trees on both
sides of the roads. He extended patronage to artists and litterateurs. For the welfare
of the poorest of the capital, he made arrangements for charitable langar. It is said
that about 500 tolas of gold was spent everyday on such langars.
In essence, Sher Shah was the first great and able ruler of later medieval
India. V. A. Smith has justly written, ‘If Sher Shah remained alive for some more
time and if his successors had been as able as he was, the Mughals might not have
reappeared on the stage of India.’
2.5.4 Land Revenue System
A glance at the different aspects of Sher Shah’s administration shows clearly that
he managed the land revenue system with the greatest ability and interest. Praising
his land revenue administration Dr Ishwari Prasad writes, ‘He tried to fix the land
revenue in accordance with the income of the people.’ The main features of his land
revenue administration can be studied as follows:
Measurement of Land: Sher Shah Suri got the entire land of his empire
measured in order to ascertain the total cultivable land of his empire. During
104 Self-Instructional Material
his time Patwari kept the whole account of the cultivable land of every village. Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
He used the Sikandari Gaz for the measurement of land. During his time Rise of Afghans
one Bigha measured 60 × 60 yards.
Classification of land, fixing of revenue and lists of rates: He got the
entire cultivable land divided into three categories—good, middle and bad. NOTES
He got the produce of all the three categories ascertained. After measuring
the produce of each category of land, he decided to take one-third of the
produce of each category as land revenue. During his time, the amount of the
produce was not estimated or divided into fields or granaries. A common
system of rates was started which was called the Rai according to which the
share of the state differed on different kinds of crops. After that the price of
the produce was fixed in different areas according to the market prices
prevalent there. Thus, the revenue list of the produce per Bigha was prepared
and one copy of it was given to the concerned state officials. Thus, after
serving the crop, the cultivator knew how much he had to pay as land revenue.
Option to pay the revenue in cash or in kind: Sher Shah had given
freedom to cultivators to pay the land revenue in cash or in kind, though he
preferred the payment in cash.
Patta and Kabuliat: Sher Shah started the practice of issuing Patta to every
cultivator. On it was written the area of the cultivated land, kind of crop, land
revenue payable by the cultivator, and he was informed of it. On the other
hand, the government got the signature of the peasants on the Kabuliat whereby,
they gave written consent about acknowledging the conditions of the state
with regard to the land revenue administration.
Eradication of middlemen: Sher Shah attached great importance to the
Ryotwari system so that there could be a direct relationship between the
peasant and the government. Undoubtedly, the Zamindari system was not
ended completely during his time, but there was a definite decline in it. He
fixed a handsome salary for the members of the measuring party, so that they
did not trouble the cultivators.
Instructions to the officials for good behaviour: Sher Shah instructed all
his officials to behave properly with the peasants. They were strictly instructed
not to take any bribe from them. According to the contemporary historian
Abbas Sherwani, ‘Sher Shah knew that there was no other office more
lucrative than that of the Amin so he appointed new Amins every two years
so that greatest number of Afghans should be able to take advantage of this
post.’ This statement of Sherwani leads to three conclusions. First, Sher Shah
could not end bribery completely. Second, he tried to lessen the evil of bribery
as far as he could by transferring the Amins repeatedly because at last they
were put to some difficulty by going to new places again and again. Third, in
order to please the Afghans, he seems to have given his silent consent
unknowingly to the practice of bribery.
Liberality in assessment of revenue but strictness in collection: Sher
Shah was liberal at the time of the assessment of revenue and issued similar
instructions to his officials as well but he did not like the idea of sparing the Self-Instructional Material 105
Disintegration of the collection. Therefore, he instructed the time of land revenue collection. During
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans natural calamities, he often pardoned the land revenue of peasants.
Famine tax: To cope with natural calamities, two and a half seer of food
grains per Bigha was charged extra from the cultivator. It was kept reserved
NOTES for the time of famine.
Briefly then, Sher Shah cared greatly for the welfare of the peasants. Keeping
in view the welfare of the peasants, he fixed one-third of the produce at state’s
share which was not very high. In fact, he did this because of the prevailing
circumstances. At that time, the cultivable land was available in plenty and there
was a great danger of the cultivators leaving the land and going away, if the state
was oppressive. Probably, this factor restricted the emperor. On the basis of the
description of Abbas Sherwani, it can be said that this factor counted with Sher
Shah. He is said to have stated that the peasants were innocent, they bowed before
the officials and if he inflicted atrocities on them they would leave the land and go
away. The country would be ruined and deserted and it would take a long time to
make it prosperous again. According to the famous historian Qanungo, ‘The land
revenue arrangement of Sher Shah was a valuable heritage for the Mughals. He
tried to levy the land revenue in accordance with the income of the peasants. The
British adopted this very system.’ However, Sher Shah did not devote much attention
towards irrigation. He did not completely abolish the Zamindari system probably to
keep the Afghan chiefs satisfied. In spite of these defects, it will have to be conceded
that his land revenue administration was good and was undertaken keeping in mind
the interest of the cultivators.
2.5.5 Islam Shah, Successor of Sher Shah Suri
Islam Shah, the younger son of Sher Shah Suri succeeded to the throne after the
death of his father. Though Sher Shah’s eldest son, Adil Khan was nominated by
him as his successor but the nobles preferred Jalal Khan, Sher Shah’s younger son
who was regarded as more capable and industrious. Jalal Khan was called by them
to come to Kalinjar, and after his arrival, he was declared Sultan on 27 May, AD
1545. He assumed the title of Islam Shah.
Conflict with Adil Khan
Islam Shah could not feel secure as long as his elder brother was alive. He asked
him to come to Agra. He was assured of his life and the grant of Jagir of Sayan.
Eminent nobles like Isa Khan and Khavass Khan vouched for his life. Adil Khan
went to Agra, paid homage to the Sultan and returned to Bayana. Islam Shah tried to
murder him but failed. Feeling insecure Adil Khan sought the support of Khavass
Khan. They combined their forces and proceeded towards Agra but the rebels were
defeated. Adil Khan fled towards Panna and was heard of no more. Khavass Khan
also fled towards Sarhind.
Revolt of the Nobles
Islam Shah tried to kill all those nobles who were supposed to be sympathetic towards
Adil Khan. Thirteen old nobles were sent to Gwalior where they were blown by
106 Self-Instructional Material
gunpowder. Said Niyazi fled away from the court and found shelter with his brother Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
Haibat Khan Niyazi, governor of Lahore. Haibat Khat Niyazi revolted against the Rise of Afghans
Sultan. Khavass Khan also came and joined him. Islam Shah went himself to suppress
this revolt. He met the rebel near Ambala (AD 1547). Khavass left Haibat Khan on
the eve of the battle because he wanted to fight in the name of Adil Khan while NOTES
Haibat Khan was fired with the ambition of himself being crowned. The Niyazis
were defeated and Islam Shah pursued them up to the bank of the Jhelum river. He
left an army to suppress the fugitives and himself returned to Agra.
Results of Revolts
Islam Shah succeeded in suppressing all revolts. He, thus, broke the power of the
old nobility which could be a threat to the power of the Sultan. He appointed his own
loyal nobles to all important posts and was able to command their respect. In this
respect, Islam Shah proved more successful than his father. The provincial governors
showed respect not only to him, but even to his shoes and obeyed his commands
blindly. But, this policy towards the nobles did not prove to be the lasting interest of
the state. Two attempts were made to murder him, though both failed. However, the
nobles could not remain loyal to the royal family. It was only the fear of Islam Shah
which kept them in check during his life. Thus, Islam Shah’s greatest failure was
that instead of consolidating the power of the Afghans he divided it and, thus, heralded
the downfall of the second Afghan empire.
Administration under Islam Shah
Islam Shah was a worthy son of his father. He not only maintained the administrative
setup of his father, but also strengthened it further. Sher Shah had constructed Sarais
on every fourth mile. Islam Shah constructed Sarais on every second mile and
arranged for free distribution of food in each of them. Islam Shah could not abolish
the Jagirdari system but he took away the land from old Jagirdars and redistributed
it among his loyal supporters. This measure created a class of people loyal to him
and indirectly weakened the hereditary Jagirdari system. To his officials, he assigned
the respectability of maintaining law and order in villages. Islam Shah brought out
changes in the army administration as well. He divided his cavalry into units of 50,
200, 250 and his infantry into 5,000, 10,000 and 20,000 soldiers.
In the north-west, he constructed a chain of forts, namely, Shergarh, Islamgarh,
Rashidgarh and Ferozgarh. Together, these were called the forts of Mankot. Islam
Shah kept his nobles under strict discipline. Each of them respected or rather feared
him very much. The nobles were terrorized by Islam Shah and remained under his
strict control during his lifetime.
During the last years of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign (AD 1324–1351),
NOTES disorder spread in most of the areas of his empire because of his misguided
policies, and many regions declared their independence.
In India, the medieval period witnessed immense changes in the religious life
of the people. Religion was associated with the worship of many gods and
goddesses.
The Afghans came to power under Sher Shah Suri, after the latter defeated
Humayun at the Battle of Chausa in AD 1539.
The period from AD 1206 to AD1526 is known as the Sultanate period in the
history of India.
The Sultans of the Delhi Sultanate were autocratic and despotic.
The rulers of the Delhi Sultanate did not modernize their army. They paid
attention towards new war techniques and building up of artillery.
The immediate cause of the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate was the invasion
of Babur.
The two brothers, Harihar and Bukka, were both in the service of Pratap
Rudra II, of the Warrangal kingdom.
The Muslim Kingdom of Deccan saw it clearly that Ram Rai was taking
advantage of their mutual dissensions. All of them got scared of the growing
power of Vijaynagar and decided to come together, forgetting their mutual
differences.
He ruled for eleven years. He proved himself to be a great conqueror and a
powerful ruler. He adopted a policy of incessant conquests to extend his
small kingdom.
Sufism is defined as the inner mystical dimension of Islam and whoever
adheres to the principles of Sufism is called a Sufi.
History of Sufism reveals that it has followed a long period of evolution since
the time of its inception. In fact, Sufism was in existence even before the
time of Prophet Muhammad, despite the fact it gained recognition and
popularity as a dogma only after the coming of the Prophet.
The Bhakti movement which originated in south India gained momentum
during the latter half of the Indian medieval period in AD 800 – 1700 and over
the period of time it gradually spread to north India.
Guru Nanak combined the Sufi and Bhakti ideas and had Muslims and Hindus
as followers.
Sher Shah Suri is one of those great men in history who rose to greatness
from a humble position. The dynasty founded by him is known as the Sur
dynasty. He was born in AD 1472.
1. The immediate cause for the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate was the invasion
of Babur.
2. The rulers of the Delhi Sultanate did not modernize their army. They included
elephants in their army which proved very harmful in the battle of Panipat.
They were defeated in the first battle of Panipat as they did not possess
artillery.
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Disintegration of the 3. Firoz Shah Tughlaq was succeeded by six rulers of the Tughlaq dynasty namely,
Delhi Sultanate and the
Rise of Afghans Gayasuddin Muhammad Shah (AD 1388–1389), Abu Bakr (AD 1389–1390),
Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah (AD 1390–1394), Nasratshah and Sasiruddin
(AD 1394–1414).
NOTES 4. The foundation of the Vijaynagar empire was laid by the two brothers, Harihar
and Bukka.
5. The famous Persian poet Abdurrazaq visited Vijaynagar during Devrai II’s
reign.
6. Allauddin Hasaan Bahmani built his capital at Gulburga and named it
Ahsanabad and decorated it with beautiful buildings.
7. Sufism is defined as the inner mystical dimension of Islam and whoever
adheres to the principles of Sufism is called a Sufi.
8. Moinuddin Chisti arrived in India in AD 1192.
9. The factors that facilitated the emergence of the Bhakti Movement are as
follows:
Destruction and desecration of Hindu temples by the Muslim invaders
Persecution of the Hindus by the Muslim rulers
Ill treatment of the lower classes in the Hindu society by the upper castes
10. The Sur dynasty was founded by Sher Shah Suri.
11. The four ministeries in Sher Shah’s central government were Diwan-i-Wizarat
(kept control over the income and expenditure of the state), Diwan-i-Ariz
(looked after military responsibilities), Diwan-i-Rasalat (looked after foreign
affairs) and Diwan-i- Qaza (head of judicial department.
12. Islam Shah, the younger son of Sher Shah Suri was the successor to the
throne of the Sur dynasty after the death of Sher Shah.
Short-Answer Questions
1. What were the causes for the decline of the Delhi Sultanate?
2. Who was Achyutdev Rai? How was he overthrown?
3. Write a short note on Sadashiv Rai.
4. List the achievements of Krishnadev Rai.
5. Who were the main preachers of the Bakhti Movement?
6. What are the main principles of Sufism?
7. How was the system of revenue improved during the reign of Sher Shah
Suri?
8. How was the currency improved in Sher Shah Suri’s time?
9. What were the measures taken by Sher Shah to establish himself as a patron
of knowledge and art?
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Long-Answer Questions Disintegration of the
Delhi Sultanate and the
1. Discuss the rise of the Vijaynagar Empire. Rise of Afghans
Chandra, Satish. 2009. History of Medieval India. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan.
Prasad, Ishwari. 1925. Medieval India. India: Indian Press.
Majumdar, R. C. 1948. An Advanced History of India. India: Macmillan.
Hussain, Hamid. 2007. Sufism and Bhakti Movement. New Delhi: Manak
Publications.
Sharma, Krishna. 2002. Bhakti and the Bhakti Movement. New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal Publishers.
Qureshi, I.H. 1979. The Administration of Mughal Empire. Patna: Janaki Prakashan.
MUGHAL EMPIRE
NOTES
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit Objectives
3.2 Consolidation of Mughal Rule and Akbar: Conquest, Administration and
Revenue Reforms
3.2.1 Establishment of the Mughal Empire
3.2.2 Consolidation under Babur
3.2.3 Consolidation under Humayun
3.2.4 Consolidation under Akbar
3.3 Rajput and Religious Policy of Akbar and Aurangzeb
3.3.1 Rajput and the Religious Policy of Akbar
3.3.2 Rajput and Religious Policy of Aurangzeb
3.4 Cultural Development under the Mughals: Art, Architecture and Literature
3.4.1 Paintings
3.4.2 Literature
3.5 Fall of the Mughal Empire
3.6 Summary
3.7 Key Terms
3.8 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
3.9 Questions and Exercises
3.10 Further Reading
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Till the early sixteenth century, India had been without a major empire for almost a
thousand years. Since the Gupta Dynasty, an all-India empire had not prevailed. In
AD 1526, Babur, a descendant of Timur, from Central Asia, swept across the Khyber
Pass and established the Mughal empire, which lasted for over 200 years. The
Mughal dynasty had taken hold of most of the Indian subcontinent by AD 1600. It
went into a slow decline after AD 1707 and finally, came to an end following defeat
by the Indian Mutiny of 1857.
The Mughal period marked a vast social change in the subcontinent, as the
Hindu majority was ruled over by the Mughal emperors. Some emperors showed
religious tolerance, others liberally patronized Hindu culture, while some others
destroyed the historical temples and imposed taxes on the non-Muslims. During the
decline of the Mughal empire—which at its peak occupied an area slightly larger
than the ancient Mauryan empire—several smaller empires rose to fill the power
vacuum, and subsequently, contributed to the decline of the empire.
In this unit, you will study about the consolidation of the Mughal rule, the
religious policy of Akbar and Aurangzeb with special reference to the Rajputs, cultural
development under the Mughals and finally, the decline of the Mughal empire.
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Rise and Fall of the
Mughal Empire 3.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES
The Mughal dynasty was the last great empire of Indian history. Such was their
greatness that the word ‘Mogul’ in English (derived from Mughal) refers to a powerful
person. The Mughals were a remarkable dynasty, and at the height of their powers
gave the world a set of capable rulers. It was also during their reign that some of the
finest monuments of India were built, most notably, the Taj Mahal.
3.2.1 Establishment of the Mughal Empire
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur was the son of Umar Sheikh Mirza, a descendent of
the famous invader Timur Lane. His mother Qutulug Nigar Khanam belonged to the
family of Genghis Khan, the great Mongol invader. When Babur was born in
AD 1483, his father was the ruler of a small principality of Farghana in Turkistan. In
AD 1494, Babur inherited the small kingdom of Fargana from his father. He was
then only eleven years and four months old. At such a tender age, he had to shoulder
the responsibility of ruling the state. As the famous historian Ishwari Prasad points
out, Babur who very young was surrounded by enemies from all sides. His near
relatives and Uzbek chief Shahbani Khan wanted to take away the principality of
Farghana. Oblivious of the Uzbek danger, the Timurid princes were busy fighting
with each another. Babur, too, made a bid to conquer Samarkand from his uncle. He
won the city twice but on both the occasions, lost it in no time. The second time, the
Uzbek Chief Shaibani Khan Shaibani defeated Babur and conquered Samarkand.
Soon, he overran the rest of the Timurid kingdoms in the area. Babur wrote in his
autobiography, Tuzuk-i-baburi, ‘I had lost Samarkand for recovering Fargana but
now I feel that I have lost even the first one without having possessed the second.’
Having lost both Farghana and Samarkand, Babur was forced to move towards
Kabul, which he conquered in AD 1504. For the next fourteen years, Babur kept
biding his time to capture back his homeland (Farghana and Samarkand) from the
Uzbeks. When he was completely unsuccessful against the Uzbeks, he diverted his
attention from the West (Central Asia) to the East (India).
NOTES Consequences
The Battle of Khanwah was more decisive than that of the First Battle of
Panipat. After this battle, Babur definitely became the ruler of India. It secured
his position in the Delhi-Agra region. Babur strengthened his position further
by conquering a chain of forts in Gwalior and Dholpur in the east of Agra. He
also annexed large parts of Alwar from Hasan Khan Mewati. He then led a
campaign against Medina Rai of Chanderi in Malwa. Chanderi was captured
after the Rajput defenders had died fighting to the last man and their women
performed Jauhar. In brief, we can say that the Battle of Khanwah
consolidated the foundation of the Mughal empire by bringing the Rajput
power to an end. The centre of activity of Babur had shifted from Kabul to
Hindustan and, thus, the work of defeating the rest of the unimportant local
chiefs and the Afghans became easier.
With Sanga’s death, the dream of a united Rajasthan extending up to Agra
received a serious setback. The strength of the Rajputs was broken and the
kingdoms of Hindustan passed from the hands of Rajputs to the Mughals.
The foundation of the Mughal empire in India was laid.
Reasons for the Defeat of Rajputs and Victory of Babur
Treachery of Siladi of Rasin: Siladi of Rasin was the Rajput ally of Rana
Sanga and he had promised to fight for the common Rajput cause. In the
midst of the battle, he deserted Rana Sanga and went over to Babur for the
latter is said to have influenced him. This treacherous behaviour on the part
of Siladi of Raisin broke the heart of the Rajputs and adversely affected their
lot in the battle.
Use of cannons by Babur: Babur used cannons in the Battle of Khanwah.
On the other hand, Rajputs were unaware of this device. Horses of the Rajputs
could not face the cannons and so the army of Rana Sanga was shattered.
Babur as a commander: Babur was a very capable commander. His
techniques of warfare brought him success once more. In the face of stringent
contingencies, he exhibited patience and courage which made him the
outstanding leader of his time. He promised after this victory he would allow
leave to everyone who wanted to go home.
Declaration of the holy war (Jihad): Babur had declared a holy war against
Rana and reminded his men that he was fighting for the glorification of his
religion. The response was instantaneous and enthusiastic. Everyone swore
by the Holy Quran that they would fight to the end and stand by Babur. The
spirit of his troops was thus, energetic going into battle.
Disunity of Rajputs: The Rajputs were not united. There were great
dissensions among them, and due to the victory of Babur in this battle, whatever
unity was left among them also ended.
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Role of Ustad Ali: Ustad Ali, the captain of Babur’s artillery also shares the Rise and Fall of the
Mughal Empire
credit of this victory. His use of cannon balls threw the Rajputs into confusion.
Responsibility of Rana Sanga: Some historians are of the opinion that
though Rana was a brave soldier, he was not a statesman of high order.
NOTES
Disciplined army: Babur’s army was small, disciplined and experienced;
but the Rajput army was a large crowd of indisciplined and inexperienced
mercenaries.
Babur as an Empire Builder
With Babur’s conquest of Hindustan began the long reign of the Mughal empire in
India. Babur brought with him Mughal architecture. Even though Mughal architecture
in India was in its nascent stage during the reign of Babur, many important monuments
were erected during his time.
The types of structures that evolved during Babur’s regime were neither
representative of any particular region nor did they have any regional manifestations.
Rather, Mughal architecture under Babur was just a beginning of an imperial
movement, impressed only by local influences, as it displayed similar uniformity in its
architectural character as well as in its structural principles in whichever part of the
empire it was established. These elegant styles evolved gradually due to the presence
of exceedingly skilled local artisans in those provinces possessing potential indigenous
cultures. Mughal architecture in India, thus, began flourishing in the true sense during
the sixteenth century, in the regime of the first Mughal Emperor, Babur.
Mughal architecture during Babur was indeed that redefined phase, which
saw the most able chiselling of gardens, fondly referred to as Baghs in Urdu. Many
Hindu temples during the time of Babur underwent transformation. To the pre-
existing Hindu particulars, Babur amalgamated Muslim styles and designs borrowed
from Persian and Turk culture.
Even though he was in awe of Indian architecture and craftsmanship, he
insisted that the dominant style of structures erected during his time be modelled
upon Khurasani, that is, Timurid illustrations. It is assumed by historians that the
Hasht Behisht garden at Agra was such a confluence of these many styles.
Textual records from the period throw light on the style of the garden, which
seems to have had a large Pishtaq on each of four sides, connecting galleries and
four small interior chambers.
Besides gardens, during his reign, Babur erected numerous monuments, fine
tombs and madrassas. He converted many of the dilapidated Hindu temples into
mosques. The Jama Masjid at Sambhal and Babri Masjid in Ayodhya are testimonies
of Mughal architecture. It can be said here that the architectural styles developed
during the reign of Babur formed the founding base of the confluence of Persian
style with Hindu styles, which was to become the norm in later years.
A few structures erected during Babur’s time withstood the vagaries of nature
and time. These include the Jama Masjid at Sambhal and Kabuli Bagh Mosque at
Panipat.
The great grandson of Timur and Genghis Khan, Babur was the first Mughal
emperor in India. He confronted and defeated Lodi in AD 1526 at the First Battle of
Panipat, and so came to establish the Mughal empire in India. Babur ruled until
AD 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humayun. During Babur’s reign, India
became united under one rule.
Babur was not only a brilliant general, but also had qualities of a great leader.
Like his contemporaries of the Renaissance period in Europe, Babur too had varied
interests. He was well-read and could write in Turkish as well as in Persian. He
wrote the Tuzuk-i-Baburi. It provides information on his character, achievements
and life during those times. He loved nature, laid down a number of gardens in
Kabul and India and planted fruit trees. He also loved music and enjoyed polo. He
was also a superb horseman.
Let us study the religious policy of Akbar and Aurangzeb especially, with reference
to the Rajputs.
3.3.1 Rajput and the Religious Policy of Akbar
Akbar’s policy towards the non-Muslims was one of toleration. He soon abandoned
the rigid, cruel and hostile policy followed by the Delhi Sultans and the early Mughal
Emperors towards the Hindus. He was the first national ruler who aspired to lay the
foundations of his empire on the goodwill of both the Hindu and the Muslim
communities. His religious policy heralded a new era of peace, prosperity and unity
in the country. He founded the so called order or religion Din-i-Ilahi to give a
common platform to the Hindus and the Muslims.
Factors that led to Akbar’s Adoption of Liberal Policy
Many factors inspired Akbar to follow a liberal policy towards the non-Muslims.
Chief amongst them were as follows:
Personal life and personality: Akbar was liberal and tolerant by nature.
The circumstances of his birth, his upbringing and the teaching of his preceptor
Sheikh Abdul Latif played an important role in making him tolerant. The
discussions in the Ibadat Khana had convinced him that in spite of having
different names, Ram or Rahim, God was one. He wanted to be a true national
monarch.
Political necessity: Akbar wanted to extend and consolidate his empire. He
knew that the Hindus were the majority in India. He also realized that without
the cooperation and sympathy of the Hindus, the defence extensions, peace
stability and order in Mughal empire was impossible. He was impressed by
the qualities of the Hindus, particularly the Rajputs. There was scarcity of the
Mughal soldiers for ruling over the whole of India. Further, to end the feeling
among the people that the Mughals were foreign rulers, Akbar thought it
essential to follow a liberal policy.
Influence of many factors and personalities: Before Akbar, many rulers
in various parts of the country in the fifteenth century had turned non-communal
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and got the religious literature translated into Persian, had extended patronage Rise and Fall of the
Mughal Empire
to regional languages, had followed a tolerant religious policy and had accorded
high posts to the Hindus in their army. Consequently, these policies had created
an atmosphere of mutual understanding between the two communities. This
historical background inspired Akbar to adopt a liberal and tolerant religious NOTES
policy. The Bhakti movement and the followers of Sikh saints also inspired
Akbar to adopt a liberal and tolerant policy. Akbar’s mother and his tutor,
Bairam Khan belonged to the Shia sect. His Rajput wives also helped in
making him tolerant. Thus, the atmosphere of the royal harem and liberal
personalities made him liberal minded.
Characteristics of Akbar’s Religious Policy
In AD 1562, Akbar worked in this direction after his accession:
He issued a firman prohibiting the war prisoners to be forcibly converted to
Islam.
In AD 1563, he brought to an end the pilgrimage tax of bathing in places of
pilgrimage like Prayag and Banaras.
In AD 1564, he abolished Jizia. According to Islamic injunctions, non-Muslims
of the Islamic states had to pay this tax. Though it was not a very oppressive
tax financially, yet it was not liked.
Though he had opened the avenues for the appointment of non-Muslims in
the royal service in AD 1562, yet he appointed Todarmal only on a high post
the revenue department in AD 1563. In AD 1574, he was made the Diwan
(Wazir or Finance Minister). Soon after, Rama Das was appointed as the
Naib Diwan in the state. The ruler of Amer Bharmal was given a high office,
his son Bhagwan Das got a mansab of 5000 and his son Man Singh got a
mansab of 7000. Another person worth mentioning is a Brahmin called Mahesh
Das, who was given the title of Raja Birbal. He placed Birbal amongst the
nine jewels of his court. Birbal always stayed with Akbar.
Akbar entered into matrimonial relations with many Hindu Rajas and high
families, for example, he married Mani Bai, the younger daughter of Bharmal.
The rulers of Jaisalmer and Bikaner also established matrimonial relations
with Akbar.
He treated his common Hindu subjects and Muslims equally. Hindus were
given full freedom of construction of new temples or repair of old temples.
They could celebrate their festivals freely.
He had given his Hindu wives full freedom to worship as they liked in his
harem.
He honoured the scholars of every religion equally. In AD 1575, he established
an Ibadatkhana in his new capital of Fatehpur Sikri. Here he invited religious
preachers and scholars of every religion. The discussion could continue till
only AD 1582.
Mughal art and structural design refers to the Indo-Islamic-Persian approach that
flourished during the reign of the Mughals who ruled India between AD 1526 and
AD 1857. The characteristic feature of the Mughal architecture is the symmetry
and designs in their building/monuments and tombs. Prior to the Mughal dynasty
which started with Babur, the Delhi Sultanate (AD 1192–1398) laid down the
foundation of Mughal art in India. The Qutub Minar which was erected by Qutubuddin-
Aibak in AD1193 remains a prominent characteristic of Delhi’s skyline.
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The earliest Islamic monuments in India were time and again built over the Rise and Fall of the
Mughal Empire
Jain and Hindu monuments which were plundered and destroyed by the Muslim
invaders. The Adhai-Din-Ka Jhopra of Ajmer and the Qutab Minar, both dating
back to the twelfth century were built over the ruins of a Jain monastery/temple.
The Adhai-Din-Ka Jhompra of Ajmer was a centre of Sanskrit learning patronized NOTES
by the rulers of the Chauhan period.
Later, with the passage of time, the Mughal architecture was introduced in
Bengal too. The Sultans who were predecessors to the Mughals had constructed
several mosques in the regions of the old capitals of Pandua and Gaur during the
period between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The Adina Mosque of Pandua
and the Eklahi mosque were also built on the vandalized remains of Hindu temples,
apparent from the intricate carvings on their structures. The art work on the Adina
Mosque shares a striking resemblance with the Kakatiya ruins of Warangal in Andhra
Pradesh.
In the central Gangetic Plain, the Sharqis who ruled from Jaunpur during the
fourteenth and the fifteenth century patronized the construction of mosques with
fine jaali work which influenced the monuments built by Sher Shah Suri. In Gujarat
too, the mosques rested on fine intricate carvings of ancient Jain and Hindu temples,
evident from the display of Hindu motifs like the Chakra, the Kalpa-Lata or Kalpa-
Vriksha, the Purna Kalash, the lotus symbol and the lamp of acquaintance on their
mosques.
Works of Mughal structural design have been seen in Chanderi, Hissar and
Hansi as well.
It was Akbar who initiated the erection of monuments on the Indian soil, with
a burial chamber in honour of his father Humayun in AD 1560. Built under the
supervision of Persian originator Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, this wonderful structure with
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Rise and Fall of the an elaborate agreement of octagonal chambers flanked by cupolas, kiosks and
Mughal Empire
minarets amidst rectangular shaped lawns remains a landmark gravestone in Delhi.
After Akbar consolidated his kingdom, he established his capital at Agra.
This led to the construction of many imposing buildings that used red sandstone as
NOTES the principal building material and white sandstone was used for the inlay work on
the exteriors. The interiors were lavishly adorned with paintings.
In AD1573, Akbar moved his capital to Fatehpur Sikri to commemorate the
birth of his son, Jahangir and to honour Sheikh Salim of the Chisti order, where he
built a new capital city which showcased typical Mughal architecture.
The reign of Jahangir saw the transition from sandstone to marble in the
construction of the few monuments that he had built. Later, his son Shah Jahan used
white marble extensively in his monuments, especially the Taj Mahal.
Development of Architecture under the Mughals
Babur is credited with not only establishing the Mughal empire in India, but also
heralding in an era that saw the introduction and development of a plethora of
architectural styles in India. Though much of the time during his short period of reign
(five years) in India was spent in annexing kingdoms, Babur left behind him some of
the most marvelous Mughal structures in India. These include the Babri Masjid at
Ayodhya, Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and Jami Masjid at Sambhal, near Delhi. Even
though most of them were destroyed over the centuries, some of them such as the
Babri Masjid have withstood the vagaries of nature and time.
The history of Mughal architecture actually begins with Akbar. It is a blend of
Persian and Hindu styles. Most of Akbar’s buildings are made in red sandstone and
one of the earliest buildings built by him was the tomb of Humayun in Delhi. In AD
1565, Akbar started the construction of the massive Agra Fort, but his most
magnificent construction was the new capital at Fatehpur Sikri. Built in AD1571, it
took fifteen years to complete a ceremonial capital including elaborate palaces,
formal courtyards, reflecting pools, tombs and a mosque. Unfortunately, this massive
city had to be abandoned because besides other reasons, it lacked adequate water
supply. It consisted of a number of fine buildings like the Jami Mosque, the Tomb of
Salim Chisti (its chambers are surrounded by a corridor with a lacework marble
screen) and the Buland Darwaza, constructed to commemorate his Gujarat conquest.
Jodha Bai’s Palace and the Panch Mahal are also unique. The construction of Akbar’s
tomb at Sikandra, near Agra, was started by Akbar but completed by his son Jahangir.
Jahangir constructed the tomb of Itmadud- Daulah (father of Nur Jahan) in
white marble. He was fond of gardens and laid two beautiful gardens in Kashmir—
the Nishat and the Shalimar Bagh.
NOTES
The reign of Shah Jahan is known in history as the Golden Era of Mughal
architecture. As peace and prosperity prevailed throughout the empire, he devoted
himself to architecture.
Mughal art reached its nadir during the reign of Shah Jahan, who is known
for his passion for architecture. He almost re-built the Agra Fort, adding marble to
the existing sandstone structure, and went on to build his new capital in Shahjahanabad
or the Red Fort, the Pearl Mosque and the Taj Mahal among numerous other
monuments. Lapidary and fine pietra dura were new trends set by Shah Jahan.
He built the Taj Mahal at Agra as a mausoleum for his beloved wife Mumtaz
Mahal. Shah Jahan also constructed the Moti Masjid in Agra Fort and the Jama
Masjid in Delhi. After the death of his beloved wife Mumtaz, Shah Jahan shifted the
capital to Delhi and started the construction of a new city called Shahjahanabad. He
built the Jami Masjid at Agra in honour of his daughter Jahanara. He also built the
Red Fort, which has many beautiful buildings like the Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-Aam,
and the celebrated Peacock Throne, which was made of gold and studded with
precious stones. This throne was carried away by Nadir Shah, a Persian invader, in
AD 1739. Shah Jahan also gave liberal aid to artists. He also built a number of
palaces and gardens in places like Lahore, Kashmir and Kabul.
Jahanara, daughter of Shah Jahan, was also a generous patron of structural
design and showed an eclectic taste in building spacious gardens, mosques, madrasas
and serais. At Delhi, she built the prominent Begum Ka Bagh and Begum Serai. She
also built her own tomb near the shrine of the dargah of Hazrat Nizauddin.
The great Mughal empire was much more extensive and strong as compared to
other empires of its time. It was founded by Babur, consolidated by Akbar, prospered
under Jahangir and Shah Jahan and attained its zenith at the time of Aurangzeb.
However, immediately after Aurangzeb’s death, began that process of disintegration
and decline which led to its being limited to areas in the vicinity of Delhi by AD 1750.
In AD 1803, the English army occupied Delhi and the great Mughal empire became
a mere pensioner of the English East India Company. The factors responsible for its
disintegration and decline were as follows:
(i) Lack of a definite law of succession: The Mughal emperors never made
any attempt to fix any definite law of succession. Therefore, generally the
Mughal emperor had to deal with the revolt of the rebel princes even during
his own lifetime. Humayun had to witness the hostility of his brothers, Akbar—
the revolt of Salim and Jahangir had to face the revolts of his sons. Similarly,
after Aurangzeb’s death, his sons fought the battle for succession. Struggles
like this encouraged indiscipline among the Mughal empire and its prestige
suffered.
(ii) Incapable successors of Aurangzeb: After Aurangzeb’s death, his son
Bahadur Shah ascended the throne at the age of sixty-five. Soon after he had
to face stiff opposition because of his Rajput policy but he realized the mistake
of following an anti-Rajput policy and entered into an agreement with them.
But this agreement was not a liberal one. He did not give any high mansab to
the Rajputs. Towards the Maratha chief also he adopted a policy of superficial
friendship only. He gave them the right of sardeshmukhi in the Deccan but
did not give them the right of chauth. Therefore, he could not satisfy them
completely. He did not recognize Sahu as the rightful leader. The civil war in
the Maratha region continued and disorder spread in the Deccan.
He committed another serious mistake by adopting a harsh policy towards
the Sikh leader, Banda Bahadur, after the death of Guru Gobind Singh. The
Sikhs continued their struggle against the Mughals which led to Mughal empire
suffering a heavy loss. Bahadur Shah further deteriorated the financial
condition of the empire by blindly distributing jagirs in order to make the
Amirs happy and by giving the officials promotions. In the war of succession
that followed Bahadur Shah’s death, the incapable Jahandar Shah emerged
3.6 SUMMARY
Till the early sixteenth century, India had been without a major empire for
almost a thousand years.
The Mughal dynasty was the last great empire of Indian history. Such was
their greatness that the word ‘Mogul’ in English (derived from Mughal) refers
to a powerful person.
The Mughal period is also described as Early Modern period. This is because
this era witnessed major changes in trade, agriculture and technology. For
instance, with the creation of more sea routes and expansion in trade, currency
came to be used increasingly.
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Babur, who laid the foundation of the Mughal empire in India in AD 1526, Rise and Fall of the
Mughal Empire
belonged to the family of Chaghatai Turks.
The Battle of Khanwah was fought between Rana Sangram Singh of Mewar
(popularly known as Rana Sanga) and the founder of Mughal dynasty, Babur,
in AD 1527 at Khanwah, about forty kilometres away from Agra. NOTES
Humayun was born in Kabul on 6 March, AD 1508. He was the eldest son of
Babur. His mother was Mahim Begum; and Kamran, Askari and Hindal were
his brothers.
The battle of Bilgram was the decisive battle between Humayun and Sher
Shah.
On 19 February, AD 1556, Akbar was declared the Emperor at Kalanaur
when he had just turned thirteen. At that time, he was virtually a ruler without
a kingdom.
The Second Battle of Panipat was a battle between Hemu and Akbar in
which Akbar won to re-establish the Mughal empire.
Akbar was the greatest among the Mughal emperors who ascended the throne
at a very early age, after the death of his father Humayun.
Akbar had inherited a very small kingdom at the time of his accession. He
was king only in name, being just thirteen years of age. He was surrounded
by enemies on all sides. Loyal Bairam Khan was his guardian. Akbar began
his policy of conquest with the help of Bairam Khan.
Akbar’s policy towards the non-Muslims was one of toleration. He soon
abandoned the rigid, cruel and hostile policy followed by the Delhi Sultans
and the early Mughal emperors towards the Hindus.
The policy adopted by Aurangzeb towards Marwar after Jaswant Singh’s
death also proved to be another factor that resulted in the disintegration and
decline of the Mughal empire.
Most historians hold that a great blow was given to the stability of the Mughal
empire by the religious orthodoxy and opposition to the non-Muslims followed
by Aurangzeb.
Mughal art and structural design refers to the Indo-Islamic-Persian approach
that flourished during the reign of the Mughals who ruled India between AD
1526 and AD1857.
Babur is credited with not only establishing the Mughal empire in India, but
also heralding in an era that saw the introduction and development of a plethora
of architectural styles in India.
The reign of Shah Jahan is known in history as the Golden Era of Mughal
architecture. As peace and prosperity prevailed throughout the empire, he
devoted himself to architecture.
Aurangzeb’s contributions to architecture are few in comparison to his
predecessors. He constructed the Moti Masjid in the Red Fort at Delhi and a
tomb for his queen at Aurangabad.
Self-Instructional Material 165
Rise and Fall of the The Mughal period also saw development in the field of painting. The art of
Mughal Empire
miniature painting continued. As the use of paper became common, painters
started illustrating books with pictures.
Literature during the Mughal period witnessed tremendous development as
NOTES there was a return of a stable and prosperous empire. Persian, Sanskrit,
Hindi and Urdu languages saw tremendous creative activity as did many
vernacular languages.
In AD 1803, the English army occupied Delhi and the great Mughal empire
became a mere pensioner of the English East India Company.
Short-Answer Questions
1. Write a short note on the establishment of the Mughal empire.
2. What were the difficulties which Humayun had to overcome during the early
years of his rule?
3. What is the significance of the Battle of Chausa (AD 1539)?
4. Briefly discuss the development of Akbar’s religious views.
5. What were the major developments in the field of painting in the Mughal
period?
6. Write a short note on the development of literature during the Mughal period.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Describe the consolidation of the Mughal empire under Babur and Humayun.
2. ‘The Second Battle of Panipat initiated Akbar’s reign.’ Discuss.
Self-Instructional Material 167
Rise and Fall of the 3. Explain Akbar’s imperialist policy.
Mughal Empire
4. Critically analyse Akbar’s and Aurangzeb’s religious policy with special
reference to the Rajputs.
NOTES 5. Discuss the development of art and architecture under the Mughals.
6. What were the factors responsible for the disintegration of the Mughal empire?
Chandra, Satish. 2009. History of Medieval India. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan.
Prasad, Ishwari. 1925. Medieval India. India: Indian Press.
Majumdar, R. C. 1948. An Advanced History of India. India: Macmillan.
Habib, Irfan 1982. Atlas of the Mughal Empire. New Delhi: Oxford University
Press.
Nizami, K.A. 1966. Studies in Medieval Indian History and Culture. New Delhi:
Kitab Mahal.
Smith, V.A.1917. Akbar the Great Mogul, 1542–1605. New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
4.0 INTRODUCTION
The death of Aurangzeb was soon followed by the succession war among the Mughal
princes. The Mughal empire which gave Indian history an era of splendid
accomplishments disintegrated with the irreparable mistakes of emperors like
Aurangzeb.
At the time of the Mughal empire, a powerful group emerged in the Deccan
known as the Marathas. They were great warriors. When the Bahmani empire
collapsed, many Hindu kingdoms rose to high positions; Marathas were also among
them. They lived in the Deccan, in the region of present Maharashtra and north
Karnataka. Shivaji and Peshwa Baji Rao were the prominent Maratha rulers and
they challenged the supremacy of the Mughal empire. However, after the death of
Shivaji, his rule continued but his several successors soon faded away. The English
East India Company was desirous of gaining power in India. Bengal was the richest
province in the eighteenth century and the East India Company benefitted the
maximum from this province. Hence, it was so obvious for the English East India
Company to strengthen its position in Bengal. They for this purpose targeted Siraj-
ud-Daula––the young and inexperienced ruler who had many enemies. In an attempt
to recapture Calcutta from the British, Siraj-ud-Daula attacked on 16 June 1756 and
captured it. But the English, led by Robert Clive and Watson, recovered Calcutta in
January 1757 and Siraj-ud-Daula had to sign the treaty of Alinagar. In the fateful
Battle of Plassey, Siraj-ud-Daula was defeated by a small army of Robert Clive, due
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Rise of Regional Powers to the treachery of Mir Jaffer and Rai Durlab. Mir Jaffer continued to be the Nawab
from 1757 to 1760 but when his coffers got empty, he seized to be of any use to
Robert Clive and his men. So, they took all the power from him and the East India
Company became the real master of Bengal 1765 onwards, and the nawabs were
NOTES reduced to be just puppets in the hands of the British.
In this unit, you will study about the rise of the Sikhs, Marathas, land revenue
and administration of Murshid Quli Khan, English East India Company’s relation
with Alivardi Khan and Siraj-ud-Daula.
Guru Nanak was born into a Bedi Hindu Kshatriya family in Talwandi (today known
as Nankana Sahib, near Lahore, Pakistan) on 15 April 1469. His father, Mehta
Kalyan Das Bedi was the patwari (accountant) of the village of Talwandi.
Guru Nanak’s mother was Tripta Devi and Bibi Nanaki was his elder sister.
Nanki was married to Jai Ram, who was the steward (modi) to Daulat Khan Lodi,
the eventual governor of Lahore. Guru Nanak was attached to his older sister and
followed her to Sultanpur to live with her. Guru Nanak also found work with Daulat
Khan, when he was around sixteen years old.
Guru Nanak was an intelligent child. He was different from others. Since childhood,
he had a deeply contemplative mind and all efforts to engage him in worldly pursuits
had failed. When he was seven years old, his father enrolled him at the village
school. As a child Guru Nanak surprised his teacher by describing the implied
symbolism of the first letter of the alphabet, resembling the mathematical version of
one, as denoting the unity or oneness of God. Guru Nanak was a contemporary of
following three Lodhi dynasty rulers:
Babar Lodhi (AD 1451–1489)
Sikandar Lodhi (AD 1489–1517)
Ibrahim Lodhi (AD 1517–1526)
Nanak got great satisfaction in serving the poor and needy. An important story of his
childhood tells us that once his father gave him some money to start a business in the
neighbouring town. On the way, Nanak saw some sadhus (hermits or sages) who
170 Self-Instructional Material
had not eaten for many days. Nanak purchased food for them with the money given Rise of Regional Powers
by his father and they had a good meal. When Nanak’s father asked him what
business venture he started with the money, he replied that he made a ‘most profitable
bargain’. On noticing that Nanak was not interested in business his father sent him
to Sultanpur Lodhi, a town in Kapurthala district of Punjab. Here, Nanak was NOTES
employed as a storekeeper by the local ruler. This duty was discharged by Nanak
with great integrity.
It was during his stay at Sultanpur Lodhi that Nanak got his enlightenment.
According to popular traditions, one morning when Nanak went for a dip in the river
Beas flowing nearby, he was absorbed in the thoughts of God and was ushered into
the divine presence. Blessed by the Almighty, Nanak came out of the river to preach
the holy name of the God. The first words that Nanak uttered after his enlightenment
were ‘there is no Hindu and there is no Musalman’. At a time when the Hindus and
the Muslims were engaged in sectarian conflicts, these words heralded Nanak’s
new mission of reconciliation of the two sects.
4.2.1 Basic Elements of Sikhism
In this section, you will study basic concepts of Sikhism.
Concept of Ishwar
The basic belief of Sikhism is that God exists as a real entity and not just as an idea
or a design. The Gurus have described God in numerous ways in their hymns that
are included in the Guru Granth Sahib. These hymns emphasize on the unity of the
deity.
The best definition that any Sikh can give to the concept of God in Sikhism is
by quoting the Mulmantra–the fundamental creed of Sikhism, which occurs at the
beginning of Sri Guru Granth Sahib. It is mentioned in the first verse of the Guru
Granth Sahib as follows:
‘There exists but one God, who is called The True, The Creator,
Free from fear and hate, Immortal, Not begotten, Self-Existent,
Great and Compassionate.’
Almost all the great religions of the world highlight the need of a preceptor or Guru
or holy man for the achievement of salvation. The Vedas list the qualities of a
religious guide. Even Guru Nanak has highlighted that bliss can be attained only
NOTES
through a Guru. Sikhism does not identify any chosen prophets. Guru Nanak Sahib
did not insist on a human or physical Guru. Rather, his Guru was God Himself.
The importance of the Guru in Sikhism can hardly be overemphasized. What
is important in Sikhism is not the person but the word. It is said in Sikhism, ‘The
word is the Guru. The Guru is the word. If the devotee follows what the word says,
surely the Guru will save him.’ This is the reason why Guru Gobind Singh installed
the Granth Sahib as the Guru of all times. He had observed that Sikhs do not need
any man as their Guru as the word is now with them. Guru Arjan Sahib had said,
‘Without a Guru, liberation cannot be won. The Guru is my boat, which will ferry me
across the rough ocean of existence.’
Guru Ramdas Sahib had said, ‘The Guru is the Sikh and the Sikh who practices
the Guru’s word is equal to the Guru.’ Guru Gobind Singh Sahib had said, ‘I live and
have my being in the Khalsa.’ The Guru lives in the form of the Panth (Group) and
resides in the Sangat (Collective). All the Gurus are identical with Guru Nanak.
Guru Gobind Singh passed on the corporal succession to the Panth, which is regarded
as the embodiment of the Guru. The Panth represents the Guru and is progressing
well with the passage of time. It is a dynamic and corporate personality with authority
to make decisions that are binding on the Sikhs. Thus, we see that there is a two-fold
concept of the Guru–one permanent and the other progressive. The word is the
embodiment of eternal and changeless truth, while the Panth is the progressive,
collective personality of the Guru among the Sikhs.
Guru Granth Sahib is the living embodiment of the ten Gurus of the Sikhs. It
is the living flame of the name, which lights the lamp of the disciple. There is no
place for a living Guru in the Sikh religion because Gurbani is Guru and Guru is
Gurbani. This is the permanent Guru concept of Sikhism. When a Sikh is in doubt
about any principle of Sikhism, he refers the matter to the Panth for a decision or
clarification. This is the progressive Guru concept of Sikhism.
4.2.2 Mughal-Sikh Relations till 1720
Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak, a religious leader and a social reformer during
the fifteenth century in the Punjab region. Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh
religion, was born to a Hindu family in Nanakana Saheb in Lahore. He exhibited
deep interest in religious matters and started exploring the mysteries of life. He
travelled widely to spread his faith after he became the ‘Enlightened One’. Several
people became his followers and they came to be known as Sikhs. He believed that
there is only one God who is omnipotent. The religious practice was formalized by
Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699. Guru Gobind Singh initiated five persons
from different social backgrounds to form Khalsa. The first five, Pure Ones then
baptized the Guru into the Khalsa fold.
At the beginning of the seventeenth century, most parts of Maharashtra were under
the possession of Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar and Adil Shah of Bijapur. They took
the help of local Marathi speaking people to run their administration. They recruited
a large number of Maratha sardars and soldiers in their armies. The Mores, Ghatages,
Nimbalkars, Jadhavs, Gorpades, Sawants and Bhosles were sardar families that
rose to fame during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Desphandes and
Deshmukhs traditionally performed the duty of collecting land revenue. They were
granted tax-free land in return for their services. Such a land grant was called
watan.
The Bhonsle family of Pune district acquired military and political prominence
in the Ahmadnagar kingdom at the close of the sixteenth century. Shahji Bhonsle
was the major ruler of this clan and he was married to Jijabai. He sought his fortune
under the Sultan of Bijapur and had his jagir at Pune.
Nearly three months after Aurangzeb’s death, Sambhaji’s son Sahu (born on 18
May, AD 1682) who had been in Mughal captivity since 3 November, AD 1689 was
liberated on 8 May, AD 1707 by Aurangzeb’s second son, who ascended the throne
NOTES
as Bahadur Shah I. Sahu was recognized as the king of the Marathas and his right
to the Maratha swaraj and to chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccani subahs of
the Mughals was also probably recognized. The Mughal suzerainty was protected
through the arrangement that he would rule as a vassal of the empire. The intention
of the Mughals was to end long-drawn wars in the Deccan or to create dissensions
in the Maratha camp. Both situations were advantageous to the Mughals and they
were not disappointed. Sahu’s release was followed by a civil war between the
forces of Tarabai and Sahu, which lasted up to AD 1714.
4. Balaji Viswanath (AD 1713 –1720) — Rise of Peshwas: Balaji Viswanath
began his career as a small revenue official and was given the title of Sena Karte
(maker of the army) by Shahu in AD 1708. He became Peshwa in AD 1713 and
made the post the most important and powerful as well as hereditary. He played a
crucial role the final victory of Shahu by winning over almost all the Maratha sardars
to the side of Shahu.
He concluded an agreement with the Sayyid brothers (AD 1719) by which
the Mughal Emperor (Farukhsiyar) recognized Shahu as the king of the Swarajya.
Balaji’s character and capacity and the peculiar circumstances of the country favoured
the rise of the Peshwas to power and renown. One of the first things Balaji was
called upon to do was to secure the restoration of Sahu’s mother to him from the
custody of the Mughals who had detained her at Delhi as hostage for the good
behaviour of her son Sahu. Balaji opened direct negotiations with the Sayyid brothers
and in February, AD 1719 all his demands were accepted.
Accordingly, Sahu’s mother and family was released, he was recognized as
the ruler of Shivaji’s home dominions and was allowed to collect chauth and
sardeshmukhi from the six subahs of the Deccan, as also in Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu. In return for all this, the Marathas were expected to keep a contingent on
15,000 horses in the service of the Mughals and to maintain order in the Deccan.
Balaji’s success in Delhi greatly increased his power and prestige.
Balaji Vishwanath has been rightly called the ‘second founder of the Maratha
state’. He perceived that the revival of Maratha power in its old monarchical form
was no longer possible and it would be difficult to harness the nation’s military
resources to the common cause unless concessions were made to the great warlords
who had won an important place for themselves. He made them subordinate allies
or confederates of the sovereign, granting them a free hand in administering their
conquests and called from them no greater sacrifice than uniting on matters of
common policy. This arrangement, however, left too much authority in the hands of
these chiefs, without providing for checks to call them to account, which was
responsible for the speedy expansion of the Maratha power and its rapid dissolution.
The term of Balaji’s Peshwaship marks the transition from the royal period to the
age of the Peshwas.
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Rise of Regional Powers Balaji was credited with ‘a mastery of finance’. Though constantly engaged
in war and diplomacy, he took firm measures to put a stop to anarchy in the kingdom.
He suppressed freebooters and restored civil government. Solid foundations were
laid for a well-organized revenue system in the Swaraj territory, which was under
NOTES direct royal administration.
5. Baji Rao I (AD 1720–1740): Baji Rao, the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath,
succeeded him as Peshwa at the young age of twenty. He was considered the
greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji and Maratha power reached its
zenith under him.
Under him, several Maratha families became prominent and got themselves
entrenched in different parts of India. Some of these places were as follows:
Gaekwad at Baroda
Bhonsles at Nagpur
Holkars at Indore
Scindias at Gwalior
Peshwas at Pune
After defeating and expelling the Siddhis of Janjira from the mainland (AD
1722), he conquered Bassein and Salsette from the Portuguese (AD 1733). He also
defeated Nizam-ul-Mulk near Bhopal and concluded the Treaty of Durai Sarai by
which he got Malwa and Bundelkhand from the latter (AD 1737). He led innumerable
successful expeditions in north India to weaken the Mughal empire and to make the
Marathas the supreme power in India. He said ‘Let us strike at the trunk of the
withering tree and the branches will fall of themselves.’
6. Balaji Baji Rao (AD 1740 – 1761): Balaji Baji Rao was popularly known as
‘Nana Saheb’. He succeeded his father at the age of twenty. After the death of his
father, the management of all state affairs was left in his hands. In an agreement
with the Mughal emperor (Ahmad Shah), the Peshwa (AD 1752) was to protect the
Mughal empire from the internal and the external (Ahmad Shah Abdali) enemies in
return for the Chauth. He remained dependent on the advice and guidance of his
cousin Sadashiva Rao Bhau.
With regard to the future policy of his government, he asked Sadashiva Rao
Bhau to continue the policies of his father and said ‘The elder Bajirao achieved
great deeds in the devoted service of the king. But his life was cut short. You are his
son, and you ought to consummate his policy of conquering the whole of Hindustan
and establish an Empire and lead your horses beyond Attock.’
One of the earliest achievements of Nana Saheb was better financial
management of the empire by exercising careful supervision over all financial
transactions. He later discussed the affairs of northern India with Holkar and Scindia
and in April, AD 1742 marched northwards to consolidate the Maratha authority in
Bundelkhand. In AD 1743, he undertook the second expedition to the North to help
Ali Vardi Khan (in Bengal) whose territories had been ravaged by Raghuji Bhonsle.
The Peshwa reached Murshidabad and met Ali Vardi Khan who agreed to pay him
Murhsid Quli Khan was a Brahmin by birth and was sold by an anonymous merchant
of Isfahan to Haji Shafi Isfahani during his early years. During this time, he was also
converted to Islam and got the name Muhammad Hadi. The Mughal Emperor
Aurangzeb gave him the title Murshid Quli Khan.
When Haji Shafi travelled to Persia, he took Muhammad Hadi with him. In
Persia, Muhammad Hadi learnt Persian and also the discipline and wisdom of the
Persians. When Haji Shafi returned to India, Hadi too returned to India and moved
to Delhi with Haji Shafi when he was made the Diwan of Delhi. Under Haji Shafi,
Muhammad Hadi learnt the system of revenue collection. When Haji Shafi retired,
he moved to Persia along with Muhammad Hadi. Muhammad Hadi returned to
India after the death of Shafi and was employed for some time under Haji Abdullah
Khorasani, the then Diwan of Berar.
Hadi had immense talent and knowledge regarding the revenue matters and
this talent was identified by the then Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Thus Aurangzeb
employed Hadi for his own services and appointed him as the Diwan of Hyderabad
in 1689. Muhammad Hadi was sent to Bengal in AD1701 as the Diwan of Bengal.
As the Diwan of Bengal, Muhammad Hadi managed the revenue administration of
Bengal effectively. In 1701, Hadi became the faujdar of Murshidabad, Bardhaman
and Midnapore. In this capacity, he handled the executive functions of a district
magistrate and criminal judge.
In the beginning of 1701, when Hadi took over as the Diwan of Bengal, he
was disobeyed and was not liked by the officials who had been in Bengal since a
long time. These officials often sent complaints about Muhammad Hadi to Aurangzeb.
However, Muhammad Hadi was Aurangzeb’s favourite and a trusted employee.
Muhammad Hadi remitted ‘ one crore from Bengal to Aurangzeb who was in financial
strain during that period. Aurangzeb was, thus, very pleased with Hadi. It was in
1702 that Aurangzeb gave him the title Murshid Quli Khan as a reward for his
services.
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Rise of Regional Powers During the Mughal rule, the posts of subedar, nazim and diwan were never
allotted to only one person. Abuse of power was checked by the emperor by delegation
of responsibilities. The nazim was responsible for the maintenance of law and order,
the command of the armed forces and the administration of criminal justice; while
NOTES the diwan was responsible for finance and taxation and administration of civil justice.
In 1703, Murshid Quli Khan was made the subedar of Orissa and in 1704 to the
post of Diwan of Bihar. The same year Murshid Quli Khan transferred his capital
from Dhaka to Murshidabad. For his services as diwan, remitting revenue to the
capital, Murshid Quli was gradually, raised to the position of deputy subedar of Bengal
in 1713 and to the post of subedar in 1717. There was, thus, a distinct deviation from
the Mughal practice when Murshid Quli Khan commanded the posts of both diwan
and subedar. He took the title of Alauddin Zafar Khan Bahadur and virtually acquired
for his province a semi-independent status. Murshid Quli did not challenge the
sovereignty of the emperor and also did not stop the remission of revenue to the
capital, although the dignity of the empire had been seriously damaged by then.
Prince Muhammad Azim-ud-din, better known as Azim-ush-shan, son of
Bahadur Shah I and grandson of Aurangzeb was the subedar of Bengal from AD1697
to 1712 but from AD1703 to 1712 he was absent from Bengal and governed through
his agents only. His only aim was to amass sufficient money to fight the war of
succession after the death of Aurangzeb who had become very old. He, therefore,
monopolized trade in various items of everyday use to make his own profit.
This system of monopoly was called sauda-i-khas, that is, the personal trade
of the prince. This evil practice had prevailed in Bengal from Prince Shuja’s
subedarship and was followed by Mir Jumla and Shaista Khan. When Aurangzeb
came to know about Azim-ush-shan’s practice of sauda-i-khas, the practice was
abandoned.
The infuriated prince sought to take revenge on Diwan Murshid Quli Khan
and plotted his murder which, however, failed. Murshid Quli reported the whole
incident to the emperor and obtained his permission to shift his headquarters from
Dacca to Makshudabad, a place at a safe distance from the prince. He also obtained
permission of the emperor to name it Murshidabad.
As long as Aurangzeb was alive Murshid Quli Khan enjoyed supreme influence
with the imperial government but after his death Murshid Quli Khan was sent to the
Deccan as Diwan and also removed from the subedari of Orissa (1708). But in
1710, he was appointed Diwan of Bengal but the subedarship of Orissa was not
restored to him. However, during AD1713–14 he was made deputy-subedar of
Bengal and also subedar of Orissa with the title Ja’far Khan. For three years, there
was no change in his position and in 1717 Murshid Quli Ja’far Khan paid a nazarana
of rupees one lakh to the emperor and was appointed complete subedar of Bengal
and was conferred the title of Mutaman-ul-Mulk Ala-ud-daulah Ja’far Khan Bahadur
Nasiri Nasir Jang.
Murshid Quli Khan became independent nawab for all practical purposes,
but he did not challenge the supremacy of the Mughal Emperor. Within the province
the de facto nawab reigned supreme and his tenure as the diwan and subedar saw
194 Self-Instructional Material
the development of an elaborated revenue administration. Murshid Quli Khan died Rise of Regional Powers
on 30 June1727.
Murshid Quli Khan was the sole and supreme authority in Bengal. Gross
fiscal oppression and illegal exactions were put under check by Murshid Quli Khan
who demanded only the standard revenue from the people. He forbade all extra NOTES
revenue or illegal exaction and trade monopoly which had been practiced by his
predecessors. Hence, under his rule the people of Bengal lived in prosperity. He
even did not hesitate to disregard emperor Farrukhsiyar’s farman granted to the
English to carry on duty-free trade in Bengal in 1717 in order to safeguard the
interests of people of Bengal.
Murshid Quli Khan established an efficient administration. Revenue
administration was the main field in which major reforms were introduced by Murhsid
Quli Khan. When Murshid Quli Khan became the Diwan of Bengal, he found that
the finances of the province were in utter confusion and the government did not
receive any income from the land revenue as the whole country had been allotted to
the officers as jagirs in lieu of their salary.
The only income of the government was from the custom duties. Naturally,
the subedars and diwans forced the merchants, especially the European traders in
Bengal who were the biggest traders buying and selling goods worth millions of
rupees. To rationalize the revenue system in Bengal, Murhsid Quli Khan resumed all
jagirs and converted them into khas lands directly under the government, and gave
the dispossessed officers fresh jagirs in poor, wild and unsubdued province of Orissa.
He also introduced the ijara system. The ijara system was a contract system wherein
contracts of collection of land revenue were granted to ijaradars or contactors by
taking security bonds from them. This system was also called land revenue system
and the contractors came to be known as zamindars.
With this system, Murshid Quli Khan created a landed aristocracy in Bengal.
For the collection of land revenue, he divided Bengal into thirteen circles, which
were subdivided into thirteen tracts under the supervision of Jagirdars and twenty-
five areas as crown-land under the contractors. In the sphere of collecting revenue,
Murshid Quli Khan made no compromise. The Hindu zamindars suffered under him
and were terrorized by the revenue collectors who were often ruthless. In his rule,
the zamindars were debarred from collecting royal revenue and their sources of
income were also limited to profits of tax-free lands given in consideration for services
rendered. His administration of land reforms was also strict. He sent his men to
every village and the cultivated and the waste lands were measured and were leashed
back to the tenants plot by plot. Agricultural loans were meted out to the poorer
section and he also facilitated in increasing production of land. Thus, Murshid Quli
Khan brought about not only increase in revenue but also increase in the areas. A
part of the revenue was sent to the imperial treasury in Delhi. His administration
was so dynamic and formidable that there was neither foreign invasion nor domestic
disorder, and as a result, the military expenses were nearly abolished.
Murshid Quli Khan was responsible for yet another change in the Hindu
society of Bengal. Before his time all high offices in the army as well as in the
Self-Instructional Material 195
Rise of Regional Powers revenue, accounts and law departments were filled by persons brought from Agra
or Punjab who did not settle in Bengal, but came and left with the changing subedars.
However, this flow of outsiders was stopped after the death of Shah Alam in 1712
when the central government started disintegrating due to revolutions and the
NOTES emergence of independent provincial dynasties in Hyderabad, Lucknow and so forth.
Bengal was no exception and Murshid Quli Khan had for all practical purposes
become independent. Under him, Hindus because of their talents and mastery of
Persian language came to occupy the highest civil posts under the subedar and
many of the military posts under the faujdars.
Murshid Quli Khan succeeded in enhancing revenue collection. Nevertheless,
he punished the defaulters in a ruthless manner. If Murshid Quli Khan came to
know that the zamindar had not given the revenue, he would compel the offenders
along with his family to become Muhammadans. Sayyid Razi Khan, husband of the
granddaughter of Murshid Quli Khan who was appointed deputy Diwan of Bengal
would perpetrate inhuman tortures on the defaulters by putting them in a pit full of
human excreta. News of such inhuman treatment reached Aurangzeb but he confided
in Murshid Quli Khan completely.
Besides the cruel treatment of the defaulting ijaradars, there was another
cause of the revenue increase. He followed strict economy in financial administration
and reduced the collection charges to the bare minimum. His judicial decisions were
rational and just and were respected and obeyed by everyone. During his reign, as
the Nawab of Bengal, no zamindar or revenue collector could oppress anyone and
if, a complaint about the same reached his ears, the guilty was severely punished.
During Murshid Quli Khan’s time, Bengal’s internal and international trade
grew enormously. Arab, Persian and Armenian merchants were very active in Bengal.
From the seventeenth century onwards, European companies were prepared to buy
any amount of Bengal goods, particularly, cotton and silk and their by-products.
They imported gold and silver bullion and thus, the country earned good profits.
Along with the traders of goods, the traders in coins, the Sahus or moneychangers
and moneylenders, brokers, also did brisk business. Murshid Quli Khan was aware
of the importance of trade and encouraged traders and companies in fair trade but
punished unfair traders very severely. Murshid Quli Khan did not allow the East
India Company purchase more villages around Calcutta even after the company’s
receipt of the imperial farman.
Murshid Quli Khan was also a patron of art and architecture. Kartalab Khan’s
Mosque (Begum Bazar Mosque) at Dhaka and the Murshidabad mosque built by
him bear his name. He also built several buildings in the capital city. He built a
palace in the Dugharia region and a diwankhana. He even built an inn for foreign
travellers. In 1720, he got a mint built in the city. In the eastern side of the city, he got
the Katra Masjid built in 1724 where he was buried after his death.
During Murshid Quli Khan’s reign, the people of Murshidabad enjoyed various
festivals. One of them was the Punyah which occurred in the last week of Bengali
month of Chaitra. The zamindars or their representatives used to participate in the
festival. One festival which was celebrated with great pomp and grandeur was
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mawild–the birth festival of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. During mawlid, people Rise of Regional Powers
from the neighbouring province also came to the city to celebrate it. As per his order,
chirag or lamps were lit in all religious places during this festival.
Murhsi Quli Khan possessed extensive learning and paid great respect to
men who were known for their learning and bravery. He was a brave soldier, a NOTES
liberal benefactor, upright and just in his dealings, and a steady protector of the
weak. He despised all refinements of luxury. Every year, he sent Korans in his own
writing to religious places like Mecca, Medina, Najaf and several other holy places.
He was a sober and temperate person.
Murshid Quli Khan reduced the expenses of the military, forbade exportation
of food stocks, gave great encouragement to learning, remitted the pressing imports,
brought about financial reforms and took delight in feeding the poor. Murshid Quli
Khan with his skills administered the most brilliant period of the financial history of
Bengal.
In 1717, the Mughal emperor issued a farman by which it granted special benefits to
the English East India Company, namely, exemption of taxes on goods imported and
exported from Bengal. However, this concession did not ensure that they could
trade in Bengal without paying any taxes. The Company servants like other Indian
traders had to pay taxes. This misinterpretation of the farman became a constant
cause of dispute between the nawabs of Bengal and the Company. All the nawabs
of Bengal, beginning from Murshid Quli Khan to Alivardi Khan, refused to sympathize
with the Company’s misconstrued explanation of the farman and even forced them
to pay a huge amount as indemnity if they used the dastaks wrongly.
In 1741, when Muhammad Shah Rangila was the Mughal sovereign, Alivardi
Khan, the governor of Bengal, announced himself independent and established his
capital at Murshidabad. In 1756, with Alivardi’s demise, and in the absence of any
rightful successor, several factions vied with each other to make their chosen candidate
the nawab of Bengal. Though Alivardi wanted his grandson, Siraj-ud-Daula, son of
his youngest daughter, to acquire the nawabship, the latter’s succession to the throne
was not accepted by other contenders, such as Shaukat Jang (faujdar of Purnea)
and Ghasiti Begam, eldest daughter of Alivardi. In the wake of increasing court
intrigues, the English East India Company took the opportunity to win factions in
their favour and work against the Nawab, and thereby lead to a headlong
confrontation with the Nawab.
4.6 SUMMARY
The death of Aurangzeb was soon followed by the succession war among
the Mughal princes. The Mughal empire which gave Indian history an era of
splendid accomplishments disintegrated with the irreparable mistakes of
emperors like Aurangzeb.
Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak, a religious leader and a social reformer
during the fifteenth century in the Punjab region. Guru Nanak, the founder of
the Sikh religion, was born to a Hindu family in Nanakana Saheb in Lahore.
The Sikhs many times invaded the enemy camps and carried away whatever
they could for their men. The Hindus and the Mughals were not able to catch
the Sikhs even once and this struggle continued for months resulting in huge
losses on both sides.
At the beginning of the seventeenth century, most parts of Maharashtra were
under the possession of Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar and Adil Shah of Bijapur.
The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb became very worried on seeing the growing
Maratha power in the Deccan. He ordered his maternal uncle Shaista Khan
(who was a newly appointed Mughal Subedar of Deccan) to invade Shivaji’s
territory and the Sultan of Bijapur was asked to cooperate with him.
Shivaji is famous in Indian history not only for being a brave and daring person,
a successful general and the founder of an empire, but also as a great
administrator and a ruler.
The organization and discipline of Shivaji’s army was worth emulating. He
paid cash salaries to his soldiers. He adopted the practice of branding the
horses and writing the descriptive rolls of the soldiers.
Shivaji organized his land revenue administration most probably after the pattern
of that of Malik Amber, the minister of Ahmednagar.
Shivaji had two wives. Following his death in AD 1680, their sons got into a
fight over the throne of the newly created Maratha kingdom.
Murhsid Quli Khan was a Brahmin by birth and was sold by an anonymous
merchant of Isfahan to Haji Shafi Isfahani during his early years.
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In 1703, Murshid Quli Khan was made the subedar of Orissa and in 1704 the Rise of Regional Powers
Diwan of Bihar. The same year Murshid Quli Khan transferred his capital
from Dhaka to Murshidabad.
Murshid Quli Khan was also a patron of art and architecture. Kartalab Khan’s
Mosque (Begum Bazar Mosque) at Dhaka and the Murshidabad mosque NOTES
built by him bear his name.
In 1717, the Mughal emperor issued a farman by which it granted special
benefits to the English East India Company, namely, exemption of taxes on
goods imported and exported from Bengal.
In 1741, when Muhammad Shah Rangila was the Mughal sovereign, Alivardi
Khan, the governor of Bengal, announced himself independent and established
his capital at Murshidabad.
To punish the highhandedness of the Company, Siraj-ud-Daula retaliated by
striking Calcutta on 16 June 1756 and bringing it under his sway by 20 June
1756.
Siege: It is the action of an armed force that surrounds a fortified place and
isolates it while continuing to attack.
Chauth: It refers to one-fourth of the revenue of a province effected as
tribute by Marathas as a tax of their protection against the Mughals.
Wazir: He is a minister or head of the state administration.
Khalsa: It refers to a group of baptized Sikhs.
1. Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak, a religious leader and a social reformer
during fifteenth century in Punjab.
2. Adi Granth is the religious scripture of the Sikhs.
3. Guru Har Gobind was the sixth Sikh Guru.
4. Guru Har Gobind established the Akal Takht.
5. The ninth guru of the Sikhs, Guru Teg Bahadur moved the Sikh community to
Anandpur.
6. Shivaji was crowned as Chattrapati in AD 1674.
7. The two factors which contributed to the rise of the Maratha power under
Shivaji are as follows:
(i) The comparatively advantageous position of the Marathas under the
Deccan Sultanate
(ii) The threat to Bijapur and Golkonda from the annexation policy of the
Mughal empire
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Rise of Regional Powers 8. The real name of Murshid Quli Khan was Muhammad Hadi.
9. Murshid Quli Khan died on June 30, 1727.
10. Siraj-ud-Daula became the nawab of Bengal in 1756.
NOTES 11. The Battle of Plassey was fought in 1757.
Short-Answer Questions
1. Write a short note on the Mughal-Sikh relations till 1720.
2. What were the salient features of Shivaji’s administration?
3. What is the significance of the battle of Plassey?
4. Who was Quli Khan?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Describe the rise of Maratha power under Shivaji.
2. Discuss the Mughal-Maratha relations till 1707.
3. Who was the most successful successor of Shivaji? Give reasons for your
answer.
4. Discuss the land revenue system and administration of Murshid Quli Khan.
Chandra, Satish. 2009. History of Medieval India. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan.
Prasad, Ishwari. 1925. Medieval India. India: Indian Press.
Majumdar, R. C. 1948. An Advanced History of India. India: Macmillan.
Sarkar, Jadunath. 1992. Fall of the Mughal Empire, 5th volume. New Delhi: Orient
Longman.
Ali, Athar. 2001. The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb. Delhi: Oxford University
Press.
Grover, B.L. 1997. History of Modern India. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company
Limited.