Ceramie Insulators for Spark Plugs

By Frank H. Riddle
Director of Research . Champion Spark Plug Co., Ceramic Division

it includes a large number of minerals and rocks, and a

THE word
wordword
"ķeramos"
"ķeramos"
meaning
"ceramic"
"burned
meaning
stuff,"
is derived "burned from the stuff," Greek correspondingly large number of mineral products, such as
the many clay products, glass in its many forms, enamels, and
thus indicating its inorganic character, Mr. Riddle the cements.
explains. Although the word is commonly asso- Chemically speaking, we deal in this field with minerals
ciated with the substance known as clay, in mod- that have as important components the SÍO4 tetrahedron and
ern usage it includes a large number of minerals the SÍO4 ring, as well as the hexagonal rings of the AIOô
and rocks and a correspondingly large number groups. We are thus concerned with the world of Si ions, and
of mineral products, such as the many clay prod- the characteristic properties of each material depend upon
two things: the arrangement of the atoms within the com-
ucts, glass in its many forms, enamels, and the ponent crystals, and the size and distribution of the crystals.1
cements. The chief actors on the stage of ceramic The ionic structure of the crystals with the relatively small
insulators, he indicates, are the silicates, especially ionic radius of Si, the moderately small radius of Al, and the
the silicates of aluminum. large one of O, tends to build atomic complexes of many
kinds, in the form of many minerals. Commonly speaking,
Taking up clays first in his discussion of ceram-the chief actors on this stage are the silicates, and especially
the silicates of aluminum.
ics, he shows that clays differ enormously in The first ceramic insulators were made of porcelain which
their physical properties chiefly because of differ-
consists essentially of three components - clay, quartz and
ences in mineral structure, particle size, and the
feldspar. Thus, the well-known hard porcelain tableware of
impurities associated with them because of their Europe is composed of 50% clay, 25% quartz, and 25%
geological history. Quartz, feldspar, porcelain feldspar. By molding the desired articles from this mixture,
and spark-plug porcelain also are treated in his drying and firing them to a sufficiently high temperature,
we obtain the vitreous and translucent product known as
presentation. He shows that spark-plug glaze has
porcelain.
a surprising effect on the physical properties of Clays
the insulator.
Clays are essentially silicates of aluminum and correspond
to the chemical formula Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O. They differ enor-
Mr. Riddle then lists and discusses some of the
mously in their physical properties chiefly because of differ-
properties which are involved in the performanceences in mineral structure, particle size, and the impurities
of spark plugs: density, porosity, and refractori- associated with them because of their geological history.
ness; mechanical strength; thermal expansion; For our purposes we need to consider only the purer grades
of clay such as are used in making the finer grades of pot-
electrical resistance and other electrical proper-
tery. These may be roughly divided into two classes - the
ties ; thermal conductivity ; resistance to heatkaolins and the plastic bond clays. The former are relatively
shock; and resistance to chemical agencies. larger grained, less plastic but, when fired, assume a more or
less nearly white color. The latter clays have a very fine
structure, with a large percentage of particles below 0.5
microns in size and, as a result, possess highly developed
plasticity and bonding power. They fire to a somewhat cream
color on account of impurities which are lacking in the
the ceramic
THIS the ceramic paperinsulators employed with
deals insulators in spark plugs. Bythewaymaterials in spark and plugs. properties By way of
employed kaolins. Both types of clay consist essentially of a mineral
of explanation, the word "ceramic" is derived from the base which corresponds to the typical kaolin formula but may
Greek word "ķeramos," meaning "burned stuff," thus indi- differ in crystal structure, so that we may have kaolinite,
cating its inorganic character. Commonly, the word is asso- anauxite, nacrite, dickite, halloysite, and allophane. The first
ciated with the substance known as clay but, in modern usage, named is, however, by far the most common. All types show
certain colloidal properties, depending upon their fineness of
[This paper was presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society,
Detroit, Mich., Jan. 16, 1940.] grain and the impurities present. Thus, all of them may be
1 See the Journal of the American Ceramic Society , Vol. 20, February,
1937, pp. 31-42: "Contribution of Mineralogy to Ceramic Technology," dispersed
by or deflocculated, through the addition of alkali, and
W. J. McCaughey. coagulated by acids or salts.

236 Vol. 46, No. 6

June, 1940 CERAMIC SPARK-PLUG INSULATORS 237

The outstanding properties of a thehexagonal

clays are their plasticity,
networ
the micas
their shrinkage in drying, their are not desirable.
condensation and shrinkage
in firing, and their growth in hardness and mechanical
strength as the firing temperature is increased. Quartz By determin-
ing the porosity of clay specimens fired at definite tempera-
This common form of silica is an important constituent of
tures, and plotting the porosity values in per cent against the
most ceramic products. Simple as quartz in the form of sand,
temperatures, curves are obtained which show the pyro-
quartzite, or sandstone may appear to us, it offers an unsus-
physical behavior of the material. In this manner, the tangent
pected, complicated story when it is subjected to heat. While
of the curve shows the rate at which the clay contracts under
stable at ordinary temperatures, its characteristic is to change
the heat treatment given it in that, with increased tempera-
its structure as soon as it is heated to higher temperatures.
ture, the porosity becomes lower and lower until it approaches
At 575 C (1067 F) it changes sharply from its original crys-
zero. The more rapid the descent of the curve, the more
talline structure to a new one, accompanied by an increase in
impurities are present in the clay. The contraction of the clay
volume. We say tension
volume is due to the effect of surface that it has inverted
whichfrom alpha to beta to
tends
quartz. Above 870 C (1598 F) we have another inversion
contract the material to a minimum volume. The temperature
to the modification known as tridymite, but this inversion,
at which zero porosity is approached is known as the vitrifica-
however, is so sluggish that ordinarily a third form, cristobal-
tion point and is characteristic of the clay in question. The
ite, first may be produced above 1470 C (2678 F). The
higher this temperature, the purer is the material. Upon
cristobalite has two forms, alpha and beta cristobalite, and the
further heating, the porosity may again rise due to the evolu-
tridymite has three - alpha, beta, and gamma tridymite. At
tion of gases, a stage known as overfiring which indicates
each inversion a volume change takes place. It is thus seen
readily that, unless every portion of a piece of quartz rock, be
5°|

it large or small, reaches an inversion temperature at the same

45
time, enormous stresses are set up. The tridymite has two
< low-temperature inversions at 117 C (243 F) and 163 C
(325 F), respectively. The cristobalite has one which is vari-
40-

SHRINKAGE V ?
V t œ
35 -V V
able and may be as high as 277 C (531 F), or as low as 198" G
£ ' / *• o (388 F). Above 1710 C (3110 F) the silica melts to a glass
š3°- (fused quartz) which may become transparent and is noted
c y cr
for two of its very important properties - its transparency to
ultraviolet light, and its exceedingly low coefficient of thermal
z * ' 111 expansion.
£20 z
cr
w .
•
'
o
> The original quartz thus may exist in eight modifications.
û.|5t! w .
The volume changes involved in the inversions are greatest
' * for the cristobalite, followed by the change from alpha to beta
,0

quartz, and least for the tridymite.

5

The various silica inversions are shown in the diagram of

o Fig. 2. For ceramic purposes the quartz is ground quite fine,
1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550
to pass the 200-mesh sieve and blended with the other con-
stituents of the body.
Fig. I - Change in porosity and shrink
ferent Feldspar
temperatures

The minerals. chiefly to be considered in this group are the

deterioration potash feldspars,
or a microcline and orthoclase, both of which
breakdown of
shown in the have the
diagram typical formula: K2O.AI2O3.6SÌO2.
of They Fig.are thus i. Fi
slag-like mass, silicates
at of alumina
a and potash and may be considered to be
temperature d
alkali salts. They do not exist in the pure form but invariably
of impurities it contains. For the
carry smaller percentages of soda.
1704 C (3100 F) to 1760 C (3200
This crystalline component is a hard mineral with well
The outstanding points during th
defined cleavage. It is introduced in the finely ground state.
are as follows: They dry compl
When it is heated to a sufficiently high temperature, it grad-
500 C (932 F), they lose their chem
ually loses its crystalline character and becomes a glass. It is
an endothermic reaction requiring
at this temperature they also unde
at 800 C (1472 F), they pass Qtsah/z
throu
which may be due to molecular di
4S0 - ^,sfoba/,teJ
perature the fc 440
action ofI ^,sfoba/,teJ
any fluxes pr
as shown by the contraction
^ 430 Trja.y/rr/řff of the
true density. At still
^ 420 higher
& Cs~/sfo¿>&//fe temp
to dissociate according
4/0
to the re
3AI2O3.2SÍO2-I-4SÍO2, where th ' 400

formed is mullite,
^ ' 330
a compound wh
or cryptocrystalline,
1 380 but& - Slater devel7
/8 Çuar-fz
that become larger as800
000 400 the temperat
/ZOO /800 K X
The clays also carry smaller percen
erals of which mica
7<?f77/?e/-c7
is
Decrees ^ k
probably th
types of this mineral may
Fig. 2 - Quarti inversion occur.
- Specific volumes of the silica
sists of ions which andare arranged
quartz glass (arranged by McDowell) in
 238 S.A.E. JOURNAL Vol. 46, No. 6
(T ransactions)

moré or less transparent degree ofbut

translucency.
shows Porcelainanis thus a vitreous, har
extraord
tance to flow as a glass mass which is impermeable
should. It to isliquids,
this even under
charact pressure
havior which makes it so valuable a flux in ceramics since it But the internal structure varies according to the temperatu
and the time of exposure to the maximum temperature rang
brings about the consolidation and vitrification of a porcelain
without undue distortion and deformation of shape. EvenRapid at firing may cause the porcelain to consist of poor
temperatures well above the so-called fusion point, a potash developed mullite, 3AI2O3.2SÍO2, some undissociated kaolin
with quartz grains in practically their original size and shap
feldspar has been found to have a viscosity of 1,104,000 poises
with feldspar glass surrounding the particles. With slower
firing, the kaolin will be dissociated more completely
mullite and the quartz grains more vigorously attacked and
partially dissolved by the fusing feldspar. In the extreme ca
the mullite formation will be carried to its maximum, pro
ducing a well developed network of crystals with the quar
completely dissolved by the feldspar. Here then, we would
have left only the two principal phases, mullite and glass.
is evident that the physical properties of the porcelain mus
vary according to the kind of heat-treatment it has received.

Spark-Plug Porcelain
It is from these feldspathic porcelains that the present spark
plug compositions have been derived. The field of possible
porcelain compositions has been outlined by tri-axial di
grams, of which one is shown by the diagram of Fig. 3. Bu
about 191 84 it was realized that at least two basic defec
were inherent in this type of porcelain. One defect was th
peculiarity of quartz to invert to its different crystalline mod
fications, and the resulting volume changes cause stresses
be produced within the porcelain structure. The other was
the electrolytic conductance of the feldspar at higher tempe
atures which reduced the insulating efficiency of the insulator
The manufacturers of these insulators promptly began a
Fig. 3 -Tri-axial diagram showing the field of possible porcelain
compositions (by Kleinfelter and Gilchrist4) vigorous research which soon resulted in the replacement
quartz by inert components like mullite (previously known
as sillimanite) through the introduction of minerals of the
at 1310 C (2390 F), 602,000 at 1366 C (2491 F) and 525,000 sillimanite group, namely, andalusite, kyanite, and natural
poises at 1394 C (2541 F). This explains the remarkably sillimanite. All have the same formula AI2O3.SÍO2. Other
sluggish flQW °f this flux and which performs its function minerals included a mineral richer in alumina, dumortierite
only because of the great surface tension force to which(8Al2O3.6SiO3.B2O3.H2O)
all and also zircon (zirconium sili-*
ceramic bodies are subjected at higher temperatures. Yet,cate).
at The advantages of aluminum oxide were known at
the time, but lack of a suitable source prevented its use. In
temperatures sufficiently high, the mobility of the feldspars
becomes great enough to assume more of the properties the of reference just cited it states that extensive work with
glass and behave as the alkali salts it really is.- aluminum oxide was prohibited by lack of material of suitable
From conductivity measurements2' 3 it has been found that quality. Likewise, the feldspar was replaced by other fluxes,
like the oxides of magnesium and calcium. Improvements
glass possesses the properties of an electrolyte, and that the
were carried still further by the insistence upon fine grinding
alkalies, especially the soda, are most active in promoting the
conductivity. Other bases, like the oxides of the alkaline earth
group, bring about a distinct increase in the electrical resis-
tance. In this respect feldspar is analogous to glass and is
subject to similar laws at the temperatures with which we are
concerned.

Porcelain

The ceramic bodies known as porcelain consist essentially

of clay, chiefly kaolin, quartz, and feldspar. The clay is the
plastic agent which permits the wet mixture to be molded
and shaped. The quartz produces the rigid skeleton which
lowers both the drying and firing shrinkage and imparts to
the mass the necessary resistance to distortion at the high
temperatures which are involved. The feldspar functions as
the glassy cement which unites the whole to form a vitrified
structure that approaches zero porosity and produces a certain
a See the Journal of the American Ceramic Society , Vol. 7, February,
1924, pp. 86-104: "The Electrical Conductivity of Sodium Chloride in
Molten Glass," by W. T. Sutton and A. Silverman.
3 See Zeitschrift für Technische Physik, Vol. 6, 1925, pp. 544-554, by G.
Gehlhoff and M. Thomas.
4 See the Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 2, July, 1919,
pp. 564-575: "Special Spark Plug Porcelains," by A. V. Bleininger and Fig. 4 - Photomicrograph of a section of a typical kaolin-quartz-
F. H. Riddle. feldspar body - I50X
 June, 1940 CERAMIC SPARK-PLUG INSULATORS 239

and the employment of high temperatures which made it

possible to reduce the volume of the glassy matrix in the
insulator to a minimum. Strict inspection methods and con-
trol were initiated.
The results of these changes were striking since the me-
chanical strength and the dielectric resistance of the insulators
were improved greatly, so that two investigators, Kraner and
Snyder5 (Westinghouse), could say: "American spark-plug
porcelains of the mullite type are vastly superior to all other
ceramic materials, as to mechanical strength, thermal-shock
resistance and glaze-fit."
But the manufacturers were not satisfied with the progress
made and continued their researches in the direction of fur-
ther replacements of the quartz by oxides like those of zir-
conium, aluminum, and titanium. Developments are under
way also in the direction of producing insulators consisting of
single compounds or oxides, in the virtual absence of glass.Fig. 6 - Microsection showing the ¡unction of body and glaze with
Satisfactory insulator bodies have been formed from single mullite crystals growing into the glaze
oxides or from a single component which is the satisfied
crystalline combination of two or more oxides.
intermediate layer resulting from the solution attack of the
In this connection the study of the microstructure of the
glaze upon the body which frequently gives rise to a crystal-
line growth into the glaze as is shown by the photomicro-
graph of Fig. 6. This layer tends to moderate somewhat the
physical differences between the two interfaces.

Processing
The accuracy of the various steps in the manufacturing
process of the spark-plug insulators is today under very careful
control. The milling operations are subject to constant testing,
and enormous strides have been made in the preparation of
the body material and in the shaping of the spark-plug insula-
tors. Some methods of forming insulators may be said to be
revolutionary in character, especially since at times it is neces-
sary to form bodies entirely lacking in plasticity.
Also, the firing process is controlled not only with respect
to the accurate measurement of temperature and its distribu-
tion but also as regards the kiln gases, the composition of
which has a profound influence upon the character of the
product.
Fig. 5 - Photomicrograph of a section of an American alumina Much progress also has been made in connection with the
body - 450X
type of the electrodes, the assembly of the insulators, and the
fitting of the metal parts.
insulators by means of the pétrographie microscope has be-
come increasingly important and evidence by means of X-ray Properties of Insulators
analysis is often necessary for the confirmation of observa- Whether or not a spark-plug insulator serves the purpose
tions. Photomicrographs of two sections, one of a typical for which it is intended depends after all only upon the
kaolin-quartz-feldspar body, and one of an American alumina
physical properties of the final product. If they satisfy the
composition are shown in Figs. 4 and 5. requirements that are exacted, all is well, but failure to meet
even one of the specifications means failure of the insulator.
Glaze
Some of the properties which are involved in the perform-
Spark plugs are covered with a glaze, which is virtually of
ance a spark plugs are:
Density,
glass, and this thin coating, often only 0.1 mm in thickness, porosity, and refractoriness.
Mechanical strength.
has a surprising efïect upon the physical properties of the
insulator. The two determining factors which govern this Thermal expansion.
Electrical resistance and other electrical properties.
relation are the thermal expansion and the modulus of elas-
ticity of body and glaze. The coefficient of expansion of Thermal
the conductivity.
Resistance to heat shock.
glaze should be lower than that of the body so that the glaze
Resistance to chemical agencies.
is in a state of compression while the body is in tension.
Should, by chance, this condition be reversed, it would affect
Density and Refractoriness
the status of both glaze and body. The adhesion of the glaze
would be reduced and the insulator as a whole would show Density, per se, is not of much significance, except as it
a distinct loss in mechanical strength. affects other properties, and obviously must vary with the
Between the glaze and the body there usually forms specific
an gravity of the body constituents. The density of
mullite-type insulators fluctuates around 2.5 to 2.9; that of
5 See the Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 14, September,
1931, pp. 617-623: "Mechanical and Thermal Shock Tests on Ceramic
alumina bodies, 3.3 to 3.9; magnesium bodies, 3.0 to 3.6. The
Insulating Materials," by H. M. Kraner and R. A. Snyder. porosity must approach zero so that the permeability is vir-
 240 S. A. E. J O U R N A L Vol. 46, No. 6
(Transactions)

tually nil, even to liquids of low surface tension, an

pressure. The spark-plug insulators, in a sense, are
tories and must be able to withstand high temperat
this respect no difficulties have been experienced, an
cally no insulators have fusion points below 1649 C

Mechanical Strength
Spark plugs are subjected to severe mechanical stress
internal and external, which must be resisted. It is
reason that insulator bodies are tested by all possibl
for compressive, tensile, transverse strength, and res
impact.
Some characteristic values for the principal mechanical qual-
ities are given in Table 1.

Table 1- Mechanical Qualities of Insulator Bodies

Fig. 8 - Resistivity fields above I megohm per cm3 [Te value) of

Tensile strength 10,000- 30,000 lb per sq in. (Area tested, 0.2 different types of ceramic insulator bodies -The line marked Q
sq in.) represents fused quartz
Compressive strength 60,000-200,000 lb per sq in. (Area tested, 0.114
sq in.)
Modulus of rupture 15,000- 25,000 lb per sq in. (Rods Vi in. dia. x the engineers must make compromises based on the use of
1 in. on 2/4 in.
the best available materials and their own experience over a
span)
period of years. In general, ceramic insulators have lower
expansions than have the metals with which they are assem-
bled, and also have lower thermal conductivities so that clear-
Tests determining the resistance to impact usually are made ances are necessarily required where the ceramic surrounds
part of the daily control program. metal parts. Some insulators have been developed that have
While such strengths as are attained may not be required quite high expansions. See Table 2.
in actual use, the tests afford an excellent means of checking In this table A is an ordinary electrical porcelain; B is the
the structure of the porcelain. These types of bodies are sev- mullite type of spark-plug insulator; C is an alumina body;
eral times as strong as porcelain tableware in ordinary use. D is of the spinel type; E is a substantially pure zirconium-
oxide body; F is substantially pure zirconium silicate; G is
Thermal Expansion magnesium oxide.
It is evident from these values that there is a wide variation
The thermal expansion of the insulators is an important
physical constant on account of the frequent and wide tem- among the various compositions, and this condition makes
perature changes which are involved and the relation between possible a classification of the different types of insulators.
the metal parts and the ceramic. At the same time, the co- This classifying has been done in the diagram of Fig. 7 where
efficient of thermal expansion curve affords an excellent indi- the several fields are shown graphically.
cation of the type of insulator material and the presence or
Electrical Resistance
absence of any tendency toward any molecular transformation
or phase changes through the prevailing temperature range. In the case of ordinary electrical porcelains we need only
If the component parts of a spark plug had the same ther- be concerned with their resistance at atmospheric tempera-
mal expansion throughout their entire operating temperature
range and all parts were heated uniformly, the conditions
obviously would be ideal. As these conditions are not possible, Table 2 - Coefficients of Linear Thermal Expansion
xlO-6 per deg C

Various Insulator Compositions

Tempera- Tempera-

ture, C ture, F ABCDEFG

25-200 77-392 5.87 3.45 6.26 7.88 6.60 3.68 12.17
25-400 77-752 6.38 3.81 7.13 8.43 6.84 4.01 12.90
25-500 77-932 6.58 3.94 7.38 8.78 6.95 4.10 13.16
25-600 77-1112 7.02 4.09 7.53 9.12 7.12 4.30 13.68
25-800 77-1472 6.44 4.60 7.73 9.68 7.47 4.56 14.20
25-1000 77-1832 6.52 5.06 7.91 10.04 7.98 4.59 14.56

25-200 77-392 5.87 3.45 6.26 7.88 6.60 3.68 12.17

200-400 392-752 6.82 4.13 7.88 8.93 7.06 4.30 13.53
400-500 752-932 7.33 4.44 8.34 10.04 7.33 4.52 14.17
500-600 932-1112 9.12 4.75 8.31 10.75 7.89 5.17 16.19
600-800 1112-1472 4.78 6.08 8.32 11.31 8.51 5.30 15.68
800-1000 1472-1832 6.82 6.84 8.55 11.46 9.98 4.70 15.91

For comparison, the approximate coefficients for the range 20- 100
some metals follow: iron -11.7; copper -16.6; silver -19.0; brass -19.5;
Fig. 7 -Thermal expansion fields of different types of ceramic in- steel - 13.0; stainless steel - 17.3.
sulator bodies
 June, 1940 CERAMIC SPARK-PLUG INSULATORS 241

tures but, in spark plugs, higher temperatures are involved.

Due to the ionic activity at higher heats
Table 4 - Range of Thermalwe must
Conductivities forexpect
Various Types a
certain decrease in resistance. Thus, of Spark-Plug
whileInsulator
the Compositions
resistivity in
ohms per cm of an insulator, at 100 C (212 F) is 3X1013, it
becomes 9X1011, at 150 C (302Mullite
F), Magnesium
and 6><io8 at 300 C
(572 F). and Zircon Aluminate Alumina Magnesia
Again, when we measure the temperature and resistance of Tempera- Types, Types, Types, Types,
i cc of insulating body which is being slowly heated and we ture, C range range range range
note the temperature at which the resistance remains at one 38 0.0037-.00450 0.0069-.0073 0.0047-.0076 0.0083-.0090
megohm, we obtain a value of considerable interest. This is 204 0.0039-.0048 0.0070-.0074 0.0065-.0091 0.0094-.0105
known as the Te value and shows to what extent the elec- 427 0.0041-.0052 0.0071-.0076 0.0083-.0101 0.0107-.0119
trolytic effect has progressed. 649 0.0043-.0054 0.0073-.0077 0.0092-.0107 0.0114-.0125

Electrical measurements are compiled in Table 3. 871 0.0046-.0055 0.0074-.0079 0.0093-.0105 0.0114-.0123

A curve giving the relation between the temperature and Tempera-

ture, F
100 10.8-13. 0b 19.9-21.2 13.8-22.2 24.2-26.2

Table 3 - The Effect of Temperatures Upon the Electrical 400 11.3-14.0 20.2-21.6 19.0-26.5 27.4-30.4
Resistivity of Various Types of Spark-Plug 800 12.0-15.0 20.6-22.1 24.0-29.5 31.0-34.7
Insulator Compositions 1200 12.6-15.7 21.2-22.5 26.7-31.0 33.0-36.4
1600 13.5-15.9 21.5-23.0 27.0-30.6 33.0-35.8

Mullite a CGS Unit - Gram-calories per square centimeter per

centigrade per centimeter thickness.
High- and Zircon Magnesia Alumina b English Unit - Btu per square foot per hour per degree fahrenheit per
Rosis- Tension Types, Types, Types, Fused inch thickness.
These determinations were made by J. L. Finck Laboratories on special
tivity, Porce- Range Range Range Quartz* discs 1 in. thick x 4 in. diameter made for this purpose.
Megohms lain, C in C in C in C C
50 321 441-471 576- 782 571- 782 524
Thermal Conductivity
20 360 482-513 637- 844 632- 846 569
CGS Units English Units
10 396 516-541 688- 894 682- 896 599
at 38C 100F
5 424 546-577 738- 944 727- 944 630
4 435 560-591 755- 963 743- 963 641 *Fused Quartz 0.0036 10.4
3 449 574-604 777- 985 763- 985 654 *High Tension Porcelain 0.0003 7.3
2 466 591-621 805-1010 785-1010 677 *Mica (Phlogopite) 0.0001 3.5
**Aluminum 0.5 1450.0
Te- 1 499 632-663 860-1060 838-1066 721
* *Copper 0.9 2610.0
**Steel 0.1 290.0
Converted to Fahrenheit * From "Electrical Engineer's Handbook," Volume V, by Pendar and
Mcllwain.
Range Range Range
Meghoms F in F in F in F F ** From "Handbook of Physics and Chemistry," by Hodgman and Lange.

50 610 825- 880 1070-1440 1060-1440 975

20 680 900- 955 1180-1550 1170-1555 1055
10 745 960-1005 1270-1640 1260-1645 1110 the electrical resistivity of various types of bodies is shown in
5 795 1015-1070 1360-1730 1340-1730 1165 Fig. 8.
4 815 1040-1095 1390-1765 1370-1765 1185 Thermal Conductivity
3 840 1065-1120 1430-1805 1405-1805 1210 The thermal conductivity of spark-plug insulators is an
2 870 1095-1150 1480-1850 1445-1850 1250 important quality and concerns operating conditions since it
Te- 1 930 1170-1225 1580-1940 1540-1950 1330 determines very largely what the plug temperature will be.
These determinations were made in the Champion Laboratories on centi-
meter cubes using a 240-v megohmer for measuring resistance and a
platinum thermocouple with a potentiometer for determining temperature.
The Bureau of Standards reports (1918) tests using 60 cycles at 500 v
giving Te values as follows: fused quartz, 890 C (1634 F) ; high-tension
porcelain, 490 C (1914 F) ; mica (phlogopite), 720 C (1328 F). The
difference between the Te value for quartz obtained by the Bureau of
Standards and the Champion Laboratories is unexplained. The values for
quartz which are shown in the table, however, were obtained recently (and
duplicated on a second sample) on a sample suitable for spark plugs and,
since the method was the same, these values can be compared safely with
the others shown in the table.

Mullite Magnesium
and Zircon Magnesia Aluminate Alumina
Types Type Type Type
Dielectric. Constant 6.2 -6.8 10.0-11.0 7.5 8.4
Per Cent Power Factor 0.40-0.47 4.0-12.0 0. 10 0. 10-0. 18
Loss Factor 2.73-2.90 41.0-136.0 0.75 0.85-1.5

These tests were made at 2000 cycles using a Leeds and Northrup
Capacitance and Inductance Bridge in the Champion Laboratories.
An insufficient number of compositions of any one type has been tested to
permit giving the complete range of values. Those shown in the table,
however, are typical of their class.
Fig. 9 -Thermal conductivity fields of different types of ceramic
insulator bodies
 242 S. A. E. J O U R N A L Vol. 46, No. 6
(Transactions)

At the same time it governs to a considerable ex

Shortcomings of Mica Insulation
design of the insulator which must make allowance
for the
heat conductivity. In general, Aviation Spark Plugs
higher the therm
ductivity of the insulator, the( Concluded
more from page 235) it will car
easily
away and remain cool. This permits the use of in
with longer firing endsofand, "fouling"therefore,
is aggravated by the use of mica as an
longer insulator
electr
material. As has been stated, mica is a silicate, and all silicates
age paths.
are very reactive with inorganic lead compounds. The prod-
In Table 4, the thermal conductivity expresses the heat in
ucts of combustion, when lead as an antiknock ingredient is
Btu which will flow in one hour through an area of 1 sq ft,
present in the fuel, deposit lead bromide and lead sulphate on
a thickness of 1 in. and with a temperature gradient of 5/9 C
the spark-plug surfaces. The sulphate does not, as a rule,
(1 F). Here again we find it possible to map the different react further, but the bromide oxidizes to litharge (PbO).
fields of insulator types with reference to their thermal con-
Many silicates react vigorously with litharge, forming low-
ductivities, as is shown in Fig. 9. melting lead-silicates and these will often drip ofi a badly
attacked insulator nose.
Resistance to Thermal Shock
Cleaning a mica spark plug to remove these deposits, an
It goes without saying that spark plugs must show operation
good which is necessary to restore the thermal character-
resistance to heat shock. Numerous control tests are made istics of the plug, gives at the same time a fresh and particu-
larly susceptible surface for attack by the compounds already
daily in the laboratories of the manufacturers by alternatingly
heating and cooling the firing-end tips of the insulators. mentioned. Removal of deposit accumulations from the com-
paratively soft surface of the mica washers, with the lamina-
Resistance to Chemical Agencies tions exposed edgewise, is a difficult and hazardous operation.
The extensive and excellent mechanical engineering work
Considerable attention must be paid also to possible donechem- on the ground and center electrodes has resulted in fair
ical reactions taking place in the engine cylinder which service with respect to electrode erosion, and instances are on
involve carbon or its compounds; vapors of various record sorts,where mica spark plugs have been operated for approx-
including water vapor; and chemicals introduced, including imately 350 hr in a modern engine and still had gap clearance
those used for antiknock purposes. These conditions must thatbewould allow fairly uniform firing of the charge. If
considered with respect to the various temperatures ofelectrode
oper- erosion becomes excessive, missing is likely to occur
ation. The most widely used antiknock agent today contains (mostly at take-ofi conditions), and, in addition, the voltage
lead tetraethyl. This burns to lead oxide and other salts may
whichrise to such an extent as to cause damage to coils and
are active basic fluxes that react with most silicates at high-tension
engine wires. Any substitute for mica that may be pro-
temperatures. Insulators made of pure silica or bodies posedcon- must contemplate the use of electrode designs that give
taining high percentages of silica are attacked much more similar service. Thus it would be well to take advantage of
readily by lead fluxes than bodies low in silica compounds,the tremendous store of experience available. To repeat in
neutral or basic in composition. The unfortunate effect of what Arthur Nutt3 so ably said: people who propose
essence
lead is emphasized further by the fact that an objectionable
new insulating materials know too little about spark plugs
coating or deposit forms more readily on the silicious bodies.
and their requirements, and the spark plug people too little
It is difficult and sometimes impossible to remove such about
depos-insulators. Here is an excellent opportunity for two
its from the silicious bodies as a glass has been formed on the
specialists to get together.
surface. This glass has a different coefficient of expansion
from the body proper, and cleaning results in chipping the Finds "Spark-Plug Complex"
surface of the insulators. With the less silicious and the basic
When appraising the seriousness of the present aviation
bodies the deposit is of a dusty nature, forms more slowly, spark plug situation, a word of caution may be in order. The
and can be removed more easily. field mechanics responsible for the maintenance of the airline
In this paper the attempt has been made to trace the origin schedules, of which we are justly proud, have undoubtedly a
of the American spark-plug insulators and to follow their spark-plug complex. As mentioned before, they immediately
development. Much could be said on the subject of the engineblame spark plugs for faulty engine operation, even though
and practical working tests which have followed the results other units may be, and often are, the cause of the trouble.
of the laboratory findings. But, finally, these insulators mustAs a result, the mechanical wear and tear that the spark plug
be judged by their actual performance in spark plugs in thegets from continual removal from the cylinder, replacement,
field. Of real value must be considered the performancesand incessant taking apart, is likely to damage the plug to a
under specially severe conditions, as in aviation, racing boats,degree equal to an extended service period. It is not unusual
certain trucks, and other punishing services. The ceramicto see a spark plug that has been overhauled to death. Until
should be considered as a raw material to be used by themica is replaced by a more inert and stable material, the
spark-plug engineer the same as he would use any other raw author does not believe that spark plugs will become available
material. It has been shown that the characteristics of the
which will operate consistently for the overhaul period of the
ceramic vary widely and the spark-plug designer must neces- engine (350-600 hr) without being removed from the cyl-
sarily know and use insulators best suited for his require- inders. With the adoption of new and more suitable insulat-
ments.
ing materials it would appear wise to use, as far as possible,
the wide background of engineering and operating experience
Acknowledgment
gained from the mica plug. However, future engines and
The writer wishes to thank the officials of the future
Championfuels may require radical developments in spark plugs
Spark Plug Co. for permission to publish this work. and He also systems, and these developments should not be
ignition
expresses his appreciation to his associates who have compiled
allowed to be retarded by a slavish regard for the findings of
the critical data and particularly to Dr. A. V. Bleininger
the past. for
his cooperation. All critical data determinations were made
3 See SAE Transactions, Vol. 34, December, 1939, pp. 501-512: "Air-
in the Champion Laboratories unless references arecraft
given.
Engines and Their Lubrication," by Arthur Nutt.