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16 UGC NET-JRF Paper II (Commerce) Preview Compressed
16 UGC NET-JRF Paper II (Commerce) Preview Compressed
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NTA UGC‑NET
(Paper-II)
(Commerce)
Drishti Publications
(A Unit of VDK Publications Pvt. Ltd.)
Website: www.drishtiIAS.com
e-mail: [email protected]
Contents
1. Business Environment and International Business.............................................1-76
3. Business Economics..................................................................................................204-256
Drishti Publications 1
Accounting
2 and
Auditing
BASIC ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES z Cost Accounting: The purpose of cost accounting is
to analyze the expenditure so as to ascertain the cost
Over the centuries, accounting has remained of various products manufactured by the firm and fix
confined to the financial record-keeping functions of the prices. It also helps in controlling the costs and
the accountant. But, today’s rapidly changing business providing necessary costing information to
environment has forced the accountants to reassess their management for decision-making.
roles and functions both within the organization and the z Management Accounting: The purpose of
society. In 1941, The American Institute of Certified Public management accounting is to assist the management
Accountants (AICPA) had defined accounting as the art in taking rational policy decisions and to evaluate the
of recording, classifying, and summarising in a significant impact of its decisions and actions.
manner and in terms of money, transactions and events z Stewardship Accounting: In earlier times in history,
which are, in part at least, of financial character, and wealthy people employed ’stewards’ to manage their
interpreting the results thereof’. With greater economic property. These stewards rendered an account of their
development resulting in changing role of accounting, stewardship to their owners periodically. This notion
its scope, became broader. lies at the root of financial reporting even today which
In 1966, the American Accounting Association essentially involves the orderly recording of business
(AAA) defined accounting as ‘the process of identifying, transactions, commonly known as ‘book-keeping’.
measuring and communicating economic information to Indeed, the accounting concepts and procedures in
permit informed judgments and decisions by users of use today for systematic recording of business
information’. In 1970, the Accounting Principles Board of transactions have their origin in the practices
AICPA also emphasized that the function of accounting employed by merchants in Italy during the 15th
is to provide quantitative information, primarily financial century. The Italian method which specifically began
in nature, about economic entities, that is intended to be to be known as ‘double entry book-keeping’ was
useful in making economic decisions. adopted by other European countries during the 19th
Accounting can therefore be defined as the process century. Stewardship accounting, in a sense, is
of identifying, measuring, recording and communicating associated with the need of business owners to keep
the required information relating to the economic records of their transactions, the property and tools
events of an organization to the interested users of such they owned, as well as the debts they owed, and the
information. There are some branches of accounting debts others owed them.
which are as follows: z Social Responsibility Accounting: Social
responsibility accounting is a new phase in the
z Financial Accounting: The purpose of this branch of
development of accounting and owes its birth to
accounting is to keep a record of all financial
increasing social awareness which has been
transactions so that:
particularly noticeable over the last two decades or
The profit earned or loss sustained by the business so. Social responsibility accounting widens the scope
during an accounting period can be worked out. of accounting by considering the social effects of
The financial position of the business as at the end business decisions, in addition to the economic effects.
of the accounting period can be ascertained. Several social scientists, statesmen, and social workers
The financial information required by the all over the world have been drawing the attention
management and other interested parties can be of their governments and the people in their countries
provided. to the danger posed to environment and ecology by
Drishti Publications 77
Business
3 Economics
Private Bank
Commercial Banks
Public Bank
Co-operative Bank
Banking
Institutions Regional Rural banks
Financial Institutions
Non-banking
Institutions Foreign Bank
Financial System
Marketing Functions
According to diagram if we see the another definition z Marketing is a totality of all the management process
which describes marketing as an organised set of activities that identifies and supplies consumer requirements
initiated by business people to determine market demand efficiently and profitably.
and supply of the goods and services to the consumer to z Marketing is relates to various steps taken to identify
his/her satisfaction. Marketing term has been explained largest group of consumers, produce the required
by many other authors as given below: product or service and distribute them to the
z Marketing is a process of Planning and control of consumers efficiently.
activities related to flow of materials from suppliers z Marketing is gathering and displaying the commodities
to the end user. for sale in the markets and selling them in the original
z Marketing is a process of planning and executing or in any other form suiting the consumer.
policies for primary production and distribution of z Marketing is summation of all activities involved in
goods and services to satisfy the needs of individuals transfer of goods from producer or seller to the consumer,
and groups known as consumers. including packaging, storing, transporting etc.
Legal Aspects
9 of Business
INDIAN CONTRACT a legal obligation it is not a contract. In case of social
or domestic agreements, generally there is no intention
Broadly speaking, a contract is an agreement made to create legal relationships. For example, in an
between two or more people to do or to abstain from invitation to dinner there is no intention to create a
doing a particular act. A contract invariably creates a legal relationship and therefore, it is not a contract.
legal obligation between the parties by which certain Similarly, certain agreements between husband and
rights are given to one party and a corresponding duty wife do not become contracts because there is no
is imposed on the other party. A contract has been defined intention to create a legal relationship. This point can
by different authorities in various ways. Some of the well be illustrated by the famous case of Balfour v.
important definitions of contract are as follows: Balfour. Mr. Balfour had promised to pay 30 per
According to Salmond “A contract is an agreement, month to his wife living in England when she could
creating and describing the obligations between parties” not accompany him to Caulon where he was employed.
According to Sir William Anson “A contract is an Mr. Balfour failed to pay the promised amount. Mrs.
agreement enforceable of law made between two or more Balfour filed a suit against her husband for breach of
persons by which rights are acquired by one or more to this agreement, It was held that she could not recover
acts or forbearance on the part of others.” the amount as it was a social agreement and the parties
never intended to create any legal relations.
Elements of a Valid Contract In commercial or business transactions the usual
An agreement enforceable by law is a contract. presumption is that the parties intend to create legal
An agreement in order to be enforceable must have relations. However, this presumption may be negatived
certain essential elements. According to Section 10 – All by express terms to the contrary. The case of Rose & Frank
agreements are contracts if they are made by the free Co. v. Crompton Brothers is relevant here. In this case
‘consent of the parties competent to contract, for a lawful there was an agreement between Rose & Frank Company
consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby and Crompton Brothers Ltd. whereby the former was
expressly declared to be void. appointed as selling agents in North America. One of
Thus, an agreement becomes a valid contract if it has the clauses in the agreement read, “This agreement is
the following elements: not entered into as a formal or legal, agreement and shall
z Proper Offer and Proper Acceptance: In order to create not be subject to legal jurisdiction in the law courts.” It
a valid contract it is necessary that there must be at was held that this agreement was not a legally binding
least two parties, one making the offer and the other contract as there was no intention to create legal relations.
accepting it. The law has prescribed certain rules for You must note that whether intention to create legal
making the offer and its acceptance that must be relationship exists in an agreement or not is a matter
satisfied while entering into an agreement. For example, for the court to decide which may look at the terms and
the offer must be definite and duly communicated to conditions of the agreement and the circumstances under
the other party. Similarly, the acceptance must be which the agreement was made.
unconditional and communicated to the offered in the z Free Consent: For a contract to be valid, it is essential
prescribed mode, and so on. Unless such conditions that there must be free and genuine consent of the
with regard to the offer and the acceptance are satisfied parties to the contract. They must have made the
the agreement does not become enforceable. contract of their own free will and not under any fear
z Intention to Create Legal Relationship: There must or pressure. According to Section 14, consent is said
be an intention among the parties to create a legal to be free when it is not caused by (i) coercion (ii)
relationship, if an agreement is not capable of creating undue influence, (iii) fraud, (iv) misrepresentation,