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Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs
2021, Volume 5, Number 2, pages 169–182
Original scientific paper
E-participatory Approaches in Urban Design
* 1 Araf Öykü Türken , 2 Assoc. Prof. Dr Engin Eyüp Eyuboğlu
1Department of City and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Yildiz Technical University, Turkey
2 Department of City and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
1. Introduction
Participatory planning/design practices have maximum levels, and the traditional
become increasingly widespread since the participation processes has become time-
second half of the 20th century and have consuming and costly. This situation required
begun to replace top-down practices. These the integration of participatory planning with
approaches, which focus on the interaction digital technologies. In its simplest terms, the
between actors, have become stronger with concept of e-participation refers to the use of
concepts such as the right to the city, civic ICT in participatory processes. Accordingly, the
participation, and citizen power. Since the 90s, ladder of participation was redefined,
the use of digital technologies in the world and participatory planning met with digital
the emergence of systems such as ICT and GIS
*Corresponding Author:
have undergone a radical change in the Department of City and Regional Planning, Faculty of
production process of the urban space. The Architecture, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul,
forms of communication in daily life have Turkey
changed, data production has reached Email address: [email protected]
methods and different specialities (such as IT methods and have goals such as collecting
experts, developers) were included in the data by addressing large audiences,
inclusive design practices. In the focus of motivating participation using game elements
planning and urban design, various or playful interfaces, making services
approaches have been developed that target transparent, creating dialogue, and increasing
active participation of citizens, such as systems interaction between actors. In this context, this
that allow citizen design in three-dimensional research examines the impact of e-
models, civic engagement platforms and participation on urban design and planning
participatory planning apps, co-design apps processes and aims to understand current
amongst others. These systems are generally trends and approaches. In doing so, it adopted
designed as web-based or mobile extensive literature research and detailed
applications. They have multiple digital reviews of 10 international examples.
2. Methodology
Within the scope of the research, the levels of the participation ladder and as a
development of participation in urban design system developed based on geographical or
and planning will be examined in historical spatial data. Accordingly, in the first
order. A comprehensive literature review was examples examined, citizens can visualize
conducted on e-participation, m- their ideas about the urban space (2D or 3D),
participation and the use of digital tools in the while in others, citizens report decisions and
participation processes. Co-design and civic suggestions for projects to be developed
engagement platforms using digital tools are through urban models and online mapping.
searched, and the relationship with While detailing the cases, different
innovative city concepts such as sustainable, researcher's evaluation criteria for digital
smart, and responsive is examined. participation and mobile platforms were
Advanced examples focused on the spatial examined, common points were determined
design on a range of street, neighborhood, and review parameters were structured in line
and public space rather than strategic with the inferences. Subsequently, 10
approaches, transportation was selected, examples were examined in the context of
and comparative studies were made on the the project, participation, and socio-
10 examples (Figure 1). While choosing digital technical criteria. Comparisons were made
participation platforms and mobile on parameters such as developers, goals,
applications that contribute to urban design spatial levels, continuity, information flow,
processes, study preference was the high methods, actors, motivation, technologies,
Araf Öykü Türken & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Engin Eyüp Eyuboğlu 170
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 5(2), 169-182/ 2021
data, price, privacy policies and analysis. bottom-up approaches emerged and
Afterwards, SWOT analysis was done by became widespread. In 1967, the concept of
grouping samples with similarities. In line with "right to the city" was introduced by Henry
the data obtained, innovative trends and Lefebvre, and it was stated that only groups
methods regarding the use of digital tools for and societies that could take revolutionary
community participation in urban design initiative could solve urban problems
were introduced. (Lefebvre, 2016). Afterwards, pluralist planning
approaches have replaced top-down
3. Conceptual Framework of Participation in practices; participation has been seen as a
Urban Design/Planning collaborative process beyond 'information'. In
Participation is often associated with the 1969, Arnstein published an article entitled “The
concept of democracy and it has a Ladder of Participation”, classifying
multidisciplinary, inclusive nature. In the 1930s, participation at eight different levels (Arnstein,
the Chicago School carried out field projects in 1969). Simultaneously, under the principle of
disadvantaged neighborhoods, and citizen pluralism, planning models such as transactive,
involvement was mentioned for the first time in communicative and advocacy have brought
the context of architecture and planning a new perspective to urban planning (Table 1)
(Janowitz, 2015). In the 1960s, top-down differently from the rational comprehensive
transportation and transformation projects approach (Lane, 2005). These models
implemented in the USA increased the targeted local mobilization and emphasized
inequality in urban space. During this period, the public's role in planning and design.
Table 1. Planning Approaches and Relation with Public Participation (Arnstein, 1969; Friedmann, 1987; Hall, 1992 as cited in
Lane, 2005).
Level of Participation Planning Tradition Planning School Planning Models
Citizen Control Societal transformation Pluralism Communicative
Delegated Power Bargaining
Partnership Marxist
Advocacy
Transactive
Placation Societal guidance Synoptic Mixed scanning
Consultation Incrementalism
Informing Synoptic planning
Therapy Societal guidance Blueprint Blueprint planning,
Manipulation Geddes, Howard
Precinct planners
Thereafter, Arnstein's participation ladder was study, it is a point of fact that the participation
criticized as a one-way system that always processes have transformed with social needs
aimed to reach higher levels and was and planning dynamics.
reinterpreted by different professionals. In 1998,
Davidson developed an approach called the 4. Integration of Digital Tools into Participatory
"The Wheel of Participation" which has four Processes
main categories: inform consult, participate The development of ICT has inevitably
and empower. Later on, OECD (2001) changed daily life habits, created new public
established an active participation framework spaces and redefined virtual interactive
and categorized it by information flow environments. In its most basic sense, digital
directions and level of empowerment and the forms of communication have great potential
IAP2-Spectrum of Public Participation (2007) to eliminate communicative barriers between
published an internationally accepted table people and increase their networking
emphasizing that participation levels are capacity. parallel to this, the way of
related to factors such as goal, promise and communication between institutions and
techniques (Commons, 2011). With the people evolved in this new direction and
integration of digital technologies into created concepts such as e-democracy, e-
participatory processes, different participation governance, and e-participation. Macintosh
ladders have emerged that consider the new (2004) expresses e-democracy as the use of ICT
requirements. Although details about e- to support decision-making processes; he
participation are critically examined in this defines e-voting and e-participation as sub-
Araf Öykü Türken & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Engin Eyüp Eyuboğlu 171
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 5(2), 169-182/ 2021
layers of e-democracy. Accordingly, it will be support systems that give priority to professional
useful to interpret digital technologies that use have emerged (Klosterman, 2012). With the
affect planning and design processes. development of Web 2.0, content production
Although the development process of of citizens became widespread and
computer technologies started in the 1960s, collaborative use of the network increased.
mathematical approaches in this period were Besides, web-based and online GIS systems
insufficient to solve complex problems for the have also been developed. These systems
city. In the 1980s and 1990s, due to the have created the PPGIS formulation integrated
developing GIS and other technologies, more with the idea of community participation.
comprehensive approaches have been Contrary to the fact that the systems in previous
developed that can provide solutions to years were professionally oriented, these
problems related to planning and design, systems have great potential to ensure civic
including topics such as data collection, data engagement and interaction between actors.
processing, visualization, analysis and project It is seen that with every developing new
management. Following this, developments technology, e-participation processes are
such as planning support systems and decision evolving.
One of the main parameters used when decision making. Subsequently, Smith and
examining e-participation processes is the others have added advanced technologies
ladder of e-participation and e-democracy. As that can contribute to the ladder (such as
with Arnstein's ladder, e-participation levels community design systems, virtual design
increase depending on citizen empowerment. studios and virtual worlds) and re-structured
Besides, the information flow direction and the high levels of participation (Hudson-Smith et al.,
technology adopted in e-participation 2002). In his article published in 2004, Macintosh
processes are directly related to authorization. displayed an attitude similar to OECD's
Accordingly, the e-participation ladders approach (information, consultation and
developed by different professionals are active participation) and grouped e-
compared in Table 2. For example, in the participation as enabling, consultation and
system created by Carver (2001), online empowering. Unlike other systems, in Krabina's
services are classified as one-way, and the (2016) approach, some key issues such as the
level of participation increases as we go user who acquires information while
towards online discussions, opinion surveys, unconsciously browsing the internet, implicit
and decision support systems. On the other participation of citizen, dedicated interface,
hand, Kingston (2002) has positioned simple continuity of participation process are
websites and opinion polls in one-way integrated into the ladder.
information flow while describing interactive E-participation and collaborative participation
processes as discussion forums, services, processes are not two mutually exclusive
comments on apps, online PPGIS, and online elements; on the contrary, they contain
Araf Öykü Türken & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Engin Eyüp Eyuboğlu 172
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 5(2), 169-182/ 2021
methods that can be used to support each participation can act as a catalyst by
other in line with needs. The reasons for the providing advantages such as those involving
increasing preference of e-participation today passer-by citizens in the process, collecting
can be listed as follows: addressing large data while providing information through
audiences, ensuring time and space applications and providing opportunities for
independence, reducing costs, and providing different socio-economic groups (Fathejalali,
support for young groups to decision-making 2017).
processes for urban space. Hence, aside from
methods involving face-to-face interaction 4.1 E-Participatory Approaches and Related
such as city councils, consultation groups, Urban Concepts
workshops, negotiations, interviews, city The phenomenon of participation has been an
meetings which are frequently used in the essential component of the globally accepted
participation processes, the use of methods sustainable city concept since the 1970s. In
such as forums, online surveys, podcasts, blogs, conferences, covenants and agreements
e-petitions, e-voting, gis tools, decision-making starting with the Stockholm conference and
games (Kubicek, 2009, s. 177) have increased. sustainable cities such as the Rio-World Summit,
The technology-related structure of e- The Aarhus Convention, Local Agenda 21, UN
participation also made it necessary to adopt Sustainable Development Goals 2030;
the new actor relationships to the participation participation was emphasized with themes
processes. With the change of tools, the such as access to environmental information,
processes supporting dependent or cooperation, policymaking, active citizenship.
independent developers (IT professionals) Sustainable development goals guide not only
have suddenly become imperative for green cities but also data-driven city concepts,
creating dedicated interfaces, managing and smart city, digital city and responsive city.
analysing data exchange, ensuring the Among these, literature evidence suggests
sustainability of the system and reconstructing conference on the concept that is seen as a
the systems. This allowed innovative ways such ‘smart city’ as dominant. Smart cities consist of
as application/software competitions, media six basic components: smart economy, smart
and press support to be used in designing e- governance, smart citizen, smart mobility,
participation processes (Kassen, 2018). smart environment and smart living (Giffinger
It was mentioned earlier that the participation et al., 2007). Gupta, Mustafa, & Kumar (2017)
processes have been transformed in line with define the main elements of governance in
the prevailing technology and the needs of the smart city as participatory decision making,
age. Accordingly, e-participation processes public and social services, transparent
have continued to evolve with the introduction governance, political strategies and
of mobile technologies and the emergence perspectives. Subsequently, what a smart
and widespread use of devices such as citizen should have is expressed with features
smartphones and tablets. In this context, m- such as the level of qualification, open-
participation, which is a new concept, mindedness, social and ethnic plurality,
represents the latest developments in e- flexibility, creativity, democratic, participation
participation processes, while focusing on in public life (Gupta, Mustafa, & Kumar, 2017).
ensuring civic engagement through In this regard, it can be said that citizens are
specialized 'apps' (Ertiö, 2013). These attributed to leading roles in data products
applications are expressed with names such as within the scope of smart cities concept.
"participatory planning apps," "citizen apps," Another city model that attributes the
and "civic engagement apps". It takes solutions relationship between ICT and citizen
one step further for "time/space problems" participation to the spatial organization of the
than e-participation. While classifying these city is “responsive city.” The responsive city
applications, Ertiö (2018) separates it as takes citizens to the "action center" and is
environmental-centric and people-centric; he interested in “bringing the city back to citizens”
went further to mention eight different (ETHx, 2017). Contrary to sensor data,
categories such as information sharing, 'responsive city' focusses on the information
experience, trend monitoring, integrator, and data voluntarily shared by citizens (ETHx,
nudge, local network, citizen impact, public 2017). Dominant terms in the responsive city
dialogue (Ertiö, 2018). Parallel to these, m- concept are citizen science, citizen design
Araf Öykü Türken & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Engin Eyüp Eyuboğlu 173
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 5(2), 169-182/ 2021
science and it enables non-experts to develop criteria. Within the purview of contemporary
ideas, considering the creative participation of processes, the production and use of e-
the crowd (ETHx, 2017). participation platforms have gained speed,
and they have been evaluated by many
4.2 Evaluation Criteria for E-participatory professionals for different purposes and
Platforms parameters. Within the scope of the research,
five articles that evaluate web-based and
One of the first studies on the creation of e- mobile applications to ensure community
participation evaluation criteria were participation concerning urban space have
presented by Macintosh & Whyte (2008) with e- been examined in detail (Table 3), considering
participation activities managed by the local the parameters, common points, and
government were evaluated through classifications used by experts.
democracy, project, and socio-technical
Participatory Levels of
Intention
Platforms
Project Criteria
Developer Name organization Aim Goal of
Launch year Founders Co- Topic application
General Information
Technology Criteria
Overview of Digital Participatory
Platforms
Participation
Araf Öykü Türken & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Engin Eyüp Eyuboğlu 174
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 5(2), 169-182/ 2021
Prizes
Solving soc.
Motiva.
iss.
Open data
app stratus
Web based
Platfor.
Mobile
devices
Local /City
Range
National
Global
Araf Öykü Türken & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Engin Eyüp Eyuboğlu 175
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 5(2), 169-182/ 2021
Citizen
Citizen Design
Citizen Design Citizen Design Citizen Design Design
Produced Data Images/Collage
Models Models Models Images/Colla
s
ges
Dedicated
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Interface
Price/cost - - - No info No info
Professional / Tested in semi- Tested with a limited
Registration / PROJECT code is
Local Qua-kit controlled with a user. (students No info
Accounts/Limits required.
Accounts limited user. &elder)
Privacy policies No info No info Defined No info Defined
Comprehensi
ve
Analysis
Comprehensive Comprehensive
/artificial Analysis /Data
Analysis /Form Analysis/Participan User feedback and
Analysis intelligence, Collection &
and Perception t &Contribution ranking.
semantic Professionals
Based Istatis.
analysis,
image
recognition
As detailed in Table 4, five different digital opportunities and threats within the scope of
approaches aimed at community these examples are listed as follows:
participation in an urban design titled Qua-kit, Strengths: They allow users to visualize their
U-code / Sangerhausen, B3 Design Your ideas about space. The information flow is two-
Marketplace, Unlimited Cities DIY, ArkiCity were way and interactive. They enable the inclusion
examined. Strengths, weaknesses, of different actors in the system and the
leading roles of universities and laboratories in
Araf Öykü Türken & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Engin Eyüp Eyuboğlu 176
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 5(2), 169-182/ 2021
Services Com.)
Create
Platform for 3D
participatory Sketch, analyse,
Ensuring citizen map
urban and export from
participation by visualisation, Creating map-
Goal of development 3D cities
using Community development surveys to get
Application control Share/publish
Heatmap and proposals & idea from citizen
activities for projects and
Design Feedback citizen
land use crowdsource
engagement
development
Related Participatory Participatory Sustainable City Smart Cities Participatory
Concept Planning Planning/ Design Smart City Planning/ Design
Urban Planning/ Neighbourhood,
Architecture& Architecture&
Land-use Dec. / Transportation, Urban Design &
Spatial Level Urban Design& Urban Design&
Development Urban Design Planning
Planning Planning
Control etc.
Platforms Web-Based Web-Based Web-Based Web-Based Web-Based
Continuity Prototype Beta Version
Yes Yes Yes
(Cases) System Yes
Information
Two-way Two-way Two-way Two-way Two-way
PATORY
PARTICI
CRITERI
Flow
A
Araf Öykü Türken & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Engin Eyüp Eyuboğlu 177
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 5(2), 169-182/ 2021
(citizen
(report, comment, vote comment, vote suggestions,
specific),
Produced Data suggestions, Professional input: Professional decisions on
synthesis of the
decisions on models, input: models, projects to be
participants'
projects to be informative data informative development)
data, opinion
developed) etc. data etc. /depending
statement.
project
Dedicated
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Interface
Yes/ For Driving Yes/ For Driving No info Yes/ For Driving
Price/cost -
Institution Institution (Beta Version) Institution
User login with User login with
Registration / Only Depending on Depending on
user-specific user-specific
Accounts/Limits Prototype the project the project
interfaces interfaces
Privacy policies No info Defined Defined Defined Defined
Comprehensive
Analysis (Spatial Comprehensive Comprehensive
Comprehensive Comprehensive
Analysis, Analysis Analysis (collect,
Analysis Analysis (Data Analysis (+Spatial
Analytical (+Spatial analyse and
analysis, statistics) analysis)
Hierarchy analysis) visualise)
Process)
As detailed in Table 5, five different digital examples, which are similar in terms of location-
platforms aimed at community participation in based data production methods and
urban planning titled WPUP, Commonplace, technologies and information flow aspects.
City Planner Online, Urban Pinboard, Strengths: Users can view projects that are
Maptionnaire were examined. Strengths, planned to be developed on real-time maps
weaknesses, opportunities and threats are and three-dimensional city models (in 2D or
listed as follows within the scope of these 3D). With the help of simple interfaces, they
Araf Öykü Türken & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Engin Eyüp Eyuboğlu 178
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 5(2), 169-182/ 2021
can share location-based data, view the • allowing citizens to make their
comments of other citizens, vote, and designs(2/3D) or to report their
participate in surveys. In systems such as decisions and suggestions on projects
Maptionnaire, there are options such as to be developed with location-based
mapping and route creation. All of the systems systems
perform comprehensive analysis and have • providing consultation processes
specialized interfaces. Citizens can interact through three-dimensional city models
directly with developers and local authorities. and real-time maps
Examples of Maptionnaire, Commonplace, • enabling interaction between citizen to
CityPlanner Online, Urban Pinboard allows the citizen, citizen to professionals/ local
production of many different participation authorities/ developers at the same
projects, thereby providing a time-cost time thereby providing a two-way
advantage. information flow through the platforms
Weakness: Platforms do not allow citizens to • designing playful and dedicated
create their designs directly. Some of the interfaces to motivate citizens and
examples are poorly integrated with mobile increase participation. Likewise, the use
devices. The fact that the developer and local of game elements or 3D city models are
authorities can use the systems more other supportive approaches
comprehensively has a devastating effect on • to provide citizens with data security by
the perception of the bottom-up participation defining terms of use and privacy
process. Production of platforms and their • the flexibility of systems and
adaptation to projects require expertise. adaptability to more than one project;
Opportunities: Adaptation to different projects thus, ensuring continuity in the use.
increases preference. Three-dimensional urban • analysing process outputs and
models, CAD, and GIs integration enable these converting them into meaningful data.
platforms to be used in line with different Finally, it can be stated that e-participation
planning needs and not necessarily only in processes will continue to evolve with
terms of community participation. developing technologies and that it will
Threats: Paid uses (for beneficiary institutions) continue to support traditional participation
can reduce preferability. Participation in practices. In this regard, providing freedom of
programs with three-dimensional interfaces design and decision making and empowering
can turn into a secondary goal. On platforms citizens in the process will strengthen the
without registration limitation, the user can feel democratic aspect of e-participation.
unsafe in terms of privacy and prefer not to
participate. Indeed, such platforms can be Acknowledgements
manipulated. This research did not receive any specific grant
from funding agencies in the public,
6. Results commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
The use of digital technologies has gradually
increased to enhance public participation in Conflict of interests
urban design. Platforms with strong The authors declare no conflict of interest.
communicative interaction have been
created by using different technologies in an References
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Blue-green
Algæ.
Cultivated marshland 95 40
Cultivated clay soil 94·6 37
Uncultivated moist sandy soils 88·6 35
Cultivated sandy soil 64·4 45
Woodland 12·5 40
Uncultivated - Sandy heathland 9 34
Moorland 0 35
In noting that the soils fell into two groups, those relatively rich and
those poor in blue-green algæ, Esmarch concluded that the two chief
factors governing the distribution of the Cyanophyceæ on the
surface of soils are, (1) the moisture content of the soil, (2) the
availability of mineral salts, cultivated soils being especially favoured
in both of these respects. He further distinguished between
cultivated land of two kinds, viz. arable land and grass land, and
found that on all types of soil grassland was richer in species than
was arable land.
Esmarch examined, in addition, 129 samples taken from the lower
layers of the soil immediately beneath certain of his surface samples,
107 at 10-25 cms. and the rest at 30-50 cms. depth.
In cultivated soils, whether grassland or arable land, he found that
blue-green algæ occurred almost invariably in the lower layers in
those places bearing algæ on the surface and that, with rare
exceptions, the algæ found in the lower layers corresponded exactly
to those on the surface, except that with increasing depth there was
a progressive reduction in the number of species.
In uncultivated, moist, sandy soils the agreement was far less
complete, for though algæ were rarely absent from the lower layers
their vertical distribution was frequently disturbed by the action of
wind and rain. Other uncultivated soils not subject to periodic
disturbance were found to be uniformly lacking in algæ in the lower
layers, but as the limited number of samples examined came
completely from places where there were no algæ on the surface
this means very little.
By direct microscopic examination of soil Esmarch claims to have
found living filaments of blue-green algæ at various depths below the
surface. He realised, however, that there was no indication of the
length of time that such filaments had been buried, and therefore
conducted a series of experiments from which he concluded that the
period during which the algæ investigated could continue
vegetatively in the soil after burial varied with different species from
5-12 weeks, but that during the later part of the period the algæ
gradually assumed a yellowish-green colour.
It is unfortunate that Esmarch’s investigations were directed only
towards the blue-green algæ since observations made in this country
indicate that such a series of records gives but a very incomplete
picture of the soil flora as a whole.
Petersen, in his “Danske Aërofile Alger” (1915) added
considerably to our knowledge of soil algæ, especially of diatoms.
Unfortunately he confined his investigations of the green algæ to
forms growing visibly on the surface of the ground. He observed,
however, that acid soils possessed a different flora from that
commonly found on alkaline or neutral soils, the former being
dominated by Mesotænium violascens, Zygnema ericetorum, and 2
spp. of Coccomyxa, while the latter were characterised by
Mesotænium macrococcum var., Hormidium, 2 spp., and Vaucheria,
3 spp.
Of diatoms he obtained no less than 24 species and varieties from
arable and garden soils, and five characteristic of marshy soils, while
from forest soils and dry heathland they appeared to be often
absent. He omitted all reference to blue-green algæ.
Meanwhile Robbins, examining a number of Colorado soils that
contained unprecedented quantities of nitrate, obtained from them
18 species of blue-green algæ, 2 species of green algæ, and one
diatom. Moore and Karrer have demonstrated the existence of a
subterranean alga-flora of which Protoderma viride, the most
constantly occurring species, was shown to multiply when buried to a
depth of one metre.
In this country attention was first called to the subject by Goodey
and Hutchinson of Rothamsted who, in examining certain old stored
soils for protozoa, obtained also a number of blue-green forms which
were submitted to Professor West for identification. This ability of
certain algal spores to retain their vitality for a long resting period
was so very striking that an investigation was begun at Birmingham
in 1915 to ascertain whether other forms were equally resistant. The
investigation was carried out on a large number of freshly collected
samples of arable and garden soils which were first aseptically air-
dried for at least a month and then grown in culture. No less than 20
species or varieties of diatoms, 24 species of blue-green and 20
species of green algæ were obtained from these cultures (Table
XII.). In the majority of the samples there was found a central group
of algæ, including Hantzschia amphioxys, Trochiscia aspera,
Chlorococcum humicola, Bumilleria exilis and rather less frequently
Ulothrix subtilis var. variabilis, while moss protonema was universally
present. These species were thought to form the basis of an
extensive ecological plant formation in which, by the inclusion of
other typically terrestrial but less widely distributed species smaller
plant-associations were recognised.
In certain of the soils, associations consisting very largely of
diatoms were present, and it is to be noted that the majority of the
forms that have been described are of exceedingly small size. It is
doubtless this characteristic which enables them to withstand the
conditions of drought to which the organisms of the soil are liable to
be subjected, small organisms having been shown to be better able
to resist desiccation than are larger ones. Since the soil diatoms
belong to the pennate type, they are further adapted to their mode of
life by their power of locomotion, which enables them in times of
drought to retire to the moister layers of the soil.
In the soils examined in this work blue-green algæ were less
universally present than were diatoms or green algæ, and the
species found appeared to be more local in occurrence. There
seemed to be, however, an association between the three species,
Phormidium tenue, Ph. autumnale, and Plectonema Battersii, at
least two of the three species having been found together in no less
than 16 of the samples, while all three occurred in 7 of them.
TABLE XII.—ALGÆ IN DESICCATED ENGLISH SOILS. (BRISTOL.)
Group. Number Number of Species.
of Samples Maximum Average Total.
Productive. per per
Sample. Sample.
per cent.
Diatoms 95·5 9 3·7 20
Blue-green algæ 77·3 7 2·5 24
Green algæ 100 7 4·3 20
Moss protonema 100 — — —
Total — 20 10·5 —
Were it not for the recent advances that have been made in our
knowledge of the mode of nutrition of many of the lower algæ, it
would be very difficult to account for the widespread occurrence of
algæ in the soil, for it is undoubtedly true of some of the more highly
evolved algæ that their mode of nutrition is entirely typical of that of
green plants in general. The application of bacteriological technique
to the algæ, however, by Beijerinck, by Artari, and by Chodat and his
pupils, and the introduction of pure-culture methods have led to a
study of the physiology of some of the lower algæ, in the hope of
getting to understand some of the fundamental problems underlying
the nutrition of organisms containing chlorophyll. It is impossible here
to do more than mention the names of a few of the more important of
those who have worked along these lines, such as Chodat, Artari,
Grintzesco, Pringsheim, Kufferath, Nakano, Boresch, Magnus and
Schindler, and to condense into a few sentences some of their more
important conclusions.
It is now established that although in the light the algæ are able to
build up their substance from CO2 and water containing dilute
mineral salts, yet in such conditions growth is sometimes very slow,
and with some species at any rate it is greatly accelerated by the
addition of a small quantity of certain organic compounds. The ability
of the lower algæ to use organic food materials varies specifically,
quite closely related forms often reacting very differently to the same
substance, but there have been shown to be a considerable number
of forms which can make use of organic compounds to such an
extent that they can grow entirely independently of light. In such
cases the nutrition of the organism becomes wholly saprophytic, and
the chlorophyll may be completely lost; it has frequently been
observed, however, that on suitable nutrient media, even in complete
darkness, certain algæ continue to grow and retain their green
colour, provided that a sufficient supply of a suitable nitrogenous
compound is present.
Chlorella vulgaris, an alga frequently found in soil, has been
shown to be extremely plastic in its relations to food substances.
Given only a dilute mineral-salts solution as food source, it absorbs
CO2 from the air, and grows in sunlight with moderate rapidity. The
addition of glucose to the medium in the light greatly increases the
rate and amount of growth and the size of the cells, while in the dark
the colonies not only remain green but have been shown to develop
more vigorously than in full daylight. The organism is also able to
use peptone as a source of nitrogen in place of nitrates.
Stichococcus bacillaris and Scenedesmus spp., also occurring in
soils, have been shown to be almost equally adaptable, though in
these cases the organisms grow more slowly in the dark than on the
corresponding medium in the light. Liquefaction of gelatine by the
secretion of proteolytic enzymes has been shown to be a further
property of certain species, resulting in the formation of amino acids
such as glycocoll, phenylalanine, dipeptides, etc. This property is,
however, possessed by only a limited number of species and in
varying degree.
Up to the present very little work of this kind has been done upon
algæ actually taken from the soil, and our knowledge is therefore
very scanty. Of the species so far examined all show considerable
increase in growth on the addition to the medium of glucose and
other sugars, and tend to be partially saprophytic; a few have been
shown to liquefy gelatine to some extent.
Servettaz, Von Ubisch, and Robbins have also demonstrated that
the protonema of some mosses can make use of certain organic
substances, especially the sugars, and grow vigorously in the dark. It
has been shown, however, that light is essential for the development
of the moss plant.
It was thought at Rothamsted that some light might be thrown
upon the activities of the soil-algæ by making counts of the numbers
present in samples of soil taken periodically within a circumscribed
area. A dilution method similar to that in use in the protozoological
laboratory was adopted and applied to samples of arable soil taken
from the surface, and at depths of 2, 4, 6 and 12 inches vertically
beneath. A considerable number of samples were examined in this
way from two plots on Broadbalk wheat-field, viz.: the unmanured
plot and that receiving a heavy annual dressing of farmyard manure.
The numbers in the unmanured soil were observed to fall far short of
those in that containing a large amount of organic matter, while in
both plots the numbers varied considerably at different times of the
year. The chief species in both plots were identical, and their vertical
distribution was fairly uniform, but it was observed that the numbers
of individuals varied according to the depth of the sample. The 6th
and 12th inch samples contained very few individuals of
comparatively few species, but the 4th inch samples yielded
numbers that were not significantly less than those in the top inch.
The 2nd inch sample was usually much poorer in individuals than
either the top or the 4th inch.
It is unfortunate that this method of counting is not really
satisfactory for the algæ, chiefly because it takes no account of the
blue-green forms. The gelatinous envelope which encloses the
filaments of these algæ prevents their breaking up into measurable
units. Assuming, as appears to be the case for the two plots
investigated, that the blue-green algæ are at least as numerous as
the green forms, the total numbers should probably be at least twice
as great as those calculated. Taking 100,000 as a rough estimate of
the number of algæ per gram of manured soil in a given sample, and
assuming the cells to be spherical and of average diameter 10µ, it
has been calculated that the volume of algal protoplasm present was
at least 3 times that of the bacteria though only one-third of that of
the protozoa. This is probably only a minimum figure for this sample.
A soil population of this magnitude can not be without effect on the
fertility of the soil. When growing on the surface of the ground
exposed to sunlight the algæ must, by photosynthesis, add
considerably to the organic matter of the soil, but when they live
within the soil itself their nutrition must be wholly saprophytic, and
they can be adding nothing either to the energy or to the food-
content of the soil. How these organisms fit into the general scheme
of life in the soil is at present undetermined, and there is a wide field
for research in this direction.
In the cultivation of rice the algæ of the paddy field have been
found to be of extreme importance. Brizi in Italy has shown that
although rice is grown under swamp conditions yet the roots of the
rice plant are typical of those of ordinary terrestrial plants and have
none of the structural adaptations to aquatic life so characteristic of
ordinary marsh plants. Hence the plants are entirely dependent for
healthy growth upon an adequate supply of oxygen to their roots
from the medium in which they are growing. A serious disease of the
rice plant, characterised by the browning and dying off of the leaves,
which was thought at first to be due to the attacks of fungi, was
found to be the effect of the inadequate aeration of the roots, while
the entry of the fungi was shown to be subsequent to the
appearance of the physiological disease. The presence of algæ in
the swamp water was found to prevent the appearance of this
disease, in that they unite with other organisms to form a more or
less continuous stratum over the surface of the ground, and add to
the gases which accumulate there large quantities of oxygen evolved
during photosynthesis. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the
water percolating through the soil is thereby raised to a maximum,
and the healthy growth of the crop ensured.
This work has been corroborated by Harrison and Aiyer in India,
and a sufficient supply of algæ in the swamp water is now regarded
as one of the essentials for the production of a good rice crop.
From what has been said, it appears that, although our knowledge
of the soil algæ is extremely limited, and our conception of the part
they play is largely based on speculation, yet the subject is one of
enormous interest and worthy of investigation in many directions. In
its present undeveloped state, it is a little difficult to foresee which
lines of study are likely to prove most profitable, but there is little
doubt that eventually the soil algæ will be shown to play a significant
part in the economy of the soil.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY.
* Papers giving extensive bibliographies.
I. General.
[1] Bristol, B. M., “On the Retention of Vitality by Algæ from Old Stored
Soils,” New Phyt., 1919, xviii., Nos. 3 and 4.
[2] Bristol, B. M., “On the Alga-Flora of some Desiccated English Soils:
an Important Factor in Soil Biology,” Annals of Botany, 1920, vol. xxxiv.,
No. 133.
[3] Brizi, U., “Ricerche sulla Malattia del Riso detta ‘Brusone,’ Sect. IV.
Influenza che le alghe verdi esercitano in risaia,” Annuario dell
Instituzione Agraria Dott. A. Ponti, Milan, 1905, vol. vi., pp. 84-89.
[4] Esmarch, F., “Beitrag zur Cyanophyceen-Flora unserer Kolonien,”
Jahrb. der Hamburgischen wissensch. Anstalten, 1910, xxviii., 3. Beiheft,
S. 62-82.
[5] Esmarch, F., “Untersuchungen über die Verbreitung der
Cyanophyceen auf und in verschiedenen Boden,” Hedwigia, 1914, Band
lv., Heft 4-5.
[6] Fritsch, F. E., “The Rôle of Algal Growth in the Colonisation of New
Ground and in the Determination of Scenery,” Geog. Journal, 1907.
[7] Harrison, W. H., and Aiyer, P. A. Subramania, “The Gases of Swamp
Rice Soils,” Mem. Dept. Agr. in India, Chem. Ser. (I.) “Their Composition
and Relationship to the Crop,” 1913, vol. iii., No. 3; (II.) “Their Utilisation
for the Aeration of the Roots of the Crop,” 1914, vol. iv., No. 1; (IV.) “The
Source of the Gaseous Soil Nitrogen,” 1916, vol. v., No. 1.
[8a] Hensen, V., “Ueber die Bestimmung des Planktons oder des im
Meere treibenden Materials am Pflanzen und Thieren.” Fünfter Ber.
Komm. wiss. Unters. deutschen Meere, 1887.
[8] Moore, G. T., and Karrer, J. L., “A Subterranean Alga Flora,” Ann.
Miss. Bot. Gard., 1919, vi., pp. 281-307.
[9] Nadson, G., “Die perforierenden (kalkbohrende) Algen und ihre
Bedeutung in der Natur,” Scripta bot. hort. Univ. Imp. Petrop., 1901, Bd.
17.
[10] Petersen, J. B., “Danske Aërofile Alger,” D. Kgl. Danske Vidensk.
Selsk. Skrifter, 7 Raekke, Naturv. og mathem., 1915, Bd. xii., 7,
Copenhagen.
[11] Robbins, W. W., “Algæ in some Colorado Soils,” Agric. Exp. Sta.,
Colorado, 1912, Bulletin 184.
[12] Treub, “Notice sur la nouvelle Flora de Krakatau,” Ann. Jard. Bot.
Buitenzorg, 1888, vol. vii., pp. 221-223.
[13] Artari, A., “Zur Ernährungsphysiologie der grünen Algen,” Ber. der D.
bot. Ges., 1901, Bd. xix., S. 7.
[14] Artari, A., “Zur Physiologie der Chlamydomonaden (Chlam.
Ehrenbergii);” (I.) Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot., 1913, Bd. lii., S. 410; (II.) Ibid.,
1914, Bd. liii., S. 527.
[15] Adjarof, M., “Recherches expérimentales sur la Physiologie de
quelques Algues vertes,” Université de Genève—Institut Botanique, Prof.
R. Chodat—1905, 6 serie, vii. fascicule, Genève.
[16] Beijerinck, M. W., “Berichte über meine Kulturen niederer Algen auf
Nährgelatine,” Centr. f. Bakt. u. Paras., 1893, Abt. I., Bd. xiii., S. 368,
Jena.
[17] Boresch, K., “Die Färbung von Cyanophyceen und Chlorophyceen in
ihrer Abhängigkeit vom Stickstoffgehalt des Substrates,” Jahrbücher für
Wiss. Botanik., 1913, lii., pp. 145-85.
[18] Chodat, R., “Étude critique et expérimentale sur le polymorphisme
des Algues,” Genève, 1909.
[19] Chodat, R., “La crésol-tyrosinase, réactif des peptides et des
polypeptides, des protéides et de la protéolyse,” Archiv. des Sciences
physiques et naturelles, 1912.
[20] Chodat, R., “Monographie d’Algues en Culture pure: Matériaux pour
la Flore Cryptogamique Suisse,” 1913, vol. iv., fasc. 2, Berne.
[21] Dangeard, P. A., “Observations sur une Algue cultivée à l’obscurité
depuis huit ans,” Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. (Paris), 1921, vol. clxxii., No. 5,
pp. 254-60.
[22] Étard et Bouilhac, “Sur la présence de la chlorophyll dans un Nostoc
cultivé à l’abri de la lumière,” Compt. Rend., t. cxxvii, 1898.
[23] Grintzesco, J., “Recherches expérimentales sur la morphologie et la
physiologie expérimentale de Scenedesmus acutus,” Meyen. Bull. herb.
Boiss., 1902, Bd. ii., pp. 219-64 and 406-29.
[24] Grintzesco, J., “Contribution à l’étude des Protococcoidées: Chlorella
vulgaris Beyerinck,” Revue générale de Botanique, 1903, xv., pp. 5-19,
67-82.
[25] * Kufferath, H., “Contribution à la physiologie d’une protococcacée
nouvelle, Chlorella luteo-viridis Chod. n. sp. var., lutescens Chod. n. var.,”
Recueil de l’institut bot. Léo Errera, 1913, t. ix, p. 113.
[26] Kufferath, H., “Recherches physiologiques sur les algues vertes
cultivées en culture pure,” Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belgique, 1921, liv., pp. 49-
77.
[27] Magnus, W., and Schindler, B., “Ueber den Einflusz der Nährsalze auf
die Färbung der Oscillarien,” Ber. der D. Bot. Gesellschaft, 1912-13, xxx.,
p. 314.
[28] * Nakano, H., “Untersuchungen über die Entwicklungs- und
Ernährungsphysiologie einiger Chlorophyceen,” Journ. College of Sci.
Imp. Univ. Tokyo, 1917, vol. xl., Art. 2.
[29] Pringsheim, E., “Kulturversuche mit chlorophyll-führenden
Mikroorganismen,” Cohns Beiträge Z. Biol. d. Pflanzen. (I.) Die Kultur von
Algen in Agar, 1912, Bd. xi., S. 249; (II.) Zur Physiologie der Euglena
gracilis, 1913, Bd. xii., S. 1.; (III.) Zur Physiologie der Schizophyceen,
1913, Bd. xii., S. 99.
[30] Radais, “Sur la culture pure d’une algue verte; formation de
chlorophylle à l’obscurité,” Comptes Rendus, 1900, cxxx., p. 793.
[31] Richter, O., “Zur Physiologie der Diatomeen.” (I.) Sitzber. d. kais.
Akad. d. W. in Wien, math, naturw. Kl., 1906, Bd. cxv., Abt. I., S. 27; (II.)
Denkschrift d. math. naturw. Kl. d. kais. Akad. d. W. in Wien, 1909, Bd.
lxxxiv., S. 666; (III.) Sitzber. d. Kais. Akad., etc., 1909, Bd. cxviii., Abt. I.,
S. 1337.
[32] Richter, O., “Ernährung der Algen,” 1911.
[33] Robbins, W. J., “Direct Assimilation of Organic Carbon by Ceratodon
purpureus,” Bot. Gaz., 1918, lxv., pp. 543-51.
[34] Schindler, B., “Ueber den Farbenwechsel der Oscillarien,” Zeitsch. f.
Bot., 1913, v., pp. 497-575.
[35] Ternetz, Charlotte, “Beiträge zur Morphologie und Physiologie der
Euglena gracilis,” Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot., 1912, Bd. 51, S. 435.
Qualitative Study.
Quantitative Study.