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Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs
2021, Volume 5, Number 2, pages 169–182
Original scientific paper
E-participatory Approaches in Urban Design
* 1 Araf Öykü Türken , 2 Assoc. Prof. Dr Engin Eyüp Eyuboğlu
1Department of City and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Yildiz Technical University, Turkey
2 Department of City and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
Email 1: [email protected], Email 2: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO: ABSTRACT

The phenomenon of planning involving citizen’s participation in planning
Article History:
Received 9 June 2020
literature has been from the second half of the 20th century. Indeed, different
Accepted 20 Augustus 2020 methods and techniques have been used in the process. However,
Available online 8 September participatory practices are time-consuming and negotiations are tiresome.
2020 Accordingly, the integration of developing digital technologies into
participatory processes has been seen as a potential to reach large audiences
Keywords: and provide time-space independence. Within the scope of this research, a
E-participation; detailed literature review was done regarding e-participation, and ten (10)
Public Participation; examples representing the upper levels at the ladder of participation were
Urban Design. examined within the context of the project, participation, and socio-technical
criteria. SWOT analyzes were structured by grouping similar applications,
and current trends for the use of e-participation in urban design have been
revealed. The analysis showed that citizens e participation- participation tend
to allow citizen design or location-based interaction, playful interfaces and
game elements which can be sources for encouragement.
This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2021), 5(2), 169-182.
https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2021.v5n2-2
www.ijcua.com
Copyright © 2020 Araf Öykü Türken, Engin Eyüp Eyuboğlu.
This article is published with open
access at www.ijcua.com
1. Introduction
Participatory planning/design practices have maximum levels, and the traditional
become increasingly widespread since the participation processes has become time-
second half of the 20th century and have consuming and costly. This situation required
begun to replace top-down practices. These the integration of participatory planning with
approaches, which focus on the interaction digital technologies. In its simplest terms, the
between actors, have become stronger with concept of e-participation refers to the use of
concepts such as the right to the city, civic ICT in participatory processes. Accordingly, the
participation, and citizen power. Since the 90s, ladder of participation was redefined,
the use of digital technologies in the world and participatory planning met with digital
the emergence of systems such as ICT and GIS
*Corresponding Author:
have undergone a radical change in the Department of City and Regional Planning, Faculty of
production process of the urban space. The Architecture, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul,
forms of communication in daily life have Turkey
changed, data production has reached Email address: [email protected]
How to Cite this Article:

Türken, A. O., & Eyuboğlu, E. E. (2021). E-participatory Approaches in Urban Design. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 5(2), 169-182.
https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2021.v5n2-2
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 5(2), 169-182/ 2021
methods and different specialities (such as IT methods and have goals such as collecting
experts, developers) were included in the data by addressing large audiences,
inclusive design practices. In the focus of motivating participation using game elements
planning and urban design, various or playful interfaces, making services
approaches have been developed that target transparent, creating dialogue, and increasing
active participation of citizens, such as systems interaction between actors. In this context, this
that allow citizen design in three-dimensional research examines the impact of e-
models, civic engagement platforms and participation on urban design and planning
participatory planning apps, co-design apps processes and aims to understand current
amongst others. These systems are generally trends and approaches. In doing so, it adopted
designed as web-based or mobile extensive literature research and detailed
applications. They have multiple digital reviews of 10 international examples.
2. Methodology
Figure 1. Structure of the Study.
Within the scope of the research, the levels of the participation ladder and as a
development of participation in urban design system developed based on geographical or
and planning will be examined in historical spatial data. Accordingly, in the first
order. A comprehensive literature review was examples examined, citizens can visualize
conducted on e-participation, m- their ideas about the urban space (2D or 3D),
participation and the use of digital tools in the while in others, citizens report decisions and
participation processes. Co-design and civic suggestions for projects to be developed
engagement platforms using digital tools are through urban models and online mapping.
searched, and the relationship with While detailing the cases, different
innovative city concepts such as sustainable, researcher's evaluation criteria for digital
smart, and responsive is examined. participation and mobile platforms were
Advanced examples focused on the spatial examined, common points were determined
design on a range of street, neighborhood, and review parameters were structured in line
and public space rather than strategic with the inferences. Subsequently, 10
approaches, transportation was selected, examples were examined in the context of
and comparative studies were made on the the project, participation, and socio-
10 examples (Figure 1). While choosing digital technical criteria. Comparisons were made
participation platforms and mobile on parameters such as developers, goals,
applications that contribute to urban design spatial levels, continuity, information flow,
processes, study preference was the high methods, actors, motivation, technologies,
Araf Öykü Türken & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Engin Eyüp Eyuboğlu 170
data, price, privacy policies and analysis. bottom-up approaches emerged and
Afterwards, SWOT analysis was done by became widespread. In 1967, the concept of
grouping samples with similarities. In line with "right to the city" was introduced by Henry
the data obtained, innovative trends and Lefebvre, and it was stated that only groups
methods regarding the use of digital tools for and societies that could take revolutionary
community participation in urban design initiative could solve urban problems
were introduced. (Lefebvre, 2016). Afterwards, pluralist planning
approaches have replaced top-down
3. Conceptual Framework of Participation in practices; participation has been seen as a
Urban Design/Planning collaborative process beyond 'information'. In
Participation is often associated with the 1969, Arnstein published an article entitled “The
concept of democracy and it has a Ladder of Participation”, classifying
multidisciplinary, inclusive nature. In the 1930s, participation at eight different levels (Arnstein,
the Chicago School carried out field projects in 1969). Simultaneously, under the principle of
disadvantaged neighborhoods, and citizen pluralism, planning models such as transactive,
involvement was mentioned for the first time in communicative and advocacy have brought
the context of architecture and planning a new perspective to urban planning (Table 1)
(Janowitz, 2015). In the 1960s, top-down differently from the rational comprehensive
transportation and transformation projects approach (Lane, 2005). These models
implemented in the USA increased the targeted local mobilization and emphasized
inequality in urban space. During this period, the public's role in planning and design.
Table 1. Planning Approaches and Relation with Public Participation (Arnstein, 1969; Friedmann, 1987; Hall, 1992 as cited in
Lane, 2005).
Level of Participation Planning Tradition Planning School Planning Models
Citizen Control Societal transformation Pluralism Communicative
Delegated Power Bargaining
Partnership Marxist
Advocacy
Transactive
Placation Societal guidance Synoptic Mixed scanning
Consultation Incrementalism
Informing Synoptic planning
Therapy Societal guidance Blueprint Blueprint planning,
Manipulation Geddes, Howard
Precinct planners
Thereafter, Arnstein's participation ladder was study, it is a point of fact that the participation
criticized as a one-way system that always processes have transformed with social needs
aimed to reach higher levels and was and planning dynamics.
reinterpreted by different professionals. In 1998,
Davidson developed an approach called the 4. Integration of Digital Tools into Participatory
"The Wheel of Participation" which has four Processes
main categories: inform consult, participate The development of ICT has inevitably
and empower. Later on, OECD (2001) changed daily life habits, created new public
established an active participation framework spaces and redefined virtual interactive
and categorized it by information flow environments. In its most basic sense, digital
directions and level of empowerment and the forms of communication have great potential
IAP2-Spectrum of Public Participation (2007) to eliminate communicative barriers between
published an internationally accepted table people and increase their networking
emphasizing that participation levels are capacity. parallel to this, the way of
related to factors such as goal, promise and communication between institutions and
techniques (Commons, 2011). With the people evolved in this new direction and
integration of digital technologies into created concepts such as e-democracy, e-
participatory processes, different participation governance, and e-participation. Macintosh
ladders have emerged that consider the new (2004) expresses e-democracy as the use of ICT
requirements. Although details about e- to support decision-making processes; he
participation are critically examined in this defines e-voting and e-participation as sub-
layers of e-democracy. Accordingly, it will be support systems that give priority to professional
useful to interpret digital technologies that use have emerged (Klosterman, 2012). With the
affect planning and design processes. development of Web 2.0, content production
Although the development process of of citizens became widespread and
computer technologies started in the 1960s, collaborative use of the network increased.
mathematical approaches in this period were Besides, web-based and online GIS systems
insufficient to solve complex problems for the have also been developed. These systems
city. In the 1980s and 1990s, due to the have created the PPGIS formulation integrated
developing GIS and other technologies, more with the idea of community participation.
comprehensive approaches have been Contrary to the fact that the systems in previous
developed that can provide solutions to years were professionally oriented, these
problems related to planning and design, systems have great potential to ensure civic
including topics such as data collection, data engagement and interaction between actors.
processing, visualization, analysis and project It is seen that with every developing new
management. Following this, developments technology, e-participation processes are
such as planning support systems and decision evolving.
Table 2. Ladder of E-participation Through Different Perspectives.

(Carver, 2001) (Kingston, 2002) (Hudson-Smith, (Macintosh, (Krabina, 2016)
Evans, Batty, & 2004)
Batty, 2002)
Online Decision Online Decision Virtual Worlds e- Impact
Sup. Sys. Making Empowering
Online Opinion Online PPGIS Virtual Design e-Engaging Effective implementation
Surveys Studio
Online Discussion Online Comments Community Design e-Enabling Intended goal/agenda
on App. Sys.
Communication Online Service Online Decision Active dedicated interface
barrier Delivery Support Systems
Online Service Online Discussion Online Opinion Implicit awareness/connection
Delivery Forums Surveys
Communication Online Discussions Non-interaction
barrier
Online Opinion Communication Passive action
Surveys barrier
Basic Website Online Service Indifference caring/opinion
Delivery Unawareness information
One of the main parameters used when decision making. Subsequently, Smith and
examining e-participation processes is the others have added advanced technologies
ladder of e-participation and e-democracy. As that can contribute to the ladder (such as
with Arnstein's ladder, e-participation levels community design systems, virtual design
increase depending on citizen empowerment. studios and virtual worlds) and re-structured
Besides, the information flow direction and the high levels of participation (Hudson-Smith et al.,
technology adopted in e-participation 2002). In his article published in 2004, Macintosh
processes are directly related to authorization. displayed an attitude similar to OECD's
Accordingly, the e-participation ladders approach (information, consultation and
developed by different professionals are active participation) and grouped e-
compared in Table 2. For example, in the participation as enabling, consultation and
system created by Carver (2001), online empowering. Unlike other systems, in Krabina's
services are classified as one-way, and the (2016) approach, some key issues such as the
level of participation increases as we go user who acquires information while
towards online discussions, opinion surveys, unconsciously browsing the internet, implicit
and decision support systems. On the other participation of citizen, dedicated interface,
hand, Kingston (2002) has positioned simple continuity of participation process are
websites and opinion polls in one-way integrated into the ladder.
information flow while describing interactive E-participation and collaborative participation
processes as discussion forums, services, processes are not two mutually exclusive
comments on apps, online PPGIS, and online elements; on the contrary, they contain
methods that can be used to support each participation can act as a catalyst by
other in line with needs. The reasons for the providing advantages such as those involving
increasing preference of e-participation today passer-by citizens in the process, collecting
can be listed as follows: addressing large data while providing information through
audiences, ensuring time and space applications and providing opportunities for
independence, reducing costs, and providing different socio-economic groups (Fathejalali,
support for young groups to decision-making 2017).
processes for urban space. Hence, aside from
methods involving face-to-face interaction 4.1 E-Participatory Approaches and Related
such as city councils, consultation groups, Urban Concepts
workshops, negotiations, interviews, city The phenomenon of participation has been an
meetings which are frequently used in the essential component of the globally accepted
participation processes, the use of methods sustainable city concept since the 1970s. In
such as forums, online surveys, podcasts, blogs, conferences, covenants and agreements
e-petitions, e-voting, gis tools, decision-making starting with the Stockholm conference and
games (Kubicek, 2009, s. 177) have increased. sustainable cities such as the Rio-World Summit,
The technology-related structure of e- The Aarhus Convention, Local Agenda 21, UN
participation also made it necessary to adopt Sustainable Development Goals 2030;
the new actor relationships to the participation participation was emphasized with themes
processes. With the change of tools, the such as access to environmental information,
processes supporting dependent or cooperation, policymaking, active citizenship.
independent developers (IT professionals) Sustainable development goals guide not only
have suddenly become imperative for green cities but also data-driven city concepts,
creating dedicated interfaces, managing and smart city, digital city and responsive city.
analysing data exchange, ensuring the Among these, literature evidence suggests
sustainability of the system and reconstructing conference on the concept that is seen as a
the systems. This allowed innovative ways such ‘smart city’ as dominant. Smart cities consist of
as application/software competitions, media six basic components: smart economy, smart
and press support to be used in designing e- governance, smart citizen, smart mobility,
participation processes (Kassen, 2018). smart environment and smart living (Giffinger
It was mentioned earlier that the participation et al., 2007). Gupta, Mustafa, & Kumar (2017)
processes have been transformed in line with define the main elements of governance in
the prevailing technology and the needs of the smart city as participatory decision making,
age. Accordingly, e-participation processes public and social services, transparent
have continued to evolve with the introduction governance, political strategies and
of mobile technologies and the emergence perspectives. Subsequently, what a smart
and widespread use of devices such as citizen should have is expressed with features
smartphones and tablets. In this context, m- such as the level of qualification, open-
participation, which is a new concept, mindedness, social and ethnic plurality,
represents the latest developments in e- flexibility, creativity, democratic, participation
participation processes, while focusing on in public life (Gupta, Mustafa, & Kumar, 2017).
ensuring civic engagement through In this regard, it can be said that citizens are
specialized 'apps' (Ertiö, 2013). These attributed to leading roles in data products
applications are expressed with names such as within the scope of smart cities concept.
"participatory planning apps," "citizen apps," Another city model that attributes the
and "civic engagement apps". It takes solutions relationship between ICT and citizen
one step further for "time/space problems" participation to the spatial organization of the
than e-participation. While classifying these city is “responsive city.” The responsive city
applications, Ertiö (2018) separates it as takes citizens to the "action center" and is
environmental-centric and people-centric; he interested in “bringing the city back to citizens”
went further to mention eight different (ETHx, 2017). Contrary to sensor data,
categories such as information sharing, 'responsive city' focusses on the information
experience, trend monitoring, integrator, and data voluntarily shared by citizens (ETHx,
nudge, local network, citizen impact, public 2017). Dominant terms in the responsive city
dialogue (Ertiö, 2018). Parallel to these, m- concept are citizen science, citizen design
science and it enables non-experts to develop criteria. Within the purview of contemporary
ideas, considering the creative participation of processes, the production and use of e-
the crowd (ETHx, 2017). participation platforms have gained speed,
and they have been evaluated by many
4.2 Evaluation Criteria for E-participatory professionals for different purposes and
Platforms parameters. Within the scope of the research,
five articles that evaluate web-based and
One of the first studies on the creation of e- mobile applications to ensure community
participation evaluation criteria were participation concerning urban space have
presented by Macintosh & Whyte (2008) with e- been examined in detail (Table 3), considering
participation activities managed by the local the parameters, common points, and
government were evaluated through classifications used by experts.
democracy, project, and socio-technical
Table 3. Evaluation Criteria for Participatory Platforms from Different Perspectives

E-participation E-participation E-participation M-participation M-participation
(Desouza & (Desouza & (Falco & Kleinhans, (Höffken & Streich, (Fathejalali, 2017)
Bhagwatwar, 2012) Bhagwatwar, 2014) 2018) 2013)
Name City Self- Name Name
General Information
Participatory Levels of
Intention
Platforms
Project Criteria
Developer Name organization Aim Goal of
Launch year Founders Co- Topic application
General Information
Locations Year production Participants Beneficiaries

served Goal Interaction Target group Medium
Platforms Consulting Spatial Topic
Purpose Informing definition Spatial Level
Website Driving Driving
institution institution
Motivation of
developer
Country
Transportation Citizen- Name Approach System of
Models
Technology Criteria
Overview of Digital Participatory
Platforms
Participation
Utilities Centric& Website Impact (of the project

Transparency Citizen- Description information) Data Source
and Sourced Data Coverage Ability to channel
Typology of Application
corruption Citizen- Case studies comment Form of

Information & Centric& Main /data communication
awareness & Gov.Open technologic Activity Platform
access Data al Cost Deployed
Health and Government- features Barriers to Complexity
recreation Centric&Citize Pricing registration Location-based
Public Safety n-Sourced Complexity verification.
Housing Data Level of Used eTools
Government- participation Registration
Centric&Citize Devices
n-Developed
Solutions
User feeds City System Involved actors
Technology
Citizen Participation Criteria

Components
Source
Government Platforms Channels Level of

Data
Data Attractors App-based participation

Hybrid Medium Cost for
Opinion Information participants
and Communication
seeking knowledge direction
Prob.
Goal of Application
flows Information flow

identificati Technological Cross-media
on features communication
Overall Relation
Prob. framework between actors
resolution Network
Info, Stage in the
access & urban planning
process
Awareness
Prizes
Solving soc.
Motiva.
iss.
Open data
app stratus
Web based
Platfor.
Mobile
devices
Local /City
Range
National
Global
5. Examination of Digital Participation Platforms headings: general information about the

Ten examples contributing to community project, parameters concerning the
participation in urban design have been participatory aspect of the platforms and
selected, and current trends and criteria focusing on the social and
developments were examined concerning the technological process. Detailed examinations
examples. The selected cases were analysed in of the samples can be accessed from Table 4
two groups: those that enabled the citizen to and Table 5 and SWOT analysis was made from
design in 2 or 3 dimensions and those that focus the groupings.
on making citizens' decisions or suggestions
through location-based systems. The
examinations are detailed under three main
Table 4. Examination of Platforms and Applications that Enable Citizen Design

U-code / Pilot Test B3 Design Your Unlimited
Qua-kit ArkiCity
in Sangerhausen Market Place Cities DIY
(Hasler,
Chenal, &
(Mueller & Lu, Soutter, 2017)
(Jannack, ve
2017) (Poplin, 2013) (World Urban
Main Source/ diğerleri, 2019)
(Mueller, Lu, (Geogames Lab) Campaign, (Arki_lab, 2014)
References (U_CODE, 2019)
Chirkin, Klein, & (Thiel, 2017) 2016)
Schmitt, 2018) (Unlimited
Cities DIY,
2017)
Arki_lab
U_CODE (Student Project)
ETH Zurich Smart Inf.
EU Horizon 2020 HafenCity and HOST Lab.
Developer Information Arc. Facilities
Research and (HCU) Florida UFO (NGO)
Artem Chirkin University of
Innovation Prog. Atlantic University
Wollongong
Generate a
Crowd-creative new photo-
Transformation
participation Creating a serious realistic
A co-design of urban space
(non-experts) on digital game that image/collag
Goal of platform for urban by taking a
different urban supports playful es of urban
PROJECT CRITERIA
Application design allows picture, making

scales, by learning through a space by
participation. a collage and
arranging real-world. playing with
share online.
geometries. various
objects.
Sustainable
Responsive City
Related Smart City Gamification in City Smart City
Citizen Design
Concepts Smart Design Urban Planning Collaborative
Science
Urbanism
Neighbourho
Urban Design, Campus Design, Public Spaces Neighbourhood,
od,
Spatial Level Public Spaces Public Spaces, (Market hall) public space,
public space,
etc. Urban Design etc. streets etc.
streets etc.
Web-Based +
Web-Based + Mobile
Platforms Web-Based Web-Based Mobile
Mobile Devices Application
Devices
Continuity Beta Version

Yes Pilot Test Prototype Yes
(Cases) Yes
Information
Two-way Two-way Two-way Two-way Two-way
Flow
High (Co-
High (Co-
High High (Co-design) High design)
Level of design)
Making decisions Making decisions Making decisions Making
Participation Making
online online online decisions
decisions online
online
Community
Community design
design Community
PARTICIPATORY CRITERIA
Community (online), Community design

(online), e- design (online),
Methods of design (online), touchtables, VR (online), e-voting,
voting, add discussion
Participation e-voting, add tools, discussion forums
data/comme forums,
comments ranking/voting, etc.
nts, workshops
workshops
workshops
Initiator, Super Municipalities
Professionals, Municipalities,
Mediator, Planning Universities, , Urban
Stakeholders, Professionals,
Main Actors Authorities, Professionals, Professionals
Lab. Universities, Universities, Labs
Professionals, Students, Citizen and Civil
Citizen. and Citizen.
Citizen society
Gaming aspects, Crowdsourcing Serious Game Playful
Motivation Playful Design
Playful Design Design Gaming Playful Design Design
Citizen ↔
Feedback & Citizen ↔ Citizen Citizen ↔ Citizen Citizen ↔ Citizen citizen Citizen ↔ Citizen
Communicatio Gov/Professional Gov/Professionals Gov/Professionals ↔ Citizen ↔ Citizen↔ Gov
n Direction s ↔citizen ↔citizen citizen Gov /Professionals
/Professionals
Artificial
Augmented
Intelligence
Gamification/ VR- Digital Serious Reality
Used Tech & Qua-kit software Analysis
AR Applications/ Game Design/ Mobile software
Sys. by Artem Chirkin engine
Crowd Analysis Adobe Flash (for Ios and
Automatic
google play)
generator
3D models of Project-specific
3D typologies Informative data Project
Information urban space, data collection
Instructions for through project, packages &
data informative data packages &
use, Criterias, 3D & 2D Objects cutouts
etc. cutouts
SOCIO-TECHNICAL CRITERIA
Citizen
Citizen Design
Citizen Design Citizen Design Citizen Design Design
Produced Data Images/Collage
Models Models Models Images/Colla
s
ges
Dedicated
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Interface
Price/cost - - - No info No info
Professional / Tested in semi- Tested with a limited
Registration / PROJECT code is
Local Qua-kit controlled with a user. (students No info
Accounts/Limits required.
Accounts limited user. &elder)
Privacy policies No info No info Defined No info Defined
Comprehensi
ve
Analysis
Comprehensive Comprehensive
/artificial Analysis /Data
Analysis /Form Analysis/Participan User feedback and
Analysis intelligence, Collection &
and Perception t &Contribution ranking.
semantic Professionals
Based Istatis.
analysis,
image
recognition
As detailed in Table 4, five different digital opportunities and threats within the scope of
approaches aimed at community these examples are listed as follows:
participation in an urban design titled Qua-kit, Strengths: They allow users to visualize their
U-code / Sangerhausen, B3 Design Your ideas about space. The information flow is two-
Marketplace, Unlimited Cities DIY, ArkiCity were way and interactive. They enable the inclusion
examined. Strengths, weaknesses, of different actors in the system and the
leading roles of universities and laboratories in
the production of the projects examined. Opportunities: Accessible and understandable

Once the software is produced, it can be to use. Purposeful interface design makes
adapted to different projects and it helps to citizen participation enjoyable and has the
execute different participation processes with potential to involve young groups in the
similar instructions. The sustainability of the process. Features such as authorizing the user
system can be achieved in this way. Defined at the point of project production,
three-dimensional and two-dimensional comprehensive spatial analysis capability, high
objects make the system easy to understand level of participation, feedback systems, and
and use. Open-source software focuses on open-source increases the preferability by
transparency without profit. Comprehensive local authorities and planning agencies.
spatial analysis is included in most applications. Threats: The users may not prefer platforms
Gaming and entertainment elements are whose policies of use are not defined in terms
used. of the privacy and protection of the user's
Weakness: The production of platforms and data. Applications without restrictions on
applications is time-consuming and costly. registration use may cause non-local users to
Expert support is required for the production of participate in the voting and may affect the
the system and adaptation to new projects. In accuracy of the data.
systems with limited typology, creativity is
restricted in the design process of the citizen.
Table 5. Examination of Location Based Participatory Platforms.

WPUP Commonplace City Planner Online Urban Pinboard Maptionnaire
(Mansourian,
(Commonplace, (Haeusler,
Taleai, & Fasihi, (CityPlannerOnline, (Maptionnaire,
Main Source/ 2013) Asher, & Booth,
2011) 2003) 2011) (Falco &
References (Falco & 2017)
(Fasihi et al. (Falco & Kleinhans, 2018)
Kleinhans, 2018)
2009) Kleinhans, 2018)
Product of City
Live Labs
(Competition
Organizers: Cox
K.N. Toosi
Arc. & New
University of
South Wales
Technology CommonPlace Agency9 Maptionnaire Inc.
University &
Developer Faculty of Inc. Bentley Systems / Mapita /
Urban
Geodesy and Company Aalto University
Development
Geomatics
Institute of Aus-
Engineering
tralia)
AAM group
(Geospatial
PROJECT CRITERIA
Services Com.)
Create
Platform for 3D
participatory Sketch, analyse,
Ensuring citizen map
urban and export from
participation by visualisation, Creating map-
Goal of development 3D cities
using Community development surveys to get
Application control Share/publish
Heatmap and proposals & idea from citizen
activities for projects and
Design Feedback citizen
land use crowdsource
engagement
development
Related Participatory Participatory Sustainable City Smart Cities Participatory
Concept Planning Planning/ Design Smart City Planning/ Design
Urban Planning/ Neighbourhood,
Architecture& Architecture&
Land-use Dec. / Transportation, Urban Design &
Spatial Level Urban Design& Urban Design&
Development Urban Design Planning
Planning Planning
Control etc.
Platforms Web-Based Web-Based Web-Based Web-Based Web-Based
Continuity Prototype Beta Version
Yes Yes Yes
(Cases) System Yes
Information
Two-way Two-way Two-way Two-way Two-way
PATORY
PARTICI
CRITERI
Flow
A
Level of High High High High High

Participation Dec. Sup. Sys. Co-production Co-production Co-production Co-production
Online PPGIS Map-Based Map Based Map Based Online PPGIS

Consultation Contributions + 3D Contributions +
models 3D models
Discussion
Online mapping, Discussion forums, forums, e-
Application Online mapping,
surveys, e-voting, e-voting, location- voting,
Methods of submission, surveys, e-voting,
discussion forums based addition to location-based
Participation discussion discussion forums
etc, interviews, projects to be addition to
forum. etc.
meetings. developed projects to be
developed
Planning
Authorities, Professionals,
Municipalities,
Citizen (submit Developers, Professionals, Developers,
Professionals,
Main Actors and Local Authorities, Developers, Local Local
Companies,
participate), Citizen Authorities, Citizen Authorities,
Agencies, Citizen
Utility Citizen
Organizations
To offer To offer
To offer decisions/
decisions/ To offer decisions/ To offer
suggestions for
Motivation suggestions for ideas/suggestions suggestions for ideas/suggestions
projects to be
land use for urban space projects to be for urban space
developed
development developed
Citizen ↔ Gov
Citizen ↔ citizen Citizen ↔ Gov
Feedback & Citizen ↔ Gov Citizen ↔ Gov /Professionals
Citizen ↔ Local /Professionals
Communication /Professionals /Professionals Citizen ↔ citizen
Authorities Citizen ↔
Direction Citizen ↔ citizen Citizen ↔ citizen /depending to
citizen
project
Software, PPGIS,
Software,
Used Tech & Web GIS, GIS, GIS & CAD Software,
Location Based Software, PPGIS
Sys. SDSS, AHP integration, WMS & WebGIS, geoIT
Techs.
Geo content
Plan decisions,
Maps, project 3d project, city Maps, project
spatial analysis 3d project, city
Information images, models, images images,
and data, models, images
data information, and information,
evaluation and information
notifications information notifications
parameters
Citizen input to
Online spatial
Citizen input to Citizen input: Citizen input: urban problems
analysis maps
urban problems decisions, decisions, (report,
SOCIO-TECHNICAL CRITERIA
(citizen
(report, comment, vote comment, vote suggestions,
specific),
Produced Data suggestions, Professional input: Professional decisions on
synthesis of the
decisions on models, input: models, projects to be
participants'
projects to be informative data informative development)
data, opinion
developed) etc. data etc. /depending
statement.
project
Dedicated
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Interface
Yes/ For Driving Yes/ For Driving No info Yes/ For Driving
Price/cost -
Institution Institution (Beta Version) Institution
User login with User login with
Registration / Only Depending on Depending on
user-specific user-specific
Accounts/Limits Prototype the project the project
interfaces interfaces
Privacy policies No info Defined Defined Defined Defined
Comprehensive
Analysis (Spatial Comprehensive Comprehensive
Comprehensive Comprehensive
Analysis, Analysis Analysis (collect,
Analysis Analysis (Data Analysis (+Spatial
Analytical (+Spatial analyse and
analysis, statistics) analysis)
Hierarchy analysis) visualise)
Process)
As detailed in Table 5, five different digital examples, which are similar in terms of location-
platforms aimed at community participation in based data production methods and
urban planning titled WPUP, Commonplace, technologies and information flow aspects.
City Planner Online, Urban Pinboard, Strengths: Users can view projects that are
Maptionnaire were examined. Strengths, planned to be developed on real-time maps
weaknesses, opportunities and threats are and three-dimensional city models (in 2D or
listed as follows within the scope of these 3D). With the help of simple interfaces, they
can share location-based data, view the • allowing citizens to make their
comments of other citizens, vote, and designs(2/3D) or to report their
participate in surveys. In systems such as decisions and suggestions on projects
Maptionnaire, there are options such as to be developed with location-based
mapping and route creation. All of the systems systems
perform comprehensive analysis and have • providing consultation processes
specialized interfaces. Citizens can interact through three-dimensional city models
directly with developers and local authorities. and real-time maps
Examples of Maptionnaire, Commonplace, • enabling interaction between citizen to
CityPlanner Online, Urban Pinboard allows the citizen, citizen to professionals/ local
production of many different participation authorities/ developers at the same
projects, thereby providing a time-cost time thereby providing a two-way
advantage. information flow through the platforms
Weakness: Platforms do not allow citizens to • designing playful and dedicated
create their designs directly. Some of the interfaces to motivate citizens and
examples are poorly integrated with mobile increase participation. Likewise, the use
devices. The fact that the developer and local of game elements or 3D city models are
authorities can use the systems more other supportive approaches
comprehensively has a devastating effect on • to provide citizens with data security by
the perception of the bottom-up participation defining terms of use and privacy
process. Production of platforms and their • the flexibility of systems and
adaptation to projects require expertise. adaptability to more than one project;
Opportunities: Adaptation to different projects thus, ensuring continuity in the use.
increases preference. Three-dimensional urban • analysing process outputs and
models, CAD, and GIs integration enable these converting them into meaningful data.
platforms to be used in line with different Finally, it can be stated that e-participation
planning needs and not necessarily only in processes will continue to evolve with
terms of community participation. developing technologies and that it will
Threats: Paid uses (for beneficiary institutions) continue to support traditional participation
can reduce preferability. Participation in practices. In this regard, providing freedom of
programs with three-dimensional interfaces design and decision making and empowering
can turn into a secondary goal. On platforms citizens in the process will strengthen the
without registration limitation, the user can feel democratic aspect of e-participation.
unsafe in terms of privacy and prefer not to
participate. Indeed, such platforms can be Acknowledgements
manipulated. This research did not receive any specific grant
from funding agencies in the public,
6. Results commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
The use of digital technologies has gradually
increased to enhance public participation in Conflict of interests
urban design. Platforms with strong The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Blue-green
Algæ.
Cultivated marshland 95 40
Cultivated clay soil 94·6 37
Uncultivated moist sandy soils 88·6 35
Cultivated sandy soil 64·4 45
Woodland 12·5 40
Uncultivated - Sandy heathland 9 34
Moorland 0 35
In noting that the soils fell into two groups, those relatively rich and
those poor in blue-green algæ, Esmarch concluded that the two chief
factors governing the distribution of the Cyanophyceæ on the
surface of soils are, (1) the moisture content of the soil, (2) the
availability of mineral salts, cultivated soils being especially favoured
in both of these respects. He further distinguished between
cultivated land of two kinds, viz. arable land and grass land, and
found that on all types of soil grassland was richer in species than
was arable land.
Esmarch examined, in addition, 129 samples taken from the lower
layers of the soil immediately beneath certain of his surface samples,
107 at 10-25 cms. and the rest at 30-50 cms. depth.
In cultivated soils, whether grassland or arable land, he found that
blue-green algæ occurred almost invariably in the lower layers in
those places bearing algæ on the surface and that, with rare
exceptions, the algæ found in the lower layers corresponded exactly
to those on the surface, except that with increasing depth there was
a progressive reduction in the number of species.
In uncultivated, moist, sandy soils the agreement was far less
complete, for though algæ were rarely absent from the lower layers
their vertical distribution was frequently disturbed by the action of
wind and rain. Other uncultivated soils not subject to periodic
disturbance were found to be uniformly lacking in algæ in the lower
layers, but as the limited number of samples examined came
completely from places where there were no algæ on the surface
this means very little.
By direct microscopic examination of soil Esmarch claims to have
found living filaments of blue-green algæ at various depths below the
surface. He realised, however, that there was no indication of the
length of time that such filaments had been buried, and therefore
conducted a series of experiments from which he concluded that the
period during which the algæ investigated could continue
vegetatively in the soil after burial varied with different species from
5-12 weeks, but that during the later part of the period the algæ
gradually assumed a yellowish-green colour.
It is unfortunate that Esmarch’s investigations were directed only
towards the blue-green algæ since observations made in this country
indicate that such a series of records gives but a very incomplete
picture of the soil flora as a whole.
Petersen, in his “Danske Aërofile Alger” (1915) added
considerably to our knowledge of soil algæ, especially of diatoms.
Unfortunately he confined his investigations of the green algæ to
forms growing visibly on the surface of the ground. He observed,
however, that acid soils possessed a different flora from that
commonly found on alkaline or neutral soils, the former being
dominated by Mesotænium violascens, Zygnema ericetorum, and 2
spp. of Coccomyxa, while the latter were characterised by
Mesotænium macrococcum var., Hormidium, 2 spp., and Vaucheria,
3 spp.
Of diatoms he obtained no less than 24 species and varieties from
arable and garden soils, and five characteristic of marshy soils, while
from forest soils and dry heathland they appeared to be often
absent. He omitted all reference to blue-green algæ.
Meanwhile Robbins, examining a number of Colorado soils that
contained unprecedented quantities of nitrate, obtained from them
18 species of blue-green algæ, 2 species of green algæ, and one
diatom. Moore and Karrer have demonstrated the existence of a
subterranean alga-flora of which Protoderma viride, the most
constantly occurring species, was shown to multiply when buried to a
depth of one metre.
In this country attention was first called to the subject by Goodey
and Hutchinson of Rothamsted who, in examining certain old stored
soils for protozoa, obtained also a number of blue-green forms which
were submitted to Professor West for identification. This ability of
certain algal spores to retain their vitality for a long resting period
was so very striking that an investigation was begun at Birmingham
in 1915 to ascertain whether other forms were equally resistant. The
investigation was carried out on a large number of freshly collected
samples of arable and garden soils which were first aseptically air-
dried for at least a month and then grown in culture. No less than 20
species or varieties of diatoms, 24 species of blue-green and 20
species of green algæ were obtained from these cultures (Table
XII.). In the majority of the samples there was found a central group
of algæ, including Hantzschia amphioxys, Trochiscia aspera,
Chlorococcum humicola, Bumilleria exilis and rather less frequently
Ulothrix subtilis var. variabilis, while moss protonema was universally
present. These species were thought to form the basis of an
extensive ecological plant formation in which, by the inclusion of
other typically terrestrial but less widely distributed species smaller
plant-associations were recognised.
In certain of the soils, associations consisting very largely of
diatoms were present, and it is to be noted that the majority of the
forms that have been described are of exceedingly small size. It is
doubtless this characteristic which enables them to withstand the
conditions of drought to which the organisms of the soil are liable to
be subjected, small organisms having been shown to be better able
to resist desiccation than are larger ones. Since the soil diatoms
belong to the pennate type, they are further adapted to their mode of
life by their power of locomotion, which enables them in times of
drought to retire to the moister layers of the soil.
In the soils examined in this work blue-green algæ were less
universally present than were diatoms or green algæ, and the
species found appeared to be more local in occurrence. There
seemed to be, however, an association between the three species,
Phormidium tenue, Ph. autumnale, and Plectonema Battersii, at
least two of the three species having been found together in no less
than 16 of the samples, while all three occurred in 7 of them.
TABLE XII.—ALGÆ IN DESICCATED ENGLISH SOILS. (BRISTOL.)
Group. Number Number of Species.
of Samples Maximum Average Total.
Productive. per per
Sample. Sample.
per cent.
Diatoms 95·5 9 3·7 20
Blue-green algæ 77·3 7 2·5 24
Green algæ 100 7 4·3 20
Moss protonema 100 — — —
Total — 20 10·5 —
It was generally noticeable that those soils found to be rich in blue-

green algæ contained only a few species of diatoms, and vice versa.
Diatoms appeared most frequently in soils from old gardens,
whereas blue-green algæ were more characteristic of arable soils.
The green algæ and moss protonema, on the other hand, were
distributed universally.
The majority of green algæ typically found in soils are unicellular,
but a few filamentous forms occur. With the exception of Vaucheria
spp. these are characterised, however, by an ability to break down in
certain circumstances into unicellular or few-celled fragments, in
which condition identification is often very difficult.
It was also found by cultural examination of a number of old stored
soils from Rothamsted that germination of the resting forms of a
number of algæ could take place after an exceedingly long period of
quiescence. No less than nine species of blue-green algæ, four
species of green algæ, and one species of diatom were obtained
from soils that had been stored for periods of about forty years, the
species with the greatest power to retain their vitality being Nostoc
muscorum and Nodularia Harveyana.
II. The Soil as a Suitable Medium for Algal Growth.
Were it not for the recent advances that have been made in our
knowledge of the mode of nutrition of many of the lower algæ, it
would be very difficult to account for the widespread occurrence of
algæ in the soil, for it is undoubtedly true of some of the more highly
evolved algæ that their mode of nutrition is entirely typical of that of
green plants in general. The application of bacteriological technique
to the algæ, however, by Beijerinck, by Artari, and by Chodat and his
pupils, and the introduction of pure-culture methods have led to a
study of the physiology of some of the lower algæ, in the hope of
getting to understand some of the fundamental problems underlying
the nutrition of organisms containing chlorophyll. It is impossible here
to do more than mention the names of a few of the more important of
those who have worked along these lines, such as Chodat, Artari,
Grintzesco, Pringsheim, Kufferath, Nakano, Boresch, Magnus and
Schindler, and to condense into a few sentences some of their more
important conclusions.
It is now established that although in the light the algæ are able to
build up their substance from CO2 and water containing dilute
mineral salts, yet in such conditions growth is sometimes very slow,
and with some species at any rate it is greatly accelerated by the
addition of a small quantity of certain organic compounds. The ability
of the lower algæ to use organic food materials varies specifically,
quite closely related forms often reacting very differently to the same
substance, but there have been shown to be a considerable number
of forms which can make use of organic compounds to such an
extent that they can grow entirely independently of light. In such
cases the nutrition of the organism becomes wholly saprophytic, and
the chlorophyll may be completely lost; it has frequently been
observed, however, that on suitable nutrient media, even in complete
darkness, certain algæ continue to grow and retain their green
colour, provided that a sufficient supply of a suitable nitrogenous
compound is present.
Chlorella vulgaris, an alga frequently found in soil, has been
shown to be extremely plastic in its relations to food substances.
Given only a dilute mineral-salts solution as food source, it absorbs
CO2 from the air, and grows in sunlight with moderate rapidity. The
addition of glucose to the medium in the light greatly increases the
rate and amount of growth and the size of the cells, while in the dark
the colonies not only remain green but have been shown to develop
more vigorously than in full daylight. The organism is also able to
use peptone as a source of nitrogen in place of nitrates.
Stichococcus bacillaris and Scenedesmus spp., also occurring in
soils, have been shown to be almost equally adaptable, though in
these cases the organisms grow more slowly in the dark than on the
corresponding medium in the light. Liquefaction of gelatine by the
secretion of proteolytic enzymes has been shown to be a further
property of certain species, resulting in the formation of amino acids
such as glycocoll, phenylalanine, dipeptides, etc. This property is,
however, possessed by only a limited number of species and in
varying degree.
Up to the present very little work of this kind has been done upon
algæ actually taken from the soil, and our knowledge is therefore
very scanty. Of the species so far examined all show considerable
increase in growth on the addition to the medium of glucose and
other sugars, and tend to be partially saprophytic; a few have been
shown to liquefy gelatine to some extent.
Servettaz, Von Ubisch, and Robbins have also demonstrated that
the protonema of some mosses can make use of certain organic
substances, especially the sugars, and grow vigorously in the dark. It
has been shown, however, that light is essential for the development
of the moss plant.
It was thought at Rothamsted that some light might be thrown
upon the activities of the soil-algæ by making counts of the numbers
present in samples of soil taken periodically within a circumscribed
area. A dilution method similar to that in use in the protozoological
laboratory was adopted and applied to samples of arable soil taken
from the surface, and at depths of 2, 4, 6 and 12 inches vertically
beneath. A considerable number of samples were examined in this
way from two plots on Broadbalk wheat-field, viz.: the unmanured
plot and that receiving a heavy annual dressing of farmyard manure.
The numbers in the unmanured soil were observed to fall far short of
those in that containing a large amount of organic matter, while in
both plots the numbers varied considerably at different times of the
year. The chief species in both plots were identical, and their vertical
distribution was fairly uniform, but it was observed that the numbers
of individuals varied according to the depth of the sample. The 6th
and 12th inch samples contained very few individuals of
comparatively few species, but the 4th inch samples yielded
numbers that were not significantly less than those in the top inch.
The 2nd inch sample was usually much poorer in individuals than
either the top or the 4th inch.
It is unfortunate that this method of counting is not really
satisfactory for the algæ, chiefly because it takes no account of the
blue-green forms. The gelatinous envelope which encloses the
filaments of these algæ prevents their breaking up into measurable
units. Assuming, as appears to be the case for the two plots
investigated, that the blue-green algæ are at least as numerous as
the green forms, the total numbers should probably be at least twice
as great as those calculated. Taking 100,000 as a rough estimate of
the number of algæ per gram of manured soil in a given sample, and
assuming the cells to be spherical and of average diameter 10µ, it
has been calculated that the volume of algal protoplasm present was
at least 3 times that of the bacteria though only one-third of that of
the protozoa. This is probably only a minimum figure for this sample.
A soil population of this magnitude can not be without effect on the
fertility of the soil. When growing on the surface of the ground
exposed to sunlight the algæ must, by photosynthesis, add
considerably to the organic matter of the soil, but when they live
within the soil itself their nutrition must be wholly saprophytic, and
they can be adding nothing either to the energy or to the food-
content of the soil. How these organisms fit into the general scheme
of life in the soil is at present undetermined, and there is a wide field
for research in this direction.
III. Relation of Algæ to the Nitrogen Cycle
Probably the most important limiting factor in British agriculture is

the supply of nitrogen available for the growing crop, and it seems
likely that the soil-algæ are intimately connected with this question in
several ways.
Periodic efforts have been made during the last half century to
establish the fact that a number of the lower organisms, including the
green algæ, have the power of fixing atmospheric nitrogen and
converting it into compounds which are then available for higher
plants. This property has been definitely established for certain
bacteria, and rather doubtfully for some of the fungi, but until recently
no authentic proof had been produced that algæ by themselves
could fix nitrogen. The subject is too wide to be discussed in much
detail here.
Schramm in America, working with pure cultures of algæ, tried for
ten years to establish the fact of nitrogen fixation, and failed
completely; more recently Wann has extended Schramm’s work, and
claims to have proved indisputably that, given media containing
nitrates as a source of nitrogen and a small amount of glucose, the
seven species of algæ tested by him fixed atmospheric nitrogen to
the extent of 4-54 per cent. of the original nitrogen content of the
medium. So important a result needed corroboration, and Wann’s
experiment, with some slight improvements, was therefore repeated
at Rothamsted last summer.
This work has not yet been published, but in the whole series of
ninety-six cultures, with four different species, each growing on six
different media, there is no evidence that nitrogen fixation has taken
place; but there has been a total recovery at the end of the
experiment of 98·93 per cent. of the original nitrogen supplied. On
the other hand, a flaw has been detected in Wann’s method of
analysing those media containing nitrates, sufficiently great to
account for the differences he obtained between the initial and final
nitrogen content of his cultures. Hence, though one hesitates to say
that the algæ are unable, given suitable conditions, to fix
atmospheric nitrogen, one must admit that no one has yet proved
that they can do so.
It is far more likely, however, that the experiments of Kossowitsch
and others throw more light on the relation of soil algæ to nitrogen
fixation. They affirm that greater fixation of nitrogen is effected by
mixtures of bacteria and certain gelatinous algæ than by nitrogen-
fixing bacteria alone, and that the addition of algæ to cultures of
bacteria produces a stimulating effect only slightly less than that of
sugar. It is probable, therefore, that the algæ, in their gelatinous
sheaths, provide easily available carbohydrates from which the
bacteria derive the energy essential to their work, and that nitrogen
fixation in nature is due to the combined working of a number of
different organisms rather than to the individual action of single
species.
Russell and Richards have shown that the rate of loss of nitrogen
by leaching from uncropped soils is far less than would be expected
from a purely chemical standpoint, and suggest that certain
organisms are present in the soil which, by absorbing nitrates and
ammonium salts as they are formed, remove them from the soil
solution and so help to conserve the nitrogen of the soil. It is
probable that the soil algæ act in this manner, though to what extent
has not yet been determined.
IV. Relation of Algæ to Soil Moisture and to the Formation

of Humus Substances.
In warmer countries than our own, especially those with an

adequate rainfall, the significance of soil algæ is perhaps more
obvious to a casual observer. Treub states that after the complete
destruction of the island of Krakatoa by volcanic eruption in 1883,
the first colonists to take possession of the island were six species of
blue-green algæ, viz., Tolypothrix sp., Anabæna sp., Symploca sp.,
Lyngbya 3 spp. Three years after the eruption these organisms were
observed to form an almost continuous gelatinous and hygroscopic
layer over the surface of the cinders and stones constituting the soil,
and by their death and decay they rapidly prepared it for the growth
of seeds brought to the island by visiting birds. Hence the new flora
which soon established itself upon the island can be said to have
had its origin in the alga-flora which preceded it. Fritsch has also
emphasised the importance of algæ in the colonisation of new
ground in Ceylon.
Welwitsch ascribes the characteristic colour from which the
“pedras negras” in Angola derive their name to the growth of a thick
stratum of Scytonema myochrous, a blue-green alga, which
gradually becomes black and completely covers the soil. At the close
of the rainy season this gelatinous stratum dries up very slowly,
enabling the underlying soil to retain its moisture for a longer period
than would otherwise be the case.
The gelatinous soil algæ are probably very important in this
respect, for their slow rate of loss of water is coupled with a capacity
for rapid absorption, and they are therefore able to take full
advantage of the dew that may be deposited upon them and
increase the power of the soil to retain moisture.
V. Relation of Algæ to Gaseous Interchanges in the Soil.
In the cultivation of rice the algæ of the paddy field have been
found to be of extreme importance. Brizi in Italy has shown that
although rice is grown under swamp conditions yet the roots of the
rice plant are typical of those of ordinary terrestrial plants and have
none of the structural adaptations to aquatic life so characteristic of
ordinary marsh plants. Hence the plants are entirely dependent for
healthy growth upon an adequate supply of oxygen to their roots
from the medium in which they are growing. A serious disease of the
rice plant, characterised by the browning and dying off of the leaves,
which was thought at first to be due to the attacks of fungi, was
found to be the effect of the inadequate aeration of the roots, while
the entry of the fungi was shown to be subsequent to the
appearance of the physiological disease. The presence of algæ in
the swamp water was found to prevent the appearance of this
disease, in that they unite with other organisms to form a more or
less continuous stratum over the surface of the ground, and add to
the gases which accumulate there large quantities of oxygen evolved
during photosynthesis. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the
water percolating through the soil is thereby raised to a maximum,
and the healthy growth of the crop ensured.
This work has been corroborated by Harrison and Aiyer in India,
and a sufficient supply of algæ in the swamp water is now regarded
as one of the essentials for the production of a good rice crop.
From what has been said, it appears that, although our knowledge
of the soil algæ is extremely limited, and our conception of the part
they play is largely based on speculation, yet the subject is one of
enormous interest and worthy of investigation in many directions. In
its present undeveloped state, it is a little difficult to foresee which
lines of study are likely to prove most profitable, but there is little
doubt that eventually the soil algæ will be shown to play a significant
part in the economy of the soil.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY.
* Papers giving extensive bibliographies.
I. General.
[1] Bristol, B. M., “On the Retention of Vitality by Algæ from Old Stored
Soils,” New Phyt., 1919, xviii., Nos. 3 and 4.
[2] Bristol, B. M., “On the Alga-Flora of some Desiccated English Soils:
an Important Factor in Soil Biology,” Annals of Botany, 1920, vol. xxxiv.,
No. 133.
[3] Brizi, U., “Ricerche sulla Malattia del Riso detta ‘Brusone,’ Sect. IV.
Influenza che le alghe verdi esercitano in risaia,” Annuario dell
Instituzione Agraria Dott. A. Ponti, Milan, 1905, vol. vi., pp. 84-89.
[4] Esmarch, F., “Beitrag zur Cyanophyceen-Flora unserer Kolonien,”
Jahrb. der Hamburgischen wissensch. Anstalten, 1910, xxviii., 3. Beiheft,
S. 62-82.
[5] Esmarch, F., “Untersuchungen über die Verbreitung der
Cyanophyceen auf und in verschiedenen Boden,” Hedwigia, 1914, Band
lv., Heft 4-5.
[6] Fritsch, F. E., “The Rôle of Algal Growth in the Colonisation of New
Ground and in the Determination of Scenery,” Geog. Journal, 1907.
[7] Harrison, W. H., and Aiyer, P. A. Subramania, “The Gases of Swamp
Rice Soils,” Mem. Dept. Agr. in India, Chem. Ser. (I.) “Their Composition
and Relationship to the Crop,” 1913, vol. iii., No. 3; (II.) “Their Utilisation
for the Aeration of the Roots of the Crop,” 1914, vol. iv., No. 1; (IV.) “The
Source of the Gaseous Soil Nitrogen,” 1916, vol. v., No. 1.
[8a] Hensen, V., “Ueber die Bestimmung des Planktons oder des im
Meere treibenden Materials am Pflanzen und Thieren.” Fünfter Ber.
Komm. wiss. Unters. deutschen Meere, 1887.
[8] Moore, G. T., and Karrer, J. L., “A Subterranean Alga Flora,” Ann.
Miss. Bot. Gard., 1919, vi., pp. 281-307.
[9] Nadson, G., “Die perforierenden (kalkbohrende) Algen und ihre
Bedeutung in der Natur,” Scripta bot. hort. Univ. Imp. Petrop., 1901, Bd.
17.
[10] Petersen, J. B., “Danske Aërofile Alger,” D. Kgl. Danske Vidensk.
Selsk. Skrifter, 7 Raekke, Naturv. og mathem., 1915, Bd. xii., 7,
Copenhagen.
[11] Robbins, W. W., “Algæ in some Colorado Soils,” Agric. Exp. Sta.,
Colorado, 1912, Bulletin 184.
[12] Treub, “Notice sur la nouvelle Flora de Krakatau,” Ann. Jard. Bot.
Buitenzorg, 1888, vol. vii., pp. 221-223.
II. Relation of Algæ to Light and Carbon.
[13] Artari, A., “Zur Ernährungsphysiologie der grünen Algen,” Ber. der D.
bot. Ges., 1901, Bd. xix., S. 7.
[14] Artari, A., “Zur Physiologie der Chlamydomonaden (Chlam.
Ehrenbergii);” (I.) Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot., 1913, Bd. lii., S. 410; (II.) Ibid.,
1914, Bd. liii., S. 527.
[15] Adjarof, M., “Recherches expérimentales sur la Physiologie de
quelques Algues vertes,” Université de Genève—Institut Botanique, Prof.
R. Chodat—1905, 6 serie, vii. fascicule, Genève.
[16] Beijerinck, M. W., “Berichte über meine Kulturen niederer Algen auf
Nährgelatine,” Centr. f. Bakt. u. Paras., 1893, Abt. I., Bd. xiii., S. 368,
Jena.
[17] Boresch, K., “Die Färbung von Cyanophyceen und Chlorophyceen in
ihrer Abhängigkeit vom Stickstoffgehalt des Substrates,” Jahrbücher für
Wiss. Botanik., 1913, lii., pp. 145-85.
[18] Chodat, R., “Étude critique et expérimentale sur le polymorphisme
des Algues,” Genève, 1909.
[19] Chodat, R., “La crésol-tyrosinase, réactif des peptides et des
polypeptides, des protéides et de la protéolyse,” Archiv. des Sciences
physiques et naturelles, 1912.
[20] Chodat, R., “Monographie d’Algues en Culture pure: Matériaux pour
la Flore Cryptogamique Suisse,” 1913, vol. iv., fasc. 2, Berne.
[21] Dangeard, P. A., “Observations sur une Algue cultivée à l’obscurité
depuis huit ans,” Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. (Paris), 1921, vol. clxxii., No. 5,
pp. 254-60.
[22] Étard et Bouilhac, “Sur la présence de la chlorophyll dans un Nostoc
cultivé à l’abri de la lumière,” Compt. Rend., t. cxxvii, 1898.
[23] Grintzesco, J., “Recherches expérimentales sur la morphologie et la
physiologie expérimentale de Scenedesmus acutus,” Meyen. Bull. herb.
Boiss., 1902, Bd. ii., pp. 219-64 and 406-29.
[24] Grintzesco, J., “Contribution à l’étude des Protococcoidées: Chlorella
vulgaris Beyerinck,” Revue générale de Botanique, 1903, xv., pp. 5-19,
67-82.
[25] * Kufferath, H., “Contribution à la physiologie d’une protococcacée
nouvelle, Chlorella luteo-viridis Chod. n. sp. var., lutescens Chod. n. var.,”
Recueil de l’institut bot. Léo Errera, 1913, t. ix, p. 113.
[26] Kufferath, H., “Recherches physiologiques sur les algues vertes
cultivées en culture pure,” Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belgique, 1921, liv., pp. 49-
77.
[27] Magnus, W., and Schindler, B., “Ueber den Einflusz der Nährsalze auf
die Färbung der Oscillarien,” Ber. der D. Bot. Gesellschaft, 1912-13, xxx.,
p. 314.
[28] * Nakano, H., “Untersuchungen über die Entwicklungs- und
Ernährungsphysiologie einiger Chlorophyceen,” Journ. College of Sci.
Imp. Univ. Tokyo, 1917, vol. xl., Art. 2.
[29] Pringsheim, E., “Kulturversuche mit chlorophyll-führenden
Mikroorganismen,” Cohns Beiträge Z. Biol. d. Pflanzen. (I.) Die Kultur von
Algen in Agar, 1912, Bd. xi., S. 249; (II.) Zur Physiologie der Euglena
gracilis, 1913, Bd. xii., S. 1.; (III.) Zur Physiologie der Schizophyceen,
1913, Bd. xii., S. 99.
[30] Radais, “Sur la culture pure d’une algue verte; formation de
chlorophylle à l’obscurité,” Comptes Rendus, 1900, cxxx., p. 793.
[31] Richter, O., “Zur Physiologie der Diatomeen.” (I.) Sitzber. d. kais.
Akad. d. W. in Wien, math, naturw. Kl., 1906, Bd. cxv., Abt. I., S. 27; (II.)
Denkschrift d. math. naturw. Kl. d. kais. Akad. d. W. in Wien, 1909, Bd.
lxxxiv., S. 666; (III.) Sitzber. d. Kais. Akad., etc., 1909, Bd. cxviii., Abt. I.,
S. 1337.
[32] Richter, O., “Ernährung der Algen,” 1911.
[33] Robbins, W. J., “Direct Assimilation of Organic Carbon by Ceratodon
purpureus,” Bot. Gaz., 1918, lxv., pp. 543-51.
[34] Schindler, B., “Ueber den Farbenwechsel der Oscillarien,” Zeitsch. f.
Bot., 1913, v., pp. 497-575.
[35] Ternetz, Charlotte, “Beiträge zur Morphologie und Physiologie der
Euglena gracilis,” Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot., 1912, Bd. 51, S. 435.
III. Relation of Algæ to Nitrogen.
[36] Berthelot, “Recherches nouvelles sur les microorganismes fixateurs

de l’azote,” Comptes Rend., 1893, cxvi., pp. 842-49.
[37] Bouilhac, R., “Sur la fixation de l’azote atmosphérique par
l’association des algues et des bactéries,” Comptes Rend., 1896, cxxiii.,
pp. 828-30.
[38] Bouilhac and Giustiniani, “Sur une culture de sarrasin en présence
d’un mélange d’algues et de bactéries,” Comptes Rendus, 1903, cxxxvii.,
pp. 1274-76.
[39] Charpentier, P. G., “Alimentation azotée d’une algue: Le Cystococcus
humicola,” Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 1903, 17, pp. 321-34.
[40] Fischer, Hugo, “Über Symbiose von Azotobacter mit Oscillarien,”
Centr. f. Bakt., 1904, xii.
[41] Frank, B., “Uber den experimentellen Nachweis der Assimilation
freien Stickstoffs durch Erdbewohnende Algen,” Ber. der D. Bot.
Gesellsch., 1889, vol. vii., pp. 34-42.
[42] Frank, B., “Ueber den gegenwärtigen Stand unserer Kenntnisse der
Assimilation elementaren Stickstoffs durch die Pflanze,” Ber. der. D. Bot.
Ges., 1889, vii., 234-47.
[43] Frank, B., and Otto, R., “Untersuchungen über Stickstoff Assimilation
in der Pflanze,” Ber. der D. Bot. Ges., 1890, viii., 331-342.
[44] Gautier and Drouin, “Recherches sur la fixation de l’azote par le sol et
les végétaux,” Compt. Rend., 1888, cvi., pp. 1174-76; General
Conclusions, p. 1232.
[45] Kossowitsch, P., “Untersuchungen über die Frage, ob die Algen freien
Stickstoff fixiren,” Bot. Zeit., 1894, Heft 5, S. 98-116.
[46] Krüger, W., und Schneidewind, “Sind niedere chlorophyllgrüne Algen
imstande, den freien Stickstoff der Atmosphäre zu assimilieren und
Boden an Stickstoff zu bereichern?” Landwirtschaftliche Jahrb., 1900, Bd.
29, S. 771-804.
[47] Moore, Benjamin, and T. Arthur Webster, “Studies of the
photosynthesis in f.w.a.” (I.) “The fixation of both C and N from
atmosphere to form organic tissue by green plant cell”; (II.) “Nutrition and
growth produced by high gaseous dilutions of simple organic compounds,
such as formaldehyde and methylic alcohol”; (III.) “Nutrition and growth
by means of high dilution of CO2 and oxides of N without access to
atmosphere,” Proc. Roy. Soc., London, 1920, B. xci., pp. 201-15.
[47a] Moore, B., Whiteley, Webster, T. A., Proc. Roy. Soc., London, B.,
1921; xcii., pp. 51-60.
[48] Reinke, J., “Symbiose von Volvox und Azotobacter,” Ber. der d. Bot.
Ges., 1903, Bd. xxi., S. 481.
[49] Russell, E. J., and Richards, E. H., “The washing out of Nitrates by
Drainage Water from Uncropped and Unmanured Land,” Journ. Agric.
Sci., 1920, vol. x., Part I.
[50] Schloesing, fils, and Laurent, E., “Recherches sur la fixation de
l’azote libre par les plantes,” Ann. de l’Institut Pasteur, 1892, vi., pp. 65-
115.
[51] Schramm, J. R., “The Relation of Certain Grass Green Algæ to
Elementary Nitrogen,” Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard., 1914, i., No. 2.
[52] Wann, F. B., “The Fixation of Nitrogen by Green Plants,” Amer. Journ.
Bot., 1921, viii., pp. 1-29.
CHAPTER VII.
THE OCCURRENCE OF FUNGI IN THE SOIL.
Note.—I am indebted to my late colleague Miss Sibyl S. Jewson, M.Sc., for

permission to include unpublished data from our investigations on the soil
fungi.
In 1886 Adametz,[1] investigating the biochemical changes

occurring in soils, isolated several species of fungi. It was, however,
only with the work of Oudemans and Koning,[17] in 1902 when forty-
five species were isolated and described, the majority as new to
science, that the real study of the fungus flora of the soil
commenced. There is now no doubt that fungi form a large and very
important section of the permanent soil population, and certain forms
are found only in the soil. Indeed, Takahashi[22] has reversed the
earlier ideas by suggesting that fungus spores in the air are derived
from soil forms. The majority of investigations on this subject fall,
perhaps, into one or more of three classes: (a) purely systematic
studies such as those of Oudemans and Koning,[17] Dale,[5]
Jensen,[9] Waksman,[25a] Hagem,[8c] Lendner,[12] and others, which
consist in the isolation and identification of species from various
soils: (b) physiological researches, such as those of Hagem[8c] on
the Mucorineæ of Norway, or the many investigations on the
biochemical changes in soils produced by fungi, such as those of
Muntz and Coudon,[15] McLean and Wilson,[15] Kopeloff,[11]
Goddard,[7] McBeth and Scales,[14] and others: (c) quantitative
studies, such as those of Remy,[20] Fischer,[6] Ramann,[18]
Waksman,[25c] and Takahashi,[22] which involve numerical estimates
of the fungus flora in soils.
Qualitative Study.
With very rare exceptions soil fungi cannot be examined in situ,

and the necessary basis of any qualitative research is the isolation of
the organisms in pure culture. Most soil forms belong to the Fungi
imperfecti, and often show considerable plasticity on artificial media.
This makes it very difficult to determine them by comparison with
type herbarium specimens or published morphological diagnoses. In
consequence many soil fungi have not infrequently been given new
specific names, as humicola, terricola, and so forth, which is very
unsatisfactory, and means that the determinations have little
significance.
Furthermore, most artificial media are slight variations on a few
common and simple themes, and are very selective, permitting the
growth of a moiety only of the fungi present. In addition, many fungi
grow so slowly that they are overwhelmed by the more rapidly
germinating or spreading forms, or on the other hand, they may be
eliminated by the metabolic products of different adjacent colonies.
The extremely selective nature of the technique commonly used is
shown if one tabulates systematically all the fungi which have been
recorded or described in soil investigations. Of Phycomycetes there
are fifty-six species of eleven genera; of Ascomycetes twelve
species of eight genera; and of Fungi imperfecti, including
Actinomycetes but not sterile Mycelia, 197 species of sixty-two
genera. Rusts and Smuts one might not expect, but that of the
multitudes of Basidiomycetes growing in wood and meadow not one
should have been recorded is indeed startling. It was at first thought
that many imperfect fungi might be conidial stages of
Basidiomycetes, but much search among forms isolated at
Rothamsted has, up to the present, failed to reveal clamp
connections in the hyphæ.
Since various species of soil fungi have different optimum
temperature, humidity and other conditions[3] one would not expect
to find an even geographic distribution. Very little is yet known of this
aspect, but Rhizopus nigricans, Mucor racemosus, Zygorrhynchus
vuilleminii, Aspergillus niger, Trichoderma koningi, Cladosporium
herbarum, and many species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium,
Alternaria, and Cephalosporium have been commonly found
throughout North America and Europe wherever soils have been
examined. Species of Aspergillus, however, would appear to be
more common in the soils of south temperate regions and species of
Penicillium, Mucor, Trichoderma, and Fusarium more abundant in
northern soils.
It is well known that in many plant and animal communities there
occurs a definite rhythm, various species following each other in a
regular sequence as dominants in the population. Although it is not
yet possible to make any definite statement there would seem
indications that this may also be true of the soil fungi.
Much work has been done on the distribution of species at
different depths in the soil, but the results are still confusing. Thus,
examining eighteen species, Goddard[7] found no difference in
relative distribution down to 51⁄2 inches. Werkenthin[26] found
identical species from 1-4 inches, and then an absence of fungi from
5-7 inches, which latter was the greatest depth he examined.
Waksman[25] found little difference in the first six inches, but very few
species below 8 inches except Zygorrhynchus vuilleminii, which
extended down to 30 inches and was often the only species
occurring below 12 inches. Taylor[23] has reported species of
Fusarium at practically every depth to 24 inches. Rathbun[19] found
Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus nigricans, and species of Fusarium and
Mucor down to 34 inches, and Oospora lactis, Trichoderma koningi,
Zygorrhynchus vuilleminii and species of Penicillium, Spicaria and
Saccharomyces as deep as 44 inches. Eleven species were isolated
from the alimentary canal of grubs and worms, and Rathbun
concluded that soil fungi may be spread by these organisms.
On an unmanured grass plot at Rothamsted twenty species were
isolated from a depth of 1 inch, nineteen from 6 inches, and eleven
from 12 inches, whereas on the unmanured plot of Broadbalk wheat
field twenty-six species were obtained from 1 inch, seven from 6
inches, and five from 12 inches. There appeared to be no
conspicuous differences between the floras of the two plots save that
in the Broadbalk plot there were fewer Mucorales, and
Zygorrhynchus mœlleri and Absidia cylindrospora were absent. In
the grass plot samples about one-half the forms occurring at the
lower levels were isolated also from the upper levels, but in the
Broadbalk sample the five forms isolated from 12 inches, and five
out of seven of those at 6 inches occurred only at those levels, i.e.
each of the three levels appeared to have a specific flora. The
difference in depth distribution in these two cases may be due to the
fact that in the Broadbalk plot the stiff clay subsoil occurs at 5-7
inches, whereas in the grass plot the depth of soil is greater than 12
inches. Much further work needs to be done on this aspect before
any definite conclusion can be reached.
Much scattered information is available concerning the effect of
soil type, manuring, treatment, cropping, and so forth upon the
fungus content, but no clear issue as yet emerges from the results.
Hagem[8] found that cultivated soils vary greatly from forest soils in
the species of Mucor present, and that certain species seem to be
associated in similar environments. Thus in pinewoods Mucor
ramannianus is usually found, together with M. strictus, M. flavus,
and M. sylvaticus, and with this “M. Ramannianus Society,” M.
racemosus, M. hiemalis, and Absidia orchidis, are frequently
associated. The differences found by Hagem between the species of
Mucor from forest and cultivated land could not, however, be
confirmed by Werkenthin.[26]
Dale,[5] examining sandy, chalky, peaty and black earth soils,
found specific differences, although many of the species were
common to all. A soil which had been manured continuously for
thirty-eight years with ammonium sulphate alone, contained twenty-
two species, whereas the same soil with the addition of lime only had
thirteen species. Both Goddard[7] and Werkenthin,[26] in their
investigations, found a constant and characteristic fungus flora
regardless of soil type, tillage, or manuring. Waksman’s[25] studies of
forest soils showed few species of Mucor but many of Penicillium
and Trichoderma[2]; orchard soil contained no species of
Trichoderma, very few of Penicillium, but a large number of species
of Mucor; species of Trichoderma were common in acid soils, whilst
cultivated garden soil contained all forms. The examination of very
differently manured plots on the Broadbalk wheat field at
Rothamsted has not shown any striking differences in the fungus
flora, all the more important groups of species being represented in
every plot, but significant minor differences are present. Thus, plot
13, manured with double ammonium salts, superphosphate and
sulphate of potash, is especially rich in “species” of Trichoderma,
whereas the unmanured plot contains large numbers of species of
green Penicillium, Trichoderma, and a species of Botrytis
(pyramidalis?).
The effect of the crop upon the fungus flora is seen in cases where
the same crop is grown year after year as in certain flax areas,
where species of Fusarium accumulate in the soil and tend to
produce “flax sickness.”[13]
Quantitative Study.
As it is not possible to count the soil fungi in situ, any estimation of

the numbers present in a soil must be arrived at by indirect means.
The method adopted is to make as fine a suspension as possible of
a known quantity of soil sample in a known amount of water, dilute
this to 1⁄5000, 1⁄10000, and so forth by regular gradations, incubate
cubic centimetres of the final dilution on artificial media in petri
dishes, and count the colonies of fungi developing in each plate.
Using the average figures from a series of duplicate plates, the
number of “individual” fungi in a gram of the original soil sample may
then be calculated. The very few students who have made
quantitative estimations have obtained very unsatisfactory results. In
bacterial or protozoal estimations, the shaking of the soil suspension
separates the unicellular individuals, so that in the final platings each
individual from the soil theoretically gives rise to one colony on the
medium. In the case of fungi, the organisms may be in the form of
unicellular or multicellular spores or larger or smaller masses of
unicellular or multicellular mycelium differing for each particular
species or phase of development within the single species. The
organisms may be sterile in the soil or form fruiting bodies,
consisting of few or myriads of locally or widely distributed spores. In
the process of shaking the soil-suspension fungi of different
organisation or of differing developmental stages may be broken up
and moieties fragmented in totally different ways or to very different
degrees. With protozoa and bacteria the relation of soil individual to
plate colony is direct; with fungi we do not know what is the soil
“individual” nor whether it is the same for different fungi; nor can we
yet profitably discuss any significant numerical relationship of plate
colonies to soil organisms. Thus Conn[4] has pointed out that the

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Figure 1. Structure of the Study.

Table 2. Ladder of E-participation Through Different Perspectives.

Table 3. Evaluation Criteria for Participatory Platforms from Different Perspectives

Locations Year production Participants Beneficiaries

Utilities Centric& Website Impact (of the project

corruption Citizen- Case studies comment Form of

Citizen Participation Criteria

Government Platforms Channels Level of

Data Attractors App-based participation

flows Information flow

5. Examination of Digital Participation Platforms headings: general information about the

Table 4. Examination of Platforms and Applications that Enable Citizen Design

Application design allows picture, making

Continuity Beta Version

Community (online), Community design

the production of the projects examined. Opportunities: Accessible and understandable

Table 5. Examination of Location Based Participatory Platforms.

Level of High High High High High

Online PPGIS Map-Based Map Based Map Based Online PPGIS

Macintosh, A., & Whyte, A. (2008). Towards an

It was generally noticeable that those soils found to be rich in blue-

II. The Soil as a Suitable Medium for Algal Growth.

III. Relation of Algæ to the Nitrogen Cycle

Probably the most important limiting factor in British agriculture is

IV. Relation of Algæ to Soil Moisture and to the Formation

In warmer countries than our own, especially those with an

V. Relation of Algæ to Gaseous Interchanges in the Soil.

II. Relation of Algæ to Light and Carbon.

III. Relation of Algæ to Nitrogen.

[36] Berthelot, “Recherches nouvelles sur les microorganismes fixateurs

Note.—I am indebted to my late colleague Miss Sibyl S. Jewson, M.Sc., for

In 1886 Adametz,[1] investigating the biochemical changes

With very rare exceptions soil fungi cannot be examined in situ,

As it is not possible to count the soil fungi in situ, any estimation of

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