Ergodic Theoretic Methods in Group Homology A Minicourse On L2 Betti Numbers in Group Theory Clara Loh Online Ebook Texxtbook Full Chapter PDF
Ergodic Theoretic Methods in Group Homology A Minicourse On L2 Betti Numbers in Group Theory Clara Loh Online Ebook Texxtbook Full Chapter PDF
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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN MATHEMATICS
Clara Löh
Ergodic Theoretic
Methods in Group
Homology
A Minicourse on
2
L -Betti Numbers
in Group Theory
SpringerBriefs in Mathematics
Series Editors
Nicola Bellomo, Torino, Italy
Michele Benzi, Pisa, Italy
Palle Jorgensen, Iowa, USA
Tatsien Li, Shanghai, China
Roderick Melnik, Waterloo, Canada
Otmar Scherzer, Linz, Austria
Benjamin Steinberg, New York, USA
Lothar Reichel, Kent, USA
Yuri Tschinkel, New York, USA
George Yin, Detroit, USA
Ping Zhang, Kalamazoo, USA
SpringerBriefs in Mathematics showcases expositions in all areas of mathematics
and applied mathematics. Manuscripts presenting new results or a single new result
in a classical field, new field, or an emerging topic, applications, or bridges between
new results and already published works, are encouraged. The series is intended for
mathematicians and applied mathematicians.
Titles from this series are indexed by Web of Science, Mathematical Reviews, and
zbMATH.
123
Clara Löh
Fakultät für Mathematik
Universität Regensburg
Regensburg, Bayern, Germany
Mathematics Subject Classification (2020): 55N25, 20J05, 37A20, 57N65, 22E40, 20P05, 46L10
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
für A ∗ A
Contents
0 Introduction 1
2 L2 -Betti numbers 17
2
2.1 An elementary definition of L -Betti numbers 18
2.1.1 Finite type 18
2.1.2 L2 -Betti numbers of spaces 19
2.1.3 L2 -Betti numbers of groups 20
2.2 Basic computations 20
2.2.1 Basic properties 21
2.2.2 First examples 23
2.3 Variations and extensions 24
2.E Exercises 26
vii
viii Contents
6 Simplicial volume 73
6.1 Simplicial volume 74
6.2 The residually finite view 75
6.3 The dynamical view 77
6.4 Basic proof techniques 79
6.4.1 The role of the profinite completion 79
6.4.2 Betti number estimates 81
6.4.3 The rank gradient/cost estimate 83
6.4.4 Amenable fundamental group 84
6.4.5 Hyperbolic 3-manifolds 87
6.4.6 Aspherical 3-manifolds 90
6.E Exercises 92
Contents ix
A Quick reference 93
A.1 Von Neumann algebras 94
A.2 Weak convergence of measures 94
A.3 Lattices 95
Bibliography 97
Symbols 109
Index 111
0
Introduction
This is an extended version of the lecture notes for a five lecture mini-
course at the MSRI summer graduate school Random and arithmetic struc-
tures in topology (organised by Alexander Furman and Tsachik Gelander) in
June 2019.
This minicourse gives a brief introduction to ergodic theoretic methods in
group homology. By now, this is a vast subject [62]. In the present course,
we will focus on L2 -Betti numbers.
The underlying fundamental observation is that taking suitable coefficients
for group (co)homology allows us to connect homological invariants with
ergodic theory; good candidates are coefficients related to non-commutative
measure theory, i.e., to von Neumann algebras and dynamical systems. This
interaction works in both directions:
Additional material
This brief introduction is in no way exhaustive, but covers only a few selected
topics. I hope that these notes inspire the reader to get involved with more
systematic treatments and the original research literature.
Introduction 3
Textbooks on L2 -invariants
• H. Kammeyer. Introduction to 2 -invariants, Springer Lecture Notes in
Mathematics, 2247, 2019.
• W. Lück. L2 -Invariants: Theory and Applications to Geometry and
K-Theory, Ergebnisse der Mathematik und ihrer Grenzgebiete, 44,
Springer, 2002.
Recommended further reading
• M. Abért, N. Bergeron, I. Biringer, T. Gelander, N. Nikolov, J. Raim-
bault, I. Samet. On the growth of L2 -invariants for sequences of lattices
in Lie groups, Ann. of Math. (2), 185(3), pp. 711–790, 2017.
• M. Abért, N. Nikolov. Rank gradient, cost of groups and the rank versus
Heegaard genus problem, J. Eur. Math. Soc., 14, 1657–1677, 2012.
• M. W. Davis. The Geometry and Topology of Coxeter Groups, Lon-
don Mathematical Society Monographs, 32, Princeton University Press,
2008.
• B. Eckmann. Introduction to l2 -methods in topology: reduced l2 -
homology, harmonic chains, l2 -Betti numbers, notes prepared by Guido
Mislin, Israel J. Math., 117, pp. 183–219, 2000.
• A. Furman. A survey of measured group theory. In Geometry, Rigidity,
and Group Actions (B. Farb, D. Fisher, eds.), 296–347, The University
of Chicago Press, 2011.
• D. Gaboriau. Coût des relations d’équivalence et des groupes, Invent.
Math., 139(1), 41–98, 2000.
• D. Gaboriau. Invariants 2 de relations d’équivalence et de groupes,
Inst. Hautes Études Sci. Publ. Math., 95, 93–150, 2002.
• T. Gelander. A view on invariant random subgroups and lattices, Pro-
ceedings of the International Congress of Mathematicians. Volume II,
pp. 1321–1344, World Sci. Publ., 2018.
• A. S. Kechris, B. D. Miller. Topics in Orbit Equivalence, Springer Lec-
ture Notes in Mathematics, 1852, 2004.
• D. Kerr, H. Li. Ergodic theory. Independence and dichotomies, Springer
Monographs in Mathematics, Springer, 2016.
• W. Lück. Approximating L2 -invariants by their finite-dimensional ana-
logues, Geom. Funct. Anal., 4(4), pp. 455–481, 1994.
• J. Raimbault. Blog, https://perso.math.univ-toulouse.fr/jraimbau/
• R. Sauer. Amenable covers, volume and L2 -Betti numbers of aspherical
manifolds, J. Reine Angew. Math., 636, 47–92, 2009.
Videos. The videos of the original lectures within the MSRI summer grad-
uate school are available at https://www.msri.org/people/23160 . Moreover,
material for the other two minicourses of this summer school is available at
https://www.msri.org/summer schools/853 .
Errata. Comments and corrections for these notes can be submitted by email
to [email protected]; errata will be collected at
http://www.mathematik.uni-r.de/loeh/l2 book/errata.pdf .
4 Introduction
1.1 From the group ring to the group von Neumann algebra 6
1.2 The von Neumann dimension 11
1.E Exercises 15
· : CΓ × CΓ −→ CΓ
ag · g, bg · g −→ ah · bh−1 ·g · g
g∈Γ g∈Γ g∈Γ h∈Γ
(where all sums are “finite”, i.e., all but finitely many coefficients are 0).
Example 1.1.2 (group rings).
• The group ring of “the” trivial group 1 is just C[1] ∼
=Ring C.
• The group ring C[Z] of the additive group Z is isomorphic to C[t, t−1 ],
the ring of Laurent polynomials over C (check!).
1.1. From the group ring to the group von Neumann algebra 7
Caveat 1.1.3 (notation in group rings). When working with elements in group
rings, some care is required. For example, the term 4 · 2 in C[Z] might be
interpreted in the following different ways:
• the product of 4 times the ring unit and 2 times the ring unit, or
We will circumvent this issue in C[Z], by using the notation “t” for a gen-
erator of the additive group Z and viewing the infinite cyclic group Z as
multiplicative group. Using this convention, the first interpretation would be
written as 4 · 2 (which equals 8) and the second interpretation would be writ-
ten as 4 · t2 . Similarly, also in group rings over other groups, we will try to
avoid ambiguous notation.
Proposition 1.1.4 (group ring, universal property). Let Γ be a group. Then the
group ring CΓ, together with the canonical inclusion map i : Γ −→ CΓ (as
standard basis) has the following universal property: For every C-algebra R
and every group homomorphism f : Γ −→ R× , there exists a unique C-algebra
homomorphism Cf : CΓ −→ R with Cf ◦ i = f .
Γ
f
/ R× incl 6/ R
i
∃! Cf
CΓ
However, a positive solution is known for many special cases of groups [38,
117, 44][105, Chapter 10] (such proofs often use input from functional analysis
or geometry) and no counterexamples are known.
8 1. The von Neumann dimension
· , · : CΓ × CΓ −→ C
ag · g, bg · g −→ a g · bg
g∈Γ g∈Γ g∈Γ
· , · : 2 Γ × 2 Γ −→ C
ag · g, bg · g −→ a g · bg .
g∈Γ g∈Γ g∈Γ
Example 1.1.7.
• If Γ is a finite group, then 2 Γ = CΓ.
• If Γ = Z = t | , then Fourier analysis shows that
F : 2 Γ −→ L2 [−π, π], C
1
an · tn −→ x → √ · an · ei·n·x
n∈Z
2π n∈Z
Γ × 2 Γ −→ 2 Γ
(g, f ) −→ x → f (x · g) .
1.1. From the group ring to the group von Neumann algebra 9
For Hilbert Γ-modules, we will use this description of the dimension as a def-
inition. Therefore, we first need to be able to describe orthogonal projections
and we need a suitable notion of trace. Both goals can be achieved by means
of the group von Neumann algebra.
trΓ : N Γ −→ C
a −→ e, a(e) ,
trΓ : N Γ = CΓ −→ C
ag · g −→ ae .
g∈Γ
L∞ [−π, π], C −→ C
1
f −→ · f dλ.
2π [−π,π]
In view of the previous example (and Theorem A.1.3), the abstract theory
of von Neumann algebras is also sometimes referred to as non-commutative
measure theory.
trΓ : Mn×n (N Γ) −→ C
n
A −→ trΓ Ajj .
j=1
This trace also satisfies the trace property, is faithful, and positive (check!).
Moreover, every bounded (left) Γ-equivariant map (2 Γ)n −→ (2 Γ)n is
represented by a matrix in Mn×n (N Γ) (by the last characterisation in Re-
mark 1.1.11). Therefore, every bounded Γ-equivariant map (2 Γ)n −→ (2 Γ)n
has a trace.
dimN Γ V := trΓ p,
and thus every number in [0, 1] occurs as the von Neumann dimension
of a Hilbert N Γ-module (!).
Theorem 1.2.3 (basic properties of the von Neumann dimension). Let Γ be a
countable group.
1. Normalisation. We have dimN Γ 2 Γ = 1.
2. Faithfulness. For every Hilbert Γ-module V , we have dimN Γ V = 0 if
and only if V ∼
=Γ 0.
3. Weak isomorphism invariance. If f : V −→ W is a morphism of Hilbert
Γ-modules with ker f = 0 and im f = W , then dimΓ V = dimΓ W .
Proof. Ad 1. This is clear from the definition (we can take id2 Γ as embedding
and projection).
Ad 2. In view of faithfulness of the von Neumann trace (Theorem 1.1.12),
it follows that the von Neumann trace of a projection is 0 if and only if the
projection is 0 (check!).
Ad 3. This is a consequence of polar decomposition: Let f = u ◦ p be the
polar decomposition of f into a partial isometry u and a positive operator p
with ker u = ker p. We now show that u is a Γ-isometry between V and W :
As f is injective, we have ker u = ker p = 0. Moreover, as a partial isometry,
u has closed image and so im u = im u = im f = W . Hence, u is an isom-
etry. Moreover, the uniqueness of the polar decomposition shows that u is
Γ-equivariant. Therefore, dimN Γ V = dimN Γ W .
Ad 4. The von Neumann dimension is additive with respect to direct sums
(check!). Moreover,
V −→ im i ⊕ V
x −→ p(x), π(x)
Moreover, the von Neumann dimension also satisfies inner and outer reg-
ularity [105, Theorem 1.12].
Outlook 1.2.4 (the extended von Neumann dimension). The above hands-on
construction of the von Neumann dimension is convenient for simple com-
putations. However, this approach only works for the category of Hilbert
modules, which in general is only additive but not Abelian. Several exten-
sions of the von Neumann dimension are available, e.g., by Cheeger and
Gromov [36], Farber [51], and Lück [104, 105]. We will briefly outline Lück’s
algebraic version:
Let Γ be a countable group. Then the category of Hilbert Γ-modules canon-
ically embeds into the category of N Γ-modules (Exercise 1.E.2); moreover,
this construction can be refined to a C-linear equivalence F from the cat-
egory of Hilbert Γ-modules to the category of finitely generated projective
N Γ-modules that satisfies F (2 Γ) = N Γ and preserves (weak) exactness [104,
Theorem 1.8].
If P is a finitely generated projective N Γ-module, then we set
14 1. The von Neumann dimension
This version of the Atiyah conjecture is known to hold for many classes of
groups (and no counterexample is known so far); however, more general ver-
sions of the Atiyah conjecture are known to be false [12, 72]. One interesting
aspect of the Atiyah conjecture is that it implies the Kaplansky zero-divisor
conjecture (Exercise 1.E.5).
1.E. Exercises 15
1.E Exercises
Exercise 1.E.1 (the “trivial” Hilbert module). For which countable groups Γ
is C (with the trivial Γ-action) a Hilbert Γ-module? Which von Neumann
dimension does it have?
Exercise 1.E.2 (Hilbert modules as modules over the von Neumann algebra).
Let Γ be a countable group and let V be a Hilbert Γ-module. Show that the
left Γ-action on V extends to a left N Γ-action on V . How can this construction
be turned into a functor?
Hints. This fact is the reason why Hilbert Γ-modules are often called Hilbert
N Γ-modules.
Exercise 1.E.3 (kernels and cokernels). Let Γ be a countable group, let V and
W be Hilbert Γ-modules, and let ϕ : V −→ W be a morphism of Hilbert
Γ-modules.
1. Show that ker ϕ (with the induced inner product and Γ-action) is a
Hilbert Γ-module
2. Show that W/im ϕ (with the induced inner product and Γ-action) is a
Hilbert Γ-module.
Hints. Orthogonal complement!
Exercise 1.E.4 (restriction formula for the von Neumann dimension [105, Theo-
rem 1.12(6)]). Let Γ be a countable group, let V be a Hilbert Γ-module, and
let Λ ⊂ Γ be a finite index subgroup. Show that
We will now use the von Neumann dimension to define L2 -Betti numbers of
groups and spaces. We will study basic properties of L2 -Betti numbers, and
we will compute some simple examples. Furthermore, we will briefly outline
generalisations of L2 -Betti numbers beyond our elementary approach.
Running example. the additive group Z, finite (index sub)groups, free groups
• If Γ and Λ are of finite type, then so is Γ ∗ Λ (we can take the wedge of
finite type models as a model for the classifying space of Γ ∗ Λ).
• In particular, free Abelian groups of finite rank and free groups of finite
rank are of finite type.
• More generally: All finite groups are of finite type (for instance, one can
use the simplicial Γ-resolution as a blueprint to construct a contractible
free Γ-CW-complex and then take its quotient).
• There exist finitely presented groups that are not of finite type [20].
(2)
Hn(2) (Γ X) := ker ∂n(2)
im ∂n+1 ,
(2) (2)
where ∂∗ denotes the boundary operator on C∗ (Γ X).
b(2) (2)
n (Γ X) := dimN Γ Hn (Γ X),
20 2. L2 -Betti numbers
b(2) (2)
n (X) := bn (Γ X).
(2)
It should be noted that in the literature the notation bn (X)
can also be found
(2) However, we prefer the notation b(2)
as an abbreviation for bn (Γ X). n (X)
(2)
as it is less ambiguous (what is bn (H2 ) ?!).
Remark 2.1.7 (homotopy invariance). Let Γ be a countable group, let X and
Y be free Γ-CW-complexes, and let n ∈ N. If f : X −→ Y is a (cellular)
Γ-homotopy equivalence, then
b(2) (2)
n (Γ X) = bn (Γ Y ),
b(2) (2)
n (Γ) := bn (X),
(2) 1
b0 (Γ) = .
|Γ|
(2)
Proof. Classical group homology tells us that b0 (Γ) = dimN Γ V , where
V = 2 Γ SpanC {x − g · x | x ∈ 2 Γ, g ∈ Γ}.
(2) 1
b0 (Γ) = dimN Γ C = .
|Γ|
shows that f (e) = 0 (otherwise the series would not converge). Hence f (g) =
f (e) = 0 for all g ∈ Γ (by Γ-invariance), as desired.
Theorem 2.2.2 (inheritance properties of L2 -Betti numbers). Let Γ be a group
of finite type and let n ∈ N.
1. Dimension. If Γ admits a finite model of the classifying space of dimen-
(2)
sion less than n, then bn (Γ) = 0.
2. Restriction. If Λ ⊂ Γ is a subgroup of finite index, then Λ is also of
finite type and
22 2. L2 -Betti numbers
n (Λ) = [Γ : Λ] · bn (Γ).
b(2) (2)
n (Γ ∗ Λ) = bn (Γ) + bn (Λ).
b(2) (2) (2)
Proof. This follows (as in the classical case) from the additivity of the
von Neumann dimension (Exercise 2.E.2).
Example 2.2.5 (the additive group Z). There are many ways to see that the
L2 -Betti numbers of the additive group Z are all equal to 0. For instance: Let
n ∈ N. For k ∈ N>1 , we consider the subgroup k · Z ⊂ Z of index k. Then the
restriction formula (Theorem 2.2.2) shows that
n (Z) = bn (k · Z)
b(2) (2)
(because k · Z ∼
=Group Z)
=k· b(2)
n (Z) (restriction formula)
(2)
and so bn (Z) = 0.
Example 2.2.7 (surface groups). Let g ∈ N≥1 and let Γg := π1 (Σg ), where Σg
is “the” oriented closed connected surface of genus g. Then Σg is a model of
the classifying space of Σg .
(2)
• Because Γg is infinite, we have b0 (Γg ) = 0 (Proposition 2.2.1).
(2)
• It thus remains to compute b1 (Σg ). Because the Euler characteristic
can be calculated via L2 -Betti numbers (Proposition 2.2.3), we obtain
(2) (2) (2)
b1 (Γg ) = −χ(Γg ) + b0 (Γg ) + b2 (Γg ) = −χ(Σg ) + 0 = 2 · (g − 1).
The proof is based on the fact that L2 -Betti numbers can be computed in
terms of spaces of L2 -harmonic forms [46][105, Chapter 1.4] and the ex-
plicit computation of L2 -harmonic forms of hyperbolic manifolds [47][105,
Theorem 1.62]. (A cellular version of harmonic forms is discussed in Exer-
cise 3.E.2.)
• Singular definition. Cheeger and Gromov [36], Farber [51], Lück [104,
105] extended the definition of the von Neumann dimension to all mod-
ules over the von Neumann algebra (Outlook 1.2.4); in particular, this
2.3. Variations and extensions 25
2.E Exercises
Exercise 2.E.1 (products).
(2)
1. Let Γ and Λ be infinite groups of finite type. Show that b1 (Γ × Λ) = 0.
(2)
2. Conclude: If Γ is a group of finite type with b1 (Γ) = 0, then Γ does
not contain a finite index subgroup that is a product of infinite groups.
Exercise 2.E.2 (Euler characteristic). Let Γ be a group that admits a finite
classifying space. Show that
χ(Γ) = (−1)n · b(2)
n (Γ).
n∈N
Exercise 2.E.3 (an explicit 2 -cycle [84, Figure 1.1]). Give an explicit example
(2)
of a non-zero 1-cycle in C∗ (F2 T ), where T is “the” regular 4-valent tree.
Exercise 2.E.4 (QI?! [135]). Let Γ be a group of finite type and let r ∈ N≥2 .
1. Compute all L2 -Betti numbers of Fr ∗ Γ in terms of r and the L2 -Betti
numbers of Γ.
(2) (2)
2. Let k ∈ N≥2 . Conclude that the quotient b1 /bk is not a quasi-
isometry invariant.
3. Show that the sign of the Euler characteristic is not a quasi-isometry
invariant.
4. Use these results to prove that there exist groups of finite type that are
quasi-isometric but not commensurable.
Hints. If s ∈ N≥2 , then it is known that Fr and Fs are bilipschitz equivalent
and thus that Fr ∗ Γ and Fs ∗ Γ are quasi-isometric [115, 135].
Taking the maximum of all these differences thus shows that the defi-
ciency def(Γ) of Γ is bounded from above by the right-hand side.
2. Let Γ ⊂ Isom+ (H4 ) be a torsion-free uniform lattice. Show that
3
def(Γ) ≤ 1 − χ(Γ) = 1 − · vol(Γ \ H4 ).
4 · π2
3
The residually finite view:
Approximation
The L2 -Betti numbers are related to classical Betti numbers through ap-
proximation by the normalised Betti numbers of finite index subgroups/finite
coverings.
We explain the (spectral) proof of this approximation theorem and briefly
discuss the relation with other (homological) gradient invariants.
This residually finite view will be complemented by the dynamical view in
Chapter 4 and the approximation theorems for lattices in Chapter 5.
(2) bk (Xn )
bk (X) = lim .
n→∞ [Γ : Γn ]
(2) bk (Γn )
bk (Γ) = lim .
n→∞ [Γ : Γn ]
bk (Xn ) (2)
= bk (Γ/Γn Xn ),
[Γ : Γn ]
(2)
and the boundary operator [Laplacian] on C∗ (Γ/Γn Xn ) is the
(2)
reduction of the boundary operator [Laplacian] on C∗ (Γ X) mod-
ulo Γn .
= lim dimN (Γ/Γn ) ker MAn : (2 (Γ/Γn ))m → (2 (Γ/Γn ))m ,
n→∞
operator A. This measure has the following properties [23, Chapter 6][84,
Chapter 5.2]:
• The measure μA is supported on the compact set [0, a], where a := A.
• If f : [0, ∞] −→ R is a measurable bounded function, then the bounded
linear operator f (MA ), defined by functional calculus, satisfies
• In the same way, for each n ∈ N, the spectral measure μAn of the
reduction An of A is also supported on [0, a] (because An ≤ A).
Therefore, we obtain
Proof. The measures μAn with n ∈ N and the measure μA are all supported
on a common compact set (namely [0, a]). Therefore, by the Weierstraß ap-
proximation theorem, it suffices to take test functions of the form (x → xd )
with d ∈ N.
Thus, let d ∈ N and f := (x → xd ). We then have
∀n∈N≥N F ∩ Γn ⊂ {e}.
3.2.4 Convergence at 0
In general, weak convergence does not imply convergence of the measures
on {0} (Exercise 3.E.3). But by the portmanteau theorem (Theorem A.2.2),
we at least obtain the following inequalities from Lemma 3.2.2:
(2)
The first inequality already gives lim supn→∞ 1/[Γn : Γ]bk (Xn ) ≤ bk (X),
the Kazhdan inequality [83].
In order to show the missing lower bound lim inf n→∞ μAn ({0}) ≥ μ({0}),
we will use integrality of the coefficients of A. More precisely, we will show:
Lemma 3.2.3. In this situation, for all n ∈ N and all ε ∈ (0, 1), we have
m · ln(C)
μAn (0, ε) ≤
,
ln(ε)
For ε ∈ (0, 1), let M (ε) be the number of eigenvalues of An in (0, ε). Then
lim inf μAn {0} = lim inf μAn [0, ε] − μAn (0, ε)
n→∞ n→∞
m · ln C
≥ lim inf μAn (−ε, ε) −
(Lemma 3.2.3)
n→∞ ln(ε)
m · ln C
≥ μA (−ε, ε) −
(portmanteau theorem)
ln(ε)
m · ln C
≥ μA {0} − .
ln(ε)
Taking ε → 0 yields the desired estimate lim inf n→∞ μAn ({0}) ≥ μA ({0}).
This finishes the proof of Theorem 3.2.1 and whence also of the approximation
theorem (Theorem 3.1.3).
I(Γn )
I(Γ,
Γ∗ ) := lim .
n→∞ [Γ : Γn ]
• Does I(Γ,
Γ∗ ) depend on the residual chain Γ∗ of Γ ?
d(Λ) − 1
rg Γ := inf ,
Λ∈F(Γ) [Γ : Λ]
d(Λ) − 1 ≤ [Γ : Λ] · d(Γ) − 1 .
Hence, the limit in the definition of the rank gradient indeed exists (and is
equal to the infimum).
34 3. The residually finite view: Approximation
Remark 3.3.4 (rank gradient via normal subgroups). Let Γ be a finitely gener-
ated infinite group. Then
d(Λ) − 1 d(Λ) − 1
rg Γ = inf = inf ,
Λ∈F(Γ) [Γ : Λ] Λ∈NF(Γ) [Γ : Λ]
where NF(Γ) denotes the set of all finite index normal subgroups of Γ (because
every finite index subgroup of Γ contains a finite index subgroup that is
normal in Γ).
Corollary 3.3.5 (rank gradient estimate for the first L2 -Betti number). Let Γ
be a finitely presented infinite residually finite group (of finite type). Then
(2)
b1 (Γ) ≤ rg Γ.
Taking the infimum over all residual chains, we obtain with Remark 3.3.3
and Remark 3.3.4 that
(2) d(Λ) − 1
b1 (Γ) ≤ inf = rg Γ.
Λ∈NF(Γ) [Γ : Λ]
(2)
Alternatively, one can also show directly that b1 (Λ) ≤ d(Λ) for all finitely
(2)
generated groups and then use multiplicativity of b1 under finite coverings
(Theorem 2.2.2).
It remains an open problem to determine whether the rank gradient de-
pends on the residual chain; in all known cases, the inequality in Corol-
lary 3.3.5 is an equality and the absolute rank gradient can be computed
by every residual chain. This is related to the fixed price problem (Out-
look 4.3.13).
The Betti number-rank estimate can be improved to estimates for the min-
imal size of normal generating sets in terms of the first L2 -Betti number; this
gives lower bounds on the girth of certain Cayley graphs [131, Theorem 5.1].
3.E Exercises
Exercise 3.E.1 (surface groups, free groups). Prove the approximation theo-
rem for surface groups and free groups by direct computation of the right-
hand side. Compute the (absolute) rank gradient of surface groups and free
groups.
Exercise 3.E.2 (Laplacian [105, Lemma 1.18]). Let Γ be a countable group, let
C∗ be a chain complex of Hilbert Γ-modules (with boundary operators ∂∗ ),
and let Δ∗ be the Laplacian of C∗ , i.e., for each n ∈ N, we set
∗
Δn := ∂n+1 ◦ ∂n+1 + ∂n∗ ◦ ∂n .
ker Δn −→ ker ∂n
im ∂n+1
of Hilbert Γ-modules.
⊥
Hints. Consider the orthogonal projection onto im ∂n+1 .
Exercise 3.E.3 (weak convergence). Give an example of a sequence (μn )n∈N
of probability measures on [0, 1] (with the Borel σ-algebra) that weakly con-
verges to a probability measure μ on [0, 1], but that satisfies
• On the other hand, in this way, L2 -Betti numbers provide orbit equiv-
alence invariants.
We will first recall some basic terminology from measured group theory.
Then we will study L2 -Betti numbers of standard equivalence relations. More-
over, we will discuss cost and its relation with the first L2 -Betti number and
rank gradients.
Γ
:= lim Γ/Λ,
←−
Λ∈NF(Γ)
where NF(Γ) denotes the set of all finite index normal subgroups of Γ. Then
is a group with the induced composition and the diagonal map Γ −→ Γ
Γ
is a group homomorphism, which leads to a Γ-action on Γ (by translation of
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still is seen in Silenia. There the same muscular partition exists, but
the branchial lamellae on either side have disappeared, the slits
between the two chambers, which occur in Poromya, still persisting,
but separated into three groups. Cuspidaria represents the last stage
in the development. In the ventral chamber there appears nothing at
all corresponding to a branchia; the surface of the partition appears
perfectly uniform, but on careful examination three little separate
orifices, remains of the three groups of orifices in Silenia, are
observed.[276]
Relation between Branchiae and Heart.—The object of the
branchiae being, as has been already stated, to aerate the blood on
its way to the heart, we find that the heart and the branchiae stand in
very important structural relations to one another. When the
branchiae are in pairs, we find that the auricles of the heart are also
paired, the auricle on the right and left sides being supplied by the
right and left branchiae respectively. This is the case with the
Dibranchiate Cephalopods (Argonauta, Octopus, Loligo, etc.), the
Zygobranchiate Prosobranchs (Fissurella, Haliotis), and all
Pelecypoda. In the Amphineura (Chiton, etc.) there are two auricles
corresponding to the two sets of multiple branchiae. In the case of
the Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods (Nautilus) there are four auricles
corresponding to each of the four branchiae. Compare Fig. 79, A, B,
C, D, E.
On the other hand, when the branchia is single, or when both
branchiae are on the same side, and one is aborted and
functionless, the auricle is single too, and on the same side as the
branchia. This is the case with the Tectibranchiate Opisthobranchs
(Philine, Scaphander, etc.), all the Pectinibranchiate Prosobranchs
(Rachiglossa, Taenioglossa, and Ptenoglossa), and the other
Azygobranchiate Prosobranchs (Trochidae, Neritidae, etc.). In the
last case the right auricle exists, as well as the left, but is simply a
closed sac, the coalescing of the two gills on the left side having
thrown all the work upon the left auricle. Compare Fig. 79, F, G, H.
Fig. 79.—Diagram illustrating the relations between
branchiae, heart, and aorta in the Mollusca: A, In
Chiton; B, Pelecypoda; C, Dibranchiate
Cephalopoda; D, Tetrabranchiate Cephalopoda; E,
Prosobranchiata Zygobranchiata; F,
Prosobranchiata Azygobranchiata; G,
Prosobranchiata Monotocardia; H,
Opisthobranchiata Tectibranchiata: 1, Ventricle; 2,
Auricle; 3, Aorta; 3a, Cephalic aorta; 3b, Visceral
aorta; 3c, Posterior aorta. (From A. Lang.)
Circulatory System
All Mollusca, without exception, possess a circulatory system of
more or less complexity. The centre of the system is the heart, which
receives the aerated blood from the breathing organs, and propels it
to every part of the body. In the Scaphopoda alone there appears to
be no distinct heart.
The heart may consist simply of a single auricle and ventricle, and
an aorta opening out of the ventricle. From the aorta the blood is
conveyed to the various parts of the body by arteries. Veins convey
the blood back to the breathing organs, after passing over which it
returns by the branchial or pulmonary vein to the heart, thus
completing the circuit.
As regards position, the heart is situated within the pericardium, a
separate chamber which in the Pelecypoda, Cephalopoda, and the
bilaterally symmetrical Gasteropoda lies on the median line, while in
the asymmetrical Gasteropoda it is on one or other of the sides of
the body, usually the right. The veins connected with the branchiae,
and consequently the auricle into which they open, are situated
behind the ventricle in the Opisthobranchiata (whence their name),
while in the Prosobranchiata they are situated in front of the
ventricle.
The number of auricles corresponds to the number of branchiae.
Thus there is only one auricle in the great majority of
Prosobranchiata (which are accordingly classified as Monotocardia),
and also in the Opisthobranchiata, while the Pulmonata have a
single auricle corresponding to the pulmonary chamber. There are
two auricles in the Amphineura, in a small group of Gasteropoda,
hence known as Diotocardia, in all Pelecypoda, and in the
Dibranchiate Cephalopoda. In the Tetrabranchiate Cephalopoda
alone there are four auricles corresponding to the four branchiae.
A single aorta occurs only in the Amphineura and in the
Tetrabranchiate Cephalopoda. In all the other groups there are two
aortae, leading out of the anterior and posterior ends of the ventricle
in Pelecypoda and Dibranchiate Cephalopoda, while a single aorta
leads out of the posterior end alone, and subsequently bifurcates, in
most of the Gasteropoda. One aorta, the cephalic, supplies the front
part of the body, the oesophagus, stomach, mantle, etc.; the other,
the visceral aorta, supplies the posterior part, the liver and sexual
organs.
The general circulatory system in the Mollusca has not yet been
thoroughly investigated. As a general rule, the blood driven from the
ventricle through the aorta into the arteries, passes, on reaching the
alimentary canal and other adjacent organs, into a number of
irregular spaces called lacunae. These in their turn branch into
sinuses, or narrow tubes covered with muscular tissue, which
penetrate the body in every direction. In the Dibranchiate
Cephalopoda true capillaries are said to occur, which in some cases
form a direct communication between the arteries and veins.
According to some authorities[277] capillaries and veins exist in
certain Pelecypoda in connexion with the intestinal lacunae, but this
again is regarded by others as not established. A similar difference
of opinion occurs with regard to the precise function of the foot-pore
which occurs in many Mollusca, some holding that it serves as a
means for the introduction of water into the blood-vascular system,
while others regard it as a form of secretion gland, the original
purpose of which has perhaps become lost.
Blood.—As a rule, the blood of the Mollusca—i.e. not the
corpuscles but the liquor sanguinis—is colourless, or slightly tinged
with blue on exposure to the air. This is due to the presence of a
pigment termed haemocyanin, in which are found traces of copper
and iron, the former predominating. Haemoglobin, the colouring
matter of the blood in Vertebrates, is, according to Lankester,[278] of
very restricted occurrence. It is found—(1) in special corpuscles in
the blood of Solen legumen (and Arca Noae); (2) in the general
blood system of Planorbis; (3) in the muscles of the pharynx and
jaws of certain Gasteropoda, e.g. Limnaea, Paludina, Littorina,
Chiton, Aplysia. This distribution of haemoglobin is explained by
Lankester in reference to its chemical activity; whenever increased
facilities for oxidisation are required, then it may be present to do the
work. The Mollusca, being as a rule otiose, do not possess it
generally diffused in the blood, as do the Vertebrata. The actively
burrowing Solen possesses it, and perhaps its presence in Planorbis
is to be explained from its respiring the air of stagnant marshes. Its
occurrence in the pharyngeal muscles and jaws of other genera may
be due to the constant state of activity in which these organs are
kept.[279]
According to Tenison-Woods[280] a species of Arca (trapezia
Desh.) and two species of Solen, all Australian, have red blood. It is
suggested that in these cases the habits of the animal (the Solen
burrowing deeply in sand, the Arca in mud) require some highly
oxidising element, surrounded as the creature is by ooze. In Arca
pexata (N. America) the blood is red, the animal being familiarly
known as the ‘bloody clam.’ Burrowing species, however, are not all
distinguished by this peculiarity. Tenison-Woods finds red fluids in
the buccal mass of many Gasteropoda, e.g. in species of Patella,
Acmaea, Littorina, Trochus, Turbo, giving the parts the appearance
of raw meat.
The Mantle
On the dorsal side of the typical molluscan body, between the
visceral sac and the shell, lies a duplicature of the integument,
generally known as the mantle. The depending sides of the mantle,
which are usually somewhat thickened, enclose between themselves
and the body mass a chamber of varying size and shape, called the
mantle cavity, which communicates freely with the external air or
water, and encloses and furnishes a protection for the organ or
organs of respiration. On its upper or dorsal surface the mantle is
closely applied to the shell throughout its whole extent, the cells with
which it is furnished secreting the materials from which the shell is
formed (see p. 255). The whole mantle is capable, to some degree,
of secreting shelly matter, but the most active agent in its production
is the mantle edge or margin.
In the Prosobranchiata the mantle cavity, for reasons which have
already been explained, is found on the left side of the animal, its
front portion being in many cases produced into a tubular siphon.
Within the mantle cavity are found, besides the branchia, the anus,
the apertures of the kidneys, and the osphradium. In the pulmonata
the mantle fold encloses a so-called lung-cavity. The front edge of
the mantle coalesces with the integument of the neck in such a way
as to enclose the cavity very completely, the only communication
with the outer air being by means of the contractile breathing or
pulmonary aperture on the right side. In the Tectibranchiate
Opisthobranchs the mantle fold is inconsiderable, and is usually not
of sufficient extent to cover the branchia, while in the Nudibranchs,
which have no true branchiae, it disappears altogether.
In the Pelecypoda the mantle cavity is equally developed on each
side, enclosing the two sets of branchiae. The mantle may thus be
regarded as consisting of two equal portions, which form a sort of
lining to the two valves. The lower or ventral portion of the mantle
edges may be simple, or provided with ocelli (Pecten, Arca),
tentacles, cilia (Lima, Lepton), or doubled folds. The two portions of
the mantle touch one another along the whole line of the edge of the
two valves, and, although thus in contact, may remain completely
separate from one another, or else become permanently united at
one or more points. This fusion of the mantle edges corresponds to
important changes in the organisation of the animal as a whole. The
anal and branchial siphons are no more than prolongations of the
mantle edges on the posterior side into a tubular form. These
‘siphons’ exhibit the siphonal form more distinctly according as the
adjacent portions of the mantle become more definitely fused
together.
Fig. 80.—Diagram illustrating the various stages in the closing of the mantle in
Pelecypoda: A, mantle completely open; B, rudiments of siphons, mantle still
completely open; C, mantle closed at one point; D, mantle closed at two
points, with complete formation of siphonal apertures; E, development of
siphons, ventral closure more extended; F, mantle closed at three points, with
fourth orifice: f, foot; s.a, s.b, anal and branchial siphons; 1, 2, 3, first, second,
and third points of closure of mantle. (After A. Lang.)
This progressive fusion of the mantle edges may be taken as
indicating definite stages in the development of the Pelecypoda. A
perfectly free mantle edge, joined at no point with the edge of the
adjacent mantle, occurs in Nucula, Arca, Anomia, and Trigonia (see
Fig. 80, A, B). Here there is nothing in the nature of a siphon, either
anal or branchial; in other words, no contrivance exists to prevent the
spent water which has passed over the branchiae from becoming
mixed with the fresh water which is to reach them. When the mantle
edges are fused at one point only, this is invariably on the middle
part of the posterior side, thus separating off an anal opening which
may become prolonged into a tube-like form. At the same time the
adjacent underlying portions of the mantle edges draw together,
without actually coalescing, to form an opening for the incurrent
stream of water, the rudiments of the ‘branchial siphon’ (Fig. 80, C).
This is the case with most Mytilidae (see Fig. 75) with Cardita,
Astarte, and Pisidium. In the next stage the branchial opening is
separated off by the concrescence of the mantle edges beneath it,
and we have the mantle united in two places, thus forming three
openings, the ventral of which is the opening for the protrusion of the
foot (Fig. 80, D). This is the case in Yoldia, Leda, the majority of the
Eulamellibranchiata (e.g. Lucina, Cyrena, Donax, Psammobia,
Tellina, Venus, Cardium, Mactra), and all Septibranchiata. In Chama
and Tridacna the fused portions of the mantle become more
extended, and in Pholas, Xylophaga, Teredo, Pandora, and Lyonsia
this concrescence takes place over the greater length of the whole
mantle edge, so that the mantle may be regarded as closed, with the
exception of the three apertures for the foot and the two siphons
(Fig. 80, E).
In certain genera there occurs, besides these three apertures, a
fourth, in the line of junction between the pedal and branchial
orifices. It appears probable that this fourth orifice (which has been
regarded by some as an inlet for water when the siphons are
retracted), stands in relation to the byssal apparatus (Fig. 80, F). In
Lyonsia, for instance, a thick byssus protrudes through the orifice,
which is large and open. In Solen, Lutraria, Glycimeris,
Cochlodesma, Thracia, Aspergillum, and a few more genera, which
have no byssus, the orifice is very small and narrow. It is possible
that in these latter cases, the byssal apparatus having become
atrophied, the orifice has been correspondingly reduced in size.[281]
Mantle Reflected over the Shell.—It is sometimes the case that
the mantle edges tend to double back over the external surface of
the shell, and to enclose it to a greater or less extent. When this
process is carried to an extreme, the edges of the reflected mantle
unite, and the shell becomes completely internal. We see an
incipient stage of this process in Cypraea and Marginella, where the
bright polish on the surface of the shell is due to the protection
afforded by the lobes of the mantle. A considerable portion of the
shell of Scutus is concealed in a similar way, while in Cryptochiton,
Lamellaria, and Aplysia the shell is more or less completely
enclosed. Among Pulmonata, it is possible that in forms like Vitrina,
Parmacella, Limax, and Arion, we have successive stages in a
process which starts with a shell completely external, as in Helix,
and ends, not merely by enveloping the shell in the mantle, but by
effecting its disappearance altogether. In Vitrina and some allied
genera we have a type in which the mantle lobes are partly reflected
over the shell, which at the same time exhibits rather less of a spiral
form than in Helix. In the stage represented by Parmacella, the
mantle edges have coalesced over the whole of the shell, except for
a small aperture immediately over the spire; the nucleus alone of the
shell is spiral, the rest considerably flattened. In Limax the shell has
become completely internal, and is simply a flat and very thin plate,
the spiral form being entirely lost, and the nucleus represented by a
simple thickening at one end of the plate. In Arion, the final stage, we
find that the shell, being no longer needed as a protection to the vital
organs, has either become resolved into a number of independent
granules, or else has entirely disappeared.
Some indications of a similar series of changes occur in the
Pelecypoda. The mantle edge of Lepton is prolonged beyond the
area of the valves, terminating in some cases in a number of
filaments. In Galeomma and Scintilla the valves are partially
concealed by the reflected mantle lobes, and in a remarkable form
recently discovered by Dall[282] (Chlamydoconcha) the shell is
completely imbedded in the mantle, which is perforated at the
anterior end by an orifice for the mouth, and at the posterior end by a
similar orifice for the anus. In all these cases, except Lepton, it is
interesting to notice that the hinge teeth have completely
disappeared, the additional closing power gained by the external
mantle rendering the work done by a hinge unnecessary. It is quite
possible, on the analogy of the Gasteropoda mentioned above, and
also, it may be added, of the Cephalopoda and other groups, that we
have here indicated the eventual occurrence of a type of Pelecypoda
altogether deprived of valves, a greatly thickened mantle performing
the part of a shell.[283]
The following works will be found useful for further study of this
portion of the subject:—
F. Bernard, Recherches sur les organes palléaux des
Gastéropodes prosobranches: Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool. (7) ix. (1890), pp.
89–404.
G. Cuvier, Le Régne animal (ed. V. Masson); Mollusca, Text and
Atlas.
C. Grobben, Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Baues von Cuspidaria
(Neaera) cuspidata Olivi, nebst Betrachtungen über das System der
Lamellibranchiaten: Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien, x. (1893), pp. 101–146.
E. Ray Lankester, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., vol. xvi.
(1883), Art. ‘Mollusca.’
A. Ménégaux, Recherches sur la circulation des Lamellibranches
marins: Besançon, 1890.
K. Mitsukuri, On the structure and significance of some aberrant
forms of Lamellibranchiate gills: Q. Journ. Micr. Sc., N.S. xxi. (1881),
pp. 595–608.
H. L. Osborn, On the gill in some forms of Prosobranchiate
Mollusca: Stud. Biol. Lab. Johns Hopk. Univ. iii. (1884), pp. 37–48.
R. Holman Peck, The structure of the Lamellibranchiate gill: Q.
Journ. Micr. Sc., N.S. xvii. (1877), pp. 43–66.
P. Pelseneer, Contributions à l’étude des lamellibranches: Arch.
Biol. xi. (1891), pp. 147–312.
CHAPTER VII
ORGANS OF SENSE: TOUCH, SIGHT, SMELL, HEARING—THE FOOT—THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Fig. 82.—Monodonta
canalifera Lam., New
Ireland, showing mantle
lobes. (After Quoy and
Gaimard.)
Fig. 83.—Glandina seizing
its prey, with buccal
papillae turned back.
(Strebel.)
It is in the Opisthobranchiata that the organs of touch attain their
maximum development. Many of this group are shell-less or possess
a small internal shell, and accordingly, in the absence of this special
form of defence, a multiplied sense of touch is probably of great
service. Thus we find, besides the ordinary cephalic tentacles,
clusters or crowns of the same above the head of many
Nudibranchiata, with lobe-like prolongations of the integument, and
tentacular processes in the neighbourhood of, or surrounding the
branchiae (see Figs. 58 and Fig. 84, or even projecting from the
whole upper surface of the body (Fig. 5, C).
In the Pelecypoda, the chief organs of touch are the foot, which is
always remarkably sensitive, especially towards its point, the labial
palps on each side of the mouth, and the siphons. In certain cases
the mantle border is prolonged into a series of threads or filaments.
These are particularly noticeable in Pecten, Lepton, and Lima (Fig.
85), the mantle lobes of the common L. hians of our own coasts
being very numerous, and of a bright orange colour. In many genera
—e.g. Unio, Mactra—this sensibility to touch appears to be shared
by the whole mantle border, although it is not furnished with any
special fringing. The ‘arms’ of the Cephalopoda appear to be keenly
sensitive to touch, and this is particularly the case with the front or
tentacular pair of arms, which seem to be employed in an especial
degree for exploration and investigation of strange objects.
Fig. 84.—Idalia Leachii A. and H., British seas;
br, branchiae. (After Alder and Hancock.)
II. Sight