PDF Solution Manual For Evolution 2Nd Edition Media Update by Carl T Bergstrom Lee Alan Dugatkin Online Ebook Full Chapter
PDF Solution Manual For Evolution 2Nd Edition Media Update by Carl T Bergstrom Lee Alan Dugatkin Online Ebook Full Chapter
http://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for-evolution-2nd-
edition-media-update-by-carl-t-bergstrom-lee-alan-dugatkin/
http://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-on-cooking-
update-5-e-5th-edition-sarah-r-labensky-priscilla-a-martel-alan-
m-hause/
http://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-strategic-
management-text-and-cases-10th-edition-gregory-dess-gerry-
mcnamara-alan-eisner-seung-hyun-lee/
http://testbankbell.com/product/think-sociology-canadian-2nd-
edition-carl-solutions-manual/
Solution Manual for Accounting, 9th Edition, by Charles
T. Horngren, Walter T. Harrison, Jr. M. Suzanne Oliver
http://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
accounting-9th-edition-by-charles-t-horngren-walter-t-harrison-
jr-m-suzanne-oliver/
http://testbankbell.com/product/computational-materials-science-
an-introduction-1st-lee-solution-manual/
http://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for-think-
sociology-2nd-edition-carl/
http://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for-social-media-
marketing-3rd-by-tuten/
http://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for-introduction-to-
clinical-psychology-an-evidence-based-approach-2nd-edition-by-
hunsley-lee/
Chapter 1
An Overview of Evolutionary Biology
Chapter Summary and Discussion Points
Introduction
Charles Darwin evolved biology when he theorized that all organisms share a
common ancestry and that an organism’s fitness within its environment is the result
of natural selection. Darwin’s evolutionary theory led to a natural explanation for
the diversity of life and, thus, a paradigm shift in biological thought that now
reaches every subdiscipline of biology. For example, when anatomy students now
study the structure of bones in the human wrist, it is possible to extrapolate their
understanding of skeletal structures to other tetrapods and find bones of the same
origin being used in similar or very different ways.
Section 1.1: A Brief Introduction to Evolution, Natural Selection, and Phylogenetics
As a primer to the ensuing chapters, this section explains the idea of descent with
modification as being the way in which all organisms change over time due to
natural or artificial selection, leading to the premise that all life is subject to the
principles of evolution. For example, to truly understand a species such as Homo
sapiens, one must study and understand primates, their closest relatives. This
section offers students a refresher on some of the basics of genetics, which sets the
stage for defining selection. Artificial selection is covered using multiple examples of
crops, including a detailed figure of human selection of many different food crops
over thousands of years, as well as a more specific example involving strawberries.
These examples are then contrasted with an example of natural selection involving
pesticide resistance in insects. Antibiotic resistance also is explored as a problem
that will be solved only by using the principles of evolutionary biology. Lastly, to
help students see that evolutionary principles aid in the study of conservation
biology, the authors introduce the concept of tree thinking using the phylogenetic
tree of life and extinction. This section concludes with the Key Concept Question
(see Key Concept Question 1.1): Can you think of other ways that evolutionary
thinking might affect studies in conservation biology?
Discussion Points:
What two things did Darwin originally notice and how did that lead to his
theory? What are some examples from the natural world that confirm
Darwin’s idea?
How do artificial and natural selection differ? How does artificial selection
demonstrate the reality of evolution? When are examples of human influence
Evolution, Second Edition Instructor’s Manual, p. 2
© 2016, 2012 W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
causing change in a system still considered natural selection?
Why is antibiotic resistance a serious threat to modern medicine? How will
the principles of evolutionary biology help control this problem?
Section 1.2: Empirical and Theoretical Approaches to the Study of Evolution
This section divides the types of research conducted in evolutionary biology into
two major methods: empirical and theoretical. Empirical research is further divided
into observation or manipulation of a natural system. Observation studies involve
gathering data from a system without manipulating it and include studies such as
research on the fossil record, inferring phylogeny from genetic sequences, or
observing behavior. This is demonstrated by comparing similarities between
chimps and humans in anatomy and genomics to show common ancestry and
determine what separates them genetically. Manipulation of natural systems is
explained by a second example of empirical study, which involves breeding systems
and testes size in 33 species of primates. Theoretical biology is introduced as a
major discipline in evolutionary biology through the work of Ronald A. Fisher and
William D. Hamilton, in which they utilized mathematical models to predict and
understand sex ratios. This is followed by an actual example of changing sex ratios
in the blue moon butterfly on the Samoan islands.
Discussion Points:
Of the two research methods discussed, which would be most useful in
testing specific hypotheses?
What is the usefulness of theoretical studies in evolutionary biology?
Answers to Review Questions
1. Paradigm shifts represent fundamental changes in the way we think about
and study nature from a scientific perspective.
2. (1) All species are descended from one or a few ancestral life-forms. (2) A
process Darwin dubbed natural selection explains the fit of organism to
environment.
3. This evidence includes, but is not limited to, molecular genetic, anatomical,
physiological, behavioral, developmental, and hormonal data. Such data can
be amassed from fossils or contemporary organisms.
4. Artificial selection is the human-driven analog to the process of natural
selection. In artificial selection, we selectively breed individuals with traits
that are beneficial to us.
5. Bacteria reproduce extremely rapidly—as fast as hourly or even faster.
Bacterial population sizes are enormous, providing a vast supply of genetic
variation. Natural selection imposed by antibiotic resistance is very strong.
Evolution, Second Edition Instructor’s Manual, p. 3
© 2016, 2012 W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
For all of these reasons mutations conferring antibiotic resistance can
quickly arise and rapidly spread through bacterial populations.
6. Phylogenetic diversity is a measure of diversity that takes into account how
much of the evolutionary history of the group being studied is preserved.
7. The two basic ways to gather empirical evidence to test hypotheses are
observational and experimental studies.
8. Neutral mutations are mutations that do not affect fitness.
9. Sex ratio measures the ratio of females to males in a given population.
10. Regardless of whether empirical work precedes theoretical work or vice
versa, each of these informs the other, and this (ideally) leads to the
generation of new, testable hypotheses.
Answers to Key Concept Application Questions
11. We can apply the exact same reasoning we used for the case of the evolution
of antibiotic resistance in bacteria to the cases of antiviral resistance
evolution by viruses and antifungal resistance evolution by fungi. Similar
arguments also apply in agriculture to the evolution of herbicide-resistant
weeds and pesticide-resistant insects.
12. Answers will vary, but the theory of continental drift and plate tectonics
represents one such paradigm shift. The theory of continental drift proposed
that continents are drifting landmasses that move over geological time and
therefore even the large-scale geography of the earth is dynamically
changing. The theory of plate tectonics provided us with a mechanistic
understanding of how continental drift takes place. Together, these theories
provide an explanation of why surface of our planet looks the way that it
does now, how large landmasses are created and destroyed, and so much
more.
13. The study of descent with modification is the conceptual glue that unites all
of the life sciences. Without adopting an evolutionary approach in the
biological sciences, we have many potentially important, disparate facts, but
no common theoretical perspective to unite them.
14. By selecting for traits that are either aesthetically pleasing or in some sense
practical, humans have shaped everything from the size (think miniature
poodle to Great Dane) to the behavior (herding, hunting, retrieving) of
domesticated dog breeds.
Evolution, Second Edition Instructor’s Manual, p. 4
© 2016, 2012 W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
15. Now that the molecular genetic techniques associated with studying gene
expression are widely available, evolutionary biologists can study not just
how differences between species in protein-coding DNA sequences are
associated with evolutionary change, but also how differences in when genes
are turned on and off are associated with evolutionary change.
16. As we noted in the chapter, a 1 female to 1 male sex ratio is so common that
it is hard to imagine any other sex ratio, but what we want to understand is
why a 1:1 sex ratio is so ubiquitous in the first place. To do that, we need to
consider other possible sex ratios, and then examine which sex ratio is
favored by natural selection and under what conditions. Once we make clear
our assumptions, mathematical models give us the power to do exactly that.
Suggested Readings
This list of suggested readings is printed at the end of this chapter in the student
textbook and reprinted here for your convenience and planning.
Birkhead, T. R., and T. Pizzari. 2002. Postcopulatory sexual selection. Nature Reviews
Genetics 3: 262–273.
• This paper will give you a better understanding of the sperm competition and
sperm allocation work we discussed in this chapter.
Engelstädter, J., and G. D. D. Hurst. 2009. The ecology and evolution of microbes that
manipulate host reproduction. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and
Systematics 40: 127–149.
• A detailed review on issues we discussed in the Wolbachia/blue moon butterfly
sex ratio example.
Huxley, T. H. 1863. Evidence of Man’s Place in Nature. D. Appleton, New York.
• Huxley—Darwin’s colleague—presented evidence for human evolution in this
book.
Kuhn, T. 1962. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press,
Chicago.
• In this volume, a classic in the philosophy of science, Kuhn outlines the idea of a
paradigm shift.
Varki, A., D. H. Geschwind, and E. E. Eichler. 2008. Explaining human uniqueness:
genome interactions with environment, behavior, and culture. Nature Reviews
Genetics 9: 749–763.
• An interesting discussion of how to understand what molecular genetic
comparisons tell us (and don’t tell us) about similarities and differences between
humans and other primates.
Evolution, Second Edition Instructor’s Manual, p. 5
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
falsehood shock the delicacy of his perceptions, as much as it would
shock the finest artist to be obliged to daub in a signpost, or scrawl a
caricature. He cannot make up his mind to derive any benefit from so
pitiful and disgusting a source. Tell me that a man is a
metaphysician, and at the same time that he is given to shallow and
sordid boasting, and I will not believe you. After striving to raise
himself to an equality with truth and nature by patient investigation
and refined distinctions (which few can make)—whether he succeed
or fail, he cannot stoop to acquire a spurious reputation, or to
advance himself or lessen others by paltry artifice and idle
rhodomontade, which are in every one’s power who has never known
the value or undergone the labour of discovering a single truth. Gross
personal and local interests bear the principal sway with the ignorant
or mere man of the world, who considers not what things are in
themselves, but what they are to him: the man of science attaches a
higher importance to, because he finds a more constant pleasure in
the contemplation and pursuit of general and abstracted truths.
Philosophy also teaches self-knowledge; and self-knowledge strikes
equally at the root of any inordinate opinion of ourselves, or wish to
impress others with idle admiration. Mathematicians have been
remarked for persons of strict probity and a conscientious and
somewhat literal turn of mind.[16] But are poets and romance-writers
equally scrupulous and severe judges of themselves, and martyrs to
right principle? I cannot acquit them of the charge of vanity, and a
wish to aggrandise themselves in the eyes of the world, at the
expense of a little false complaisance (what wonder when the world
are so prone to admire, and they are so spoiled by indulgence in self-
pleasing fancies?)—but in general they are too much taken up with
their ideal creations, which have also a truth and keeping of their
own, to misrepresent or exaggerate matters of fact, or to trouble their
heads about them. The poet’s waking thoughts are dreams: the liar
has all his wits and senses about him, and thinks only of astonishing
his hearers by some worthless assertion, a mixture of impudence and
cunning. But what shall we say of the clergy and the priests of all
countries? Are they not men of learning? And are they not, with few
exceptions, noted for imposture and time-serving, much more than
for a love of truth and candour? They are good subjects, it is true;
bound to keep the peace, and hired to maintain certain opinions, not
to inquire into them. So this is an exception to the rule, such as
might be expected. I speak of the natural tendencies of things, and
not of the false bias that may be given to them by their forced
combination with other principles.
The worst effect of this depression of spirits, or of the ‘scholar’s
melancholy,’ here spoken of, is when it leads a man, from a distrust
of himself, to seek for low company, or to forget it by matching below
himself. Gray is to be pitied, whose extreme diffidence or
fastidiousness was such as to prevent his associating with his fellow
collegians, or mingling with the herd, till at length, like the owl,
shutting himself up from society and daylight, he was hunted and
hooted at like the owl whenever he chanced to appear, and was even
assailed and disturbed in the haunts in which ‘he held his solitary
reign.’ He was driven from college to college, and subjected to a
persecution the more harassing to a person of his indolent and
retired habits. But he only shrunk the more within himself in
consequence—read over his favourite authors—corresponded with
his distant friends—was terrified out of his wits at the bare idea of
having his portrait prefixed to his works; and probably died from
nervous agitation at the publicity into which his name had been
forced by his learning, taste, and genius. This monastic seclusion and
reserve is, however, better than a career such as Porson’s; who from
not liking the restraints, or not possessing the exterior
recommendations of good society, addicted himself to the lowest
indulgences, spent his days and nights in cider-cellars and pot-
houses, cared not with whom or where he was, so that he had
somebody to talk to and something to drink, ‘from humble porter to
imperial tokay’ (a liquid, according to his own pun), and fell a
martyr, in all likelihood, to what in the first instance was pure
mauvaise honte. Nothing could overcome this propensity to low
society and sotting, but the having something to do, which required
his whole attention and faculties; and then he shut himself up for
weeks together in his chambers, or at the University, to collate old
manuscripts, or edite a Greek tragedy, or expose a grave pedant,
without seeing a single boon-companion, or touching a glass of wine.
I saw him once at the London Institution with a large patch of coarse
brown paper on his nose, the skirts of his rusty black coat hung with
cobwebs, and talking in a tone of suavity approaching to
condescension to one of the Managers. It is a pity that men should so
lose themselves from a certain awkwardness and rusticity at the
outset. But did not Sheridan make the same melancholy ending, and
run the same fatal career, though in a higher and more brilliant
circle? He did; and though not from exactly the same cause (for no
one could accuse Sheridan’s purple nose and flashing eye of a
bashfulness—‘modest as morning when she coldly eyes the youthful
Phœbus!’)—yet it was perhaps from one nearly allied to it, namely,
the want of that noble independence and confidence in its own
resources which should distinguish genius, and the dangerous
ambition to get sponsors and vouchers for it in persons of rank and
fashion. The affectation of the society of lords is as mean and low-
minded as the love of that of coblers and tapsters. It is that coblers
and tapsters may admire, that we wish to be seen in the company of
their betters. The tone of literary patronage is better than it was a
hundred or a hundred and fifty years ago. What dramatic author
would think now of getting a lady of quality to take a box at the first
night of a play to prevent its being damned by the pit? Do we not
read the account of Parson Adams taking his ale in Squire Booby’s
kitchen with mingled incredulity and shame? At present literature
has, to a considerable degree, found its level, and is hardly in danger,
‘deprived of its natural patrons and protectors, the great and noble,
of being trodden in the mire, and trampled under the hoofs of a
swinish multitude’—though it can never again hope, to be what
learning once was in the persons of the priesthood, the lord and
sovereign of principalities and powers. Fool that it was ever to forego
its privileges, and loosen the strong hold it had on opinion in bigotry
and superstition!
I remember hearing a lady of great sense and acuteness speak of it
as a painful consequence of the natural shyness of scholars, that from
the want of a certain address, or an acquaintance with the common
forms of society, they despair of making themselves agreeable to
women of education and a certain rank in life, and throw away their
fine sentiments and romantic tenderness on chambermaids and
mantua-makers. Not daring to hope for success where it would be
most desirable, yet anxious to realise in some way the dream of
books and of their youth, they are willing to accept a return of
affection which they count upon as a tribute of gratitude in those of
lower circumstances, (as if gratitude were ever bought by interest),
and take up with the first Dulcinea del Toboso that they meet with,
when, would they only try the experiment, they might do much
better. Perhaps so: but there is here also a mixture of pride as well as
modesty. The scholar is not only apprehensive of not meeting with a
return of fondness where it might be most advantageous to him; but
he is afraid of subjecting his self-love to the mortification of a
repulse, and to the reproach of aiming at a prize far beyond his
deserts. Besides, living (as he does) in an ideal world, he has it in his
option to clothe his Goddess (be she who or what she may) with all
the perfections his heart doats on; and he works up a dowdy of this
ambiguous description à son gré, as an artist does a piece of dull
clay, or the poet the sketch of some unrivalled heroine. The contrast
is also the greater (and not the less gratifying as being his own
discovery,) between his favourite figure and the back-ground of her
original circumstances; and he likes her the better, inasmuch as, like
himself, she owes all to her own merit—and his notice!
Possibly, the best cure for this false modesty, and for the
uneasiness and extravagances it occasions, would be, for the retired
and abstracted student to consider that he properly belongs to
another sphere of action, remote from the scenes of ordinary life, and
may plead the excuse of ignorance, and the privilege granted to
strangers and to those who do not speak the same language. If any
one is travelling in a foreign Diligence, he is not expected to shine
nor to put himself forward, nor need he be out of countenance
because he cannot: he has only to conform as well as he can to his
new and temporary situation, and to study common propriety and
simplicity of manners. Every thing has its own limits, a little centre
of its own, round which it moves; so that our true wisdom lies in
keeping to our own walk in life, however humble or obscure, and
being satisfied if we can succeed in it. The best of us can do no more,
and we shall only become ridiculous or unhappy by attempting it. We
are ashamed, because we are at a loss in things to which we have no
pretensions, and try to remedy our mistakes by committing greater.
An overweening vanity or self-opinion is, in truth, often at the
bottom of this weakness; and we shall be most likely to conquer the
one by eradicating the other, or restricting it within due and
moderate bounds.
THE MAIN-CHANCE