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Machine Design with CAD and Optimization
Machine Design with CAD and Optimization
Sayed M. Metwalli
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University
Egypt
This edition first published 2021
© 2021 Sayed M. Metwalli. Published 2021 by John Wiley and Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
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to reuse material from this titleis available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Sayed M. Metwalli to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Metwalli, Sayed, author. | John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., publisher.
Title: Machine design with CAD & optimization / Sayed Metwalli.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2021. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020025973 (print) | LCCN 2020025974 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119156642 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119156659 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119156666 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Machine design–Computer-aided design. | Computer-aided
design.
Classification: LCC TJ233 .M48 2021 (print) | LCC TJ233 (ebook) | DDC
621.8/150285–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020025973
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020025974
Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © adventtr/Getty Images
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To all members of my family for their understanding, patience, and endless support.
To all my teachers and colleagues for their nourishing knowledge, inspiration, and backing.
To all my students for their perseverance, tolerance, efforts, and dedication.
vii
Contents
Preface xxiii
Acknowledgments xxvii
About the Companion Website xxix
Part I Introduction and Design Considerations 1
1 Introduction to Design 3
1.1 Introduction 6
1.2 Phases of Design 8
1.3 Basic Mechanical Functions 9
1.4 Design Factors 11
1.5 Synthesis Approach to Design 12
1.6 Product Life Cycle 13
1.7 Business Measures 14
1.8 Research and Development Process in Product Cycle 15
1.9 Teamwork for Product or System Design 16
1.10 Design and Development Case Study 16
1.11 Units and Fundamentals 16
1.11.1 Units 17
1.11.1.1 Force and Mass 18
1.11.1.2 Pressure 19
1.11.1.3 Velocity, Acceleration, and Rotational Speed 19
1.11.1.4 Moments, Work, and Power 19
1.11.1.5 Weight 21
1.11.1.6 Prefixes 21
1.11.2 Unit Conversion 21
1.11.3 Vectors and Matrices 24
1.12 Summary 26
Problems 27
References 29
Internet Sites 30
viii Contents
2 Design Considerations 31
2.1 Mathematical Modeling 34
2.1.1 Mathematical Model Initiation and Adoption 35
2.1.2 Generalized System Modeling 40
2.1.3 Modeling of Loads and Material Variations 56
2.2 Calculation Tools 57
2.2.1 Excel© 57
2.2.2 MATLAB© 58
2.2.3 Computer-Aided Design (CAD) 59
2.2.4 Finite Element (FE) 60
2.3 Design Procedure 60
2.4 Manufacturing Processes 62
2.4.1 Casting or Molding 62
2.4.2 Deformation 63
2.4.3 Machining 64
2.4.4 Joining 65
2.4.5 Surface and Heat Treatment 65
2.4.6 3D Printing or Additive Manufacturing 66
2.4.7 Tolerances, Surface Finish, and Fits 67
2.4.7.1 Tolerances 67
2.4.7.2 Surface Finish 68
2.4.7.3 Fits 69
2.4.7.4 Fundamental Deviations 70
2.5 Standard Sets and Components 72
2.6 Codes and Standards 72
2.7 Summary 73
Problems 74
References 78
Internet Links (Selected) 78
Part II Knowledge-Based Design 79
3 Introduction to Computer-Aided Techniques 81

3.1 CAD and Geometric Modeling 82
3.1.1 Classical Design Process 82
3.1.2 Synthesis Design Process 82
3.1.3 Human–Machine Characteristics 83
3.2 Geometric Construction and FE Analysis 84
3.3 CAD/CAM/CAE and Advanced Systems 85
3.4 Virtual Reality 87
3.4.1 Virtual Reality Process 88
3.4.2 Virtual Reality Hardware Requirements 88
3.4.3 Virtual Reality Interactive-Process Tools 88
3.4.4 Virtual Reality Applications 88
3.5 Summary 89
Contents ix
Problems 89
References 90
Internet Links 90
4 Computer-Aided Design 91
4.1 3D Geometric Modeling and Viewing Transformation 95
4.1.1 3D Geometric Modeling 95
4.1.1.1 Geometric Computations 99
4.1.1.2 Topological Operations and the Euler Formula 99
4.1.1.3 Geometric and Global Operations 100
4.1.1.4 Procedures for Constructing a Single or a Compound Solid 100
4.1.2 Homogeneous Coordinates Versus Cartesian Coordinates 101
4.1.2.1 Point in Space 102
4.1.2.2 Vectors 102
4.1.2.3 Lines 102
4.1.2.4 Body Geometry and Vertices 103
4.1.3 Body Transformation 103
4.1.3.1 Translation 104
4.1.3.2 Rotation 104
4.1.3.3 Scaling 105
4.1.3.4 Zooming 105
4.1.3.5 Skewing 105
4.1.3.6 Perspective 105
4.1.3.7 Orthographic Projection 105
4.1.3.8 Body Transformation Systems 105
4.1.4 Stereo Viewing 109
4.1.5 3D Graphics 110
4.2 Parametric Modeling 111
4.2.1 Parametric Lines 111
4.2.1.1 Alternative Parametric Form 111
4.2.2 Parametric Planes 112
4.2.3 Parametric Bilinear Surfaces 115
4.2.4 Parametric Curves and Surfaces 117
4.2.5 Free-Form Parametric Curves and Surfaces 118
4.2.5.1 Surface Patches and Curves 118
4.2.5.2 Bezier Curves 120
4.2.5.3 Bezier Surfaces or Patches 122
4.2.5.4 B-Spline Curves 124
4.2.5.5 B-Spline Surfaces 128
4.2.5.6 NURBS 130
4.2.6 Intersections 131
4.2.6.1 Intersection of Two Lines 131
4.2.6.2 Intersection of a Line with a Plane 133
4.2.6.3 Intersection of Two Planes 133
4.2.6.4 Intersection of Three Planes 135
4.3 CAD Hardware and Software 135
x Contents
4.4 Rendering and Animation 135

4.4.1 Realistic Presentations 136
4.4.2 Color Use 138
4.4.2.1 Visual Color Description 138
4.4.2.2 Color Specification System 141
4.4.3 Shading and Rendering Technique 142
4.4.3.1 Methods of Shading a Polygon or a Triangle 142
4.4.4 Computing Vertex and Surface Normals 143
4.4.5 Rendering Process 144
4.4.5.1 Diffuse Illumination 144
4.4.5.2 Specular Reflection 145
4.4.5.3 Transparency 145
4.4.5.4 Total Rendering Effect 145
4.4.6 3D Cursor and Picking 146
4.5 Data Structure 146
4.5.1 Drawing Exchange Format (DXF) 146
4.5.2 STL File Format 147
4.5.3 IGES File Format 147
4.5.4 STEP File Format 147
4.6 Using CAD in 3D Modeling and CAM 149
4.7 Summary 149
Problems 149
References 151
Internet Links 153
5 Optimization 155
5.1 Introduction 158
5.1.1 Formulation of Optimization Problem 160
5.1.1.1 Design Vector D 161
5.1.1.2 Objective Function f 161
5.1.1.3 Constraints 161
5.1.1.4 Problem Statement 161
5.1.1.5 Dimensional Considerations in Analytical Design “Nondimensionalization” 162
5.1.2 Classification of Optimization 165
5.1.2.1 Problem Classification 165
5.1.2.2 Methods of Optimization 165
5.1.2.3 Optimization Fields 166
5.2 Searches in One Direction 167
5.2.1 Quadratic Interpolation 167
5.2.2 Golden Section (Euclid) 169
5.2.3 Newton–Raphson 171
5.2.4 Other Methods 172
5.3 Multidimensional: Classical Indirect Approach 173
5.3.1 Unconstrained Problem 173
5.3.2 Equality Constrained Problem 176
5.3.2.1 Lagrange Multipliers 176
5.3.3 Inequality Constraints Problem 178
Contents xi
5.4 Multidimensional Unconstrained Problem 179

5.4.1 Univariate Method 179
5.4.2 Powell’s Method of Conjugate Directions 180
5.4.3 Linearized Ridge Path Method 185
5.4.4 Random Search Methods 188
5.4.5 Steepest Descent Method 188
5.4.5.1 Implementation 189
5.4.6 Fletcher–Reeves Conjugate Gradient 190
5.4.7 Newton–Raphson Method 192
5.4.8 Quasi-Newton Methods 193
5.4.8.1 A Quadratic Optimization Technique 193
5.4.8.2 Identified Quadratic Optimization Technique 195
5.4.9 Comparison of Unconstrained Optimization Methods 200
5.5 Multidimensional Constrained Problem 200
5.5.1 Eliminating Constraints by Transformation 200
5.5.2 Exterior Penalty Functions 200
5.5.3 Interior Penalty Functions 201
5.5.4 Direct Methods for Constrained Problems 202
5.5.4.1 Convex–Concave Property 202
5.5.4.2 Kuhn–Tucker Conditions 202
5.5.4.3 Gradient Projection Method 205
5.5.4.4 Heuristic Gradient Projection Method (HGP) 206
5.5.4.5 Constrained Optimization Sample 208
5.5.5 Comparison of Optimum Constrained Methods 209
5.6 Applications to Machine Elements and Systems 209
5.7 Summary 213
Problems 213
References 216
6 Stresses, Deformations, and Deﬂections 221

6.1 Loads, Shear, Moment, Slope, and Deflection 227
6.1.1 External and Internal Loads 227
6.1.2 Pure Bending 229
6.1.3 Beam Deflection 233
6.1.3.1 Deflection by Integration 234
6.1.3.2 Deflection by Superposition 242
6.1.3.3 Deflection by Singularity Function 243
6.1.3.4 Deflection by Other Methods 248
6.1.4 Simple Beam Synthesis 248
6.1.5 Comparing Stresses and Deflections in Beams 250
6.1.5.1 Beam Stresses 250
6.1.5.2 Beam Deflection 252
6.1.5.3 Equivalent Loads on Simple Beams 253
6.2 Mathematical Model 253
6.3 Simple Stresses, Strains, and Deformations 254
6.3.1 Uniform Tension and Compression 254
6.3.2 Direct Uniform Shear 256
xii Contents
6.3.3 Pure Bending 256

6.3.4 Shear Stress and Deformation Due to Torsion 257
6.3.5 Transverse Shear and Shear Flow 260
6.3.5.1 Shear Center 262
6.4 Combined Stresses 264
6.4.1 Plane Stress State 264
6.4.1.1 Mohr’s Circle 265
6.4.1.2 Principal Stresses and Principal Directions 266
6.4.1.3 Vector Space and Eigenvalue Problem 267
6.4.1.4 Stress Invariants I i 268
6.4.1.5 A Common Stress State 268
6.4.2 Triaxial Stress State 269
6.4.2.1 Stress Invariants I i 270
6.4.3 Applications in Plane Stress and Triaxial Stress States 274
6.4.3.1 Thin Pressure Cylinders 274
6.4.3.2 Thick Pressure Cylinders 276
6.4.3.3 Press and Shrink Fits 277
6.4.3.4 Contact Stresses 278
6.5 Curved Beams 279
6.6 Strain Energy and Deflection 283
6.6.1 Elastic Strain 283
6.6.2 Elastic Strain Energy 284
6.6.3 Castigliano’s Theorem and Deflections 286
6.7 Columns 288
6.7.1 Concentric Loading 288
6.7.1.1 Johnson’s Parabolic Equation 291
6.7.2 Eccentric Loading 292
6.8 Equivalent Element 296
6.9 Thermal Effects 297
6.10 Stress Concentration Factors 300
6.11 Finite Element Method 302
6.11.1 Axially Loaded Elements 304
6.11.2 Prismatic Beam Element 309
6.11.3 Constant Strain Triangle 314
6.11.4 General 3D State: Linear Elasticity Problem 320
6.11.5 General 3D FE Procedure 321
6.11.6 Errors in FE Modeling and Solution 322
6.11.7 Some Classical FE Packages 322
6.12 Computer-Aided Design and Optimization 323
6.12.1 Beam Synthesis Tablet 326
6.12.2 Column Synthesis Tablet 327
6.12.3 Optimum Stress Concentration 328
6.12.4 Optimum FE Prismatic Beams 328
6.12.5 Optimum FE Cantilever Beams 330
6.13 Summary 333
Problems 333
References 341
Internet Links 342
Contents xiii
7 Materials Static and Dynamic Strength 343

7.1 Material Structure and Failure Modes 348
7.1.1 Basic Elements of Material 349
7.1.2 Material Failure Modes and Properties 350
7.1.3 Tensile Properties 351
7.1.4 Other Static Properties 355
7.1.5 Other Time-Dependent Properties 355
7.2 Numbering Systems and Designations 358
7.2.1 Carbon and Alloy Steels 358
7.2.2 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys 360
7.2.3 Other Alloys 361
7.2.3.1 Copper and Copper Alloys 361
7.2.3.2 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys 362
7.3 Heat Treatment and Alloying Elements 362
7.3.1 Heat Treatment 362
7.3.2 Case Hardening 364
7.3.3 Effect of Alloying Elements 365
7.4 Material Propertied and General Applications 366
7.4.1 Cast Iron 366
7.4.2 Plain and Low-Alloyed Carbon Steels 367
7.4.2.1 Hot Rolled and Cold Drawn Plain-Carbon Steels 367
7.4.2.2 Strength and Hardness of Annealed and Normalized Plain Carbon Steels 369
7.4.2.3 Quenched and Tempered Plain Carbon Steels 370
7.4.2.4 Quenched and Tempered Low-Alloy Steels 375
7.4.3 Structural Steel 375
7.4.4 Stainless Steel 376
7.4.5 Tool Steel 377
7.4.6 Other Nonferrous Metals 378
7.4.6.1 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys 378
7.4.6.2 Copper and Magnesium Alloys 378
7.4.7 Other Materials 379
7.4.7.1 Plastics 379
7.4.7.2 Composites 380
7.5 Particular Materials for Machine Elements 381
7.5.1 Standard Machine Elements 382
7.5.2 Synthesized or Designed Machine Elements 382
7.6 Hardness and Strength 383
7.7 Failure and Static Failure Theories 385
7.7.1 Maximum Normal Stress Theory 386
7.7.2 Maximum Shear Stress Theory 388
7.7.3 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (von Mises) 389
7.7.4 Other Failure Theories 392
7.7.5 Comparison and Applications of Failure Theories 394
7.8 Fatigue Strength and Factors Affecting Fatigue 397
7.8.1 Fatigue Strength 398
7.8.1.1 Estimation of Endurance Limit 399
7.8.1.2 Estimation of Fatigue Strength 400
7.8.2 Factors Affecting Fatigue Strength 400
xiv Contents
7.8.2.1 Surface Factor, K surf 401

7.8.2.2 Size Factor, K size 402
7.8.2.3 Loading Factor, K load 403
7.8.2.4 Reliability Factor, K reliab 403
7.8.2.5 Temperature Factor, K temp 403
7.8.2.6 Fatigue Concentration Factor, K conc 404
7.8.2.7 Miscellaneous Factor, K miscel 406
7.8.3 Cumulative Fatigue Strength 407
7.8.4 Fluctuating Stresses 407
7.8.5 Fatigue Failure Criteria 410
7.9 Fracture Mechanics and Fracture Toughness 413
7.9.1 Stress Intensity Factor K I 414
7.9.2 Fracture Toughness: Critical Stress Intensity Factor K IC 415
7.9.3 Crack Propagation and Life 417
7.9.4 Crack Propagation and Real Case Study 418
7.10 Computer-Aided Selection and Optimization 419
7.10.1 Material Properties: Carbon Steel 419
7.10.2 Fatigue Strength and Factors Affecting Fatigue: Carbon Steel 422
7.10.3 Static Strength and Factors of Safety: Carbon Steel 426
7.10.4 Optimization for a Specific Factor of Safety: Carbon Steel 427
7.11 Summary 428
Problems 429
References 434
Internet Links 437
Material Selection 437
Material Standards 438
8 Introduction to Elements and System Synthesis 439

8.1 Introduction 441
8.2 Basic and Common Machine Elements 442
8.2.1 Couplings 443
8.2.1.1 Rigid Couplings 444
8.2.1.2 Flexible Couplings 447
8.2.1.3 Universal Joints 448
8.2.2 Keys, Pins, Retaining Rings, and Splines 449
8.2.2.1 Keys 450
8.2.2.2 Pins and Cotter Pins 450
8.2.2.3 Retaining Rings 451
8.2.2.4 Splines 452
8.2.3 Seals 456
8.2.4 Housings, Enclosures, Frames, and Chassis 459
8.3 Reverse Engineering 469
8.4 Sample Applications 470
8.4.1 Initial Bolt Synthesis 470
8.4.2 Initial Shaft Synthesis 471
8.4.3 Initial Bearing Synthesis 474
8.5 Computer-Aided Design 476
Contents xv
8.6 System Synthesis 479

8.7 Computer-Aided Assembly 480
8.8 Summary 480
Problems 481
References 484
Internet Links 485
Producers and Providers 485
Standards and Codes 486
Part III Detailed Design of Machine Elements 487
Section A Basic Joints and Machine Elements 489
9 Screws, Fasteners, and Permanent Joints 491

9.1 Standards and Types 494
9.1.1 Thread Terminology and Designation 494
9.1.2 Joining Alternative Details 496
9.2 Stresses in Threads 497
9.3 Bolted Connections 498
9.3.1 Threads Under Simple Tensile Load 498
9.3.2 Preloading Due to Tightening 501
9.3.3 Tightening Torque 505
9.4 Bolt Strength in Static and Fatigue 507
9.5 Power Screws 511
9.5.1 Torque Requirements 511
9.5.2 Power Screw Efficiency 513
9.5.3 Stresses in Power Screws 514
9.5.4 Ball Screws 515
9.6 Permanent Joints 518
9.6.1 Welding 518
9.6.1.1 Welding Types and Symbols 519
9.6.1.2 Stresses in Welded Joints 520
9.6.1.3 Welding Strength 522
9.6.1.4 Resistance Welding 522
9.6.2 Bonded Joints 523
9.7.1 Threads Under Simple Tensile Load 527
9.7.2 Preloading Due to Bolt Tightening 528
9.7.3 Preloading, Bolt Tightening, and Fatigue Strength 528
9.7.4 Power Screws 529
9.7.5 Permanent Weldment Joints 531
9.7.6 Optimization 532
9.8 Summary 532
Problems 532
References 536
Internet Links 537
xvi Contents
10 Springs 539
10.1 Types of Springs 542
10.2 Helical Springs 542
10.2.1 Geometry, Definitions, and Configurations 542
10.2.2 Stresses and Deflections 546
10.2.2.1 Static Loading 548
10.2.2.2 Dynamic Loading 548
10.2.3 Buckling 549
10.2.4 Resonance 550
10.2.5 Design Procedure 551
10.2.5.1 Initial Synthesis 551
10.2.5.2 Detailed Design 557
10.2.6 Extension Springs 563
10.2.7 Torsion Springs 565
10.3 Leaf Springs 567
10.3.1 Stresses and Deflections 567
10.4 Belleville Springs 574
10.5 Elastomeric and Other Springs 576
10.7 Summary 579
Problems 580
References 582
Internet: Information and Some Manufacturer 583
Internet: Images 583
11 Rolling Bearings 585

11.1 Bearing Types and Selection 588
11.2 Standard Dimension Series 590
11.2.1 Boundary Dimensions 590
11.2.2 Bearing Designation Number 591
11.3 Initial Design and Selection 592
11.4 Bearing Load 595
11.4.1 Bearing Life and Reliability 595
11.4.2 Load Distribution 597
11.4.3 Bearing Load Rating 599
11.5 Detailed Design and Selection 601
11.5.1 Static Loading 602
11.5.2 Combined Loading 604
11.5.3 Tapered Roller Bearings 605
11.5.4 Unsteady Loading 608
11.5.5 Detailed Design Procedure 608
11.6 Speed Limits 609
11.7 Lubrication and Friction 609
11.8 Mounting and Constructional Details 610
Contents xvii

11.9.1 Initial Ball Bearing Synthesis 611
11.9.2 Dynamic Load Rating Estimate 614
11.9.3 Ball Bearing Selection 614
11.9.4 Rolling Bearing Optimization 615
11.10 Summary 617
Problems 617
References 619
Internet 620
12 Journal Bearings 621

12.1 Lubricants 624
12.1.1 Lubricant Viscosity 625
12.1.2 Lubricant Selection 627
12.1.2.1 Stable Lubrication 628
12.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 629
12.2.1 Petroff’s Equation 629
12.2.2 Journal Bearings 630
12.2.2.1 Long Bearing 633
12.2.2.2 Short Bearing 634
12.2.2.3 Finite Length Bearing 635
12.3 Journal Bearing Design Procedure 641
12.4 Boundary and Mixed Lubrication 646
12.5 Plain Bearing Materials 648
12.6 CAD and Optimization 653
12.6.1 CAD of Bearing Synthesis Using Knowledge Base Practice 653
12.6.2 CAD of Bearing Synthesis Using an Optimization Approach 655
12.6.3 Journal Bearing Synthesis Tablet 657
12.7 Summary 661
Problems 661
References 664
Internet Link 665
Section B Power Transmitting and Controlling Elements 667
13 Introduction to Power Transmission and Control 669

13.1 Prime Movers and Machines 671
13.2 Collinear and Noncollinear Transmission Elements 671
13.3 Power Control Elements 675
13.4 Computer-Aided Design of a Power Transmission System 676
13.5 Summary 681
Problems 681
References 682
14 Spur Gears 683

14.1 Types and Utility 687
14.2 Definitions, Kinematics, and Standards 688
xviii Contents
14.3 Force Analysis and Power Transmission 699

14.4 Design Procedure 701
14.4.1 Classical Procedure 701
14.4.2 Initial Synthesis 704
14.4.3 Detailed Design 710
14.4.3.1 Material Set 710
14.4.3.2 Bending Fatigue 712
14.4.3.3 Surface Fatigue 722
14.5 Critical Speed 732
14.6 CAD and Optimization 734
14.7 Constructional Details 742
14.7.1 Gearboxes 742
14.7.2 Gear Trains 743
14.7.3 Planetary or Epicyclic Gear Trains 745
14.8 Summary 747
Problems 748
References 751
Internet Links 753
15 Helical, Bevel, and Worm Gears 755

15.1 Helical Gears 758
15.1.1 Types and Utility 758
15.1.2 Definitions, Kinematics, and Standards 759
15.1.3 Force Analysis 762
15.2 Bevel Gears 776
15.2.3.1 Initial Design 779
15.2.3.3 Material Set and Safety Factor 780
15.3 Worm Gears 781
15.3.3.3 Material Set and Safety Factor 786
15.4 Gear Failure Regimes and Remedies 787
15.5.1 Helical Gears Synthesis 787
15.5.2 Bevel Gears Synthesis 791
15.5.3 Worm Gears Synthesis 792
Contents xix

15.7 Summary 795
Problems 796
References 799
Internet Links 800
16 Flexible Elements 801

16.1 V-belts 804
16.1.1 V-belt Drive Relations 805
16.1.2 Standards and Geometric Relations 808
16.1.3.2 Detailed Design Process 813
16.2 Flat Belts 818
16.2.1 Drive Relations 819
16.2.2 Standards and Geometry Relations 820
16.3 Ropes 823
16.3.1 Sizes and Properties 825
16.3.1.1 Wire Rope Strength 826
16.3.1.2 Other Wire Rope Properties 828
16.4 Chains 831
16.4.1 Standards 832
16.4.1.1 Chain Size or Number 833
16.4.1.2 Chain Sprockets 834
16.4.2 Drive Relations 834
16.4.3 Set Dimensions and Constraints 837
16.5 Friction Drives 839
16.6 Flexible Shafts 839
16.7.1 V-belts Synthesis 840
16.7.2 Wire Rope Synthesis 844
16.7.3 Roller Chains Synthesis 846
16.8 Summary 849
Problems 849
References 853
Internet Links 854
xx Contents
17 Shafts 857
17.1 Types of Shafts and Axles 859
17.2 Mathematical Model 860
17.3 Initial Design Estimate 865
17.4 Detailed Design 867
17.5 Design for Rigidity 871
17.6 Critical Speed 872
17.7.1 Shaft Materials 873
17.7.2 Computer-Aided Design of Shafts 873
17.7.3 Optimum Design of Shafts 877
17.9 Summary 880
Problems 881
References 885
Internet Links 885
18 Clutches, Brakes, and Flywheels 887

18.1 Classifications of Clutches and Brakes 889
18.2 Cone Clutches and Brakes 889
18.2.1 Uniform Pressure 890
18.2.2 Uniform Wear Rate 891
18.3 Disk Clutches and Brakes 891
18.3.1 Uniform Pressure 892
18.3.2 Uniform Wear Rate 892
18.3.3 Multi-disk Clutch-Brake 893
18.3.3.1 Uniform Pressure 893
18.3.3.2 Uniform Wear Rate 894
18.3.4 Initial Disk Clutch-Brake Synthesis 894
18.4 Caliper Disk Brakes 898
18.5 Energy Dissipation and Temperature Rise 899
18.5.1 Energy Dissipation 900
18.5.2 Temperature Rise 900
18.6 Design Process 901
18.6.1 Initial Synthesis 901
18.6.2 Detailed Design Process 902
18.8 Flywheels 904
18.10 Summary 908
Problems 908
References 911
Internet Links 912
Contents xxi
Appendix A Figures and Tables 913

A.1 Conversion Between US and SI Units 913
A.2 Standard SI Prefixes 914
A.3 Preferred Numbers and Sizes 915
A.4 Standard Rods, or Bars 916
A.5 Standard Joining and Retaining Elements 917
A.6 Standard Sealing Elements 920
A.7 Material Properties 922
A.8 Standard Sections or Profiles and Section Properties 931
Index 949
xxiii
Preface
This book intends to provide the tools to “really design” or “synthesize” machine elements and assembly of
prospective machine elements in systems or products. It employs knowledge base, computer-aided design (CAD),
and optimization tools to directly define appropriate geometry and material selection of machine elements. The
treatment is set in both US and international (SI) units.
For each machine element, there is a chart, a simple Excel sheet or a Tablet, a MATLAB program, or an interac-
tive program to calculate the element geometry and to help in selecting suitable material.
The book is divided into three main parts:
1. Introduction and Design Considerations.
2. Knowledge-Based Design: Introduction to the new machine element synthesis for a real design intent, which
includes bases for computer-aided techniques. Overviews are dedicated for CAD and optimization fields.
Bases for stresses, deformations, and deflections in addition to materials static and dynamic strength are given
as cornerstones to synthesis of machine elements. These knowledge-based tools are utilized in the initial syn-
thesis of machine elements and system.
3. Detailed Design of Machine Elements: Rigorous traditional detailed design requirements are given for basic joints
and machine elements such as screws fasteners and permanent joins, springs, rolling bearings, and journal
bearings. This part of the text also covers power transmission elements such as spur gears; helical, bevel, and
worm gears; flexible elements; shafts; and clutches, breaks, and flywheel.
These parts include the following outline of chapters and enlightening pivotal details:
● The first part covers a basic introduction to machine design and presents several design factors to consider. It
introduces an overview of the design process and the necessary background knowledge and information that is
needed to make sound judgments in decision making.
The introduction discusses the main goal of the text and argues that it is intended to generate or create designs
directly through synthesis rather than designs by repeated analysis. This process is implemented in designing
machine elements. For system or product design, conceptual considerations and innovations are cited to gener-
ate better products or systems that include assembly of some of those machine elements. It necessitates exposure
to the necessary phases of design, basic mechanical functions, codes and standards, design factors, and proper
design approach to end up with a sound design assembly. It is also important to realize that for any product there
is a product life cycle. The design should consider important business measures, economics of scale, technol-
ogy adoption, and the research and development process in the product cycle. Teamwork for complex product
or large system design is indispensable to get the job done in an effective way and on schedule. Design and
development case studies are used to demonstrate the concepts covered in this introduction.
The designer will need to use mathematical modeling tools. Appropriate calculation resources must be at hand
to accomplish a good design. Manufacturing means and needed tolerance limits and surface quality must be
matched to effectively produce the intended design and guarantee its performance. The designer should be aware
xxiv Preface
of available standards, sets of original equipment manufacturer (OEM), and standard components to effectively
use them in the total construction of the design. The design procedure should also account for possible uses
of reverse engineering tools as exemplar knowledge so as not to reinvent the wheel particularly for starters or
design modifications of products or systems. The designer should also be aware of units, codes, and standards
particularly if the design is intended for a foreign client or a certain field with specific operating codes to abide by.
● In the knowledge-based design part of the text, certain introduction to CAD and optimization is presented. It is
necessary to have a thorough overview of these indispensable fields since they are utilized throughout the book
and for being common practice to design engineers nowadays. A thorough understanding of the subject and
techniques provides a solid foundation to use the tools efficiently and without ambiguity or pitfalls.
The ability of using CAD software is very essential to completing the design process of products or systems. It
increases the usage proficiency, allows the assembly of elements in 3D, avoiding interference of geometry, and
allows the utility of exporting elements for finite element (FE) analysis, 3D printing, and CNC code generation.
CAD is used effectively in photo realistic design viewing and presentation. The applications of virtual reality
render even more help in that regard particularly if more complex geometry variations exist. A demonstration
to this effect is also presented.
Optimization understanding is an important factor in the last stage of redesign. It allows the best design to be
implemented rather than the last iteration without a specific objective. The application of optimization tools
provides a strong performance of the iteration process without reaching unrealistic solutions. The proper use of
optimization successfully allows the optimum design of numerous machine elements for some specific objective
or multiple objectives. These optimum elements are offered as a better datum, initial design synthesis, and
further reference to other objectives.
Detailed coverage in those fields with sufficient mathematical treatments is provided in the defined chapters.
Please refer to the table of contents for characterization of these details.
● The real design synthesis approach is introduced in the Knowledge-Based Design part of the book. The neces-
sary knowledge in design foundation is presented. Knowledge about induced stresses and material failure due
to applied loading during intended performance is of a paramount importance. This knowledge is used to syn-
thesize the element geometry and select its material. These are the necessary characteristics of element design
synthesis.
Stress, deformation, and deflection knowledge are essential for full understanding of machine element with-
standing of real loading conditions and defining geometry to do that. Different means of loading calculations and
estimations are introduced including random load variations to appropriately find representative internal shear
and moments inside elements. Stress and deflection considerations are then accounted for and properly evalu-
ated. Simple and combined stresses are considered in evaluating the right state of stress in the element. Simple
straight members representing elements or more complex curved members are considered to evaluate stresses
and deflections in some machine elements. Strain energy means are also used to find deflections in more com-
plex elements. Some special loading considerations are covered in elements such as columns, variable section
members, and thermal effects due to temperature variations. Stress concentration ensued by existing holes,
notches, fillets, shoulders, and grooves must be considered in effectively evaluating the rise of internal stresses
inside the machine elements. The ability of using FE programs is then very essential in evaluating internal
stresses and different deformations due to complex geometry variations and complex loading conditions. Effec-
tive coverage of the finite element technique guarantees the suitable evaluation of machine element responses
to loading conditions. A demonstration to this effect is also provided. The finite element process can be used
effectively after defining both the geometry and the material that are explained in the subsequent chapters for
different machine elements.
Knowledge of material properties facilitates the appropriate selection of the material, which is a significant char-
acteristic of element design synthesis. Materials are defined by specific designation depending on established
Preface xxv
standards. Knowledge of designation allows the identification of material properties that are presented includ-
ing structure and failure modes. A large scope of material variations is provided to allow the consideration of
a wide variety of applications. Special groups of materials that are more suitable for specific machine elements
are predetermined in categories. With this knowledge, the selection of the material for that element is then
focused and narrowed down to a few possible choices. Hardness and strength relations provide support to an
even narrower selection of the material. Distinction between static and fatigue failure theories allows the dis-
tinct definition of the course of action to home in more on the most suitable material to be used. If the case
requires contemplation for toughness due to inevitable notch existence, a fracture mechanics approach is pro-
vided to account for appropriate safety. Cases of safety consideration and strength variations are examined for
failure prevention.
With the knowledge of generated stress and the material selection process, the initial design synthesis approach
of major machine elements is introduced. The intended initial design encompasses the definition of geometry
and the appropriate material of the machine element. CAD and optimization means are employed with this
focused knowledge to directly generate tools (charts, codes, and programs) to define the necessary geometry
(dimensions) of the element. This is the first significant identified characteristic of the initial design synthesis of
the element. The initial design synthesis family of elements covers most machine components such as beams,
columns, fasteners, springs, shafts, gears, bearings, belts, chains, ropes, clutches, etc. The appropriate selection
of material for each of these elements provides the second significant identified characteristic of the initial
design synthesis of the element. For product and system design, reverse engineering tools may provide insight
for proper design innovation particularly for inception or design modifications. Components in these products
or systems are handled specifically as previously synthesized.
● The traditional rigorous detailed design of machine elements can then be enacted after the initial design is syn-
thesized. This process strengthens the concept of the appropriateness of the initial design synthesis. It further
defines the more specific external and internal loading conditions and allows the definite evaluation of safety
and reliability if needed. The process is straightforward since the geometry and material have been decided upon
earlier in the initial synthesis of the element. The treatment is divided into two sections: (A) basic Joints and
Machine Elements and (B) Power Transmitting and Controlling Elements. The first section covers screws, fas-
teners, and permanent joints, springs, rolling bearings, and journal bearings. The second section covers spur,
helical, bevel, and worm gears, flexible elements, shafts, clutches, breaks, couplings, and flywheels.
Detailed coverage of particulars of those elements with extensive mathematical derivations and calculation treat-
ments are provided in the subsequent chapters. Please refer to the table of contents for details.
It should be noted that the coverage includes CAD and optimization of the incorporated machine elements. This
is also provided through numerous computer tools in the form of Excel© Synthesis Tablets and MATLAB© CAD
or CAD codes. Available also is a specialized interactive software (PanDesign) that implements the rigorous
procedures for some basic elements, applying detailed design iterations and further recursion for optimization
in addition to providing assembly of the elements for mostly SI units. This software has been used extensively
by students and by few industries in the past.
The approach and means presented in the book intend to accomplish the following:
● Provides the tools to perform a new direct design synthesis rather than design by a process of repeated analysis.
● Knowledge-based design utilization of CAD tools, software, and optimum component design for the new direct
design synthesis of machine elements.
● Allows initial suitable design synthesis in a very short time (five minutes for a machine element).
● Utility of CAD and optimization to attain better designs.
The synthesis approach has evolved through its implementation in my machine design courses at Cairo Uni-
versity ever since 1988. It has also been implemented for a short time at The American University in Cairo. Other
xxvi Preface
traditional machine design courses have also been taught at several other universities and organizations during
the span of my career.
It is expected that if other fields are treated with the same provided concepts and practices, much better designs
would materialize.
This text is intended for a wide scope of courses. It can be used at the introductory as well as at the advance
level machine design. The book reviews several bases and prerequisites of machine design courses. Prerequisite
knowledge is of most regular capstone machine design courses in most engineering schools around the world.
The book can also cover more than one semester course. The selection of topics for each course depends on the
prerequisite coverage, scope, and objectives of each course. Advanced sections and adequately covered prerequisite
materials can be skipped.
Machine design has been my great interest, hobby, profession, research, and educational field since even before
my graduation with an engineering degree from Cairo University, Egypt in 1965. Since my graduation, it has con-
tinued to be my passion in teaching, consultation, design of mechanical products, developing CAD tools, and in
design optimization applications. During that time, the concept of real design synthesis has evolved and imple-
mented in the machine design courses taught since the 1980s.
Undergraduate engineering major students and junior graduate engineers have limited to little design experi-
ence. That is why they needed a simple tool to generate reasonable designs in a short time with no or very little
iteration. The design should provide synthesis to geometry as well as suitable material selection. The design has
thus far been obtained by utilizing previous knowledge, developed selection charts, CAD, and optimization pro-
cedures. Through this process, the participants have been able to generate component design in a short time.
Almost all machine elements have been designed directly by this knowledge-based concept. Very rigorous checks
are performed afterwards (detailed calculations) to guarantee the suitability and robustness of the original initially
synthesized design. CAD software has also been developed to implement the new concept to several machine ele-
ments and system assembly. It also allowed the users to export the 3D geometry and details to other geometric
modeling (CAD) software.
It is envisioned that the book can provide students and engineers with the new CAD and optimization tools and
skills to generate real design synthesis of machine elements and systems on solid ground for better development of
products and systems. Many of the engineering graduates had this experience and grasped the introduced concepts
and tools. Their feedbacks indicate that they still use their lecture notes as an indispensable reference in their
careers.
Cairo, October 2020 Sayed M. Metwalli

xxvii
Acknowledgments
This text has been the culmination of nourishing knowledge, efforts, responses, and support of my teachers,
colleagues, and students. It is difficult to name all, but one has at least to remember some and most probably
inadvertently miss to mention others. I am indebted to my late teachers H. Fahmy, G. Shawki, S Bayoumi, and
others of Cairo University. In my graduate work, it is my pleasure to have had Roger Mayne as my PhD advisor
and friend at the University at Buffalo. During my professional career, I would like to acknowledge Douglas Wild of
Stanford University, Salah Elmaghraby of NC State, Glen Johnson of Tennessee Tech, Steve Velinsky of UC Davis,
Daniel Inman of the University of Michigan, Panos Papalambros of the University of Michigan, Yasser Hosni of
UCF, Ahmed Shabana of UIC, Judy Vance of Iowa State, Waguih and Hoda El Maraghy of Windsor University,
Mohamed Trabia of UNLV, Georges Fadel of Clemson University, Amr Baz of the University of Maryland, Elsayed
Elsayed of Rutgers University, Ashwani Gupta of the University of Maryland, H Ezzat Khalifa of Syracuse Univer-
sity, Shaker Meguid of the University of Toronto, Farrokh Mistree of the University of Oklahoma, Singiresu Rao
of the University of Miami, David Rosen of Georgia Tech, Jami Shah of Ohio State, Osman Shinaishin of NSF,
Mohamed Zikry of NC State, Mahmoud El Sherif of Drexel University, and many others for inspiring my research
and endeavors. Of my colleagues, I would like to cite M. Younan of AUC and I. Fawzi, M. Elaraby, A. Mostafa,
H. Arafa, A. Ragab, A. Radwan, M. Mokhtar, M. Said, A. Wifi, and the rest of the department faculty members
at Cairo University and so many others for being there. Of my former students and present colleagues, I would
like to mention and thank H. Ghoneim of RIT, S. Megahed of Cairo University, A. Elzoghby of Cairo University,
M. Sharobeam of Stockton University, A. Nassef of AUC, A. Bastawros of Iowa State, A. El Danaf of Cairo Uni-
versity, H. Hegazi of Cairo University, M. Shalaby of GE, and so many others of my graduate students for their
perseverance, tolerance, efforts, and dedication.
I would like to thank Cairo University for providing means and tools to complete the endeavors of this job.
Thanks are also due for the Mechanical Design and Production Engineering Department and its members for the
understanding of the undertaking efforts needed to complete this work. Thanks are also due for the John Wiley &
Sons staff for their patience, tolerance, and dedication in support of producing a proper, consistent, and clear text.
xxix
About the Companion Website
This book is accompanied by a companion website:
https://www.wiley.com/go/metwalli/machine
The website includes:

● Supplementary materials for classroom use
● Solutions Manual
1
Part I
Introduction and Design Considerations

3
1
Introduction to Design
A design is understood to be an object that fulfils a function or performs a job. Different designs can be of objects
other than machines. In engineering, design can be associated with different fields of engineering such as bridges
and highways in civil engineering; ship design in marine engineering; electric motors, computers, and communi-
cation equipment in electrical and electronic engineering; and so on. In mechanical engineering, machine design,
engines, turbines, pumps, and heating or cooling systems are some of the main areas of mechanical design.
Machine design, however, can be defined as the process of getting the design of a machine and its components.
The design of a machine can be understood as the machine form and construction as an object that is made to
perform the function of the machine. The machine is generally a device composed of moving parts to perform
a function that consumes or transforms power or energy. A motorcycle or a vehicle is a machine that transforms
energy into moving a person or persons from one point to the other and consumes energy generated by the engine
or the motor to do so. The consumed energy is spent mainly in overcoming air and ground resistances, accelera-
tion and deceleration, and potential energy for different elevations up or down if no regenerative mean is present.
Figure 1.1 shows an example of a trans-mixer design that transports concrete from a mixing station to a construc-
tion site. The truck carrying the mixer consumes power in continuous rotation and in transporting the concrete
charge over the roads to the construction site. A separate power is usually used to keep the mixer drum continu-
ously rotating during transit, accelerations and decelerations, and pouring the concrete into the desired location
(Badawy et al. 1994). The machine tool is another design of a complex device consuming energy in producing
components by machining or other manufacturing processes. A mechanism is also a machine that is used in many
equipment and other contraptions.
Machine design in this text is considered as the design process of the machine or the design. It involves the
process of assembly of mechanical components to form a design of the machine. In this text the process to get
the component design is done mainly by synthesis rather than repeated analysis. The resulting component is the
design of the component. The process of getting the design is the synthesis of the component. The adopted synthe-
sis process is simple, but it is so sophisticated in the sense of using the maximum utilization of knowledge-base and
previous results of optimization. The handling of different machine elements will demonstrate such a paradigm
throughout the text. Assembly of synthesized optimum components into machine systems should evidently pro-
duce better machines. This is the obvious expected strategy of a better machine design. In general, this chapter
gives an overview of the design process with relations to general machine design and its larger associated fields. It
also covers the standard units used throughout the text and the fundamentals necessarily needed for the successful
understanding through the course of study.
Machine Design with CAD and Optimization, First Edition. Sayed M. Metwalli.
© 2021 Sayed M. Metwalli. Published 2021 by John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/metwalli/machine
4 1 Introduction to Design
Figure 1.1 A trans-mixer design that transports concrete from a mixing station to a construction site. Source: Sayed
Metwalli.
Symbols and Abbreviations

The adopted units are [in, lb, psi] or [m, kg, N, Pa], others given at each symbol definition. [k…] is 103 , [M…] is
106 and [G…] is 109 .
Symbol Quantity, units (adopted)
$ US dollar
∘C Temperature in Celsius, [∘ C]
∘F Temperature in Fahrenheit, [∘ F]
∘K Temperature in Kelvin, [∘ K]
3D Three-dimensional
a Acceleration, [m/s2 ] or [in/s2 ]
A Area, [m2 ] or [in2 ]
A Electric current in ampere [A]
AC Alternating electric current
CAD Computer-aided design
CAD Computer aided drafting
CAE Computer-aided engineering
CAM Computer-aided manufacturing
CAS Computer-aided synthesis
cd Luminous intensity in candela [cd]
Cell Cellular phone
CIP Concurrent idea to product
CNC Computerized numerical control machine
1 Introduction to Design 5
d Diameter, [m] or [in]

DC Direct electric current
E Energy or work, [lb in] or joule [J] ≡ [N m]
F, F Force or force magnitude, [lb] or newton [N]
Fi Force vector i with components F ix , F iy , F iz
F′ or F T Transpose of force vector or matrix F
FBD Free body diagram
FE Finite element
ft Length in foot, 1 ft = 12 [in]
g Gravitational acceleration, 9.806 65 [m/s2 ] or 386.088 [in/s2 ]
H Power, [lb in/s] or [N m/s] ≡ watt [W]
H hp Power H in horsepower (hp), [hp] (1 [hp] = 6600 [in lb/s])
hp Power unit in horsepower, [hp] = 6600 [in lb/s]
Hz Hertz, one cycle per second, [Hz] or [rev/s] or [s−1 ]
i Electric current, ampere [A]
in or ′ Length in inch [in]
ISO International Organization for Standardization
J Energy or work unit “joule” [J] ≡ [N m]
lb Force in pounds of US set of units, pound [lb]
lbm Mass, US pound mass [lbm ]
LED Light-emitting diode
m Mass, SI, kilogram [kg], US pound mass [lbm ]
m Length in meter of SI units, meter [m]
M0 Moment vector at origin point 0
mol Amount of substance in SI system [mol]
N Force unit in SI system, newton [N]
N Rotational speed, [rad/s]
N rpm Rotational speed in revolutions per minute, [rpm]
N rps Rotational speed in revolutions per second, [rps]
NBS National Bureau of Standards
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
OEM Original equipment manufacturer
p Pressure, force per unit area (p = F/A), [Pa = 1 N/m2 ] or [psi = 1 lb/in2 ]
Pa Pressure unit of pascal [Pa] or (1 N/1 m/s2 )
PC Personal computers
psi Pressure unit in US system defined as [lb/in2 ], pound per square inch [psi]
r Twisting arm length, [m]
r1 Position vector of application point “1”
RF Resultant of i force vectors F i
R&D Research and development
RE Reverse engineering
rad Radian angle (2𝜋 rad = 360∘ ) [rad]
s Time (US or SI), second [s]
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SI International System of Units, [m, kg, s]
slug A mass in US set of units, [lb s2 /ft]
STL Stereolithography or standard tessellation language
t Time in seconds, [s]
T Torque, [in lb] or [m N], ([lb in] or [N m])
US United States (customary US units), [in lb s]
v Velocity, [in/s] or [m/s]
wkg Weight of a [kg] mass in Newton
wlbm Weight of a [lbm ] mass in pound [lb]
wslug Weight of a [slug] mass in pound [lb]
W Work or energy E, [lb in] or joule [J] ≡ [N m]
Wi-Fi Wireless fidelity communication network
𝛿 Displacement, [m] or [mm]
𝜃 Angle of rotation in radians, [rad]
𝜔 Angular velocity, [rad/s]
𝜔H Frequency [rev/s] or [s−1 ], hertz [Hz] or [s−1 ]
1.1 Introduction
Machine design is an eventual termination field of mechanical engineering. It should utilize all previous knowl-
edge and innovations in mechanical engineering and other related fields. Some contraptions and inventions,
however, might result from clever minds without significant knowledge of mechanical engineering subjects. These
cases are the exceptions and not the overwhelming rule. The generation of new designs is usually stemming from
individuals with ample knowledge of mechanical engineering, in addition to some capacity for inventiveness and
critical mind for upgrading existing designs. The main constructing blocks of machine design are the machine
components or machine elements. These are covered herein and in most of general machine design textbooks and
references. The thorough analysis of these machine elements is the foundation for their proper utilization in a
whole machine, a product, or a mechanical system. The machine, or the design, or the system is an assembly
of some machine elements to perform certain function or task. The assembly of these elements is created from
scratch or from an imitation to some comparable assemblies that would perform the same function or task. This
conceptual and cognitive process would require experience and knowledge-based methodology. The intention of
this text is not focused on generating products, systems, or machines as such. It focuses on the thorough consid-
eration of the appropriate design or synthesis of the basic machine elements comprising those machines. Better
design of machine elements should normally produce better assembly of components in machines. These are also
provided in some useful applications in here. The goal of this book is to synthesize and employ optimization in a
1.1 Introduction 7
new procedure of a real computer-aided design (CAD). This generates methods that exploit knowledge-base and
optimization for a computer-aided synthesis (CAS) of machine elements. This would almost surely produce better
assembly of mechanical systems or designs.
The traditional design process usually employs repeated analysis to home into the geometry of the element
and the material selection of that element. The repeated analysis is found necessary since most representative
analytical models generate expressions that are implicit and not usually explicit in form. The implicit mathematical
models do not allow the design parameters to be explicitly defined in terms of the other input data or parameters.
As an example for designing a shaft connecting an engine or a motor to an impeller or a fan, the shaft diameter
is not mathematically defined explicitly in terms of all other complex input loads and other essential parameters.
This indicates that it is not simple or possible to have the diameter in an equation as equal to a complex expression
in all other inputs and parameters. Some of these parameters are usually function of the diameter and cannot
be explicitly separated or extracted. Without any previous knowledge of the appropriate solution, iterations are
necessary to reach the proper diameter. Our approach resolves this dilemma by employing preliminary synthesis
that converges close to the proper diameter by employing knowledge-based expectation and simple or formalized
optimization. The process is dubbed here as an initial synthesis. Refinements of results may need a minimum of
further iterations.
Machines, mechanical systems, or products are usually assemblies of some basic machine elements. Standard
machine components are some of these machine elements such as bolts and rivets, standard beams or plates, and
keys, pins, and retaining rings. Some combinations of other basic components form standard machine elements
such as seals, ball screws, couplings, rolling bearings, and chains. Other machine components are mass produced in
specific dimensions to help designer use such elements economically such as springs, linings of journal bearings,
some gears, wires, and ropes. In a mechanical system or product design, one can use already available subsystems in
a total design configuration such as engines, motors, valves, actuators, and even a full transmission or a differential of
a vehicle. Specialized manufacturers provide such subsystems as components of “original equipment manufacturer
(OEM)” to be assembled in other complex products. Inventions are new systems or components that have patents
protections. The use of these inventions should be done with the approval of the inventor or as a whole, which is
produced under the inventor’s consent.
Design of machines or machine components requires ample knowledge and experience. To offset that demand-
ing prerequisites, knowledge-base, CAD, expert systems, and optimum design are utilized to ease the design process.
Few prerequisites are necessary to have sufficient background and some creativity to attain good designs. All
previous studies of subjects and courses in engineering, mechanical, and related fields are indispensable back-
ground knowledge that is very beneficially employed in the design process. Traditionally mechanical engineering
curriculum including mathematics, physics, statics, dynamics, graphics, mechanism’s kinematics, material sci-
ence, strength of materials, and others are basics for machine design. Thermodynamics, heat transfer, and fluid
mechanics are also needed for the design of such interacting systems and designs for these fields. The underlying
tools in these fields are applied mathematics and physics. The need for modeling, calculating, and simulating and
other tools are essential to guarantee, verify, and validate such tools and their results. CAD packages are needed to
accomplish some of such tasks. Several programs are available to perform some of these needs such as 3D geomet-
ric modeling, finite elements (FEs), flexible body dynamics, and other packages. Most of these are, however, analysis
rather than design tools. The design is usually attained by repeated analysis then the result is delivered to the 3D
geometric modeling programs for further processing such as adjusting or checking by some connected finite ele-
ment program. If one starts with a guess of the 3D model, it will take several finite element reruns to iterate or reach
an optimum solution. It would be better to start synthesizing the components and use these as optimum designs
before the 3D modeling and finite element verifications. It is the intention of this text to adopt this approach and
deliver sufficient tools and definite procedures to achieve a significant fraction of this task. Reruns are therefore
minimized to only adjust and fine-tune the design to accommodate other special secondary requirements.
1.2 Phases of Design

Usually, the design process intends to end up with a hardware production of a system, a machine, or a product
for a certain market. In the serious attempts to produce for a market, the design process should go through three
phases. To have a viable competitive product, the first phase of design should be a feasibility study to secure the
potential market success of intentionally produced design. The second phase is the initial synthesis or the prelimi-
nary design to select available alternatives and different configurations as initial design proposals. The third phase
is the detailed design that should generate a final construction of the design and assure its production success.
The following details each of these phases in a general sense. The suggested details are not rigid and should be
adjustable in specifics according to the field of the intended manufacture of a design. Some of these details may be
shifted from one phase to the other or present in more phases with different emphasis. Steps in all phases usually
execute evaluation checks and implement feedbacks to home into step outcome satisfaction.
Feasibility study is a crucial phase with envisioned steps as suggested in Figure 1.2. The objective of this phase
is to develop a set of beneficial designs that are producible and economically feasible. At first, one is to consider
the market need for such a design. Therefore, one must perform needs analysis via market information and inves-
tigation. If there is a need, some desired products can be developed. Using technical expertise and creativity, few
credible and appropriate design concepts and system identification should materialize. Alternative solutions are
thus generated, and various engineering statements of the cases are developed. Applying technical skills, the phys-
ical analysis is accomplished to check if the alternatives are possibly achievable. Realizable alternative solutions
are the defined outcome. The economic and financial feasibilities of the alternatives require economic and finan-
cial considerations. This defines if the production is worthwhile. It should also identify the required capital for
each fabrication line. The outcome conclusion is a set of useful design alternatives. If not, one must go back and
iterate from the start of the feasibility study.
Initial synthesis is the second phase of the process with steps as illustrated in Figure 1.3. The target is to gen-
erate acceptable design proposals satisfying the stipulated needs. Further scrutiny for the selection of best design
concepts requires experience and technical knowledge. The outcome is some tentative selections of most suitable
design concepts to use. Engineering science is then used to generate valid mathematical models to adopt for the
analytical formulation of the performance and synthesis of the designs. This entails generating suitable geometries
and materials for the designs of mechanical components and other parameters for other components. Synthesis
is to generate or create designs directly rather than designs by repeated analysis. This step is the major paradigm
in this text as intended throughout. Further mathematical analysis and adjustments of parameters are needed to
Figure 1.2 Suggested feasibility study steps to control and reiterate

Market feedbacks.
information Needs analysis
Design concepts
and
system identification
Physical analysis
Economics and
financial analysis
Set of useful solutions

1.3 Basic Mechanical Functions 9
Figure 1.3 Suggested initial synthesis steps to control and

reiterate feedbacks. Experience
and Design concept selection
technology
Mathematical model
and synthesis
Sensitivity,
compatibility,
and stability
analysis
Optimization
Projection, prediction,
and testing
Presenting accepted proposals
perform analysis of compatibility, sensitivity, and stability of design parameters. This is to define the proper fit
between components and find sensitive and stable parameters for more appropriately adjusted design. Further-
more, math and computers are also needed to optimize the design for some other objectives in cost or performance.
Applying mathematical trend analysis and conducting tests in labs can provide projection, prediction, and assess-
ment of the design performance into the future. If not so satisfactory, one would feedback to reiterate from the
beginning of the synthesis. With that, a better performance and expectations are attained for the accepted design
proposals.
Detailed design is the last phase of the process to develop improved optimum design that can be produced and
introduced into the market as shown in Figure 1.4. Preparations for such a design necessitate experience and pro-
duce the necessary budget and organization. By means of that and technical knowledge, subsystems, components,
and parts descriptions are realized to guarantee a good fit. Specifications, 3D models, or drawings are subsequently
the outcome. The 3D models or the assembly drawings are defined by utilizing technical experience and software.
These create complete engineering description of the design that fits the requirements. The construction of the
design and its testing should then need workshops and labs to produce a prototype. Redesign and optimization are
further required to generate a better and improved optimum design by employing more mathematical and techni-
cal knowledge. If outcome is not satisfactory, one would feedback to reiterate from the beginning of the detailed
design process. Some aspects of redesign might also require going back to the initial phase of synthesis if some
new features have not been already accounted for or covered in that phase.
1.3 Basic Mechanical Functions

So many mechanical functions are studied throughout the course structure of mechanical engineering curriculum.
Several if not all are necessarily considered in machine design. Depending on the type of design at hand, basic
Figure 1.4 Suggested detailed design steps to control and

reiterate feedbacks.
Experience Preparation for design
Subsystems,
components and
parts description
3D model
or assembly
drawings
Construction
and test
Redesign and
optimization
Presenting optimum design
Table 1.1 Basic mechanical functions and some of their detailed elemental functions for a complex machine.
Basic function Elemental functions
Supporting Attaching, motion constraining, pivoting, removable fastening, limiting, continuous rolling, latching,
fastening, load distributing, force limiting, flexible supporting, and sliding
Power Force or torque or motion transmitting, friction reduction, energy transforming or absorbing, linking,
transmitting coupling, clutching, liquid or gas transferring, pumping, deflecting, lighting, and electrical or signal
conducting
Enclosing Protective covering, shielding, pressure supporting, covering, flexible spacing, and shape constraining
Sealing Sealing, liquid constraining, contaminant constraining, gas constraining, filtering, variable position
maintenance, and vibrations or sound and thermal insulation
Sensing Force sensing and indicating, displacement or position sensing and indicating, pressure and
temperature sensing and indicating, information indicating, and viewing
Controlling Guiding, stabilizing, pressure increasing or limiting, motion reduction or damping or limiting,
partitioning, position restoring, disconnecting, gas switching, power absorbing, sound absorbing,
damping, gas guiding, force or position maintaining, energy storing, liquid or gas storing, torque
limiting, electric switching, electrical amplifying or limiting, and electrical reducing or insulating
Form Appearance, streamlining, artistic shape and color, viewing, and spacing
aesthetics
mechanical functions and other few related non-mechanical functions can be observed as shown in Table 1.1 as
one example of a complex mechanical system such as a helicopter, an airplane, or a vehicle. Categorizing these
elemental functions into basic functions simplifies tackling of complex machines and gives insight into the basic
treatments of these functions. The basic mechanical functions that are of concern in this text are the supporting,
power transmission, enclosing, and sealing functions. The machine components that are considered herein serve
1.4 Design Factors 11
these functions. Beams, columns, plates, rolling and journal bearings, and even shafts are used as supporting
elements. Screws; bolts, rivets, keys, splines, pins, retaining rings, permanent welded or bonded joints, and springs
are also types of supporting elements. They join other elements and cause one to be supported by the other and
carry loads. Springs, in addition, can also be used as part of sensing and controlling elements. Power transmission
components that are the major thrust of this text are elements such as power and ball screws, couplings, gears, belts
and chains, wires and ropes, shafts, flywheels, clutches, and breaks. Flywheels, clutches, and breaks, however, are
also considered as power controlling elements. Enclosing and sealing is extremely important in machine design.
Most of power transmission elements and other machines require housing on frames or in some enclosure. With
components connected to these housings or enclosures, one usually need sealing to prevent fluids or unwanted
particles or materials to be exchanged with either internal or external environment. Even though sensing and other
controlling elements would have mechanical functions, they are usually treated in the measurements and control
courses. Few of our basic machine elements are used extensively in the design of these systems. The treatment
presented herein can be very useful in that regard. Form, texture, and color aesthetics are very essential in so
many designs of products or machines that are used by regular consumers. In designing teams of these products,
there should be some artistic talents to satisfy the aesthetics requirements.
1.4 Design Factors

Of a paramount importance in the design process are factors to be observed, considered, or must be satisfied.
Design performance is an objective for the designer to fulfill and one of the most important and indispensable
factors. The goal to satisfy is that the product design should perform the intended task. Constructional details are
necessary to execute the intended task with the required form, dimensions, and component materials. The design
should also be produced and assembled to perform the task. The product design must also be within a reasonable
cost for intended users. It, therefore, should also be economical to operate and execute the intended task. Some
details of these factors and concerns are as follows:
A. Performance:
It is imperative that performance should be guaranteed first and foremost. The intended performance utility in
terms of productivity, efficiency, accuracy, and so on is the main objective of the design. Safety and reliability
of the produced design should warrant the continuous performance for the expected life of the product. Full
control over performance is also expected. Environmental aspects and factors such as noise level or emission
should be adhered to. The impact of the design on the environment raised concerns and warrants considera-
tion for an added specific objective of design for the environment (Kutz 2007). Other considerations of specific
performance are emphasized such as design for reliability, maintainability, sustainability, and life-cycle opti-
mization (Kutz 2007; Metwalli 2009).
B. Constructional Details:
In constructing the design assembly, important details of the design factors are in order. The main factors are
as follows:
i. Form and dimensions such as shape and geometry, size, and weight are important details that some might
be optimized for space, lightness, or cost. Styling (aesthetics) is of paramount significance for market suit-
ability, acceptability, and likeness.
ii. Appropriate selection of materials is vital to withstand different loading conditions such as forces or heat.
The strength, stiffness, or rigidity of the system or its components should be carefully calculated with
safety and reliability evaluated. Appropriate material selection for intended machine elements are given
in Chapter 7. An introduction to safety and reliability is further scrutinized in Section 1.4C.
iii. To manufacture the design, production processing of each component is selected during the design pro-
cedure. Surface finish and dimensional tolerances are defined to suite the function and the mating fit of
other interacting elements. The surface finish and tolerance would necessitate the selection of the suit-
able production process and the proper machine tool. Details of fits, tolerance assignment, surface finish,
and related manufacturing processes and methods such as casting, sheet metal work, machining, etc. are
covered in Section 2.4.
iv. Assemblies of components or subsystems to complete the design require the considerations of proper fits
between components and needed fittings to assemble. Assembly procedure and disassembly for mainte-
nance should be carefully accounted for during the design process. Most geometric modeling software has
this check as available options; See Section 2.2.
C. Safety and Reliability:
The design should perform the intended function safely and reliably. The safety implies that the maximum
conditions of loading are within the allowable limits. The adoption of an appropriate safety factor guarantees
that all possible loading conditions are accounted for. All loads can be tolerated and should be within the
allowable boundaries. The safety factor is the ratio of the design failure limit and the allowable loading the
design is exposed to. For multiple components, it is expected that the optimum safety factor should be about
the same for all components.
Reliability is a measure that has a value related to the randomness of both loading conditions and properties
of selected materials. It is the higher probability percentage of design survival relative to a lower probability of
failure occurrence. To quantify the reliability, probabilistic design procedure is applied. A limited treatment in
that field is presented later on. Usually a higher safety factor increases the reliability. An extensive treatment
of probabilistic design is beyond the scope of this text; see also Metwalli et al. (1983, 1989).
D. Cost and Economy:
The total cost of the product or the machine including running cost is an important factor for the successful
entrenchment in the market. Reliability can reduce the need for maintenance. Friction, wear, and corrosion
affect running and maintenance cost with the need for lubrication replacement, scheduling, or concern. These
affect product economy and the perception of quality.
1.5 Synthesis Approach to Design

This section presents an introductory synthesis approach to the design of machines that also conforms to the phases
of design in Section 1.2. The main target and objective is to have the intended function or functions as the persistent
primary goal. Without achieving the objective tasks and functions, the design is considered a failure and useless.
The common rules and procedure to synthesize components or systems are general ones pertaining to attitude,
perceptions, and reason. The goal is to synthesize a design for a better performance and other objectives such as
cost. All brain storming tools, imagination, previous knowledge, reverse engineering (RE), dissecting with sketching
of free body diagrams (FBDs), and suitable analysis such as finite element (FE) codes are geared toward achieving
the design objectives.
General procedure to implement synthesis tasks involves the study of function or functions to be attained by
the design. The function is usually dissected into sub-functions or steps, if the faction cannot be attained directly
in one step. All concepts, previous knowledge of similar options, and alternatives should be scanned and scruti-
nized by tools such as reverse engineering (RE) to home into the most appropriate ones. To synthesize, one has to
account for the external loading and the model representing the system to be designed. All standard parts, com-
ponents, and subsystems are exploited to attain reasonable cost. CAD or – better off – CAS tools are used to find
appropriate geometry, topology, and material for each component of the design. Verification tools such as finite
element (FE) codes are to validate the safety of the synthesized design. The manufacturability and maintainability
1.6 Product Life Cycle 13
of the design has a priority during the synthesis process to guarantee that the design is producible and maintain-
able. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) and computer numerical control (CNC) machine codes or standard
tessellation language (STL) code for 3D printing of components can generate prototypes to check on those and
other concerns of design form and performance.
1.6 Product Life Cycle

The usual product life cycle is shown in Figure 1.5. This cycle is valid for any product with the product life cycle
curve varying according to the specific product and may not necessarily be smooth. The curve mostly represents
the sales of the product in the market. The scales of time, sales, and returns are only indicative, relative, and even
nonlinear. The regions for introduction and growth due to development can be steeper or slower depending on the
relative need and reception of the market to product. For instance, growth can be fast for new attractive products
such as movies, personal computers (PC) or tablets, cell phones, and the Internet. The maturity duration can be
very long if the product is a satisfaction of general basic needs such as transportation using internal combustion
engines for vehicles, alternating current (AC) electricity for filament light bulb illumination, and cable phones for
communications. The decline occurs when a new alternative is introduced such as solar-electric vehicles, direct
current (DC) light-emitting diode (LED) lamps, cell phones, and Wi-Fi or satellite Internet, maybe solar-electric
(DC) grid or solar-lighting grid from daylight regions to the night regions on planet Earth, or a closed loop force
generator that may replace internal combustion, jet, and rocket engines. This is when those innovative designs
create new markets and starts a new product life cycle. At this stage the returns per product are usually high due
to the new innovation. The development of the product generates more competitive outfits that add to the growth
of product sales in the market to reach maturity. During this growth period, the returns are usually declining due
to the competition. The stage of maturity is very competitive and requires extensive optimization to reduce cost
and improve sales margins by having more reliable and robust products to increase market share. The returns are
usually modest, and the outfits should be of very large and of massive production size to have worthwhile returns.
Usually outfits in this case would have departments of research and development (R&D) that introduce several
product developments or new product innovations to create new markets or sustain and improve market share.
Introduction Growth Maturity Decline

1.2 Optimum design/cost
improve margins
Relative sales and returns
1.0
Returns Product cycle
Development
0.8
wins market
share
0.6 Sales
0.4 Innovative
designs
0.2 create new
markets
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Relative time
Figure 1.5 Sketch of the usual product life cycle indicating stages of innovative introduction, growth due to developments,
maturity, and decline.
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Machine Design with CAD and

Optimization 1st Edition Metwalli Sayed

Machine Learning and Optimization for Engineering

Linear Algebra and Optimization with Applications to

Machine Learning-based Design and Optimization of High-

Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and

Linear Algebra and Optimization with Applications to

Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning and

Git for Electronic Circuit Design: CAD and Version

Git for Electronic Circuit Design: CAD and Version

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cover Design: Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India

Part I Introduction and Design Considerations 1

Part II Knowledge-Based Design 79

3 Introduction to Computer-Aided Techniques 81

4.4 Rendering and Animation 135

5.4 Multidimensional Unconstrained Problem 179

6 Stresses, Deformations, and Deﬂections 221

6.3.3 Pure Bending 256

7 Materials Static and Dynamic Strength 343

7.8.2.1 Surface Factor, K surf 401

8 Introduction to Elements and System Synthesis 439

8.6 System Synthesis 479

Part III Detailed Design of Machine Elements 487

Section A Basic Joints and Machine Elements 489

9 Screws, Fasteners, and Permanent Joints 491

11 Rolling Bearings 585

11.9 Computer-Aided Design and Optimization 611

12 Journal Bearings 621

Section B Power Transmitting and Controlling Elements 667

13 Introduction to Power Transmission and Control 669

14 Spur Gears 683

14.3 Force Analysis and Power Transmission 699

15 Helical, Bevel, and Worm Gears 755

15.6 Constructional Details 794

16 Flexible Elements 801

18 Clutches, Brakes, and Flywheels 887

Appendix A Figures and Tables 913

Cairo, October 2020 Sayed M. Metwalli

About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by a companion website:

The website includes:

Introduction and Design Considerations

Symbols and Abbreviations

Symbol Quantity, units (adopted)

Symbol Quantity, units (adopted)

d Diameter, [m] or [in]

Symbol Quantity, units (adopted)

1.2 Phases of Design

Figure 1.2 Suggested feasibility study steps to control and reiterate

Set of useful solutions

Figure 1.3 Suggested initial synthesis steps to control and

Presenting accepted proposals

1.3 Basic Mechanical Functions

Figure 1.4 Suggested detailed design steps to control and

Presenting optimum design

Basic function Elemental functions

1.4 Design Factors

1.5 Synthesis Approach to Design

1.6 Product Life Cycle

Introduction Growth Maturity Decline