ABES ENGINEERING COLLEGE GHAZIABAD

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

LAB REPORT

BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB

[BEC-151/251P]

B.Tech 1st Year; I/II Semester

(Branch: All Branches)

Lab Coordinator Approved By:

Mr.Manish Prof. (Dr.) Sanjay Kumar Singh
HOD-ECE
Lab Co coordinator
Mr. Shahbaz Alam
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB ( BEC- 151P/252P )

PART A

1. Study of various types of Active & Passive Components based on their ratings.
2. Identification of various types of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) and soldering Techniques.
3. PCB Lab: a. Artwork & printing of a simple PCB. b. Etching & drilling of PCB
4. Winding shop: Step down transformer winding of less than 5VA.
5. Soldering shop: Soldering and disordering of Resistor in PCB. Soldering and disordering
of IC in PCB. Soldering and disordering of Capacitor in PCB

PART B

1. Study of Lab Equipments and Components: CRO, Multimeter, and Function Generator,
Power supply- Active, Passive Components and Bread Board.
2. P-N Junction diode: Characteristics of PN Junction diode - Static and dynamic resistance
measurement from graph.
3. Applications of PN Junction diode: Half & Full wave rectifier- Measurement of Vrms,
Vdc, and ripple factor.
4. Characteristics of Zener diode: V-I characteristics of Zener diode, Graphical measurement
of forward and reverse resistance.
5. Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE configuration.
6. To study Operational Amplifier as Adder and Subtractor.
7. Verification of Truth Table of Various Logic Gate.
8. Implementation of the given Boolean function using logic gates in both SOP and POS
forms.

Experiments beyond Curriculum

1. To study & Implement Zener diode as a Voltage regulator.
2. To study the working of BJT as a switch.
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO.1

AIM : Study of various types of Active & Passive Components based on their
ratings.

APPARATUS USED: Active and Passive components.

THEORY:

ACTIVE COMPONENTS:
(a) Transistor:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. Other examples of active elements are JFET,
MOSFET, Battery etc.

Fig 1: Transistor

PASSIVE COMPONENTS:
Resistors of various values, Inductors and various types of Capacitors.
THEORY: -
RESISTANCE :-
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as
a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the
resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the
intensity of current through the circuit is called resistance. This
relation is represented by Ohm's law:
I=V/R
Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units
of ohms.

The Resistor Color Code

We all know that we can find the resistance value of any resistor by using an ohmmeter. But what
if we don't have an ohmmeter to use? Most of the case we can find the resistance value easier
by interpreting its marking. Some resistors like wire-wound resistor have its printed value in ohms
in their body. If they don't have the mark, you would require using an ohmmeter. An example of a
resistor which usually have all of the data printed directly on the resistor body with the
information such as tolerance, temperature characteristics, and exact resistance value is the
precision wire wound resistor. Other resistor like the carbon resistors usually do not have the
data of characteristics directly marked on them, instead they have a so called color code by which
they can be identified. You will wonder why it is being done this way for carbon resistors. The
reason of using a color code for a carbon resistor is that they are small which is difficult to read
the printed values especially when they are mounted.
There are two types of carbon resistors, the radial and an axial. They are only differ in the the way
the leads are connected to the body of the resistor. Both employ the same color code but they are
printed in the different manner. Radial lead resistors are not found in modern equipment. They are
widely used in the past. I can't see any example of this now. Below is an example of an axial resistor.
In the picture above this axial lead resistors have its leads molded into the ends of the carbon rod
of the resistor body. If you will see, the leads extend straight out in line from the body of the
resistor. The carbon rod is coated with a good insulator.
Moving on to Color coding system for resistors consists of three colors to indicate the resistance
value in ohms of a certain resistor, sometimes the fourth color indicate the tolerance value of the
resistor. By reading the color coded in correct order and substituting the correct value of each
corresponding color coded as shown in the table below, you can immediately tell all you need to
know about the resistor. The only thing that you will practice on how to use it and familiar
yourselves for those value so that you can easily determine the value of the resistor color coded at
a glance.
 Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance (%)

I II III IV

Black 0 0 100 (1)

Brown 1 1 101 1

Red 2 2 102 2

Orange 3 3 103

Yellow 4 4 104

Green 5 5 105 0.5

Blue 6 6 106 0.25

Violet 7 7 107 0.1

Grey 8 8 108

White 9 9 109

Gold 10-1 5

Silver 10-2 10

(none) 20

The color of the first color band indicates the first digit of the resistance value or the first
significant digit. Let's have an example below.
Suppose that you have a given resistor below, the first color is yellow. If you would look at the
table above it is equivalent to 4.
The second color coded of the resistor given below is violet, so this is now your second digit which
is equivalent to 7 as shown in the table above. The third color would serve as multiplier. In the case
below since it is color red which is equivalent to 100 multiplier, or
just simply add 2 zeros so this would look like this now?

Resistance Measurements

It is important when measuring Resistance that the circuit be de-energized or turned off, or the
circuit may damage the meter. To test resistance,
 Set the function range switch to the desired resistance range.
 Connect the red test lead to the V Ω jack and the black test lead to the COM jack.
 Touch the probes to the test points. The value indicated in the display is the
measured value of resistance.
47 ohm x 100 = 4,700 ohms or 4.7 kilo ohms
The last color band or the fourth color band is gold which has 5% tolerance according to
our table above. Therefore our final answer would be:
4.7 kilo ohms +/- 5%
How to Measure the Resistance
We all know that voltmeter and ammeter are used for measuring the voltage and the current
respectively. For the resistance, the meters that use to measure it is the ohmmeter. When using an
ohmmeter, there should be no voltage present across the resistors except for the ohmmeter battery,
otherwise your ohmmeter would be damaged. I can see two types of ohmmeter nowadays, the
analog and the digital. Among the two ohmmeters, digital is widely used nowadays.

INDUCTANCE :-
The study of inductance presents a very challenging but rewarding segment of electricity. It is
challenging in the sense that, at first, it will seem that new concepts are being introduced. You
will realize as the subject progresses that these "new concepts" are merely extensions and
enlargements of fundamental principles that you learned previously in the study of magnetism
and electron physics. The study of inductance is rewarding in the sense that a thorough
understanding of it will enable you to acquire a working knowledge of electrical circuits more
rapidly.

Characteristics of Inductance
Inductance is the characteristic of an electrical circuit that opposes the starting, stopping, or a
change in value of current. The above statement is of such importance to the study of inductance
that it bears repeating. Inductance is the characteristic of an electrical conductor that opposes
change in current. The symbol for inductance is L and the basic unit of inductance is the MICRO
HENRY (µH). One Henry is equal to the inductance required to induce one volt in an inductor
by a change of current of one ampere per second. You do not have to look far to find a physical
analogy of inductance. Anyone who has ever had to push a heavy load (wheelbarrow, car, etc.) is
aware that it takes more work to start the load moving than it does to keep it moving. Once the load
is moving, it is easier to keep the load moving than to stop it again.
This is because the load possesses the property of INERTIA. Inertia is the characteristic of mass
which opposes a CHANGE in velocity. Inductance has the same effect on current in an electrical
circuit as inertia has on the movement of a mechanical object. It requires more energy to start or
stop current than it does to keep it flowing.

CAPACITOR :-
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used
to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at
least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common
construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are
widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a
potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the
dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate.
Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant
value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to
the potential difference between them.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the
resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems
for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.

.
Theory of operation
Overview
Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric
(orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non- conductive
region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator.
Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion
region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and
isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The
conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric
develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of
charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal
capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of
charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:
Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Capacitance Measurement

A capacitor is a device that stores energy. It is widely used to give a boost of energy at start up
when power is applied to lighting and motor systems. To test a capacitor
 Set the function switch to the desired F(capacitance) range.
 Insert the capacitor leads directly in to Cx socket.
 Read the capacitance directly from display.

OBSEVATIONS:

S.N Component Value using color Value using Error

code (XC) DMM (XM) XC - XM
1 Resistor 1
2 Resistor 2
3 Resistor 3
4 Capacitor 1
5 Capacitor 2
6

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
1.All connections should be tight and right.
2. Components should be handled carefully.
Questions:

Q.1 How do you identify active and passive components?

ANS:

Q.2 How many types of passive components are there?

ANS:

Q.3 Is led active or passive?

ANS:

Q.4 What are the examples of active components?

ANS:

Q.5 What is active and passive elements give examples?

ANS:

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO-02

AIM : Study of Lab Equipments and Components:

CRO, Multimeter, and Function Generator, Power supply-
Active, Passive Components and Bread Board.

APPARATUS USED: : CRO, Multimeter, and Function Generator, Power supply- Active,
Passive Components and Bread Board.

THEORY:-

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate
time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its
reliability, stability, and ease of operation makes it suitable as a general purpose laboratory
instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically in
The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode (negative electrode)
and accelerated towards the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus
grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate
the electron beam and control its intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent
screen is two pair of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and
one pair oriented to give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the
horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections allows the
beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen,
the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This conversion of electron energy
into light allows us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen.
In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first amplified and then
applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam vertically and at the same time a
voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to the horizontal (deflection) plates thus
causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at a uniform constant rate. The signal applied to the
vertical plates is thus displayed on the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves as a
uniform time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use of a sweep
generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of such a generator
is that of a saw tooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application of ne cycle
of this voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the horizontal plate's causes the
beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube face. When the voltage
suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end of each sweep - the beam flies back
to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated periodically, the frequency
of this periodicity is adjustable by external controls.

To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles of the unknown signal that
is applied to the vertical plates must be associated with each cycle of the sweep generator. Thus,
with such a matching of synchronization of the two deflections, the pattern on the tube face
repeats itself and hence appears to remain stationary. The persistence of vision in the human eye
and of the glow of the fluorescent screen aids in producing a stationary pattern. In addition, the
electron beam is cut off (blanked) during fly back so that the retrace sweep is not observed.
CRO OPERATION: A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. In
general, the instrument is operated in the following manner. The signal to be displayed is amplified
by the vertical amplifier and applied to the vertical deflection plates of the CRT. A portion of the
signal in the vertical amplifier is applied to the sweep trigger as a triggering signal. The sweep
trigger then generates a pulse coincident with a selected point in the cycle of the triggering signal.
This pulse turns on the sweep generator, initiating the sawtooth wave form. The sawtooth wave
is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Usually,
additional provisions signal are made for applying an external triggering signal or utilizing the 60
Hz line for triggering. Also the sweep generator may be bypassed and an external signal applied
directly to the horizontal amplifier.

Block Diagram of a Typical Oscilloscope

CRO FRONT PANEL CONTROLS

The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of operating conditions
and thus make the instrument especially versatile. Since many of these controls are common to
most oscilloscopes, a brief description of them follows:
Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination of the graticule.
Focus: Focuses the spot or trace on the screen (control the sharpness of the trace).
Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.

X10: Gives 10 times magnification of the X signal.

XY: Cuts of the time base (use for X-Y display).

CH1/CH2, TRIG1/TRIG2: Switch selects channel & trigger source (out CH1 & pressed CH2)

MONO/DUAL: Selects mono or dual trace operation.

ALT/CHOP/ADD: Selects alternate or chopped in DUAL mode. If mono is selected then enables
addition or subtraction of channel i.e. CH1+ CH2.

EXT.: Allows external triggering signal to be fed from the socket marked TRIG. INP.

LINE: Displayed signal synchronized with mains line frequency.

ALT: Selects alternate trigger mode from CH1 & CH2.In this mode both signal are
synchronized.
AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical amplifier,
or grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input directly to the amplifier; selecting
ac sends the signal through a capacitor (0.1 uf) before going to the amplifier thus blocking any
constant component.

AT/ NORM: Selects auto or normal position. Auto is used Triggering automatically in
NORM the triggering level can be varied from positive peak to negative peak with LEVEL
control.

LEVEL: Selects the Trigger level from peak to peak amplitude of signal.

COMPONENT TESTER: Switch when pressed starts CT operation and you can test diode,
transistor and capacitor without using multimeter.

X-POS: Controls horizontal position of the trace.

INV CH2: Switch when pressed inverts polarity of CH2.DIGITAL READ OUT: LCD window
for displaying Digital read out for V/div & Time/ Div.

Y POS I/II: Controls provided for vertical deflection of trace for each channel.

VOLTS/DIV.: Switch selects V/Div. step for CH1. or CH2.

TIME/ DIV.: Switch selects Time/Div.

Cal. Out: Provides amplitude calibrated square waves of 25 and 500 millivolts for use in calibrating
the gain of the amplifiers.

Operating Instructions: Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the
controls as follows:

 Power switch at off

 Intensity fully counter clockwise
 Plug line cord into a standard ac wall receptacle (nominally 230 V). Turn power
on. Do not advance the Intensity Control.
 Allow the scope to warm up for approximately two minutes, and then turn the
 Intensity Control until the beam is visible on the screen.

WARNING: Never advance the Intensity Control so far that an excessively bright spot appears.
Bright spots imply burning of the screen. A sharp focused spot of high intensity (great brightness)
should never be allowed to remain fixed in one position on the screen for any length of time as
damage to the screen may occur.
Adjust Horizontal and Vertical Centering Controls. Adjust the focus to give a sharp trace.
Set trigger to internal, level to auto.

MEASUREMENTS USING C.R.O

Time Period: - The time taken by an alternating voltage to complete one cycle is called its Time
period, T.
 Measure the number of divisions for a single cycle on the time axis.
 Multiply it by the value indicated by the Times/Div knob on the CRO. This gives
  the Time Period of the alternating voltage.
Frequency: - The number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency of the
alternating voltage. Its unit is Hertz. Frequency is given by the reciprocal of Time period T.
F=1/T
Peak and Peak to Peak Value: - The maximum value, +ve or -ve of the alternating quantity is
known as its peak value. It is also called maximum value or amplitude of the
alternative quantity.

The total voltage measured from -ve peak to +ve peak is called the Peak to Peak voltage.
 Measure the number of divisions on the voltage axis
.
  Multiply it by the value indicated by the Volts/Div knob on the CRO. This gives
the peak value.

RMS Value (Root Mean Square Value):- It is given by the steady dc current which
when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as produced by
the alternating current which when flowing through the same circuit for the same time. RMS value
of alternating voltage is related to its peak value by the relation.

Phase difference: - Consider two alternating quantity of same frequency reaching their peak/ zero
value at different instants of time. gives the phase difference between two
waves from the amplitudes y1 and y2 of the lissajous pattern. Phase difference is given by The
phase difference between two sinusoidal signals of same frequency can be calculated.

Lissajous Pattern: -
An alternate method for comparing two signals is to plot one on the horizontal (X) and the other
on the on the vertical (Y) axis. This will produce Lissajous figures which allow for very quick
visual comparison of the relative frequency and phase of two signals.

1. Set the oscilloscope to operate in X-Y mode (TIME/DIV knob fully CW) with the output of
the transformer still connected to the y-axis (CH1) and the sine-wave adjust the frequency
(slightly) and output amplitude of the function generator output of the function generator,
set to 50 Hz, connected to the x-axis (CH2).
2. Until you repeatedly see a diagonal straight line at an angle of roughly 45º with the
horizontal. Because of changing phases, the signal will slowly drift from a line to sketch the
pattern you observe on the scope at a few representative times as it a circular shape and
back again changes.
3. Switch the oscilloscope back to 2 ms TIME/DIV, chop mode and note the gradual phase
change of the oscillator signal relative to the transformer signal. The signal on which the
scope is triggered should remain steady while the other sine wave gradually drifts to the left
or right. The speed of this drift corresponds to the rate at which your Lissajous pattern
changes shape.
4. Try adjusting the frequency to make the drift larger or smaller, switching quickly back and
forth between XY mode and observe the corresponding effect on the Lissajous pattern.
5. Next, slowly increase the frequency of the signal from the function generator until it is
approximately doubled, and then fine-tunes it to produce a fairly stable Lissajous pattern.
6. Measure the frequency with the scope, confirm that it is roughly 120 Hz and
sketch this Lissajous pattern.

The Pattern can be of following type

OBSERVATIONS:
In the following examples the two sine waves have equal amplitudes.

1. When the two sine waves are of equal frequency and in-phase, you get a
diagonal line to the right.

2. When the two sine waves are of equal frequency and 180 degrees out-of-phase you get
a diagonal line to the left.
3.When the two sine waves are of equal frequency and 90 degrees out-of-phase you get a circle.

4. If the two sine waves are in phase but the frequency of the vertical sine wave is twice the
frequency of the horizontal sine wave you get the pattern shown here.

5. This shows the sine wave 90 degrees out-of-phase with the frequency of the vertical
sine wave three times the frequency of the horizontal sine wave.

Function Generator

Introduction
Counter is a microcontroller based versatile instrument having frequency modulation A function
generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment used to generate different types of
electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common waveforms
produced by the function generator are the sine, square, triangular and saw tooth shapes. The
Caddo 4061-10MHz Function-Pulse Generator - 40 MHz Frequency facility. Any type of output
waveforms can be modulated with the external input signal. A variable frequency control
facilitates accurate frequency measurement. The distortion is kept within 1.8 % typically for
majority of the frequency ranges. Frequencies are displayed in a bright backlit LCD display
controlled by microcontroller. Output can be attenuated as low as 80 dB, giving a minimum of 2
mV level. The rise and fall time of square wave is within 50 ns, thus giving you very good square
wave even at 10 MHz range. Frequency modulation which is taught in the classroom can be
demonstrated very easily to the students using 10 MHz Function-Pulse Generator Caddo 4061
internal or external modulation.

Features

 Sine, Square, Triangle, Ramp, Pulse & TTL Outputs

 Fully microcontroller Based Function Generator
 1 Hz to 10 MHz Frequency Range

 20 Vpp Signal Output

 Frequency Modulation

 DC Offset

 20 & 40 dB fixed and 20 dB variable attenuation

 LCD Controlled individual Keys

 Low Distortion
 Compact & Lightweight

Technical Specifications
Operating Modes Frequency Range

Frequency Accuracy Sine wave Distortion

Square wave / Pulse rise
& Fall time
Pulse Duty Cycle
: Sine, Square, Triangle, Ramp, Pulse and TTL
Triangle Non-Linearity : 1 Hz - 10 MHz in 7 steps (for sine wave)
Display : 1Hz -3MHz (for other waveforms)
Output impedance : ± 0.5%
Output Voltage : 1.8 % typical
Attenuation :  50ns

Level Flatness : 15 % - 85 % variation (minimum width 200ns)

DC Offset :  1%
Modulation : LCD controlled individual keys
Modulation Frequency : 50Ω
Range : 20Vpp (Open Circuited)
Modulation Input : 20 dB&40 dB (fixed)
Frequency Counter
Frequency Range : 0.5 dB (1 Hz to 3 MHz)
Resolution : 1.5 dB (10 MHz Typical)
Sensitivity : ± 5V (approximately) adjustable
Frequency Accuracy : Frequency Modulation
Frequency Display : DC to 20 KHz
Input Impedance
Maximum Input Voltage : 2Vpp (maximum)
Power Supply : 40 MHz
Power Consumption : DC to 10 MHz
Operating Conditions : 1 Hz
Dimensions (mm) : 0.5Volts
Weight : ± 0.5%
: LCD controlled individual keys
: 1M
: 200V (DC + AC Peak)
: 230V AC ± 10%, 50Hz
: 12VA (approximately)
: 0 - 40°C; 90% RH
:
: 3 Kgs. (approximately)
1. Power: Push switch to supply power to the instrument.
2. LCD Display: 16 x 2 Character bright backlit liquid crystal display.
3. Frequency: Used for selection of frequency range step by step.
4. Function: Used for selection of Particular waveform.
5. Modulation: Used for selection of different types of frequency Modulation.
6. FG/FC: Used for selection of Function Generator or Frequency Counter Mode.
7. Duty Cycle: When pulse output function is selected this controls the pulse duty cycle
from 15% to 85%.
8. Frequency Variable: In conjunction with Frequency Range Menu (3) this varies
the output frequency.
9. Amplitude Variable: In conjunction with attenuators (13), this varies the level
of output.
10. DC Offset: This
control provides DC
offset. Approximately ±
5 V DC is
superimposed on the output.
Keep the control off if DC offset is not required.
11. Output (BNC Connector) : Output of 10 MHz function generator i.e. 2 Vpp
(open circuited)
12. FM Input: Maximum
Frequency Modulation Input
i.e. 2 Vpp.
13. Attenuator: A combination of 20 dB and 40 dB attenuation is provided. When both
pressed it becomes 60 dB.
14. External Counter (BNC Connector): Input BNC connector for measuring the 40
MHz frequency of external signal when External Counter mode is selected
individual keys on LCD display.
Operating Instructions:
Frequency Adjustment:
Coarse adjustment is performed with the key (3) divided into decades. The desired
frequency is selected by turning the variable frequency control (8). The selected frequency
appears on the LCD display (2).
Function Selection:
The nature of output signal is selected by using Key (4). The total number of 6 different
waveforms-sine, square, triangle, ramp, Pulse and TTL are available.

Signal Output:
Connect a BNC-BNC cable at the output and other end to Oscilloscope. Keep both the
attenuators (20 dB & 40 dB) in released the position. Adjust the desired output with the
help of Amplitude variable (9) and Attenuator switch (13). The generator provides a
maximum of 20Vpp and minimum of 2mVpp (approximately) output. It is recommended
to use the terminated cable (50Ω) for observing square wave or pulses to reduce
overshoot and ringing etc. With 50Ω termination the maximum output is 10Vpp.

FM Input Modulation:
The Caddo 4061 has frequency modulation capability. The user can select the
modulation by Key (6). If no modulation is desired, keep it in 'Off' position. The
modulation signal is to be fed to FM Input maximum 2Vpp BNC (12), with the voltage
level not exceeding 2Vpp respectively.
The user can select frequency and function and then select the desired modulation. The 10
MHz generator of the instrument acts as carrier frequency source. The modulated output is
available at Output BNC (11). When FM is selected by Oval key you will observe frequency
modulation. Here again FM modulation increases as the input level is increased. Keep
maximum modulation input to 2Vp

DIGITAL MULTIMETER

THEORY: A meter is a measuring instrument. An ammeter measures current, a

voltmeter measures the potential difference (voltage) between two points, and an
ohmmeter measures resistance. A multimeter combines these functions and possibly
some additional ones as well, into a single instrument. Digital meters give an output in
numbers, usually on a liquid crystal display.
Setting the Range
The dial also plays another essential role in measuring electricity - that of determining the
range of measurement. The range you select on the dial determines the placement of
the decimal point as it appears on the LCD. In turn, the position of the decimal point
determines how refined, or precise, your reading is. This is called resolution
Symbols Measurement Descriptions
Functions Measures amount of AC
V AC Voltage Electrical Pressure
Measures amount of DC
DC Voltage Electrical Pressure
(1/1000)A
mV Mille volts Measurement of resistance to
A Ohms the flow of current.

mA Mille Amperes
 ohms
Instrument Input Jacks or Ports
The input jacks or ports of your meter are the working ends of the instrument. Use care
when connecting leads to your instrument. Pay close attention and be sure to connect the
leads into the correct port that is marked for the measurement selected on the dial.

MEASUREMENTS

Voltage Measurements
A) DC Voltage Measurements

To measure DC voltage
 Place the Red lead into the V Ω port and black lead into the COM port.
 Turn the dial or switch to VDC or
 Connect it in parallel between the two points where the measurement is to be
made as shown in figure below.

B) AC Voltage Measurement:

To measure AC voltage
 Place the Red lead into the V Ω port and black lead into the COM port.
 Turn the dial or switch to VAC or
 Connect it in parallel between the two points where the measurement is to be
made.

C) Current Measurements

To measure current

 Turn Power Off before connecting multimeter

 Break Circuit
 Place multimeter in series with circuit
 Select highest current setting, turn power on, and work your way down.
 Turn power off
 Disconnect multimeter.
 Reconnect Circuit
 OBSERVATION: S. Name of the component Measured value
No. (using DMM)

1. Diode

2. Transistor

3. Transistor

4. Transistor hfe

5. AC Voltage

6. DC Voltage

7. Current

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:

 Do not uses DMM if is or test leads look damaged, or if you suspect that the meter is not operating
properly.
 Never ground yourself when taking electrical measurements.
  Turn off the power to the circuit under test before cutting, unsoldering or breaking the circuit.
Small amount of current can be dangerous.

 When using the probes, keep your fingers behind guards on the probes.
 Measuring voltage, which exceeds the limits of the multimeter, may damage the meter and expose
the operator to a shock hazard. Always recognize the meter voltage limits as stated on the meter.

Questions:
Q.1 What are the applications of C.R.O.
ANS:

Q,2 What are the applications of Digital Multimeter.

ANS:

Q.3 What are the applications of Function Generator.

ANS:

Q.4 What are the applications of Power supply.

ANS;

Q.5 What is the difference between active and passive components.

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO:03

AIM: P-N Junction diode:

Characteristics of P-N Junction diode –
Static and dynamic resistance measurement from graph.

APPARATUS USED: Breadboard, Multimeter, Variable DC Power Supply (0-IV, 0-l0V), Resistance
(lkΩ), Diode (IN4007) and Connecting Wires.
THEORY:
When a p-type semi-conductor is joined to an n-type semiconductor, the electrons & holes in the region will
combine and resulting a lack of carries in the regions near the junction. This region of uncovered positive &
negative ions is called the depletion region. The diode is a two terminal device.

Forward Characteristics:

The circuit arrangement for obtaining forward characteristic of diode is shown in fig. In this circuit, the diode
is connected to a variable dc supply and to a resistance RL. The resistance RL is included in the circuit so as
to limit the current through the diode. If excessive current is permitted to flow through a diode, it may get
permanently damaged. A voltmeter is connected across the diode to measure the voltage whereas
milliammeter measures current in the circuit. In the forward bias, positive terminal of the voltage source is
connected to the anode of a diode & negative terminal to the cathode. Let us gradually increase the voltage
in small steps about 0.1 V and record the corresponding values of diode current. Now if we plot a graph with
voltage across the diode along the horizontal axis and diode current along vertical axis, we shall get a curve
called the forward characteristic of p-n junction diode. When the diode is forward biased, the barrier potential
is reduced. The majority carriers diffuse across the junction .as the applied bias increases in magnitude the
depletion region will continue to decrease in width until a flood of electrons can pass through the junction,
resulting in an exponential rise in current. The voltage at which this happens is called knee voltage. Its value
is equal to 0.7V for Si & 0.3V for Ge.

Reverse Characteristics:
The circuit arrangement for obtaining the reverse characteristics of diode is shown in fig .The negative
terminal of the voltage source is connected to the anode of a diode and, positive terminal of the source is
connected to terminal of the source is connected to cathode so a diode. Hence the diode is reverse biased.
The applied reverse voltage is gradually increased in suitable steps and the values of diode current are
recorded at each step. Now if we plot a graph with reverse voltage along the horizontal axis and the diode
current along the vertical axis, we get a curve referred as reverse characteristic of diode.

A careful study of reverse characteristic indicates that when the applied reverse voltage is below the
breakdown voltage (VBR), the diode current is small and remains constant.

Static Resistance: Static resistance of a diode is given by cotangent of angle α

Rf = VA/ IA = Cot α

Dynamic Resistance:- The resistance offered by diode to ac signal (small ac current) is called dynamic or
ac resistance. The ac resistance of a diode at particular voltage, is equal to reciprocal of slope of characteristic
at that point.
 Rf = ∆V/∆I

Where ∆V=VB –VA , ∆I=IB-IA

CHARACTORISTIC OF STATIC AND DYNAMIC RESISTENCE

PROCEDURE:

For forward bias:

1) Make connections as shown in circuit diagram.

2) Apply variable dc voltage across the diode in FB.

3) Note down corresponding current from mA & voltage from voltmeter repeat The process again.

4) Plot a graph between forward voltage and forward current. For reverse bias:

5) Now connect the diode in RB & apply variable dc voltage at n-terminal of p-n junction diode.

6) Note down corresponding current from micrometer & voltage from voltmeter, Repeat The process again.

7) Draw the characteristic between reverse voltage & reverse current.

Observations:

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

S.No. VD ID (mA) VR (Volt) IR (mA)

CALCULATION: - Comparing practical and theoretical values.

RESULT:
PRECAUTIONS:
I) All connections should be tight.

2) All steps should be followed carefully.

3) Readings should be taken carefully.

4) Do not tough live materials.

5) Assume a scale for V-I characteristic in forward & reverse biasing.

6) Never increase RB voltage up to breakdown voltage for an ordinary diode.

Questions:
Q.1 How many junctions does a diode have?
ANS:

Q.2 What are the major applications of pn junction?

ANS:

Q.3 What devices use pn junctions?

ANS:

Q.4 What are the possible causes that may destroy a pn junction?
ANS:

Q.5 Why PN junction is called a diode?

ANS:

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 04

AIM: Applications of PN Junction diode: Half & Full wave rectifier-

Measurement of Vrms, Vdc, and ripple factor.

APPARATUS USED: - Transformer (simple and centre-tape), diode IN4007, Resistance 1KΏ,
Capacitor 10μF/16V, C.R.O. and Connecting wires.

THEORY: - Rectifier is a device, which converts AC voltage into either positive or negative pulsating DC
voltage. PN Junction diode can be used for rectification. The rectifier typically needs one, two or four diodes.
Rectifier may be either half-wave or full wave (centre-tap).

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER: - The half wave rectifier circuit using semi-conductor diode with a load
resistance RL but no smoothing filter is shown in Fig. The diode is connected in series with the secondary of
the transformer and load resistance RL, the primary of the transformer is being connected to the AC supply
mains. For the positive half cycle of the AC input the diode conducts and positive half cycle is obtained in
the output but the negative half cycle is suppressed by the diode as it conducts in one direction only. This is
half wave rectification and out-put is a pulsating DC.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (CENTRE-TAP): - In a centre -tap full wave rectifier as shown in Fig. The
AC input applied through a transformer, the anodes of two diodes DI and D2 are connected to the opposite
ends of the centre-taped secondary winding two cathodes are connected two each other and are also connected
through the load resistance RL and back to the centre of the transformer as shown fig.)n the first half cycle
assume the tap of secondary winding is positive. The anode of diode DI is positive w.r.t. cathode, anode of
D2 is negative w.r.t. cathode. Thus only diode DI conducts, being forward biased and current flows from
cathode to anode of diode D 1, through load resistance, top halt of transformer secondary making cathode
end of load resistance RL positive. During the second half cycle of the input voltage the polarity is reversed,
making the bottom of the secondary winding positive w.r.t. centre-tap and thus diode D2 is FB and diode DI
is RB. Consequently, during this half cycle of input only the diode D2 conducts and current flows through
the load resistance RL bottom of the transformer secondary making the cathode end of the load resistance
RL positive. Thus the direction of the flow of through the load resistance RL remains the same during both
halves of the input supply voltage. DC component and AC components called ripples. This ripple current is
undesirable and its value should be the smallest possible in order to make the rectifier effective. The ripple
voltage /current is measured in terms of ripple factor which is defined as the ratio of effective value of AC
components of voltage (or current) present in the output from the rectifier to the average value of the output
voltage (or current)
i.e. Ripple factor

𝑽𝒎 𝑉𝑚
Where 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = (For Half wave) 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (For Full wave)
𝟐 2

𝑉𝑚 2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = (For Half wave) 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = (For Full wave)
𝜋 𝜋
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuits as shown in fig

2. Apply sinusoidal AC voltage input to the circuits respectively.
3. Observe the corresponding output waveform on CRO screen. . Trace the l/P wave shapes for all
the three circuits from CRO screen.
4. Trace the l/O wave shapes for all the three circuits from C.R.O screen.
CALCULATION:

1) FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:

2) FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

OBSERVATION:

Half Wave Full Wave

S. No. Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical
value of r value of r value of r value of r

RESULT:
PRECAUTIONS:

1. All connections should be right and tight.

2. Readings should be obtained carefully.
3. The peak value of applied voltage should be less than of PI V diode.

Questions:
Q.1 Why full-wave rectifier is efficient than half wave rectifier?
ANS:

Q.2 How many diodes are used in half wave rectifier?

ANS:

Q.3 Which circuit can be used as a full-wave rectifier?

ANS:

Q.4 What is ripple factor?

ANS:

Q.5 What rectifier does?

ANS:

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 05

AIM: Characteristics of Zener diode:

V-I characteristics of Zener diode, Graphical measurement of forward and reverse resistance.

APPARATUS USED: - Regulated DC power supply, Multimeter, bread -board, resistance (680Ω),
Zener diode (5.6V) & connecting wires.

THEORY: - A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if reverse bias is
increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage it starts conduction heavily. This
voltage is called breakdown voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage it. To avoid
high current, we connect a resistor in series with it. Once the diode starts conducting it maintains almost
constant voltage across its terminals whatever may be the current through it i.e. it has very low dynamic
resistance. A Zener diode is a p-n junction diode specifically made to work in the breakdown region. It is
used in voltage regulation.

PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the circuit diagram as per the Fig . Apply the supply to the circuit.
3) Observe the output in RB mode.
4) Note down the readings.
5) Plot the V-I characteristics of Zener diode on graph paper.
6) Calculate the forward and reverse resistance by graph.
ZENER DIODE FORWARD & REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF ZENER

ZENER FORWARED AND REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS

OBSERVATIONS:

S. No. Reverse Voltage Reverse Current Forward Voltage Forward Current

(Volt) (Amp) (Volt) (Amp)

𝑉𝐹
Forward Resistance: 𝑅𝐹 = 𝐼𝐹

𝑉𝑟
Reverse Resistance 𝑅𝑟 = 𝐼𝑟

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All connections should be tight and right.

2. Make circuit carefully as per diagram.
3. Take reading carefully.

Questions:
Q.1 What is Zener diode.
ANS:
 Q.2 How do you solve a Zener diode question?
ANS:

Q.3 What is the work of a Zener diode?

ANS:

Q.4 What is a Zener diode used as?

ANS:

Q.5 How do you identify a Zener diode?

ANS:

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 06
AIM: Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE configuration.

APPARATUS USED:

Regulated DC power supply, Multimeter, bread -board, Transistor (BC-I07 B), Resistance (l00Ώ) &
connecting wires.

THEORY:

A transistor is a three-terminal active device. The three terminals are emitter, base and collector. In CE
configuration we make the Emitter terminal common to the other two terminals. For normal operation Base-
emitter junction is FB & collector emitter junction is RB. The I/P characteristic is a plot between I B & VEB
keeping voltage VCE constant. This characteristic curves is very similar to that of a FB diode. The OlP
characteristic curves are plotted between Ic & VCE, keeping IB constant. These curves are almost horizontal.
The collector current Ic is less than, but almost equal to the emitter current. The current divide into Ic & I B.
That is
IE = Ic + IB

COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION:

The circuit arrangement for determining CE characteristics of a transistor is shown in Fig.

INPUT CHARACTERISTICTS: -
The common-emitter input characteristics are plotted between base current I B and the emitter-base voltage
VBE, for different values of collector-emitter voltage V CE. Fig shows typical input characteristics for a NPN
transistor common-emitter configuration. For a given value of VCE, the curve is just like the diode
characteristic in forward bias region. Here, the emitter-base is the NP-junction diode that is forward biased.
This junction becomes a better diode as VCE increases. That is, there will be a greater IE for a given VBE as
VCE increases, although the effect is very small.

OUTPUT CE CHARACTERISTICS:
For the same NPN transistor in CE configuration, a set of output characteristics are shown in fig. The output
characteristic curve indicates the way in which the collector current Ic varies with change in collector-emitter
voltage VCE, with the base current IB constant.
1. The collector current Ic is approximately equal to the emitter current I E. This is true only in the active
region, where collector-emitter junction is reverse-biased.
2. In the active region, the curves are almost flat. This indicates that Ic (for a given IB) increases only slightly
as VCE increases. It means that the transistor should have high output resistance (R O).
3. As VCE become negative (the collector-emitter junction becomes forward biased), the collector current Ic
(for a given IB) sharply increases. This is the saturation region. In this region, the collector current does not
depend much upon the emitter current.
PROCEDURE:
1) Make the circuit diagram as per the Fig.
2) For I/P characteristic, first fix the voltage VCE, say at 1V. Now vary the voltage VEB.
3) Repeat the above for another value of VCE, say 2V.
4) For O/P char., first fix the base current, say at 1mA. I/P circuit should be closed.
Adjust the base current IB to say I mA. Again vary the voltage VCE in steps. Note current Ic for each. Repeat
this process for 3 to 4 different values of base current (say 2mA, 3mA, 4mA etc.). See to it that you do not
exceed the maximum ratings of the transistor.
5) Plot the I/O characteristics by using the readings taken above.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAME OF CE TRANSISTER CONFIGURATION

I/P CHARACTERISTIC OF CE TRANSISTER CONFIGURATION

 O/P CHARACTERISTIC OF CE TRANSISTER CONFIGURATION

OBSERVATIONS :

1. I/P characteristics for CE Bias

VCE = 1V VCE = 2V VCE = 3V

S. No VEB ( mV) IB (mA) VEB ( mV) IB (mA) VEB ( mV) IB (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

2. OlP characteristics for CE Bias

IB = 1mA IB = 2mA IB = 3mA

S. No. VCE(V) IC( mA) VCE(V) IC( mA) VCE(V) IC( mA)

RESULT:
PRECAUTIONS:
1) Connections should be right & tight.
2) All steps of procedure should be followed carefully.
3) The readings should also be taken carefully.

Questions:
Q.1 What is BJT draw characteristics of CE configuration?
ANS:

Q.2 What is the current gain of BJT in CE configuration?

ANS:

Q.3 What is a characteristic of a bipolar junction transistor BJT common emitter configuration?
ANS:

Q.4 What are the applications of CE configuration?

ANS:

Q.5 What is the meaning of CE configuration?

ANS:

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 07

AIM: To study Operational Amplifier as Adder and Subtractor.

APPARATUS USED: Resistor (10 k ohm-4), Op-amp 741, Regulated DC power supply, Function
generator, Connecting wires, C.R.O, Bread board.

THEORY:

(1) Adder : The summing circuit using Op-amp as inverting mode configuration with two
inputs V1, V2 is shown in Figure1. This circuit acts as a summing amplifier that means at
the output we get is the addition of the inputs. Output equation is given as

Vo= - Rf /R1 (V1+V2)

Where R1=R2

V1and V2 can be considered in the range (0-5V)

(2) Subtractor: Difference circuit using Op-amp is shown in fig 2. This circuit act as a difference
means when the input V1 and V2 is given at two input terminals as shown in the circuit then
the output at output terminals is the difference of the two inputs.
 Theoretical equation is given as
Vo =Rf / R1 (V2-V1)
Where R1=R2

V1and V2 can be considered in the range (0-5V).

PROCEDURE:

(a) Connect the circuit as shown in the Figure1 for adder and Figure 2 for subtractor.
(b) Apply power supply voltages to pin 7 and pin 14
(c) Apply the input voltages V1 and V2.
(d) Vary the input voltages and note the output.
(e) Measure the output on multimeter or CRO.
(f) Verify this output with theoretical equation.

Observation Table

Summing amplifier (Rf =R1=10K)

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be tight and right.
2. Make circuit as per circuit diagram carefully.

Questions:
Q.1 How can we use operational amplifier for adder and subtractor?
ANS:

Q.2 What is subtractor in operational amplifier?

ANS:

Q.3 What are the ideal characteristics of an operational amplifier?

ANS:

Q.4 How can op-amp be used as subtractor?

ANS:
Q.5 What is subtractor explain?
ANS:

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 08
AIM: Introduction to digital electronics lab- nomenclature of digital ICs, specifications, study of the data
sheet, Concept of Vcc and ground, verification of the truth tables of logic gates using TTL ICs.
THEORY:

Nomenclature of digital IC

In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip) is a
miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components)
that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material. Integrated circuits
are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics.

Transistor-Transistor Logic uses bipolar transistors to form its integrated circuits. TTL has changed
significantly over the years, with newer versions replacing the older types.

Since the transistors of a standard TTL gate are saturated switches, minority carrier storage time in each
junction limits the switching speed of the device.. Schottky transistors have a much higher switching speed
than conventional transistors because the Schottky junction does not promote charge storage, leading to faster
switching gates. Gates built with Schottky transistors use more power than normal TTL and switch faster.
With low power Schottky circuits, internal resistance values were increased to reduce power consumption
and increase switching speed over the original version. The introduction of Advanced Low Power(ALS)
further increased speed and reduced power consumption. A faster logic family called 'Fast TTL' (F) was also
introduced that was faster than normal Schottky TTL.

Nomenclature Characteristics
74 Original TTL technology
74S TTL employing Schottkey transistors
74LS TTL employing Schottkey transistors. Less
power consumption
74AS Advanced Schottkey TTL. Twice as fast as the
“S” series
74ALS Advanced Schottkey TTL. Less power
consumption
74F Fast TTL (between 74AS and 74ALS)
74HC Employs high-speed CMOS transistors. For use
with CMOS-only circuits
74HCT High-speed CMOS with TTL-compatible logic
levels
74VHC Very high-speed CMOS
74VHCT Very high-speed CMOS with TTL compatibility
Specifications of Digital IC:

1. Fan-out / Loading: The fan-out of a gate specifies the number of standard loads that can be connected
to the output of the gate without degrading its normal operation.
A standard load is usually defined as the amount of current needed by the input of another gate in the
same logic family.

2. Power dissipation: It is parameter expressed in mW and represents the

amount of power needed by the gate. The amount of power that is dissipated in a gate is calculated
from the supply voltage Vcc and current Icc that is drawn by the circuit.

The average power dissipation:

PD(avg)= Icc (avg) x VCC

Where Icc (avg) = (ICCH + ICCL) /2

ICCH – The current drawn from the power supply when the output of the gate is in the high logic level
ICCL – The current drawn from the power supply when the output of the gate is in the low logic level

3. Propagation Delay: The propagation delay of a gate is the average transition delay time for the signal
to propagate from input to the output when the binary signal changes in value. It is measured in
nanosec.

4. Noise Margin: Noise margin is the maximum noise voltage added to an input signal of a digital
circuit that does not cause an undesirable change in the circuit output.

Noise margin = VOH – VIH or VOL - VIL

Study of data sheet:

The true character and suitability of application of a device or component in a design is revealed by data
sheet. A data sheet provides the following information:
1. It gives the electrical and environmental conditions under which the device parameters have been
measured.
2. A data sheet also contains information about important parameters as a function of other relevant
electrical and environmental parameters.
3. A datasheet include some application circuits as recommended by the manufacturer.
4. A detailed datasheet offers a range of characteristic curves showing variation of important parameters
as a function of other relevant parameters, internal schematic diagram in the case of linear and digital
integrated circuits and typical application circuits.
5. The datasheets invariably include a sketch with device dimensions and lead identification, outline of
the package styles of the device and other mechanical information.
6. Detailed schematic of the internal structure of the device is also given in the datasheet in the case of
linear and digital integrated circuits. It helps the designer to correlate the electrical features with its
internal architecture, and can sometimes help to explain device behavior not otherwise described in
the datasheet.
7. Absolute Maximum Ratings list voltages, currents, powers and operating and storage temperature
ranges that should never be exceeded. These ratings are stress ratings. Stresses above those listed
under these ratings may cause permanent damage to the device or affect device reliability.
8. Performance curves of interest as a function of voltage, current, temperature, frequency etc. are also
given. These include device's characteristics such as drain current versus drain voltage (Drain
 characteristics) or drain current versus gate voltage (Transfer characteristics) in the case of a FET and
emitter voltage versus emitter current in the case of a UJT.
9. Electrical characteristics are usually given in tabular form indicating a spread in parametric values
that is likely to occur in a batch of devices in terms of minimum, typical and maximum values. It is a
vital design input as in some cases spread in values could be as much as an order of magnitude.

Verification of truth tables of logic gates using TTL ICs

OR gate [2 – INPUT OR GATE – 7432LS]

AND gate [ 2 INPUT AND GATE – 7408 LS ]

NOT gate [ 7404 LS]

NAND gate [ 2 INPUT NAND GATE – 7400 LS]

NOR gate [ 2 INPUT NOR GATE – 7402 LS]

EXOR gate [ 2 INPUT EXOR GATE – 7486LS]

PROCEDURE:
1. Fix the IC on the bread board one by one.
2. Connect the power supply and ground at the appropriate pin no of IC.
3. Select the I/P through the toggle switches.
4. Select the O/P through LEDs.
5. Observe the truth table of logic gates.

OBSERVATIONS:

Logic Gate Truth table

OR I/P: A B O/P
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
AND I/P: A B O/P
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
NAND I/P: A B O/P
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NOR I/P: A B O/P

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
EXOR I/P: A B O/P
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
NOT I/P: A O/P
0 1
1 0
RESULT:.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be tight and right.

Questions:
Q.1 Write down the names of digitals IC’s.
ANS:

Q.2 What are the basics of digital electronics?

ANS:

Q.3 What is the importance of digital electronics?

ANS:

Q.4 Where do we use digital electronics?

ANS:

Q.5 Where are digital circuit used?

ANS:

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 09

AIM: Implementation of the given Boolean function using logic gates in both SOP and POS forms.
APPARATUS USED: Bread board, Connecting wires, Logic gates, LED, power supply
THEORY:
A Boolean function is an expression formed with binary variables, the two binary operators OR, AND ands
NOT with parentheses and equal sign. For a given value of variables, the function can be 0 or 1.
A literal is primed or unprimed variable. When a Boolean function is implemented with logic gates, each
literal in the function designates an input to gate and each term is implemented with a gate.
SOP form of Boolean function and its implementation with logic gates:
A SOP expression is of the form:
F = xy + x’y’ + x’y
Each of these AND terms are called minterm (Σ, m) or a standard product.
n variables can be combined to form 2 n minterms. Each minterm is obtained from an AND term of n variables,
with each variable being primed if the corresponding bit is a 0 and unprimed if a 1.
For implementing the SOP form first of all the function has to be reduced using K-map and the logic gates
will be used to implement the function.
Example no. 1: Implement the following Boolean expression using logic gates:
F = A’C + A’B + AB’C + BC

Solution: Step1- Convert the following expression into canonical form:

F= A’C + A’B + AB’C + BC
= A’C (B+B’) + A’B(C+C’) + AB’C + BC (A+A’)
= A’BC + A’B’C+ A’BC+ A’BC’+ AB’C + ABC + A’BC
= A’BC + A’B’C+ A’BC’+ AB’C+ ABC
3 1 2 5 7

Step 2- Simplify the above expression using K-map:

F = Σ (1, 2, 3, 5, 7)

F= C + A’B

Step 3- Implement using logic gates

POS form of Boolean function and its implementation using logic gates:

A POS expression is of the form:

F = (x+y ) ( x’+y’ ) (x’+y)
Each of these OR terms are called max-terms (∏, M) or a standard sum.
n variables can be combined to form 2 n maxterms. Each maxterm is obtained from an OR term of n variables,
with each variable being unprimed if the corresponding bit is a 0 and primed if a 1.

For implementing the POS form first of all, the function has to be reduced using K-map and the logic gates
will be used to implement the function.

Example no. 2: Implement the following Boolean expression using logic gates:
F = (A+ B’) (B+C)

Solution: Step1- Convert the following expression into canonical form:

F= (A+ B’) (B+C)
= (A+B’+CC’) (B+C+AA’)
= (A+B’+C) (A+B’+C’) (A’+B+C) (A+B+C)
2 3 4 0
Step 2- Simplify the above expression using K-map:
F = π (0, 2, 3, 4)
Step 3- Implement using logic gates

PROCEDURE:
1. Obtain the standard SOP and POS forms of the expression.
2. Simplify the standard expression using K-map.
3. Implement the function using logic gates.

RESULT:

Questions:
Q.1 How do you calculate POS and SOP?
ANS:

Q.2 What is the difference between SOP and POS?

ANS:

Q.3 How do you write SOP and POS from truth table?
ANS:

Q.4 How do you simplify POS and SOP?

ANS:
Q.5 Why is SOP called Minterm?
ANS:

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO:10

AIM: PCB Lab:

a. Artwork & printing of a simple PCB.
b. Etching & drilling of PCB
REQUIREMENTS:
i. Copper Clad Board
ii. Drilling Machine & Drilling Bit
iii. Permanent Marker
iv. Fe Cl3 Solution

PROCEDURE:

The designing of P.C.B. involves following three steps:

i. Artwork printing of simple P.C.B.
ii. Drilling
iii. Etching

Artwork & printing of simple P.C.B.:

Designing:

Designing of P.C.B. consists of lay out followed by the all relevant aspects of details of P.C.B. design while
the artwork of preparation brings it to form layout process to incorporate all the information on the board that
clearly defines the unit.

Layout Scale:

The best layout is performed on the scale 1:1this prevents all the problems that might be caused while
redrawing the Layout on the artwork scale 2:1, 4:1 layout are also used for designing.
A sheet of proper width grid printed on its is taken. The board outlines & connections are marked followed
by the component outlines, connecting outline & conductor pattern. Thus we use a transparent sheet for the
development of designing with the grid sheet placed under the tracing sheet to approach to develop the layout
in the direction of signal flow as far as possible. To draw the interconnection lines spacing between conductor
lines make the circuit uniform. The end product of the layout design is the layout stretch.

Drilling &Etching of P.C.B:

Drilling of holes components and mounting on P. C. B. is the most important machine operation A Suitable
drilling machine can provide a suitable result. Drilling machine for P.C.B. are in wide range of design and
but the common features is the available drilling speed.

Types of Drilling:

A) Drilling of direct light and by direct observation

B) Drilling by optical sight

C) Dig Drilling and Non Conventional Drilling

D) Drilling by Direct sight is the simplest drilling. The board is positioned manually under the drill unit. Such
instruments are simple and cheap; the accuracy of hole positioned cannot be expected to be much bigger
then1.25mm

Etching:

It is one of the most important steps in designing of PCB. The final copper pattern is obtained by selected
removal of unwanted copper, which is not protected by resistive material used etch art may be Cacl2, Chromic
acid; alkaline Fecl3.6H2O.Etching temperature, should be of range (20.450C)
After etching is over, Fecl3 contaminated surface should be cleaned. A Simple spray water wash is not
sufficient it is clipped in 5%oxaliic acid soldering. To remove the copper and alts, and then water resin is
poured.
Rinsing:
After etching the oxides or salts of or tin and iron remove remains of the surface of PCB. to remove these we
first rinse the PCB form 5% oxalic acid, then by water we clean out the PCB the PCB is now ready for
soldering.

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
i. Proper care should be taken in drawing the width and providing spacing of layout.

ii. Chemical should be handled with outmost care as it can be dangerous.

iii. Drilling should be done properly otherwise it will contribute to the losses.

Questions:

Q.1 What are the process steps involved in print & etch method of PCB fabrication?
ANS:

Q.2 How are PCB printed?

ANS:

Q.3 What is the type of printed circuit boards PCBs?

ANS:

Q.4 What are the different factors to consider in designing a printed circuit board?
ANS:

Q.5 Which chemical is used for PCB etching?

ANS:

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO:11
AIM: Winding shop: Step down transformer winding of less than 5VA.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Bobbin, Primary Winding 42 gauge, secondary winding 23gauge,Core E&I sections and transformer
winding machine.

THEORY:-

Working of Transformer:

Transformer is a static device which transformer power form one circuit to other without change in frequency
.It has magnetically linked two circuit transformers having two induction coils, which are linked by common
low reluctance path. When alternating e.m.f.is linked with one coil it produces Flux which is linked to another
coil and hence induced e.m.f. is produced. The first coil in which energy is fed is primary and other is
secondary coil.

Construction of Transformer:

For a transformer having rating of 5V and 1 Amp

P = VI
= 5w*1A=5watts
=5w+10% of 5w=5.5w
Core Area =√𝑃⁄5.58
=√5.5⁄5.58
=0.42inches2
Bobbin core area =0.42inches2
No. of turns/volt =6/ [actual core area]
=6/0.42turns/volt
No. of turns of primary winding =14 × 220
=3080 turns
No. of turns of secondary winding =14 × 5 + 10%(14 × 5)
=70+7
=77 turns
For 0.0545 A we use wire of 42 gauge and for 1A, we use wire of 23 gauge.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take a bobbin of core area 42inches.
2. Firstly we surround the bobbin by primary winding with 3080 turns by help of winding machine 37
gauge wire is used for primary winding.
3. Insulate the primary with insulating paper.
4. Surround the bobbin by secondary winding with 77turns with the help of winding machine 23 gauge
wire is used for secondary winding by insulating paper.
 5. Now insulate the primary with insulating paper.
6. Now E&I shaped core are fitted.
7. Finally we place the structure in casing.
8. For inspection apply 220V on primary winding and check the voltage obtained from secondary.

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
i. Make sure that primary and secondary winding wire does not break during wiring.
ii. While fixing insulated cases insulation paper should not break.
iii. Perform calculations carefully before fabrication.
iv. Take exact no of turns in primary and secondary winding
v. inspect transformer carefully and cautiously.

Questions:
Q.1 What is step down transformer.
ANS:

Q.2 How to make step down transformer.

ANS:

Q.3 What are the applications of transformer.

ANS:
Q.4 What is step down transformer formula.
ANS:

Q.5 Where step down transformer is used.

ANS:

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO12
AIM: Soldering shop:
1. Soldering and disordering of Resistor in PCB.
2. Soldering and disordering of IC in PCB.
3. Soldering and disordering of Capacitor in PCB.

THEORY: How to Solder First a few safety precautions

Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron. They are very hot (about 400°C) and will give you a
nasty burn.

Take great care to avoid touching the mains flex with the tip of the iron. The iron should have a heatproof
flex for extra protection. An ordinary plastic flex will melt immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is
a serious risk of burns and electric shock.

Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use. Never put it down on your workbench,
even for a moment!

Work in a well-ventilated area. The smoke formed as you melt solder is mostly from the flux and quite
irritating. Avoid breathing it by keeping you head to the side of, not above, your work.

Wash your hands after using solder. Traditional solder contains lead which is a poisonous metal I strongly
recommend using a soldering iron with a heatproof silicone cable for safety because it will not melt if
accidentally touched with the hot iron.

For example this 230V soldering iron from Rapid Electronics: soldering iron

Preparing the soldering iron

Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in. The iron will take a few minutes to reach its operating
temperature of about 400°C.

Dampen the sponge in the stand. The best way to do this is to lift it out the stand and hold it under a cold
tap for a moment, then squeeze to remove excess water. It should be damp, not dripping wet.

Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up. You can check if it is ready by trying to melt a
little solder on the tip.

Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge. This will clean the tip.

Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron. This is called 'tinning' and it will help the heat to flow from the
iron's tip to the joint. It only needs to be done when you plug in the iron, and occasionally while soldering if
you need to wipe the tip clean on the sponge.A stand is essential for safety.
 You are now ready to start soldering

Hold the soldering iron like a pen, near the base of the handle (imagine you are going to write your
name). Remember to never touch the hot element or tip.

Touch the soldering iron onto the joint to be made. Make sure it touches both the component lead and the
track. Hold the tip there for a few seconds and...

Feed a little solder onto the joint. It should flow smoothly onto the lead and track to form a volcano shape
as shown in the diagram. Apply the solder to the joint, not the iron.

Remove the solder, then the iron, while keeping the joint still. Allow the joint a few seconds to cool before
you move the circuit board.

Inspect the joint closely. It should look shiny and have a 'volcano' shape. If not, you will need to reheat it
and feed in a little more solder. This time ensure that both the lead and track are heated fully before applying
solder..

Some components, such as transistors, can be damaged by heat when soldering so if you are not an expert it
is wise to use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the component body. You can buy a special
tool, but a standard crocodile clip (without a plastic cover) works just as well and is cheaper.

The heat sink works by taking some of the heat being supplied by the soldering iron and this helps to prevent
the component's temperature increasing too much.

Soldering Components

Put components on the board in this order:

1. ICHolders
Connect the correct way round - the notch will remind you which way to place the IC. Do NOT insert
the ICs yet.

2. Resistors
Connect either way round.

3. Small value capacitors :-

Small value capacitors (< 1µF) are not polarised. Connect either way round.

4. Electrolytic capacitors (1µF +) :-

Connect the correct way round, look for a + or - near one lead. They may be radial style (both leads
at one end) or axial style (leads at each end).

5. ICs (Chips)
Connect the correct way round, look for the notch or dot near pin 1. Make sure all the pins are lined
up with the socket before pushing down firmly with your thumb.
RESULT:

Questions:
Q.1 What are the Methods of Soldering Electronic Components.
ANS:

Q.2 What are the different soldering techniques?

ANS:

Q.3 What soldering equipment do you need?

ANS:

Q.4 What are the steps to PCB soldering?

ANS:

Q.5 What is PCB soldering?

ANS

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature
EXPERIMENTS

BEYOND

CURRICULUM
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1

AIM: To study & Implement Zener diode as voltage regulator.

REQUIREMENTS: Power Supply, Zener Diode, Two Voltmeter and connected leads Ammeter.
THEORY: The Zener diode is operated in the breakdown or Zener region, the voltage across it
is substantially constant for a large current of current through it. This characteristic permits it to be
used as a voltage regulator. As the lode Current increases, the Zener current decrease so that current
through resistance Rs is constant. As output voltage = Vin - Irs, and I is constant, Therefore, output
voltage remains unchanged. The input voltage Vin increase, more current will flow through the
zener, the voltage drop across Rs will increase but lode voltage would remain constant.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.1
PROCEDURE:
A.Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
B.Keep load resistance constant (take maximum value of load
resistance).
C.Vary input voltage and note down output voltage.
D.Now keep input voltage constant and vary load resistance and note down
Corresponding voltmeter reading.
E.Plot the respective graph.
 OBSERVATION TABLE:

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connections should betight
2.Handle the equipments with
with care

Questions:

Q.1 Mention the applications of a Zener diode.

ANS:

Q.2 Describe voltage regulation of a Zener diode.

ANS:

Q.3 What is Zener current.

ANS:
 Q.4 Give the equation of determining the series resistance of a Zener diode voltage regulator circuit.
ANS:

Q.5 Mention the advantages of a Zener diode voltage regulator over other regulators.
ANS:

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature
 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. __
 EXPERIMENT NO. __
(This page needs to be filled by pencil only)

Aim of the Experiment:

Apparatus used:

Circuit Diagram:

Result/Outcome of Experiment:
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

AIM: To study the working of BJT as a switch.

REQUIREMENTS: Transistor, Resistor, Lamp.
THEORY: A switch is a device that is used to ‘open’ or ‘close’ a circuit. Opening a circuit means
Creating a break in the circuit, preventing current flow and thus, turning it ‘off’. Closing a circuit, On
the other, means completing the circuit path, thereby allowing current to flow around it and thus, turning
it ‘on’. The bipolar transistor, whether NPN or PNP, may be used as a switch. Recall that the bipolar
transistor has three regions of operation : the cut-off region, the linear or active region, and the saturation
region. When used as a switch , the bipolar transistor is operated in the cut-off region ( the region
wherein the transistor is not conducting , and therefore makes the circuit ‘open’ ) and saturation region
( the region wherein the transistor is in full conduction, thereby closing the circuit ). The bipolar
transistor is a good switch because of its large transconductance Gm,with Gm = Ic/Vbe where Ic is the
collector-to-emitter (output) current and Vbe is the base-emitter (input) voltage.Its high Gm allows large
collector-to-emitter currents to be easily achieved if sufficient excitation is applied at the base.

PROCEDURE:
1. Make connection as fig (a).
2. Applying no voltage at the base of the transistor will put it in the cut-off region, preventing current
from flowing through it and through the load. Hence lamp is off.
3. Make connection as fig (b).
4. Applying enough voltage at the base of the transistor will cause it to saturate and become fully
conductive. Hence lamp is on.

Circuit Diagram of BJT as a Switch

OBSERVATION:

By the above experiment we can seen the operation of BJT as a switch by observing
 the on and off the lamp.

RESULT:

Questions:
Q.1 Why BJT is used as switch?
ANS:

Q.2 How can BJT be used as faster switch?

ANS:

Q.3 In which region BJT acts as on switch?

ANS:

Q.4 When a BJT is used as a switch the modes of operations is?

ANS:
Q.5 Which transistor is best for switching?
ANS:

Marks Obtained

Faculty Signature