Disaster Management

Introduction 1
1
I NTRODUCTION
DISASTER
A disaster (from Middle French desastre, from Old Italian
disastro, from the Greek pejorative prefix dis- ‘bad’ + aster
‘star’) is the impact of a natural or man-made hazards that
negatively affects society or environment.
The word disaster's root is from astrology: this implies that
when the stars are in a bad position, a bad event will happen.
Disasters occur when hazards strike in vulnerable areas.
Hazards that occur in areas with low vulnerability do not result
in a disaster; as is the case in uninhabited regions. It is often
argued that all disasters are man-made, because human actions
before the strike of the hazard can prevent it developing into
a disaster.
Hazards are routinely divided into natural or man-made,
although complex disasters, where there is no single root cause,
are more common in developing countries. A specific disaster
may spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A
classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami,
resulting in coastal flooding.
What is Disaster?
Disaster is a sudden, calamitous event bringing great
damage, loss, destruction and devastation to life and property.
The damage caused by disasters is immeasurable and varies
with the geographical location, climate and the type of the
earth surface/degree of vulnerability. This influences the mental,
2 Disaster Management Introduction 3
socio-economic, political and cultural state of the affected area. Minor Natural Disasters
Generally, disaster has the following effects in the concerned • Cold wave
areas:
• Thunderstorms
1. It completely disrupts the normal day to day life.
• Heat waves
2. It negatively influences the emergency systems.
• Mud slides
3. Normal needs and processes like food, shelter, health,
etc. are affected and deteriorate depending on the • Storm
intensity and severity of the disaster. Major Man-made Disasters
It may also be termed as "a serious disruption of the • Setting of fires
functioning of society, causing widespread human, material or
• Epidemic
environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected
society to cope using its own resources." Thus, a disaster may • Deforestation
have the following main features:- • Pollution due to prawn cultivation
• Unpredictability • Chemical pollution
• Unfamiliarity • Wars
• Speed Minor Man-made Disasters
• Urgency
• Road/ train accidents, riots
• Uncertainty
• Food poisoning
• Threat
• Industrial disaster/ crisis
Thus, in simple terms we can define disaster as a hazard
• Environmental pollution
causing heavy loss to life, property and livelihood. E.g. a cyclone
killing 10,000 lives and a crop loss of one crore can be termed Risk
as disaster. Risk is a measure of the expected losses due to a hazardous
Types of Disaster event of a particular magnitude occurring in a given area over
a specific time period. Risk is a function of the probability of
Generally, disasters are of two types—Natural and Man- particular occurrences and the losses each would cause. The
made. Based on the devastation, these are further classified
level of risk depends on:
into major/minor natural disaster and major/minor man-made
disasters. Some of the disasters are listed below: • Nature of the Hazard
Major Natural Disasters • Vulnerability of the elements which are affected
• Flood • Economic value of those elements
• Cyclone Vulnerability
• Drought It is defined as "the extent to which a community, structure,
• Earthquake service, and/or geographic area is likely to be damaged or
disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, on account of man-made disasters. Man-made hazards are in turn categorised
their nature, construction and proximity to hazardous terrain as technological or sociological. Technological hazards are
or a disaster prone area". results of failure of technology, such as engineering failures,
Hazards transport accidents or environmental disasters. Sociological
hazards have a strong human motive, such as crime, stampedes,
Hazards are defined as "Phenomena that pose a threat to riots and war.
people, structures, or economic assets and which may cause a
With the tropical climate and unstable landforms, coupled
disaster. They could be either man-made or naturally occurring
with high population density, poverty, illiteracy and lack of
in our environment."
adequate infrastructure, India is one of the most vulnerable
The extent of damage in a disaster depends on: developing countries to suffer very often from various natural
1. The impact, intensity and characteristics of the disasters, namely drought, flood, cyclone, earthquake, landslide,
phenomenon and forest fire, hail storm, locust, volcanic eruption, etc. Which
strike causing a devastating impact on human life, economy
2. How people, environment and infrastructures are
and environment.
affected by that phenomenon
Though it is almost impossible to fully recoup the damage
NATURAL DISASTERS caused by the disasters, it is possible to:
A natural disaster is the consequence of when a potential (i) minimize the potential risks by developing early warning
natural hazard becomes a physical event (e.g. volcanic eruption, strategies
earthquake, landslide) and this interacts with human activities. (ii) prepare and implement developmental plans to provide
Human vulnerability, caused by the lack of planning, lack of resilience to such disasters
appropriate emergency management or the event being
unexpected, leads to financial, structural, and human losses. (iii) mobilize resources including communication and
The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population telemedicinal services, and
to support or resist the disaster, their resilience. This (iv) to help in rehabilitation and post-disaster reconstruction.
understanding is concentrated in the formulation: “disasters
Space technology plays a crucial role in efficient mitigation
occur when hazards meet vulnerability.” A natural hazard will
of disasters. While communication satellites help in disaster
hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without
warning, relief mobilization and telemedicinal support, earth
vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas.
observation satellites provide required database for pre-disaster
The term natural has consequently been disputed because the
preparedness programmes, disaster response, monitoring
events simply are not hazards or disasters without human
activities and post-disaster damage assessment, and
involvement. The degree of potential loss can also depend on
reconstruction, and rehabilitation.
the nature of the hazard itself, ranging from a single lightening
strike, which threatens a very small area, to impact events, The chapter describes the role of space technology in evolving
which have the potential to end civilization. a suitable strategy for disaster preparedness and operational
framework for their monitoring, assessment and mitigation,
Man-made Hazards identifies gap areas and recommends appropriate strategies for
Disasters having an element of human intent, negligence, disaster mitigation vis-a-vis likely developments in space and
error or the ones involving the failure of a system are called ground segments.
Introduction of Disaster Management the impact of disasters by adopting suitable disaster mitigation
Various disasters like earthquake, landslides, volcanic strategies. The disaster mitigation works mainly address the
eruptions, fires, flood and cyclones are natural hazards that kill following:
thousands of people and destroy billions of dollars of habitat (i) minimise the potential risks by developing disaster early
and property each year. The rapid growth of the world's warning strategies,
population and its increased concentration often in hazardous (ii) prepare and implement developmental plans to provide
environment has escalated both the frequency and severity of resilience to such disasters,
natural disasters. With the tropical climate and unstable land
forms, coupled with deforestation, unplanned growth (iii) mobilise resources including communication and
proliferation non-engineered constructions which make the telemedicinal services and
disaster-prone areas mere vulnerable, tardy communication, (iv) to help in rehabilitation and post-disaster reduction.
poor or no budgetary allocation for disaster prevention, Disaster management on the other hand involves:
developing countries suffer more or less chronically by natural
(a) pre-disaster planning, preparedness, monitoring
disasters.
including relief management capability,
Asia tops the list of casualties due to natural disasters. (b) prediction and early warning,
Among various natural hazards, earthquakes, landslides, floods
and cyclones are the major disasters adversely affecting very (c) damage assessment and relief management.
large areas and population in the Indian subcontinent. These Disaster reduction is a systematic work which involves
natural disasters are of (i) geophysical origin such as with different regions, different professions and different
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, land slides and (ii) climatic scientific fields, and has become an important measure for
origin such as drought, flood, cyclone, locust, forest fire. human, society and nature sustainable development.
Though it may not be feasible to control nature and to stop Role of Space Technology
the development of natural phenomena but the efforts could
be made to avoid disasters and alleviate their effects on human Space systems from their vantage position have
lives, infrastructure and property. Rising frequency, amplitude unambiguously demonstrated their capability in providing vital
and number of natural disasters and attendant problem coupled information and services for disaster management. The Earth
with loss of human lives prompted the General Assembly of the Observation satellites provide comprehensive, synoptic and
United Nations to proclaim 1990s as the International Decade multi temporal coverage of large areas in real time and at
for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) through a resolution frequent intervals and 'thus'—have become valuable for
44/236 of December 22, 1989 to focus on all issues related to continuous monitoring of atmospheric as well as surface
natural disaster reduction. parameters related to natural disasters (Table-1).
In spite of IDNDR, there had been a string of major disaster Geo-stationary satellites provide continuous and synoptic
throughout the decade. Nevertheless, by establishing the rich observations over large areas on weather including cyclone-
disaster management related traditions and by spreading public monitoring.
awareness the IDNDR provided required stimulus for disaster Polar orbiting satellites have the advantage of providing
reduction. much higher resolution imageries, even though at low temporal
It is almost impossible to prevent the occurrence of natural frequency, which could be used for detailed monitoring, damage
disasters and their damages. However it is possible to reduce assessment and long-term relief management. The vast
capabilities of communication satellites are available for timely In general, any Emergency management is the continuous
dissemination of early warning and real-time coordination of process by which all individuals, groups, and communities
relief operations. manage hazards in an effort to avoid or ameliorate the impact
of disasters resulting from the hazards. Actions taken depend
The advent of Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSAT) and
in part on perceptions of risk of those exposed. Effective
Ultra Small Aperture Terminals (USAT) and phased—array
emergency management relies on thorough integration of
antennae have enhanced the capability further by offering low
emergency plans at all levels of government and non-government
cost, viable technological solutions towards management and
involvement. Activities at each level (individual, group,
mitigation of disasters. Satellite communications capabilities-
community) affect the other levels.
fixed and mobile are vital for effective communication, especially
in data collection, distress alerting, and position location and It is common to place the responsibility for governmental
coordinating relief operations in the field. In addition, Search emergency management with the institutions for civil defence
and Rescue satellites provide capabilities such as position or within the conventional structure of the emergency services.
determination facilities onboard which could be useful in a In the private sector, emergency management is sometimes
variety of land, sea and air distress situations. referred to as business continuity management.
Table 1. Applications of Space Remote Sensing in Emergency Management is one of a number of terms which,
Disaster Management since the end of the Cold War, have largely replaced Civil
defence, whose original focus was protecting civilians from
Disaster Prevention Preparedness (Warning) Relief
Earthquakes Mapping Geodynamic measurements Locate stricken military attack. Modern thinking focuses on a more general
geological ofstrain accumulation areas, map intent to protect the civilian population in times of peace as
lineaments land damage
use well as in times of war. Another current term, Civil Protection
Volcanic To po graphic Detec tio n/measurement Mapping lava is widely used within the European Union and refers to
eruptions and land use of gaseo us emissio ns flows, ash falls
maps and lahars, map government-approved systems and resources whose task is to
damage protect the civilian population, primarily in the event of natural
Landslides To po graphic Rainfall, slo pe stability Mapping slide
and land use area and human-made disasters. Within EU countries the term
maps Crisis Management emphasises the political and security
Flash floods Land use maps Lo c al rainfall Map flood damage
measurements dimension rather than measures to satisfy the immediate needs
Major floods Flood plain maps; Regional Map extent of of the civilian population.
land use maps rainfall;evapotranspiration floods
Storm surge Land use and Sea state; ocean surface wind Map extent of
land cover maps velocities damage Phases and Professional Activities
Hurricanes Synop tic w eather Map extent of
fo rec asts damage The nature of emergency management is highly dependent
Tornadoes Nowcasts; local weather Map amount, on economic and social conditions local to the emergency, or
Local weather observations extent of damage
Drought Lo ng ranged c limate Monitoring disaster. This is true to the extent that some disaster relief
mod els vegetative experts such as Fred Cuny have noted that in a sense the only
biomass;
real disasters are economic. Experts, such as Cuny, have long
Emergency management (or disaster management) is the noted that the cycle of emergency management must include
discipline of dealing with and avoiding risks. It is a discipline long-term work on infrastructure, public awareness, and even
that involves preparing, supporting, and rebuilding society when human justice issues. This is particularly important in
natural or human-made disasters occur. developing nations. The process of emergency management
involves four phases: mitigation, preparedness, response, and within the area assessed. The hazard-specific risk (Rh) combines
recovery. both the probability and the level of impact of a specific hazard.
The equation below gives that the hazard times the population
vulnerability to that hazard produce a risk. Catastrophe
modelling tools are used to support the calculation. The higher
the risk, the more urgent that the hazard specific vulnerabilities
are targeted by mitigation and preparedness efforts. However,
if there is no vulnerability there will be no risk, e.g. an
earthquake occurring in a desert where nobody lives.
Rh = H × Vh
Preparedness
A graphic representation of the four phases in emergency
management. In the preparedness phase, emergency managers develop
plans of action for when the disaster strikes. Common
Mitigation
preparedness measures include the:
Mitigation efforts attempt to prevent hazards from • communication plans with easily understandable
developing into disasters altogether, or to reduce the effects of terminology and chain of command;
disasters when they occur. The mitigation phase differs from
the other phases because it focuses on long-term measures for • development and practice of multi-agency coordination
reducing or eliminating risk. The implementation of mitigation and incident command;
strategies can be considered a part of the recovery process if • proper maintenance and training of emergency services;
applied after a disaster occurs. However, even if applied as part • development and exercise of emergency population
of recovery efforts, actions that reduce or eliminate risk over warning methods combined with emergency shelters
time are still considered mitigation efforts. and evacuation plans;
Mitigative measures can be structural or non-structural. • stockpiling, inventory, and maintenance of supplies and
Structural measures use technological solutions, like flood equipment.
levees. Non-structural measures include legislation, land-use
planning (e.g. the designation of nonessential land like parks An efficient preparedness measure is an emergency
to be used as flood zones), and insurance. Mitigation is the most operations centre (EOC) combined with a practised region-wide
cost-efficient method for reducing the impact of hazards. doctrine for managing emergencies. Another preparedness
However, mitigation is not always suitable and structural measure is to develop a volunteer response capability among
mitigation in particular may have adverse effects on the civilian population. Since, volunteer response is not as
ecosystem. predictable and plannable as professional response, volunteers
are most effectively deployed on the periphery of an emergency.
A precursor activity to the mitigation is the identification
of risks. Physical risk assessment refers to the process of Response
identifying and evaluating hazards. In risk assessment, various The response phase includes the mobilization of the
hazards (e.g. earthquakes, floods, riots) within a certain area necessary emergency services and first responders in the disaster
are identified. Each hazard poses a risk to the population
area. This is likely to include a first wave of core emergency a recent disaster is in fresh memory. In the United States, the
services, such as fire-fighters, police and ambulance crews. National Response Plan dictates how the resources provided
They may be supported by a number of secondary emergency by the Homeland Security Act of 2002 will be used in recovery
services, such as specialist rescue teams. In addition volunteers efforts. It is the Federal government that often provides the
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the local most technical and financial assistance for recovery efforts in
Red Cross branch or St. John Ambulance may provide immediate the United States.
practical assistance, from first aid provision to providing tea
and coffee. A well rehearsed emergency plan developed as part PHASES AND PERSONAL ACTIVITIES
of the preparedness phase enables efficient coordination of Mitigation
rescue efforts. Emergency plan rehearsal is essential to achieve
optimal output with limited resources. In the response phase, Personal mitigation is mainly about knowing and avoiding
medical assets will be used in accordance with the appropriate unnecessary risks. This includes an assessment of possible
triage of the affected victims. risks to personal/family health and to personal property.
Where required, search and rescue efforts commence at an An example of personal non-structural mitigation would be
early stage. Depending on injuries sustained by the victim, to avoid buying property that is exposed to hazards, e.g. in a
outside temperature, and victim access to air and water, the flood plain, in areas of subsidence or landslides. Homeowners
vast majority of those affected by a disaster will die within 72 may not be aware of their home being exposed to a hazard until
hours after impact. it strikes. Real estate agents may not come forward with such
information. However, specialists can be hired to conduct risk
Individuals are often compelled to volunteer directly after assessment surveys. Insurance covering the most prominent
a disaster. Volunteers can be both a help and a hindrance to identified risks are a common measure.
emergency management and other relief agencies. A
spontaneous, unaffiliated volunteer can harm recovery efforts. Personal structural mitigation in earthquake prone areas
Whereas volunteers under the direction of an organizing agency, include installation of an Earthquake Valve to instantly shut
such as the Caritas Network, can provide solutions to the long off the natural gas supply to your property, seismic retrofits
term effects of a disaster. of property and the securing of items inside the building to
enhance household seismic safety such as the mounting of
Recovery furniture, refrigerators, water heaters and breakables to the
The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected area walls, and the addition of cabinet latches.
to its previous state. It differs from the response phase in its In flood prone areas houses can be built on poles, like in
focus; recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions much of southern Asia. In areas prone to prolonged electricity
that must be made after immediate needs are addressed. black-outs a generator would be an example of an optimal
Recovery efforts are primarily concerned with actions that structural mitigation measure. The construction of storm cellars
involve rebuilding destroyed property, re-employment, and the and fallout shelters are further examples of personal mitigative
repair of other essential infrastructure. An important aspect actions.
of effective recovery efforts is taking advantage of a 'window
of opportunity' for the implementation of mitigative measures Preparedness
that might otherwise be unpopular. Citizens of the affected On the contrary to mitigation activities which are aimed
area are more likely to accept more mitigative changes when at preventing a disaster from occurring, personal preparedness
are targeted on preparing activities to be taken when a disaster foods and appropriate storage and preparation equipment, and
occurs, i.e. planning. Preparedness measures can take many eat the food as part of normal life.
forms. Examples include the construction of shelters, warning A simple balanced diet can be constructed from vitamin
devices, back-up lifeline services (e.g. power, water, sewage), pills, wholemeal wheat, beans, dried milk, corn, and cooking
and rehearsing an evacuation plan. Two simple measures oil. One should add vegetables, fruits, spices and meats, both
prepare you for either sitting out the event or evacuating. For prepared and fresh-gardened, when possible.
evacuation, a disaster supplies kit should be prepared and for
sheltering purposes a stockpile of supplies. As a Profession
Response Emergency managers are trained in a wide variety of

disciplines that support them through out the emergency life-
The response phase of an emergency may commence with cycle. Professional emergency managers can focus on
a search and rescue phase. However, in all cases the focus will government and community preparedness (Continuity of
be on fulfilling the basic needs of the affected population on a Operations/Continuity of Government Planning), or private
humanitarian basis. This assistance may be provided by national business preparedness (Business Continuity Management
and/or international agencies and organisations. Effective Planning). Training is provided by local, state, federal and
coordination of disaster assistance is often crucial particularly private organizations. It ranges from public information and
when many organisations respond and local emergency media relations to high-level incident command and tactical
management agency (LEMA) capacity may be overstretched skills such as studying a terrorist bombing site or controlling
and diminished by the disaster itself. an emergency scene.
On a personal level the response can take the shape either In the past, the field of emergency management has been
of a home confinement or an evacuation. In a home confinement limited to mostly men from a military or first responder
scenario a family should be prepared to fend for themselves in background. Currently, the field is as diverse as any with many
their home for many days without any form of outside support. experts from a variety of backgrounds with no military or first
In an evacuation scenario, a family evacuates by an automobile responder history at all. Educational opportunities are
(or other mode of transportation) with the maximum amount increasing for those seeking undergraduate and graduate
of supplies, including a tent for shelter. degrees in emergency management or a related field.
The scenario could also include equipment for evacuation Professional accreditation standards are increasing as well.
on foot with at least three days of supplies and rain-tight Such professional certificates as the Certified Emergency
bedding a tarpaulin and a bedroll of blankets is the minimum. Manager (CEM) and Certified Business Continuity Professional
Recovery (CBCP) are becoming more common place as the need for high
professional standards is recognized and accepted by the
The recovery phase starts when the immediate threat to emergency management community especially in the United
human life has subsided. In the reconstruction it is recommended States.
to reconsider the location or construction material of the
property. In long term disasters the most extreme home Tools
confinement scenarios like war, famine and severe epidemics Continuity feature of emergency management resulted in
last up to a year. In this situation the recovery will take place a new concept Emergency Management Information Systems
inside the home. Planners for these events usually buy bulk
(EMIS) in recent years. For continuity and interoperability
between the emergency management stakeholders, EMIS their Emergency Management Organizations. PSC also
support the emergency management process by providing an coordinates and supports the efforts of federal organizations
infrastructure that integrates emergency plans at all levels of ensuring national security and the safety of Canadians. They
government/non-government involvement and by utilizing the also work with other levels of government, first responders,
management of all related resources (including human resource community groups, the private sector (operators of critical
and other resources) for all four phases of emergencies. infrastructure) and other nations.
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS PSC's work is based on a wide range of policies and

legislation. Through the Public Safety and Emergency
Red Cross/Red Crescent Preparedness Act which defines the powers, duties and functions
National Red Cross/Red Crescent societies often have pivotal of PSEPC are outlined. Other acts are specific to fields such
roles in responding to emergencies. Additionally, the as corrections, emergency management, law enforcement, and
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent national security.
Societies (IFRC, or "The Federation") may deploy assessment Germany
teams to the affected country. They specialise in the recovery
component of the emergency management framework. In Germany the Federal Government controls the German
Katastrophenschutz (disaster relief) or Zivilschutz (civil defence)
United Nations programmes. Particularly the German fire department and the
Within the United Nations system responsibility for Technisches Hilfswerk (Federal Agency for Technical Relief,
emergency response rests with the Resident Coordinator within THW) are part of these programmes. Also the German Armed
the affected country. However, in practice international response Forces (Bundeswehr) can be deployed for disaster relief
will be coordinated, if requested by the affected country's operations.
government, by the UN Office for the Coordination of
New Zealand
Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA), by deploying a UN Disaster
Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team. In New Zealand the Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency
Management has statutory authority for controlling any state
NATIONAL ORGANISATIONS of emergency declared by central government. Local government
Australia bodies such as city and regional councils have their own
emergency management agencies to control localised states of
Australia has the federal government agency Emergency emergency, but these all defer to the MCDEM in the event of
Management Australia (EMA) as the key federal coordinating a national state of emergency.
and advisory body for emergency management. Each state has
their own State Emergency Service. The Emergency Call Service The Wellington Emergency Management Office utilize a
provides a national emergency telephone number to state Police, building that has been purpose built with its own water,
Fire and Ambulance services. Arrangements in place for state electricity, communications and sewerage facilities to ensure
and federal cooperation. operations in the event of an emergency or disaster.
Canada Russia
Public Safety Canada is Canada's national emergency In Russia the Ministry of Extraordinary Situations
management agency. Each province has a mandate to set up (EMERCOM) is engaged in fire fighting, Civil Defence, Search
and Rescue, rescue services after natural and human-made at the most-local level possible, utilizing mutual aid agreements
disasters. with adjacent jurisdictions.
United Kingdom If the emergency is terrorist related or if declared an
"Incident of National Significance", the Secretary of Homeland
The United Kingdom adjusted its focus on emergency
Security will initiate the National Response Plan (NRP). Under
management following the 2000 UK fuel protests, severe UK
this plan the involvement of federal resources will be made
flooding in the same year and the 2001 UK foot and mouth
possible, integrating in with the local, county, state, or tribal
crisis. This resulted in the creation of the Civil Contingencies
entities. Management will continue to be handled at the lowest
Act 2004 which legislated the responsibilities of all category
possible level utilizing the National Incident Management
one responders regarding an emergency response. The United
System (NIMS).
Kingdom's management of the CCA is through the Civil
Contingencies Secretariat through regional disaster centres The Citizen Corps is an organization of volunteer service
and at the local authority level. programmes, administered locally and coordinated nationally
by DHS, which seek to mitigate disaster and prepare the
Disaster Management training is generally conducted at
population for emergency response through public education,
the local level by the organisations involved in any response.
training, and outreach. Community Emergency Response Teams
This is consolidated through professional courses that can be
undertaken at the Emergency Planning College. Furthermore are a Citizen Corps programme focused on disaster preparedness
diplomas and undergraduate qualifications can be gained and teaching basic disaster response skills. These volunteer
throughout the country—the first course of this type was carried teams are utilized to provide emergency support when disaster
out by Coventry University in 1994. overwhelms the conventional emergency services.
The UK's largest ever emergency exercise was carried out

on 20 May 2007 near Belfast, Northern Ireland, and involved
the scenario of a plane crash landing at Belfast International
Airport. Staff from five hospitals and three airports participated
in the drill, and almost 150 international observers assessed
its effectiveness.
United States
Under the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is lead agency
for emergency management. The HAZUS software package
developed by FEMA is central in the risk assessment process
in the country.
The United States and its territories are covered by one of
ten regions for FEMA's emergency management purposes.
Tribal, state, county and local governments develop emergency
management programmes/departments and operate
hierarchically within each region. Emergencies are managed
20 Disaster Management Occurrence of Disasters 21
caused when a buildup of snow is released down a slope, it is

one of the major dangers faced in the mountains in winter. An
avalanche is an example of a gravity current consisting of
granular material. In an avalanche, lots of material or mixtures
of different types of material fall or slide rapidly under the force
2 of gravity. Avalanches are often classified by what they are
made of. Notable avalanches include:
• The 1970 Ancash earthquake
OCCURRENCE OF DISASTERS
• The 1954 Blons avalanche
• The 1999 Galtür Avalanche
A natural disaster is the consequence of a natural hazard • The 2002 Kolka-Karmadon rock ice slide
(e.g. volcanic eruption, earthquake, landslide) which moves
from potential in to an active phase, and as a result affects • The 1910 Wellington avalanche
human activities. Human vulnerability, caused by the lack of Earthquake
planning or lack of appropriate emergency management, leads
to financial, structural, and human losses. The resulting loss An earthquake is a phenomenon that results from and is
depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist powered by the sudden release of stored energy that radiates
the disaster, their resilience. This understanding is concentrated seismic waves. At the Earth's surface, earthquakes may manifest
in the formulation: "disasters occur when hazards meet themselves by a shaking or displacement of the ground and
vulnerability". A natural hazard will hence never result in a sometimes tsunamis. 90% of all earthquakes—and 81% of the
natural disaster in areas without vulnerability, e.g. strong largest—occur around the 40,000km long Pacific Ring of Fire,
earthquakes in uninhabited areas. The term natural has which roughly bounds the Pacific Plate. Many earthquakes
consequently been disputed because the events simply are not happen each day, few of which are large enough to cause
hazards or disasters without human involvement. The degree significant damage. Some of the most significant earthquakes
of potential loss can also depend on the nature of the hazard in recent times include:
itself, ranging from a single lightning strike, which threatens • The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the second largest
a very small area, to impact events, which have the potential earthquake in recorded history, registering a moment
to end civilization. For lists of natural disasters, see the list of magnitude of 9.3. The huge tsunamis triggered by this
disasters or the list of deadliest natural disasters. earthquake cost the lives of at least 229,000 people.
Natural Hazards : A natural hazard is a situation which • The 2005 Kashmir earthquake, which cost 79,000 lives
has the potential to create an event that has an effect on people. in Pakistan.
They result from natural processes in the environment and
some natural hazards are related—earthquakes can result in • The 7.7 magnitude July 2006 Java earthquake, which
tsunamis, drought can lead directly to famine and disease, and also triggered tsunamis.
so on. Lahar
GEOLOGICAL A Lahar is a type of natural disaster closely related to a
volcanic eruption, and involves a large amount of material,
Avalanche : An avalanche is a geophysical hazard involving
including mud, rock, and ash sliding down the side of the
a slide of a large snow (or rock) mass down a mountainside,
volcano at a rapid pace. These flows can destroy entire towns HYDROLOGICAL
in seconds and kill thousands of people. The Tangiwai disaster
Flood : Prolonged rainfall from a storm, including
is an excellent example, as is the one which killed an estimated
thunderstorms, rapid melting of large amounts of snow, or
23,000 people in Armero, Colombia, during the 1985 eruption
rivers which swell from excess precipitation upstream and
of Nevado del Ruiz.
cause widespread damage to areas downstream, or less
Landslides and Mudflows : A landslide is a disaster frequently the bursting of man-made dams or levees.
closely related to an avalanche, but instead of occurring with
• The Huang He (Yellow River) in China floods particularly
snow, it occurs involving actual elements of the ground, including
often. The Great Flood of 1931 caused between 800,000
rocks, trees, parts of houses, and anything else which may
and 4,000,000 deaths.
happen to be swept up.
• The Great Flood of 1993 was one of the most costly
Landslides can be caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods in US history.
or general instability in the surrounding land. Mudslides, or
mud flows, are a special case of landslides, in which heavy • The 1998 Yangtze River Floods, also in China, left
rainfall causes loose soil on steep terrain to collapse and slide 14 million people homeless.
downwards (see also Lahar); these occur with some regularity • The 2000 Mozambique flood covered much of the country
in parts of California after periods of heavy rain. for three weeks, resulting in thousands of deaths, and
Sinkholes : A localized depression in the surface leaving the country devastated for years afterward.
topography, usually caused by the collapse of a subterranean Tropical cyclones can result in extensive flooding, as
structure, such as a cave. Although rare, large sinkholes that happened with:
develop suddenly in populated areas can lead to the collapse • Typhoon Nina, striking China in 1975,
of buildings and other structures.
• Tropical Storm Allison, which struck Houston, Texas in
Volcanic Eruption : A volcanic eruption is the point in 2001, and
which a volcano is active and releases its power, and the
eruptions come in many forms. They range from daily small • Hurricane Katrina, which left most of New Orleans
eruptions which occur in places like Kilauea in Hawaii, or under water in the year 2005.
extremely infrequent super-volcano eruptions (where the Limnic Eruption
volcano expels at least 1,000 cubic kilometers of material) in
places like Lake Taupo, 26,500 years ago, or Yellowstone Also referred to as a lake overturn, a limnic eruption is a
Caldera, which has the potenetial to become a super-volcano rare type of natural disaster in which CO2 suddenly erupts
in the near geological future. from deep lake water, posing the threat of suffocating wildlife,
livestock and humans. Such an eruption may also cause
Some eruptions form pyroclastic flows, which are high- tsunamis in the lake as the rising CO2 displaces water. Scientists
temperature clouds of ash and steam that can trial down believe landslides, volcanic activity, or explosions can trigger
mountainsides at speed exceeding an airliner. According to the such an eruption. To date, only two limnic eruptions have been
Toba catastrophe theory, 70 to 75 thousand years ago, a super observed and recorded:
volcanic event at Lake Toba reduced the human population to
10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs, creating a bottleneck in • In 1984, in Cameroon, a limnic eruption in Lake Monoun
human evolution. caused the deaths of 37 nearby residents
• At nearby Lake Nyos in 1986 a much larger eruption Drought

killed between 1,700 and 1,800 people by asphyxiation.
An abnormally dry period when there is not enough
Maelstrom water to support agricultural, urban or environmental water
needs. Extended droughts can result in deaths by starvation
A large tidal whirlpool. The largest known maelstrom is
or disease, and can result in wildfires. Well-known historical
Moskstraumen off the Lofoten islands in Norway. Powerful
droughts include:
whirlpools have killed unlucky seafarers, but their power tends
to be exaggerated in fiction. Maelstroms can reach speeds of • 1900 India, killing between 250,000 and 3.25 million.
20-40km/h. • 1921-22, Soviet Union, in which 250,000 to 5 million
Seiche : A seiche is a standing wave in an enclosed or perished from starvation due to drought.
partially enclosed body of water. Seiches and seiche-related • 1928-30, northwest China, resulting in over 3 million
phenomena have been observed on lakes, reservoirs, bays and deaths by famine.
seas. The key requirement for formation of a seiche is that the
body of water be at least partially bounded, allowing natural • 1936 and 1941, Sichuan Province, China, resulting in
phenomena to form a standing wave. 5 million and 2.5 million deaths respectively.
Tsunami : A tsunami is a wave of water caused by the As of 2006, western Australia has been under drought
displacement of a body of water. Tsunami can be caused by conditions for five to ten years. The drought is beginning to
undersea earthquakes as in the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake, affect urban populations for the first time. Also in 2006, Sichuan
or by landslides such as the one which occurred at Lituya Bay, Province, China experienced its worst drought in modern times,
Alaska. Meteotsunamis are caused by meteorological with nearly 8 million people and over 7 million cattle facing
phenomena. A megatsunami is an informal term used to describe water shortages. Scientists warn that global warming may
very large tsunamis. They are a highly local effect, either result in more extensive drought in coming years.
occurring on shores extremely close to the origin of a tsunami,
or in deep, narrow inlets. The largest waves are caused by very Hailstorm
large landslides, such as a collapsing island, into a body of A hailstorm is a natural disaster where a thunderstorm
water. The highest Tsunami ever recorded was estimated to be produces numerous hailstones which damage the location in
of 524m (1742 ft.) vertical run-up on July 10, 1958,in Lituya which they fall. Hailstorms can be especially devastating to
Bay, Alaska. farm fields, ruining crops and damaging equipment. A
particularly damaging hailstorm hit Munich, Germany on
CLIMATIC August 31, 1986, felling thousands of trees and causing millions
Blizzard : A severe winter storm condition characterized of dollars in insurance claims.
by low temperatures, strong winds, and heavy blowing snow.
Heat Wave
Significant blizzards in the United States include:
A heat wave is a disaster characterized by heat which is
• The Great Blizzard of 1888
considered extreme and unusual in the area in which it occurs.
• The Schoolhouse Blizzard earlier the same year Heat waves are rare and require specific combinations of weather
• The Armistice Day Blizzard in 1940 events to take place, and may include temperature inversions,
• The Storm of the Century in 1993 katabatic winds, or other phenomena. The worst heat wave in
recent history was the European Heat Wave of 2003. There is tornado outbreaks along squall lines or in other large areas of
also the potential for longer term events causing global warming, thunderstorm development. Waterspouts are tornadoes
including stadial events (the opposite to glacial 'ice age' events), occurring over tropical waters in light rain conditions.
or through human induced climatic warming.
FIRE
Hurricanes, Tropical Cyclones and Typhoons
Wildfire
Hurricane, tropical cyclone, and typhoon are different names
for the same phenomenon: a cyclonic storm system that forms An uncontrolled fire burning in wildland areas. Common
over the oceans. It is caused by evaporated water that comes causes include lightning and drought but wildfires may also be
off of the ocean and becomes a storm. started by human negligence or arson. They can be a threat
The Coriolis Effect causes the storms to spin, and a hurricane to those in rural areas and also wildlife. Wildfires can also
is declared when this spinning mass of storms attains a wind produce ember attacks, where floating embers set fire to
speed greater than 74 mph. Hurricane is used for these buildings at a distance from the fire itself.
phenomena in the Atlantic Ocean, tropical cyclone in the Indian,
typhoon in the eastern Pacific. The deadliest hurricane ever HEALTH AND DISEASE
was the 1970 Bhola cyclone; the deadliest Atlantic hurricane Epidemic
was the Great Hurricane of 1780, which devastated Martinique,
St. Eustatius and Barbados. Another notable hurricane is An outbreak of a contractible disease that spreads at a
Hurricane Katrina, which devastated the Gulf Coast of the rapid rate through a human population. A pandemic is an
United States in 2005. epidemic whose spread is global. There have been many
epidemics throughout history. In the last hundred years,
Ice Age (Glacial Event) significant pandemics include:
An ice age is a geologic period, but could also be viewed in • The 1918 Spanish flu pandemic, killing an estimated 50
the light of a catastrophic natural disaster, since in an ice age, million people worldwide.
the climate all over the world would change and places which
were once considered habitable would then be too cold to • The 1957-58 Asian flu pandemic, which killed an
permanently inhabit. A side effect of an ice age could possibly estimated 1 million people.
be a famine, caused by a worldwide drought. • The 1968-69 Hong Kong flu pandemic.
Ice Storm • The 2002-3 SARS pandemic.
An ice storm is a particular weather event in which • The AIDS epidemic, beginning in 1959.
precipitation falls as ice, due to atmosphere conditions. Other diseases that spread more slowly, but are still
Tornado considered to be global health emergencies by the WHO include:
A tornado is a natural disaster resulting from a • XDR TB, a strain of tuberculosis that is extensively
thunderstorm. Tornadoes are violent, rotating columns of air resistant to drug treatments.
which can blow at speeds between 50 and 300 mph, and possibly • Malaria, which kills an estimated 1.5 million people
higher. Tornadoes can occur one at a time, or can occur in large each year.
• Ebola hemorrhagic fever, which has claimed hundreds International Campaigns

of victim in Africa in several outbreaks.
In 2000, the United Nations launched the International
Famine Early Warning Programme to address the underlying causes
of vulnerability and to build disaster-resilient communities by
A social and economic crisis that is commonly accompanied
by widespread malnutrition, starvation, epidemic disease and promoting increased awareness of the importance of disaster
increased mortality. Although some famines occur—or are reduction as an integral component of sustainable development,
aggravated—by natural factors, it can and often is a result of with the goal of reducing human, social, economic and environ-
economic or military policy that deprives people of the food that mental losses due to hazards of all kinds (UN/ISDR, 2000).
they require to survive. In modern times, famine has hit Sub- Earthquake Facts & Statistics
Saharan Africa the hardest, although the number of victims of
modern famines is much smaller than the number of people Fact Sheet 01: Frequency of Occurrence of
killed by the Asian famines of the 20th century. Earthquakes
SPACE Descriptor Magnitude Average Annually
Impact Event Great 8 and higher 1 ¹
An impact event is a natural disaster in which an Major 7—7.9 17 ²

extraterrestrial piece of rock or other material collides with the Strong 6—6.9 134 ²
Earth. The exact consequences of a direct Earth impact would Moderate 5—5.9 1319 ²
vary greatly with size of the colliding object, although in cases
of medium to large impacts short-term climate change and a Light 4—4.9 13,000 (estimated)
general failure of agriculture. An example would be the Minor 3—3.9 130,000 (estimated)
Tunguska event. Very Minor 2—2.9 1,300,000 (estimated)
Solar Flare ¹Based on observations since 1900.
A solar flare is a phenomenon where the sun suddenly ²Based on observations since 1990.
releases a great amount of solar radiation, much more than
normal. It is theorized that these releases of radiation could Fact Sheet 02: Year-wise description of Earthquakes
cause a widespread failure of communications technology across
the globe. The exact implications of such a failure are unknown. Number of Earthquakes Worldwide for 2000—2005. Located
by the US Geological Survey National Earthquake
Further studies are being carried out. Some known solar flares
Information Center
include:
• An X20 event on August 16, 1989. Magnitude 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
• A similar flare on April 2, 2001. 8.0 to 9.9 1 1 0 1 2 1

• The most powerful flare ever recorded, on November 4, 7.0 to 7.9 14 15 13 14 14 9
2003, estimated at between X40 and X45. 6.0 to 6.9 158 126 130 140 140 116
• The most powerful flare in the past 500 years is believed 5.0 to 5.9 1345 1243 1218 1203 1509 1307
to have occurred in September 1859. 4.0 to 4.9 8045 8084 8584 8462 10894 10264
Contd....
Hindu Kush Region,
Southern Sumatera,
Northern Sumatra,
Northern Sumatra
Southeastern Iran
Off West Coast of
Tajikistan Border
Magnitude 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Northern Iran
Afghanistan-
3.0 to 3.9 4784 6151 7005 7624 7937 5782
Afghanistan
Indonesia
Indonesia
2.0 to 2.9 3758 4162 6419 7727 6317 3249
Fact Sheet 04: Largest and Deadliest Earthquakes by Year 1990—2005
Date Magnitude Fatalities Region
Turkey
Region
1.0 to 1.9 1026 944 1137 2506 1344 20
India
Deadliest Earthquake
0.1 to 0.9 5 1 10 134 103 0
No Magnitude 3120 2938 2937 3608 2939 642
283,106
20,023
31,000
17,118
4,000
1,572
1,313
1,000
Total 22256 23534 27454 31419 * 31199* 21390
103
Estimated Deaths 231 21357 1685 33819 284010 1957
Fact Sheet 03: Largest Earthquakes in the World

Since 1900
7.7
6.6
7.3
8.7
6.6
7.6
7.9
6.1
9.0
Near East Coast of Kamchatka

Location Date UTC Magnitude Coordinates Reference
Near Coast of Peru 01/26
05/30
South of Fiji Islands 05/10

03/28
New Ireland Region, 06/04

12/26
08/17
03/25
12/26
1. Chile 1960 05 22 9.5 -38.24 -73.05
2. Prince William
Sound, Alaska 1964 03 28 9.2 61.02 -147.65
Northern Sumatra,
Northern Sumatra
Off West Coast of
3. Off the West Coast
Balleny Islands
Central Alaska
of Northern
Japan Region
Sumatra 2004 12 26 9.0 3.30 95.78
Hokkaido,
Indonesia
4. Kamchatka 1952 11 04 9.0 52.76 160.06
Taiwan
Region
P.N.G.
Largest Earthquakes
5. Off the Coast
of Ecuador 1906 01 31 8.8 1.0 -81.5
6. Northern Sumatra,
283,106
1,313
2,297
Indonesia 2005 03 28 8.7 2.08 97.01
138
0
0
0
0
7. Rat Islands,
Alaska 1965 02 04 8.7 51.21 178.50
8. Andrean of Islands,
Alaska 1957 03 09 8.6 51.56 -175.39
8.3
8.0
8.1
7.8
8.7
7.7
8.4
7.8
9.0
7.9
9. Assam—Tibet 1950 08 15 8.6 28.5 96.5
10. Kuril Islands 1963 10 13 8.5 44.9 149.6
09/25
11/16
03/25
10/14
03/28
09/20
12/05
06/23
12/26
11/03
11. Banda Sea,
Indonesia 1938 02 01 8.5 -5.05 131.62
12. Chile-Argentina
Year
2005
2003
2000
1998
1997
1999
2001
2004
2002
Border 1922 11 11 8.5 -28.55 -70.50
Fact Sheet 05: List of Some Significant Earthquakes
Kobe, Japan
in India
Yunnan, China
Northern India
Flores Region,
Date Epicenter Location Magnitude
Lat(Deg N) Long (Deg E)
Indonesia
Colombia
1819 Jun 16 23.6 68.6 Kutch, Gujarat 8.0

5,530
India
Deadliest Earthquake
Iran
1869 Jan 10 25 93 Near Cachar, Assam 7.5
1885 May 30 34.1 74.6 Sopor, J&K 7.0
50,000
9,748
2,519
2,000
1897 Jun 12 26 91 Shillongp lateau 8.7
795
322
6.9
1905 Apr. 04 32.3 76.3 Kangra, H.P 8.0

1918 Jul 08 24.5 91.0 Srimangal, Assam 7.6
1930 Jul 02 25.8 90.2 Dhubri, Assam 7.1
Near Coast of Northern Chile 01/16
6.8
7.4
6.2
6.6
7.8
6.8
1934 Jan 15 26.6 86.8 Bihar-Nepal border 8.3
1941 Jun 26 12.4 92.5 Andaman Islands 8.1
Near Coast of Jalisco Mexico
1943 Oct 23 26.8 94.0 Assam 7.2

09129
06/20
06/20
02/03
12/12
10/19
1950 Aug 15 28.5 96.7 Arunachal Pradesh-
China Border 8.5
1956 Jul 21 23.3 7.0 Anjar, Gujarat 7.0
Philippine Islands
Irian Jaya Region
South of Mariana
1967 Dec 10 17.37 73.75 Koyna, Maharashtra 6.5

Flores Region,
Kuril Islands
Kuril Islands
1975 Jan 19 32.38 78.49 Kinnaur, Hp 6.2

Costa Rica
Indonesia
Indonesia
1988 Aug 06 25.13 95.15 Manipur-Myanmar

Islands
Luzon,
Border 6.6
Largest Earthquakes
1988 Aug 21 26.72 86.63 Bihar-Nepal Border 6.4

1991 Oct 20 30.75 78.86 Uttarkashi, Up Hills 6.6
1993 Sep 30 18.07 76.62 Latur—Osmanabad,
1,621
2,519
166
11
49
75
Maharashtra 6.3
0
0
3
1997 May 22 23.08 80.06 Jabalpur, MP 6.0

1999 Mar 29 30.41 79.42 Chamoli, UP 6.8
2001 Jan 26 23.40 70.28 Bhuj, Gujarat 6.9
8.3
7.7
7.6
8.0
7.8
7.6
8.2
8.0
7.8
EARTHQUAKE PREPAREDNESS
10/04
07/16
12/22
10/09
08/08
04/22
02/17
07/30
12/12
Question: During an Earthquake (EQ), should you

head for the doorway?
Contd...
Answer: Yes, only if you live in an old, unreinforced adobe.

Year
1994
1990
1993
1996
1995
1992
1991
In modern homes, doorways are no stronger than any other

parts of the house and usually have doors that will swing and 2. Know where you gas, electric and water main shutoffs
can injure you. You are safer practicing the duck, cover, and are and how to turn them off if there is a leak or
hold under a sturdy piece of furniture. electrical short. Make sure older members of the family
can shut off utilities.
Question: What emergency supplies do I need?
3. Locate your nearest fire and police stations and
Answer: emergency medical facility.
1. Fire extinguisher. 4. Talk to your neighbors—how could they help you, or you
2. Adequate supplies of medications that you or family them after an EQ.
members are taking. 5. Take Red Cross First Aid and CPR Training Course.
3. Crescent and pipe wrenches to turn off gas and water
Question: What should I do during an EQ?
supplies.
Answer:
4. First-aid kit and handbook.
1. If you are indoors—stay there! (Get under a desk or
5. Flashlights with extra bulbs and batteries.
table and hang on to it, or move into a hallway or get
6. Portable radio with extra batteries. against an inside wall. Stay clear of windows, fireplaces,
7. Water for each family member for at least 3 days (allow and heavy furniture or appliances. Get out of the kitchen,
at least 1 gallon per person per day) and purification which is a dangerous place (things can fall on you). Do
tablets or chlorine bleach to purify drinking water from not run downstairs or rush outside while the building
other sources. is shaking or while there is danger of falling and hurting
yourself or being hit by falling glass or debris.
8. Canned and package foods, enough for several days and
MECHANICAL can opener. Extra food for pets if 2. If you are outside—get into the open, away from building,
necessary. power lines, chimneys, and anything else that might fall
on you.
9. Camp stove or barbecue to cook on outdoors (store fuel
out of the reach of children). 3. If you are driving—stop, but carefully. Move your car
as far out of traffic as possible. Do not stop on or under
10. Waterproof, heavy-duty plastic bags for waste disposal.
a bridge or overpass or under trees, light posts, power
Question: How can I plan ahead for an Earthquake? lines, or signs. Stay inside your car until the shaking
Answer: stops. When you resume driving watch for breaks in the
pavement, fallen rocks, and bumps in the road at bridge
1. Make sure each member of your family knows what to approaches.
do no matter where they are when EQs occur:
4. If you are in a mountainous area—watch out for falling
• Establish a meeting place where you can all reunite rock, landslides, trees, and other debris that could be
afterward. loosened by quakes.
• Find out about EQ plans developed by children's Question: Things not to do during an EQ?
school or day care.
Answer:
• Remember transportation may be disrupted; keep
some emergency supplies—food, liquids, and 1. Do not turn on the gas again if you turned it off; let the
comfortable shoes, for example—at work. gas company do it.
2. Do not use matches, lighters, camp stoves or barbecues, leaks—shut off main gas valve only if you suspect a leak
electrical equipment, appliances until you are sure there because of broken pipes or odour; Damaged electrical
are no gas leaks. They may create a spark that could wiring—Shut off power at the control box if there is any
ignite leaking gas and cause an explosion and fire. danger to house wiring; Downed or damaged utility
3. Do not use your telephone, except for a medical or fire lines—do not touch downed power lines or any objects
emergency. You could tie up the lines needed for in contact with them; spills—clean up any spilled
emergency response. If the phone doesn't work send medicines, drugs, or other harmful materials such as
someone for help. bleach, lye, gas; downed or damaged chimneys—
Approach with caution—don't use damaged chimney (it
4. Do not expect firefighters, police or paramedics to help
could start fire or let poisonous gases into your house;
you. They may not be available.
fallen items—beware of items tumbling off shelves when
Question: What can I expect in my house when an EQ you open doors of closets and cupboards; (4) check food
occurs? How do I identify it? What can be done? and water supplies—Do not eat or drink anything from
Answer: The contents of your home may be damaged and open containers near shattered glass; If power is off,
can be dangerous: plan meals to use up foods that will spoil quickly or
frozen foods (food in the freezer should be good for at
1. Shaking can make light fixtures fall, refrigerators and least a couple of days; Don't light your kitchen stove if
other large items move across the floor, and bookcases
you suspect a gas leak; Use BBQ or camp stoves, outdoors
and television sets topple over. Identify: Look around
only for emergency cooking; If your water is off you can
your house for things that could fall or move.
drink supplies from water heaters, melted ice cubes or
2. Ask yourself if your cupboard doors fly open (allowing canned vegetables (Avoid drinking water from swimming
dishes to shatter on the floor) pools or especially spas—it may have too many chemicals
What Can Be Done: You can install door latches, braces in it to be safe).
and fasteners to fix most of these hazards yourself. Question: What are the steps to EQ safety/awareness?
Question: What do I do after an earthquake? Answer:
Answer: 1. Estimate what EQ of what sizes are likely to occur
1. Wear sturdy shoes to avoid injury from broken glass (geology).
and debris. Expect aftershocks. 2. Given the EQ size we then estimate what the shaking
2. Check for injuries (if a person is bleeding, put direct will be (seismology).
pressure on the wound, use clean gauze or cloth if 3. Given the shaking, we estimate the response of different
available; If a person is not breathing administer CPR; types of buildings (EQ engineering). Only with all these
Do not attempt to move seriously injured persons unless steps can we take steps as society to enact bldg. codes
they are in further danger of injury; cover injured persons and retrofitting programmes to make our community
with blankets to keep warm; seek medical help for serious safer.
injuries.
Question: What are part of the earthquake Supplies
3. Check for hazards (Fire hazards—put out fires in your and Equipment Checklist?
home or neighbourhood immediately, call for help; Gas
Answer: When organizing supplies for an earthquake, earthquake restraining strap, a hose type nozzle, and
remember that you need to get to them after an earthquake a metal head).
has turned your house into mess. Store supplies in an easy to • Compass.
find location that has a minimal chance of being buried under
falling objects. If you are short on space, a large trashcan • Flashlight With Batteries, Chemical Light Sticks and
makes an excellent storage container. If you live in an apartment, Matches, In Waterproof Container.
the container can be hidden under a decorative tablecloth. • Small Radio (Battery Powered Portable).
Earthquakes can happen at any time. Are you prepared right
• Entertainment Pack—Family Photos, Notebooks,
now? Have you rotated your food supplies in the last six months?
Literature, and Games.
If not, make time on your calendar. Do it now!
• Work Gloves. Question: What are the sanitation supplies one needs
to carry during the EQ?
• Ax/Maul (min. 6 lb.).
Answer:
• Shovel (flat head and pointed).
• Broom. 1. Plastic Bags—heavy duty garbage can size and smaller
zip-lock types
• Hammer and Nails.
2. Powdered Chlorine Lime—(proper storage is required,
• Screwdrivers.
it is an oxidizer and it is corrosive)
• Crowbar or Claw Tool (36" or Longer).
3. Portable Camp Toilet with Chemicals
• Plastic Sheeting Rolls (4 Mil. IO' X 25').
4. Tissue Paper
• Plastic Garbage Bags (Heavy Duty, 30 Gal. or Larger).
5. Handi-wipes, Wet-N-Drys, etc. for water free cleanup
• Small and Large Plastic Bags.
6. Toilet Supplies—Towelettes, Shampoo, Toothpaste,
• Coils of Rope 1/4", 1/2", 3/4" (25'—50').
Deodorant, Sanitary Napkins, Etc.
• Coil of Wire.
7. Insect Sprays
• Tent (Family or Tube Type).
Question: What are the structural precautions one can
• Tarp (PVC or Canvas, Minimum Two, 8' X IO').
take while constructing house to avoid the risk of EQ?
• Sleeping Bags, Blanket, or Space Blanket.
Answer:
• Cheese Cloth (To Strain Particles From Water).
• CASH MONEY (Small Denominations & Coin).
• Dry Food.
• Water.
• Clothing.
• Walking Shoes and Socks Local Road Map.
• Fire Extinguisher (We recommend a dry chemical type
with a minimum size rating of 2A-IOBC, with an
• Strengthen the connections between ceilings, walls and • Homes that have been framed in wood are generally quite
floors using the appropriate hardware (image at right). resistant to earthquake damage. Watching tall trees in
a strong windstorm demonstrates this resistance. It is
• Inspect all exposed framing in garages, basements,
unlikely that conventionally-frame houses will collapse.
porches and patio covers.
This is the case only if the home remains on its
• Strengthen this where necessary. foundations and the roof, ceiling and walls remain
• Brick and Masonry Facades: Check all brick, masonry connected.
and stone facades to make sure they are securely Foundation: The majority of residential structural damage
attached to your home. Consult a structural engineer is caused by homes sliding off their foundations during major
for advice on how to do this. earthquakes.
Chimneys:
• Check your house and garage for foundation bolts. These

bolts secure the wood structure to the concrete
foundation. They are placed approximately six feet apart
along the sill plate and should look like the one
illustrated.
• One of the most common types of damage suffered in
earthquakes is a toppled chimney. This becomes • Using a hammer drill and a carbide bit, drill a hole
extremely dangerous when bricks penetrate the roof through the sill plate into the foundation. Place these
and fall to the rooms below. holes every six feet. Drop a 1/2" × 8" expansion bolt into
the holes and finish by tightening the nut and washer.
• Check the chimney for loose mortar, flue or bricks.
Cripple Walls:
• Reinforce the ceiling surrounding the chimney with 3/
4" plywood nailed to the beams. This will provide • Inspect the vertical studs that extend from the
protection from failing bricks that might break through foundation to the first floor of your home. These are
the roof. called cripple walls. If they are exposed on the inside,
they could buckle in the severe ground motion that
Windows: accompanies many large earthquakes.
• Inspect all large plate glass windows to make sure they • Strengthen the cripple walls by nailing plywood sheeting
are safety glass. to the vertical studs.
• Consider adding a safety film to all windows. This does • Inspect the garage for exposed cripple walls. This is
not prevent the window from breaking, but it does keep particularly important if the garage is supporting living
the glass from falling and injuring loved ones. quarters.
Mobile Homes: Before entering a damaged building:

• It is relatively easy for a mobile home to be thrown off • Put on a sturdy shoes and work gloves for protection
its supports during an earthquake; even those that against glass or other debris.
produce relatively minor shaking. Leave the wheels on • Check exterior, roof and chimney for structural damage.
the coach to limit its fall. Check the undercarriage to
make sure that it has been securely tied to the • Stay away from fallen or damaged electrical wires. They
foundation. could still be alive. Do not carry lanterns or torches that
could start a fire.
• Tie doublewide mobile homes together. The two halves
generally are of different weights. Because of this, they • If you have any doubts about safety, have your home
move differently in an earthquake and can easily pull inspected by a professional before entering.
apart. • Keep a battery operated radio with you to hear any
• Seismic bracing systems are commercially available. Be emergency updates
sure that any system you are interested in has been Upon Entering:
CSA (Canadian Standards Association) certified and
• Check for injured or trapped persons. Give first aid
inspected by the appropriate local authorities.
where appropriate. Do not move seriously injured
Question: What should one do when people comeback persons unless they are in immediate danger of further
home from the disaster? injury. Call for help.
Answer: Returning home after a major disaster can be • Extinguish all open flames.
both dangerous and difficult. Do not return home until
• Until phone service is fully restored, use the phone only
authorities have indicated that it is safe to do so.
for a life-threatening emergency.
Remember that it takes a long time to recover from a
• Check utilities and appliances:
disaster. Take your time and pace yourself. Plan a reasonable
amount of activity each day. Include children in clean up and Check Gas Supply:
recovery activities. Watch for signs of stress in yourself and If you smell, gas or hear a blowing or hissing sound, open
family members. If you can't shake feelings of despair, get a window and quickly leave the building. Turn off the gas at
professional help. While life will not be the same as before the the outside main valve if you can, and call the gas company
disaster happened, you can and will recover. from a neighbour's home. If you turn off the gas for any reason,
The behaviour of your pets may change after an emergency. a professional must turn it back on.
Normally quiet and friendly pets may become aggressive or Check Electricity:
defensive. Watch animals closely. If after a disaster you have
to leave town, take your pet with you. Pets are unlikely to If you see sparks, broken or frayed wires, or if you smell
survive on their own. Try to stay at home and avoid driving hot insulation, turn off the electricity at the main fuse box or
to keep roads clear for emergency workers. circuit breaker; call an electrician first for advice.
If you have appropriate insurance, call your agent. Take Check Sewage and Water Lines:
pictures of damages. Keep good records of repair and cleaning If you suspect sewage lines are damaged, avoid using the
costs. toilets and call a plumber. If water pipes are damaged, contact
the water company and avoid using water from the tap. You intervals are much longer than the recorded human history
can obtain safe water by melting ice cubes. this may often give a false sense of security. Occurrence of the
damaging earthquake at Latur, falling in zone I is a typical
Checking Electrical Appliances
example of this situation.
If any of the electrical appliances are wet, turn off the main
What Causes Earthquakes: Information about Faults,
power switch in the house. Unplug the appliance, dry it out,
Plate Tectonics and Earth Structure.
then reconnect it and turn off the main power switch back on.
Question: What is an earthquake and what causes
If fuses or circuits blow when the electrical power is restored,
them to happen?
turn off the main power switch again and inspect for short
circuits in the home wiring or appliances. Call a professional Answer: An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a
if the problem continues to occur. fault. Stresses in the earth's outer layer push the sides of the
fault together. Stress builds up and the rocks slips suddenly,
Cleaning Up:
releasing energy in waves that travel through the earth's crust
• Clean up spilled medicines, bleaches, gasoline, or other and cause the shaking that we feel during an earthquake. An
flammable liquids. EQ occurs when plates grind and scrape against each other.
• Try to protect your home from further damage. Open In California there are two plates the Pacific Plate and the
windows and doors. Patch holes. North American Plate. The Pacific Plate consists of most of the
Pacific Ocean floor and the California Coast line.
• Clean and disinfect everything that got wet. The mud
left behind by floodwaters can contain sewage and The North American Plate comprises most the North
chemicals. American Continent and parts of the Atlantic Ocean floor.
These are primary boundaries between these two plates is the
• If your basement is flooded, pump it out gradually (about
San Andreas Fault. The San Andreas Fault is more than 650
one-third of the water per day) to avoid damage. The
miles long and extends to depths of at least 10 miles. Many
walls may collapse and the floor may buckle if the
other smaller faults like the Hayward (Northern California)
basement is pumped out while the surrounding ground
and the San Jacinto (Southern California) branch from and join
is still waterlogged.
the San Andreas Fault Zone.
• Throw out food, cosmetics and medicines that have
The Pacific Plate grinds northwestward past the North
come into contact with floodwaters.
American Plate at a rate of about two inches per year. Parts
Seismic Zonation map of a country is a guide to the seismic of the San Andreas Fault system adapt to this movement by
status of a region and its susceptibility to earthquakes. India constant "creep" resulting in many tiny shocks and a few
has been divided into five zones with respect to severity of moderate earth tremors. In other areas where creep is NOT
earthquakes. Of these, zone v is seismically the most active constant, strain can build up for hundreds of years, producing
where earthquakes of magnitude 8 or more could occur recent great EQs when it finally releases.
strong motion observations around the world have revolutionized
Question: Can we cause earthquakes? Is there any
thinking on the design of engineering structures, placing
way to prevent earthquakes?
emphasis also on the characteristics of the structures themselves
it should be realized that in the case of shield type earthquakes, Answer: Earthquakes induced by human activity have
historic data are insufficient to define zones because recurrence been documented in a few locations in the United States, Japan,
and Canada. The cause was injection of fluids into deep wells Five billion years ago a massive conglomeration of space
for waste disposal and secondary recovery of oil, and the use materials formed the Earth. The heat energy released by this
of reservoirs for water supplies. Most of these earthquakes event melted the entire planet, and it is still cooling off today.
were minor. The largest and most widely known resulted from Denser materials like iron (Fe) sank into the core of the Earth,
fluid injection at the Rocky Mountain Arsenal near Denver, while lighter silicates (Si), other oxygen (O) compounds, and
Colorado. In 1967, an earthquake of magnitude 5.5 followed a water rose near the surface. The earth is divided into four main
series of smaller earthquakes. layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The core
is composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is so hot that the outer core
Injection had been discontinued at the site in the previous
is molten, with about 10% sulfur (S).
year once the link between the fluid injection and the earlier
series of earthquakes was established. (Nicholson, Craig and The inner core is under such extreme pressure that it
Wesson, R.L., 1990, Earthquake Hazard Associated with Deep remains solid. Most of the Earth's mass is in the mantle, which
Well Injection—A Report to the U.S. Environmental Protection is composed of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al),
Agency: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1951, 74 p.) Other silicon (Si), and oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At over 1000
human activities, even nuclear detonations, have not been degrees C, the mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic
linked to earthquake activity. Energy from nuclear blasts manner. The crust is much thinner than any of the other
dissipates quickly along the Earth's surface. layers, and is composed of the least dense calcium (Ca) and
sodium (Na) aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively cold,
Earthquakes are part of a global tectonic process that the crust is rocky and brittle, so it can fracture in earthquakes.
generally occurs well beyond the influence or control of humans.
The focus (point of origin) of earthquakes is typically tens to Question: What are plate tectonics?
hundreds of miles underground. The scale and force necessary Answer: Plate tectonics are the continual slow movement
to produce earthquakes are well beyond our daily lives. We of the tectonic plates, the outermost part of the earth. This
cannot prevent earthquakes; however, we can significantly motion is what causes earthquakes and volcanoes and has
mitigate their effects by identifying hazards, building safer created most of the spectacular scenery around the world.
structures, and providing education on earthquake safety.
Question: What is a fault and what are the different
Question: What do we know about the interior of the types?
Earth? Answer: A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between
Answer: two blocks of rock. Faults allow the blocks to move relative to
each other. This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of
an earthquake—or may occur slowly, in the form of creep.
Faults may range in length from a few millimeters to thousands
of kilometers. Most faults produce repeated displacements over
geologic time. During an earthquake, the rock on one side of
the fault suddenly slips with respect to the other. The fault
surface can be horizontal or vertical or some arbitrary angle
in between.
Earth scientists use the angle of the fault with respect to
the surface (known as the dip) and the direction of slip along
the fault to classify faults. Faults, which move along the direction Answer: Earthquakes occur on faults—strike-slip
of the dip plane, are dip-slip faults and described as either earthquakes occur on strike-slip faults, normal earthquakes
normal or reverse, depending on their motion. Faults that occur on normal faults, and thrust earthquakes occur on thrust
move horizontally are known as strike-slip faults and are or reverse faults. When an earthquake occurs on one of these
classified as either right-lateral or left-lateral. Faults, which faults, the rock on one side of the fault slips with respect to
show both dip-slip and strike-slip motion are known as oblique- the other. The fault surface can be vertical, horizontal, or at
slip faults. The following definitions are adapted from The some angle to the surface of the earth. The slip direction can
Earth by Press and Siever. Normal fault- a dip-slip fault in also be at any angle.
which the block above the fault has moved downward relative Question: How do we know a fault exists?
to the block below. This type of faulting occurs in response to
extension and is often observed in the Western United States Answer:
Basin and Range Province and along oceanic ridge systems. 1. if the EQ left surface evidence, such as surface ruptures
Thrust fault- a dip-slip fault in which the upper block, or fault scarps (cliffs made by EQs).
above the fault plane, moves up and over the lower block. This 2. if a large EQ has broken the fault since we began
type of faulting is common in areas of compression, such as instrumental recordings in 1932.
regions where one plate is being sub ducted under another as
3. if the faults produces small EQs that we can record with
in Japan. When the dip angle is shallow, a reverse fault is often
the denser seismographic network established in the
described as a thrust fault.
1970s.
Strike-slip fault—a fault on which the two blocks slide past
Question: Where can I go to see the fault?
one another. The San Andreas Fault is an example of a right
lateral fault. A left-lateral strike-slip fault is one on which the Answer: The closest fault depends on where you live. Some
displacement of the far block is to the left when viewed from earthquakes produce spectacular fault scarps, and others are
either side. A right-lateral strike-slip fault is one on which the completely buried beneath the surface. Sometimes you may not
displacement of the far block is to the right when viewed from even know that you are looking at a fault scarp.
either side. Question: What does an earthquake feel like?
Question: At what depth do earthquakes occur? Answer: Generally, during an earthquake you first will
Answer: Earthquakes occur in the crust or upper mantle, feel a swaying or small jerking motion, then a slight pause,
which ranges from the earth's surface to about 800 kilometers followed by a more intense rolling or jerking motion. The
deep (about 500 miles). duration of the shaking you feel depends on the earthquake's
magnitude, your distance from the epicenter, and the geology
Question: What is "surface rupture" in an earthquake?
of the ground under your feet. Shaking at a site with soft
Answer: Surface rupture occurs when movement on a fault sediments, for example, can last 3 times as long as shaking at
deep within the earth breaks through to the surface. NOT ALL a stable bedrock site such as one composed of granite.
earthquakes result in surface rupture.
If the site is in a building, then the height of the building
Question: What is the relationship between faults and and type of material it is constructed from are also factors. For
earthquakes? What happens to a fault when an minor earthquakes, ground shaking usually lasts only a few
earthquake occurs? seconds. Strong shaking from a major earthquake usually lasts
less than one minute. For example, shaking in the 1989 Question: Can animals predict earthquakes?
magnitude 7.1 Loma Prieta (San Francisco) earthquake lasted 15 Answer: Changes in animal behaviour cannot be used to
seconds; for the 1906 magnitude 8.3 San Francisco earthquakes
predict earthquakes. Even though there have been documented
it lasted about 40 seconds. Shaking for the 1964 magnitude 9.2
cases of unusual animal behaviour prior to earthquakes, a
Alaska earthquakes, however, lasted three minutes.
reproducible connection between a specific behaviour and the
Question: Foreshocks, aftershocks—what is the occurrence of an earthquake has not been made. Animals change
difference? their behaviour for many reasons and given that an earthquake
Answer: "Foreshock" and "aftershock" are relative terms. can shake millions of people, it is likely that a few of their pets
Foreshocks are earthquakes, which precede larger earthquakes will, by chance, be acting strangely before an earthquake.
in the same location. Aftershocks are smaller earthquakes, Question: Can you prevent large earthquakes by
which occur in the same general area during the days to years making lots of small ones, or by "lubricating" the fault
following a larger event or "mainshock", defined as within 1-2 with water?
fault lengths away and during the period of time before the
Answer: Seismologists have observed that for every
background seismicity level has resumed. As a general rule,
aftershocks represent minor readjustments along the portion magnitude 6 earthquake there are 10 of magnitude 5, 100 of
of a fault that slipped at the time of the main shock. The magnitude 4, 1,000 of magnitude 3, and so forth as the events
frequency of these aftershocks decreases with time. Historically, get smaller and smaller. This sounds like a lot of small
deep earthquakes (>30km) are much less likely to be followed earthquakes, but there are never enough small ones to eliminate
by aftershocks than shallow earthquakes. the occasional large event.
Question: Two earthquakes occurred on the same day. It would take 32 magnitudes 5's, 1000 magnitude 4's, and
Are they related? 32,000 magnitude 3's to equal the energy of one magnitude 6
event. So, even though we always record many more small
Answer: Often, people wonder if an earthquake in Alaska events than large ones, there are never enough to eliminate the
may have triggered an earthquake in California; or if an need for the occasional large earthquake.
earthquake in Chile is related to an earthquake that occurred
a week later in Mexico. Over these distances, the answer is no. As for "lubricating" faults with water or some other
Even the Earth's rocky crust is not rigid enough to transfer substance, injecting high-pressure fluids deep into the ground
stress fields efficiently over thousands of miles. is known to be able to trigger earthquakes to occur sooner than
would have been the case without the injection. However, this
Question: Can you predict earthquakes?
would be a dangerous pursuit in any populated area, as one
Answer: No. Neither the USGS nor Caltech nor any other might trigger a damaging earthquake.
scientists have ever predicted a major earthquake. They do not
Question: Can some people sense that an earthquake
know how, and they do not expect to know how any time in
is about to happen? (Earthquake sensitive)?
the near future. However based on scientific data, probabilities
can be calculated for potential future earthquakes. For example, Answer: There is no scientific explanation for the symptoms
scientists estimate that over the next 30 years the probability some people claim to have preceding an earthquake, and more
of a major EQ occurring in the San Francisco Bay area is 67% often than not there is no earthquake following the symptoms.
and 60% in Southern California. Question: Is there earthquake weather?
Answer: In the 4th Century B.C., Aristotle proposed that field. The relative amount of influence is proportional to the
earthquakes were caused by winds trapped in subterranean objects mass, and inversely proportional to the square of its
caves. Small tremors were thought to have been caused by air distance from the earth. No significant correlations have been
pushing on the cavern roofs, and large ones by the air breaking identified between the rate of earthquake occurrence and the
the surface. This theory lead to a belief in earthquake weather, semi-diurnal tides when using large earthquake catalogs. There
that because a large amount of air was trapped underground, have, however, been some small but significant correlations
the weather would be hot and calm before an earthquake. A reported between the semi-diurnal tides and the rate of
later theory stated that earthquakes occurred in calm, cloudy occurrence of aftershocks in some volcanic regions, such as
conditions, and were usually preceded by strong winds, fireballs, Mammoth Lakes.
and meteors.
Question: Can the ground open up during an
However, there is no connection between weather and earthquake?
earthquakes. They are the result of geologic processes within
the earth and can happen in any weather and at any time Answer: Shallow crevasses can form during earthquake
during the year. Earthquakes originate miles underground. induced landslides, lateral spreads, or other types of ground
Wind, precipitation, temperature, and barometric pressure failures. Faults, however, do not open up during an earthquake.
changes affect only the surface and shallow subsurface of the Movement occurs along the plane of a fault, not perpendicular
Earth. Earthquakes are focused at depths well out of the reach to it. If faults opened up, no earthquake would occur because
of weather, and the forces that cause earthquakes are much there would be no friction to lock them together.
larger than the weather forces. Earthquakes occur in all types Question: Why are we having so many earthquakes?
of weather, in all climate zones, in all seasons of the year, and
Has earthquake activity been increasing? Does this mean
at any time of day. Sometimes, we are asked: "Do earthquakes
a big one is going to hit? We haven't had any earthquakes
change the weather in any way? Earthquakes themselves do
in a long time; does this mean that the pressure is building
not cause weather to change. Earthquakes, however, are a part
up and there will be a big one?
of global tectonics, a process that often changes the elevation
of the land and its morphology. Tectonics can cause inland Answer: Although it may seem that we are having more
areas to become coastal or vice versa. Changes significant to earthquakes, earthquakes of magnitude 7.0 or greater have
alter the climate occur over millions of years, however, and remained fairly constant throughout this century and, according
after many earthquakes. to our records; have actually seemed to decrease in recent
Question: Are there more earthquakes in the morning/ years. A partial explanation may lie in the fact that in the last
in the evening/at a certain time of the month? twenty years, we have definitely had an increase in the number
of earthquakes we have been able to locate each year. This is
Answer: Earthquakes are equally as likely to occur at any because of the tremendous increase in the number of
time of the day or month or year. The factors that vary between
seismograph stations in the world and the many improvements
the time of the day, month, or year do not affect the forces in
in global communications.
the earth that cause earthquakes.
In 1931, there were about 350 stations operating in the
Question: Can the position of the moon or the planets
world; today, there are more that 4,000 stations and the data
affect seismicity?
now comes in rapidly from these stations by telex, computer
Answer: The moon, sun, and other planets have an influence and satellite. This increase in the number of stations and the
on the earth in the form of perturbations to the gravitational more timely receipt of data has allowed us and other
54 Disaster Management Study Programme in Disaster Management 55
seismological centres to locate many small earthquakes which

were undetected in earlier years, and we are able to locate
earthquakes more rapidly. The NEIC now locates about 12,000
to 14,000 earthquakes each year or approximately 35 per day.
Also, because of the improvements in communications and the
increased interest in natural disasters, the public now learns
about more earthquakes.
3
According to long-term records (since about 1900), we expect STUDY PROGRAMME IN DISASTER
about 18 major earthquakes (7.0—7.9) and one great earthquake
(8.0 or above) in any given year. However, let us take a look MANAGEMENT
at what has happened in the past 32 years, from 1969 through
2001, so far. Our records show that 1992, and 1995-1997 were
the only years that we have reached or exceeded the long-term About the Programme
average number of major earthquakes since 1971.
A joint initiative of Govt. of India and UNDP, this
In 1970 and in 1971 we had 20 and 19 major earthquakes, programme essentially aims to contribute towards the social
respectively, but in other years, the total was in many cases and economic development goals of national government and
well below the 18 per year, which we may expect based on the enabling state governments to minimize loss of development
long-term average. gains from disasters and reduce vulnerabilities. It is an effort
A temporal increase in earthquake activity does not mean towards demonstrating a sustainable model for mainstreaming
that a large earthquake is about to happen. Similarly, disaster Risk Management at all levels with focus on district
quiescence, or the lack of seismicity, does not mean a large and community level activities. The vital output of this project
earthquake is going to happen. is multi-hazard Risk Management and sustainable recovery
plans at community, subdivision and district level, and
Question: Do earthquakes cause volcanoes? strengthening institutions responsible for sustainability and
Answer: No, there are different earth processes responsible replication of these efforts.
for volcanoes. Earthquakes may occur in an area before, during, At the national level this programme seeks to provide
and after a volcanic eruption, but they are the result of the support to Ministry of Home Affairs to set up institutional
active forces connected with the eruption, and not the cause framework for disaster preparedness, prevention and mitigation.
of volcanic activity. It shall help boast local capacities to address disasters through
an integrated approach for reducing socio-economic and
environmental (emphasizing natural hazards) vulnerabilities
Importance of the Programme
The study is vital because of the very vulnerable nature of
the area that we inhabit. Delhi being the state capital of India
is the nerve centre of all its functionaries. Like brain in a body,
it controls all India and any damage to this brain may lead to
a crises unmentionable.
Delhi is constantly at risk to various natural and man- District Disaster Management Committee and District
made disasters. Natural disasters like earthquake and floods— Crises group are two major groups have been constituted under
being the two most significant ones for this region—can strike his/her directions. The power of sanction of relief is also vested
any time because of its geographic location in zone IV and along with the officials of revenue department at different level
Yamuna. Then due to its politically sensitive position possibility depending upon the need.
of a terrorist attack cannot be ruled out.
The Deputy Commissioner is able to ensure participation
Above all these, the vulnerability of the region increases of district and state government in the response and recovery
many fold because of the very nature of the way the city has phase. He also manages to get support from managerial,
grown and expanded over years and the basic characteristics materials, resources and NGOs.
of the population that inhabit this oblivious growth.
District Disaster Management Committee
North District is an integral part of the state of Delhi and
The DDMC is an apex planning body responsible for disaster
so the vulnerabilities and risks at stake are not very different.
risk reduction initiatives at the district and district level units.
Some of the very old parts of the state with their delicate
Members of the committee are the nodal officers of various line
constructions, narrow lanes and old hanging wires form a
departments such as Deputy Commissioner of Police, Deputy
part of the district. It also has historical monuments like
Commissioner of MCD zones, Deputy Chief Fire Officer, Chief
Lal Quila and important installations like Wazirabad water
Engineer of PWD, District Liaison officer of Civil Defence and
works that may be potential target areas in wake of a terrorist
Home Guard, Deputy Director of Education, Sub-divisional
attack.
Magistrate and Chief District Medical Officer of Directorate of
The time has come that we realize the significance of Health etc.
the threat that is looming right ahead and start thinking of
To ensure the public participation under disaster
ways to protect ourselves. We also know that there is not much
management planning MPs and MLAs are also members to the
we can do in the immediate present to change the existing
DDMC. Volunteer and social organizations like NCC, NSS, and
situation.
CATS are other important members of the committee.
We cannot rebuild our environment and our structures no
The committee holds periodical meetings to discuss and
matter how unsafe they are, we can not provide 24×7 helicopters
finalized disaster management plans and activities and
monitoring our historical and important structures—we still
emergency support functions. The objective to constitute DDMC
have a long way to go to achieve these goals but what we can
is to provide necessary guidance and inputs in preparedness,
do right now is to improve our skills to fight better any calamity
mitigation and management planning through a participatory
that strikes us, stand tall in wake of a disaster and thus
approach. Major emergencies and disasters, natural or chemical
prevent it from turning into a hazard.
releases, have occurred across the globe and as the population
Institutional Set-up grows and resources become more limited, communities are
increasingly vulnerable to the hazards that cause disasters.
At district level the revenue department has been identified
as the nodal agency to perform all tasks related to disaster Emergencies and disasters do not affect only health and
Management. The Deputy Commissioner acts as the focal point well being; frequently large number of people are displaced,
for all types of disaster preparedness, response and recovery killed or injured or subjected to a greater risk of epidemics such
activities. as the recent out break of Leptospirosis and Dengue in Mumbai.
A disaster is an occurrence that causes damage, ecological global positioning system including air ambulance services,
disruption, loss of human life or deterioration of health and radio communication, and intersectorial coordination amongst
health services on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary governmental agencies. Lack of action or slow development on
response from outside the affected community or area. Rapid the above issues at all levels results into an unprepared society
industrialization and new technologies have produced new for natural or chemical calamities.
hazards. The severity and frequency of technological
There are effective legislations for control of transportation
emergencies have increased. With proliferation of nuclear power
and storage of hazardous chemicals but many small-scale
and chemical plants over the last few decades, disasters on the
chemical industries causing pollution and threatening to spill
scale of Chernobyl or Bhopal cannot be ruled out.
off an emergency compound the problem. Lack of manpower
The risks of accidental chemical releases escalate as a in surveillance agencies also increases the risk of dangerous
number of new hazardous substances are produced. events of chemical release.
First, production, transport, and use of flammable, explosive Now coming closer to on-site-related issues in hazardous
or toxic chemicals have grown significantly in both developing industries, many of them especially small-scale and medium-
and developed countries. sized industries have no document of an "On-site disaster
management plan" in place and in many large industries it is
Second, greater and more centralized productions have
only on paper. This kind of unpreparedness would result in a
increased the quantities of chemicals manufactured and the
serious outcome for the site and also to the society.
distances across which they are transported throughout the
country. As prewritten protocol, mock drills are required to be
conducted periodically, however, they are not seriously practised,
Third, in a country like ours, population growth nearer to
which contributes to unprepared status and results in poor and
chemical plants and along transportation routes has meant
chaotic response in the event of an emergency. The concept of
that there are larger communities in great number at high risk
"mutual aid" from neighbouring industries and community
following a chemical accident.
resources that should be a part of the drill never gets tested.
In India, we have 2,000,000 registered industries, of which
The inter-industry interaction and collaboration in
more than 5000 are chemical industries. Therefore, it is
discussing emerging scenarios after chemical release,
mandatory for us to have a disaster management plan and the
environmental impacts, expectation and roles, and resource
preparedness to avert any loss of life, human suffering, and
pooling are never seriously discussed. The community resource
economic losses like the terrifying event that occurred in Bhopal.
identification both in terms of local and technical experts in
Political stability and political will is most needed to drive such
various fields and local logistic help groups is poorly done or
initiatives in any country.
not done at all. This kind of "community-resource group" is
With this background let us look at issue for actions with essential for disseminating information on chemical release to
respect to disaster management in our own backyard. A national the local community to achieve better societal preparedness
policy is in place for disaster management but the ownership and to seek better societal cooperation in the event of an
is lacking and there is no political pressure for total emergency.
implementation to construct good roads and highways, create
The societal communication in building effective responding
facilities for rapid mode of transportation, earmark areas for
ability is an important issue to be addressed by the industry
evacuation of population, networked ambulance services with
group. When the emergency does not remain focal or local and
becomes a regional event then environmental fallouts affecting were in place, major events such as the Orissa super-cyclone
safe water, food handling, vector control, and sanitation become (1999) and the Bhuj earthquake (2001) emphasised the need
important issues. Pre-disaster planning, preventative for a comprehensive approach to mitigation and prevention, for
maintenance, training, and education of people for emergency natural and man-made disasters.
response services, anticipation of fallouts and continuous
NSCI adopted several goals based on the APELL procedures:
planning are only means to overcome such events quickly.
creating or raising public awareness of possible hazards within
Emerging issues of global threat by terrorists, nuclear a community; stimulating development of cooperative plans to
proliferation, biological weapons, and chemical warfare pose respond to any emergency that might occur; and encouraging
different kinds of challenges to deal with, which requires global accident prevention.
strategy, intelligence sharing, political will and international
Implementation in this vast country followed a two-track
cooperation on matters of security. This is necessary to prevent
approach of development of awareness at the national level,
such attacks and develop public health and safety response to
and in-depth implementation in selected high-risk industrial
minimize the impact. This editorial has not only surfaced some
areas (HRIA—see map). We needed to gain first hand experience
of the issues related to disaster management requiring action
through pilot projects in important areas. A national Advisory
from various agencies, but also it aims to provide scope for
Committee and Technical Core Group was set up for periodical
introspection of the current status and some futuristic scenarios
review, guidance and technical consultation. In 2002 the first
that need to be addressed.
national APELL Centre opened at NSCI headquarters in
Disaster Management in India Mumbai. It was the first centre of this sort in the world.
After independence India began a process of rapid The first projects started in 1992 in six HRIAs, also drawing
industrialisation. It inevitably lacked some framework on international collaboration from UNEP, USAID and WEC.
conditions, such as an understanding of the risks of chemical In 2004 an APELL sub-centre opened in Haldia (see map). A
hazards. Implementation of safety procedures, including manual on cyclone emergency preparedness was prepared.
regulatory approaches, soon followed and institutions such as
Transport issues were becoming urgent and a major new
the National Safety Council (NSCI) were created. There was
programme was based on UNEP's Trans APELL. A training
much to do.
module and seminars were developed for traffic police. A
The Bhopal disaster (1984) did much to focus more attention HAZMAT emergency van started work on a trial basis in
on the need for a holistic approach to technology disaster Patalganga-Rasayani, and a broadbased programme for
management, and the role of ordinary people in emergencies. transporters was launched.
The government took several important measures, with major
Several lessons may be learnt from this process. Widespread
legislative changes and stronger institutional mechanisms. It
industrial development in a country like India requires
set up Crisis Groups at central, state, district and local levels.
comprehensive replication of the programme at local level.
NSCI took the APELL process as a model, promoting awareness
Sub-centres are essential, with replication programmes
and training projects covering both hazardous materials
involving local partners. Practical experience at local level has
transport and fixed installations.
facilitated—and has in turn been facilitated by—national
India is also vulnerable to natural disasters. While well- legislation such as the law setting up crisis groups and safety
established mechanisms for response, relief and rehabilitation management in general.
Crisis groups at district and local level require training and Emergency Support functions (ESF) have been constituted
support tools (best practice, case studies, etc.) so there is an to support the department of Revenue (which may be renamed
ongoing role for training organisations such as NSCI and its as 'Department of Revenue and Disaster Management', as
offshoots like NAC. Finally, the programme has pinpointed the directed by the Ministry of Home Affairs) in times of a disaster.
need to treat transport as a priority issue, linking various ESF's in Response Mechanism at District Level
locations in the hazardous materials chain across the country.
The experience has also aroused much interest abroad,
notably in China, South Africa, Jordan and Brazil, underlining
the need to share experience internationally.
Emergency prevention and preparedness is a complex issue,
and industrialising countries need to address the matter as an
integral part of a larger sustainable development agenda.
Experience in countries such as India can do much to streamline
the process elsewhere, with growing pressures to better address
disaster issues.
Emergency Support Functions
Emergency Support functions (ESF's) assist and support
the National, State and District Administration at the time of
emergency for restoring the damaged public services and
facilities of the affected area.
ESFs are the essentials of Emergency Management and
comprise of various coordinating agencies, which manage and
coordinate specific kinds of assistance common to all disasters District North has been able to accimilate ESF's from 7 line
types. The plan establishes an organised set-up to conduct ESF departments till date. The list of departments as per their
operations for any of the Natural and Man-made Disasters. It status of submission of ESFs is as per below given table:
outlines an implementing framework of sharing resources and
coordinating, preparedness, mitigation, response and recovery The Main ESFs and Their Concerned Departments
as per the requirement of a disaster situation. • ESFS
It helps structure activities of concerned agencies i.e. • Functions
primary/nodal and support agencies in an organised manner • Coordinator
as per their capabilities, skills, resources and authorities across • Supporting Agencies
the state and district government. • ESF1
It also attempts to unify efforts of state departments so that • Communication
they are involved in emergency management comprehensively • MTNL
to reduce the effects of any emergency or disaster within the • NIC, Police/Revenue, Wireless, HAM reps, Private
state. telecom/mobile operators
• ESF2 • NDMC
• Evacuation • CPWD
• DC Office • ESF11
• Police, DFS, Civil Defence, NCC, Army • Transport
• ESF3 • Transport Department
• Search & Rescue • DTC, DMRC, Northern Railways, CPWD, NDMC
• Delhi Fire Service
• Police, Civil Defence, NCC, Army, Health and Home Status of ESFs in the District
Reps Departments having submitted ESFs
• ESF4
Departments that have not submitted ESFs
• Law & Order
• Police • Delhi Police
• Civil Defence & Home Guards • CDMO
• ESF5 • Irrigation and Flood Control Department
• Medical Response & Trauma Counselling • Civil Defence
• Health Department • CATS
• CATS, DHS, Indian Red Cross, Civil defence, NSS • MCD—K.B. Zone
• ESF6 • MCD—City Zone
• Water Supply • MCD (S.P. Zone, Civil Lines Zone)
• NDMC • DDA
• DC Office • DJB
• ESF7 • PWD
• Relief (Food & Shelter) • NDPL
• Deptt. of Food & Civil Supplies • MRTS
• NDMC, CPWD, NSS, NYKS, NGOs • Slum and JJ Department
• ESF8 • Education
• Equipment Support, Debris/Road clearance • Fire
• DC Office • District Social Welfare Department
• NDMC, DDA, DMRC, CPWD • Food and Civil Supplies
• ESF9 • Labour commissioner
• Help Lines, Warning Dissemination
• Revenue DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT
• NIC/NGO Reps Strategies
• ESF10 With basis in its mandate to promote sustainable
• Power Supply development in Latin America and the Caribbean the Bank will
help the countries integrate the reduction of risk in their Risk Information for Decision-Making: Evaluating
development planning and investments and create permanent existing risk assessment methodologies; developing indicators
technical and operational capacity to efficiently manage risk of vulnerability, and stimulating the production and wide
reduction. dissemination of risk information.
With the goal to overcome the challenge of increasing risk Fostering Leadership and Cooperation in the Region:
and losses from natural hazards, the Bank will prioritize Stimulate coordinated actions and to mobilize regional resources
vulnerability reduction in its support to the region and it will for investments in risk mitigation.
provide financing for the prevention and mitigation of disasters Proposed Actions
resulting from natural hazards and strengthen capacities to
With the goal to increase the effectiveness of the Bank's
manage risks.
support in the identified strategic areas, the Bank is faced with
This national approach is complemented by research and the challenge to put risk management to the top of its agenda.
a regional dialogue to identify best practices and facilitate their The following list of actions provides the necessary elements
sharing. The Plan of Action (Facing the Challenge of Natural to integrate risk management in the operations and activities
Disasters in Latin America and the Caribbean: An IDB Action of the Bank.
Plan. March 2000) identifies six strategic areas for Bank 1. Creation and revision of financial mechanisms of the
assistance to help countries adopt comprehensive risk Bank to help the countries take and strengthen necessary
management policies: measures of disaster prevention and risk management.
National Systems for Disaster Prevention and 2. Risk Reduction as a Component of the Banks Country
Response: Building national legal and regulatory frameworks Dialogue with Borrowing Members: promote the dialogue
concerning risk identification, strategies for risk
and programmes that bring together the planning agencies,
management and the use of financial instruments made
local governments and civil society organizations; developing
available by the IDB for investments related to Natural
national strategies for risk reduction, and assessing inter- Disasters.
sectoral priorities, backed by separate budgets.
3. Risk Reduction in the Project Cycle: include risk analysis
Inserting Prevention into the Culture: Developing and and reduction in the programming process and in the
disseminating risk information and empowering citizens and identification, formulation, execution and evaluation of
other stakeholders to take risk reduction measures. projects.
Reducing the Vulnerability of the Poor: Supporting 4. Bank Focal Points for Disaster Risk Management:
poor households and communities in reducing their vulnerability support preparation of risk reduction programmes in
to natural hazards and recovering from disasters through the countries and coordinate activities of prevention
and response among sector divisions and Bank
reconstruction assistance.
representations.
Involving the Private Sector: Creating conditions for the
5. Alliances: Create an integrated network with information
development of insurance markets; encouraging the use of and response which includes the preparation of pre-
other risk-spreading financial instruments where appropriate, investment studies, financing of investments for
and designing economic and regulatory incentives for risk prevention and reconstruction and to establish inter-
reduction behaviour. institutional protocols for disaster response.
Strategic Actions Executed with Relation to Natural • In 2003 the Regional Policy Dialogue published a book
Disasters since 2001 on "Disaster Risk Management" based on studies
presented at the I and II meeting.
The Bank has made a new mechanism for with fast
disbursement, the Disaster Prevention Sector Facility, available • The III meeting of the Natural Disasters Network of the
to its borrowing members and revised its Immediate Response Regional Policy Dialogue took place in March 2003, and
Facility instrument. discussed risk management at the local level.
In its country dialogues the Bank has increasingly • Based on studies developed and presented in cooperation
emphasized natural disaster prevention and mitigation and with GTZ, Germany, at the III meeting, the regional
the development of capacity for effective risk management. policy dialogue published a book on "Disaster risk
This includes various initiatives to incorporate risk reduction management by local communities and local
in the investment planning processes. The Bank collaborates governments".
with other institutions, among other issues to promote the • In February 2004 the IV meeting of the Network took
interchange of information concerning best practices for place, this time discussing environmental management
responding to emergencies and to develop effective emergency and the use of economic instruments for the reduction
reconstruction plans. of disaster risk.
Revision and Creation of IDB Financial Instruments • In November 2004 the two sub-regional meetings were
held: in Jamaica discussing cost-benefit analysis of
• In March 2001 the IDB established the Disaster mitigation investments; and in Colombia analyzing the
Prevention Sector Facility. role of the private sector in disaster risk management.
• In 2003, the Bank's Facility for Emergency Recons-
Revision of the Bank Policy
truction was updated as a response to its evaluation,
and its name was changed to Facility for the Immediate • In 2003, as a component of the policy evaluation, the
Response to Natural and Unexpected Disasters. policies of other multilateral banks, including the Asian
Development Bank, the Caribbean Development Bank,
Regional Policy Dialogue for Natural Disasters BCIE, the Andean Development Corporation, and the
With financial support from the Integration and Regional World Bank were reviewed.
Programmes Department, the following activities has been • In June 2003 the Bank organized a seminar on man-
celebrated: made disasters, such as conflicts, terrorism, and
• In May 2001 the Bank established the Natural Disaster technological disasters, to analyze the utility of including
Network, which members represent each of the Bank's this aspect in the new policy. Following the seminar the
borrowing member countries. Bank published a book with the title: "Human-Driven
Disasters: Violent Conflict, Terrorism and Technology".
• The first meeting of the Network was held in November
2001 with the main topic: "National systems for risk • The Bank approve a new environment strategy in 2003.
management". The strategy includes considerations on natural disaster
management.
• The second meeting focused on the macroeconomic
financial consequences of natural disasters. This meeting • In 2004, the evaluation of the Banks Policy on natural
was held in March 2002. and unexpected disasters from 1999 was completed.
One of the objectives of this exercise is to analyze the Level; (ii) Checklist for Disaster Risk Management in
ways through which the Bank can better contribute to the IDB project cycle for the water and sanitations
reduce the impact of natural disasters in countries of sector.
the region, through financial as well as non-financial • In 2004 in Quito, Ecuador, in cooperation with GTZ and
services. UNDP and the participation of borrowing member
• The profile for the new Disaster Risk Management Policy countries, the Bank organized a seminar. The objective
was prepared and presented for the consideration of the of the seminar was to review and develop a checklist
Bank's board of Directors, in February 2005. for disaster risk management in the Bank project cycle.
Internal Strengthening of the Bank • In 2003 the international NGO Tearfund evaluated the
Bank and eight other international organizations for
The Bank is in a continuous process of strengthening its their activities in disaster risk management. The Bank
internal capacity to deal with disaster risk management. With was applauded for its efforts to internally strengthen
this goal in mind, it has taken the following steps: the capacity for disaster risk management, particularly
• It consolidated the focal point network of 36 specialists, the development of the Checklist. The Bank participated
which includes a representative in each of the 26 IDB in a meeting in London in 2003, where it provided
representations and 14 specialists working from the information on its internal disaster risk management
headquarters, on the environment, infrastructure, and mechanisms.
financing. • In 2002 the Bank prepared a manual and organized a
• Nineteen additional specialists experienced in sectors workshop on disaster risk management for microfinance
that could be affected by natural disaster were organizations. The workshop had participation of
executing agencies of microfinance programmes, external
incorporated to the network. These specialists are
experts and Bank specialists.
elaborating checklists to assist project teams in taking
risk management into account when preparing and • The document concerning risk management in the
carrying out loans dealing with transportation, energy, project cycle is in its final stage of preparation and will
water, sanitation, education, micro and medium-sized be published and disseminated in 2005. Nine regional
enterprises, modernization of the State, agriculture, consultants and more than 40 Bank specialists, 15 GTZ
health, and housing. experts, and officials from borrowing member countries
have contributed to the effort. OAS and PAHO have
• In November 2001 a seminar was held in Colombia to
peer reviewed the document.
improve the disaster risk management capacities of the
IDB staff. 51 people participated in the seminar. • In 2004 the Bank developed a Checklist and a descriptive
companion document for the use of the Checklist to help
• In February 2002 the Bank held its second training project teams integrate risk management in the project
seminar on disaster risk management, this time at the design.
Bank's headquarters in Washington DC. 70 people
participated in this event. Bank Action Plan for Improving Disaster Risk
Management 2005-2008
• In 2003 within the framework of the annual meeting of
FEMICA, the Bank held a training seminar with the • In August 2005, a new Action Plan was approved by the
following issues: (i) Risk Management at the Local Bank. A technical cooperation with Japanese resources
and a special budget initiative of 2006 will support its in seven countries, in collaboration with UN/ECLAC. The
initial implementation Draft Disaster Risk Management programme was initiated with a meeting in Washington in
Policy. January 2004.
Examples of Activities with Other Entities in the Region The Indicators Programme (in 12 countries) is under
development by the National University of Colombia, with
The IDB participated in and was co-organizer of the
financing from the Japanese Trust Fund. Under the programme
Hemispheric Conference on Disaster Reduction celebrated in
two expert meetings were held in Barcelona, Spain in 2003
San Jose, Costa Rica, in December 2001.
concerning the methodology. The programme has been developed
The Bank and the Federation of Insurance Industries in parallel to and in coordination with two other indicators
(FIDES) has signed a memorandum of understanding which programmes by the World Bank and the UNDP. A working
includes collaboration to develop insurance instruments for group meeting among the three organizations was held in
Catastrophe management. Washington DC, in March 2004.
In May 2003, the IDB assisted in the preparation of the
IDB POLICY
OAS' Strategic Plan for Disaster Risk Reduction.
The IDB approved its Disaster Risk Management Policy in
In October 2003, IDB co-organized the X meeting of the
February 28, 2007. The purpose of this policy is to improve the
Central American Network for Decentralization and Municipal
Bank's ability to assist the borrowing member countries in the
Strengthening (FEMICA) in Antigua, Guatemala. The main
attainment of their development goals in sustainable economic
topic of the meeting was Local level Disaster Risk Management.
growth, poverty reduction and promotion of social equity, by
There were more than 170 participants among local authorities,
supporting their efforts to proactively manage disaster risk.
local and international experts, international partners and IDB
specialists. The policy document replaces the previous Natural and
Unexpected Disasters Policy (OP-704), of 1999. The new policy
Also in 2003, the programme for promotion of good practices
is a product of both electronic and in situ consultations from
for the prevention of disasters and for municipal risk
December 2005 to May 2006. Specific requests for comments
management in Central America, executed by FEMICA, has
were sent through the UN/ISDR network (5000 people globally)
produced a toolkit and a documentary video of practices, four
and through the IDB own list of Disaster Risk Management
national workshops and other products for the mass medias.
(DRM) contacts (600 people, mostly regionally). The new
The IDB led an effort in collaboration with other international
Disaster Risk Management Policy was elaborated based on the
organizations including the CAF, the European Union and the
comments received and subsequent discussion in the Bank.
World Bank to coordinate activities of disaster prevention in
Ecuador. The activities included a seminar and a memorandum
of understanding was signed in 2003.
Among other, seminars have been organized in cooperation
with JICA (Japan), concerning risk reduction of infrastructure
in 2002 and with GTZ (Germany) with respect to risk
management in the project cycle in 2004. With financing from
the Japanese Trust Fund the Bank is developing strategic
studies under the umbrella of the Risk Information Programme
74 Disaster Management Types of Disaster 75
Drought Preparedness
Drought mitigation involves three phases, namely,
preparedness phase, prevention phase and relief phase. In case
of drought preparedness, identification of drought prone areas
information on land use and land cover, waste lands, forest
4 cover and soils is a pre-requisite. Space-borne multi spectral
measurements hold a great promise in providing such
TYPES OF DISASTER information.
Drought Prediction
Remote sensing data provide major input to all the three
DROUGHT types rainfall predictions; namely such as long-term seasonal
Drought is the single most important weather-related predictions, medium range predictions and short-term
natural disaster often aggravated by human action. Drought's predictions. Global and regional atmospheric, land and ocean
beginning is subtle, its progress is insidious and its effects can parameters (temperature, pressure, wind, snow, El-Nino, etc.)
be devastating. Drought may start any time, last indefinitely required for long-term prediction, could be generated from
and attain many degrees of severity. Since it affects very large observations made by geo-stationary and polar orbiting weather
areas for months and years it has a serious impact on economy, satellites such as INSAT and NOAA. In the medium range
destruction of ecological resources, food shortages and starvation weather prediction, the National Centre Medium Range Weather
of millions of people. During 1967-1991, droughts have affected Forecasting (NCMRWF) uses satellite-based sea surface
50 percent of the 2.8 billion people who suffered from all natural temperature, normalised difference vegetation index, snow
disasters and killed 35 percent of the 3.5 million people who covered area and depth, surface temperature, altitude,
lost their lives due to natural disasters. roughness, soil moisture at surface level and vertical sounding
and radio sonde data on water vapour, pressure and
Owing to abnormalities in the monsoon precipitation, in temperature, and vertical profile data in the T86/NMC model.
terms of spatial and temporal variation especially on the late In the short-range rainfall prediction also INSAT-based visible
on set of monsoon, prolonged break and early withdrawal of and thermal data are being used.
monsoon; drought is a frequent phenomenon over many parts
of India. In India, thirty three percent of the area receives less Drought Monitoring
than 750mm rainfall and is chronically drought-prone, and Drought monitoring mechanisms exists in most of the
thirty five percent of the area with 750-1125mm rainfall is also countries using ground-based information on drought-related
subject to drought once in four to five years. parameters such as rainfall, weather, crops condition and water
Thus, 68 percent of the total sown areas covering about 142 availability, etc. Conventional methods of drought monitoring
million hectares are vulnerable to drought conditions. India in the various States in India suffer from limitations with
has faced three major droughts in this century- 1904-1905, regard to timeliness, objectivity, reliability and adequacy
1965-66 and 1986-87. The 1987 drought had a lasting impact (Jeyaseelan and Thiruvengadachari, 1986). Further, the
on one-third of the country. The role of space technology in assessment is generally, influenced by local compulsions. In
drought mitigation is enumerated hereunder: order to overcome the above limitations, sponsored a project
titled 'National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Long-term Management

Monitoring System (NADAMS)' and sponsored by the Dept. of
Several chronically drought-affected districts in India
Agriculture and Cooperation and Dept. of Space Dept. of Space
experience acute shortage of drinking and irrigation water. To
(DOS) was taken up by the National Remote Sensing Agency
address this issue, a nationwide project titled 'Integrated Mission
in collaboration with the India Meteorological Department
for Sustainable Development (IMSD)' was taken up in
(IMD), Central Water Commission (CWC) and concerned State
collaboration with other DOS centres and State Remote Sensing
Government agencies. The focus has been on the assessment
Applications Centres. The project essentially aims at generating
of agricultural drought conditions in terms of prevalence, relative
locale-specific action plan for development of land and water
severity level and persistence through the season.
resources on a micro watershed basis in drought-prone areas
Satellite-derived Vegetation Index (VI) which is sensitive of the country using IRS data. In the first phase, 175 districts
to vegetation stress is being used as a surrogate measure to covering 84 million ha has been covered (Rao, 1998).
continuously monitor the drought conditions on a real-time For providing safe drinking water to rural masses, a
basis. Such an exercise helps the decision makers in initiating nationwide project titled "National Drinking Water Technology
strategies for recovery by changing cropping patterns and Mission", was launched by Department of Space (DOS) in
practices. Initially, NDVI derived from NOAA-AVHRR data collaboration with other State Remote Sensing Applications
was used for drought monitoring biweekly drought bulletins Centres, and Central Ground Water Board and State Ground
have been issued between 1989 to 1991, and reports on monthly water Departments. Ground water potential maps showing
detailed crop and seasonal condition during kharif season (June ground water prospect at 1:250,000 scales have been prepared
to October) have been brought out since 1992 at district level. for entire country. The success rate achieved by drilling wells
The project covers eleven agriculturally important and through the use of remote sensing data has been found to be
drought-vulnerable States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, much better than those achieved by conventional means.
Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Furthermore, as a follow-up large scale (1:50,000) mapping of
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. ground water prospects for Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerela under Rajiv Gandhi National
With the availability of Indian Remote Sensing satellite Drinking Water Mission is in progress.
(IRS) WiFS data with 188m spatial resolution, the methodology
is being updated to provide quantitative information on sowings, CYCLONE
surface water spread, and taluk/mandal/block level crop
The intense tropical storms are known in different part of
condition assessment along with spatial variation in terms of
the world by different names. In the Pacific Ocean, they are
maps (Fig.2). The IRS WiFS based detailed monitoring has
called 'typhoons', in the Indian Ocean they are called 'cyclones'
been opertionalised for Andhra Pradesh State in 1998, and
and over North Atlantic, they are called 'hurricane'. Among
subsequently extended to Orissa and Karnataka.
various natural calamaties, tropical cyclones are known to
Drought Relief claim a higher share of deaths and distruction world over.
Records show that about 80 tropical cyclones form over the
The State Governments are primarily responsible for both
globe every year. India has a vast coast line which is frequently
short-term and long-term relief management. The NADAMS
affected by tropical cyclones causing heavy loss of human lives
provide detailed assessment of drought conditions for providing
and property. Cyclones occur usually between April and May
short-term relief.
(called pre-monsoon cyclonic storms) and between October and
December (called post-monsoon cyclonic storms). While cyclonic people. The information helped saving thousands of lives and
storms can't be prevented, the loss of lives and damage to the livestock in this area. Additional DWS units are being
properties can be mitigated if prompt action is taken after established to cover the entire coastal areas of the country.
receiving timely warnings.
Cyclone Management
Cyclone Warning
The most striking advantage of the earth observation
Meteorologists have been using satellite images for satellite data has been demonstrated during the recent Orissa
monitoring storms for about thirty years. One of the most super-cyclone event. A severe cyclonic storm with a wind speed
important applications in this endeavour is to determine the about 260 kmph hit the Orissa coast at Paradip on 29-Oct.-99
strength and intensity of a storm. In the late 1960's, causing extensive damage to human life, property, live stock
meteorologists began observing tropical cyclones at more and public utilities.
frequent intervals. The infrared sensors aboard polar orbiting
The National Remote Sensing Agency acted promptly and
satellites began providing day-and-night observations while
provided spatial extent of inundated areas using pre-cyclone
geo-stationary satellite provided the continuous coverage during
IRS LISS-III data collected on 11th October, 1999 and Radarsat
daytime. There exists a very efficient cyclone warning system
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data of 2nd November, 1999
in India which is comparable to the best known in the world.
since cloud -free optical sensor data over the cyclone-hit area
The approach essentially involves the prediction of the track
were not available.
and intensity of the cyclone using conventional as well as
satellite and radar-based techniques (Kellar, 1997). The map showing inundated area as on 2nd Nov., 1999 was
drapped over topographical map, and was delivered to the
A network of 10-cyclone detection radar covering entire
Orissa Government on 3rd Nov, 1999. Information, thus
East and West Coasts is being used for cyclone warning each
generated, was effectively used by various departments of Orissa
with a range of 400 km. When cyclone is beyond the range of
Government involved in relief operations. Subsequently, the
coastal radar, its intensity and movement is monitored with
recession of inundated areas was also studied using Radarsat
the help of INSAT, and NOAA series of satellites.
and IRS data of 5th, 8th, 11th, 13th and 14th November, 1999.
The INSAT provides every three-hourly cloud pictures over
An estimated 3.75 lakh ha in Jagatsinghpur, Kendrapara,
the Indian subcontinent. For precise location, every half-an-
Bhadrak, Balasore, Jajpur, besides Cuttack, Khurda and Puri
hour pictures are used. Warnings are issued by the Area Cyclone
districts had been found to be inundated. In addition, the crop
Warning Centers (ACWS) located at Calcutta, Madras, and
damage assessment was also made and maps along with block-
Bombay; and Cyclone Warning Centers (CWC) located at
wise statistics derived using pre-and post-cyclone NDVI image
Bhubaneswar, Visakhapatnam and Ahmedabad. Around 100
from IRS WiFS data were also provided to Orissa Government.
disaster warning systems have been installed in cyclone-prone
villages of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. It is planned to Safety Tips
expand such facility with another 100 DWS in Orissa and West Before the Cyclone Season
Bengal on the East coast. The DWC disseminates warning of
impending event to village administration, District Collector, • Keep watch on weather and listen to radio or TV. Keep
State Government officials, etc. The most memorable use of alert about the community warning systems—
DWS system has been during the cyclone that hit the Andhra loudspeakers, bells, conches, drums or any traditional
Pradesh coast on may 9, 1990, in evacuating over 1,70,000 warning system.
• Get to know the nearest cyclone shelter/safe houses and If you are living in an area where CBDP exercises have
the safest route to reach these shelters. taken place, ensure:
• Do not listen to rumours. • Vulnerability list and maps have been updated.
• Prepare an emergency kit containing: • Cyclone drill including search & rescue, first aid training
o A portable radio, torch and spare batteries; have taken place.
o Stocks dry food—Chura, Chhatua, Mudhi, gur, etc. • Stock of dry food, essential medicines and proper shelter
materials maintained.
o Matches, fuel lamp, portable stove, cooking utensils,
waterproof bags Upon a Cyclone Warning
o A first aid kit, manual, etc. • Store loose items inside. Put extra agricultural products/
stock like paddy in plastic bags and store it by digging
o Katuri, pliers, small saw, axe and plastic rope.
up a hole in the ground, preferably at a higher elevation
• Check the roof and cover it with net or bamboo. Check and then cover it properly. Fill bins and plastic jars with
the walls, pillars, doors and windows to see if they are drinking water.
secure. If not, repair those at the earliest. In case of tin
• Keep clothing for protection, handy.
roofs, check the condition of the tin and repair the loose
points. Cover the mud walls with polythene or coconut • Prepare a list of assets and belongings of your house
leaves mats or straw mats on a bamboo frame. Bind and give information to volunteers and other authorities
each corner of the roof with a plastic rope in case of about your near and dear ones.
thatched roof. • Fill fuel in your car/motorcycle and park it under a solid
• Trim dry tree branches, cut off the dead trees and clear cover. Tie bullock carts, boats securely to strong posts
the place/courtyard of all debris, including coconuts and in an area, which has a strong cover and away from
tree branches. trees. Fallen trees can smash boats and other assets.
• Clear your property of loose materials that could blow • Close shutters or nail all windows. Secure doors. Stay
about and cause injury or damage during extreme winds. indoors, with pets.
• If your area is prone to storm surge, locate safe high • Pack warm clothing, essential medications, valuables,
ground or shelter. papers, water, dry food and other valuables in waterproof
• Keep important documents, passbook, etc. in a tight bags, to be taken along with your emergency kit.
plastic bag and take it along with your emergency kits • Listen to your local radio/TV, local community warning
if you are evacuating. system for further information.
• Identify the spot where you can dig holes to store food • In case of warning of serious storm, move with your
grains, seeds, etc. in polythene bags. family to a strong pucca building. In case of warning of
• Keep a list of emergency addresses and phone numbers cyclones of severe intensity, evacuate the area with
on display. Know the contact telephone number of the your family, precious items and documents and
government offices /agencies, which are responsible for emergency kit. Take special care for children, elders,
search, rescue and relief operations in your area. sick, pregnant women and lactating mothers in your
family. Do not forget your emergency food stock, water • Check for gas leaks. Do not use electric appliances, if
and other emergency items. GO TO THE NEAREST wet.
CYCLONE SHELTER. • Listen to local radio for official warnings and advice.
• Do not venture into the sea for fishing. • If you have to evacuate, or did so earlier, do not return
On Warning of Local Evacuation until advised. Use a recommended route for returning
and do not rush.
Based on predicted wind speeds and storm surge heights,
evacuation may be necessary. Official advice may be given on • Be careful of snake bites and carry a stick or bamboo.
local radio/TV or other means of communication regarding safe • Beware of fallen power lines, damaged bridges, buildings
routes and when to move. and trees, and do not enter the floodwaters.
• Wear strong shoes or chappals and clothing for • Heed all warnings and do not go sightseeing.
protection.
• Lock your home, switch off power, gas, water, and take
your emergency kit. FLOODS
• If evacuating to a distant place take valuable belonging, India is the worst flood-affected country in the world after
domestic animals, and leave early to avoid heavy traffic, Bangladesh and accounts for one-fifth of the global death count
flooding and wind hazards. due to floods. About 40 million hectares or nearly 1/8th of
India's geographical area is flood-prone. An estimated 8 million
• If evacuating to a local shelter or higher grounds carry
hectares of land are affected annually. The cropped area affected
the emergency kit and minimum essential materials.
annually ranges from 3.5 million ha during normal floods to
When the Cyclone Strikes 10 million ha during worst flood. Flood control measures consist
• Disconnect all electrical appliances and turn off gas. mainly of construction of new embankments, drainage channels
and afforestation to save 546 towns and 4700 villages. Optical
• If the building starts crumbling, protect yourself with
and microwave data from IRS, Landsat ERS and Radarsat
mattresses, rugs or blankets under a strong table or
series of satellites have been used to map and monitor flood
bench or hold on to a solid fixture (e.g. a water pipe)
events in near real-time and operational mode. Information on
• Listen to your transistor radio for updates and advice. inundation and damage due to floods is furnished to concerned
• Beware of the calm ‘eye’. If the wind suddenly drops, departments so as to enable them organising necessary relief
don't assume the cyclone is over; violent winds will soon measures and to make a reliable assessment of flood damage.
resume from the opposite direction. Wait for the official Owing to large swath and high repetivity, WiFS data from IRS-
"all clear". 1C and -1D hold great promise in floods monitoring.
• If driving, stop—but well away from the sea and clear Based on satellite data acquired during pre-flood, flood and
of trees, power lines and watercourses. Stay in the post-flood along with ground information, flood damage
vehicle. assessment is being carried out by integrating the topographical,
hydrological and flood plain land use/land cover information in
After the Cyclone
a GIS environment. In addition, spaceborne multispectral data
• Do not go outside until officially advised it is safe. have been used for studying the post-flood river configuration,
and existing flood control structures, and identification of bank the walls are made of local bricks up to the highest
erosion-prone areas and drainage congestion, and identification known flood level with cement pointing.
of flood risk zones. • Have an emergency kit on hand which includes a:
Flood Disaster Impact Minimization o A portable radio, torch and spare batteries;
Flood forecasts are issued currently by Central Water o Stocks of fresh water, dry food (chura, mudi, gur,
Commission using conventional rainfall runoff models with an biscuits), kerosene, candle and matchboxes;
accuracy of around 65% to 70% with a warning time of six to o Waterproof or polythene bags for clothing and
twelve hours. The poor performance is attributed to the high valuables, an umbrella and bamboo stick (to protect
spatial variability of rainfall not captured by ground from snake), salt and sugar.
measurements and lack of spatial information on the catchment
characteristics of the basin such as current hydrological land o A first aid kit, manual and strong ropes for tying
use/land cover, spatial variability of soils, etc. Incorporation of things.
remote sensing inputs such as satellite-derived rainfall When you hear a flood warning or if flooding appears likely
estimates, current hydrological land use/land cover, soil
• Tune to your local radio/TV for warnings and advice.
information, etc. in rainfall-runoff model subsequently improves
the flood forecast. o Keep vigil on flood warning given by local authorities.
Improvements in flood forecasting were tested in lower o Don't give any importance to rumours and don't
Godavari basin in a pilot study titled "Spatial Flood Warning panic.
System". Under this project, a comprehensive database including o Keep dry food, drinking water and clothes ready
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) generated using Differential
• Prepare to take bullock carts, other agricultural
Global Positioning System (DGPS), hydraulic/hydrologic
equipments, and domestic animals to safer places or to
modelling capabilities and a Decision Support System (DSS) for
higher locations.
appropriate relief response has been addressed in collaboration
with concerned departments of Andhra Pradesh Government. • Plan which indoor items you will raise or empty if water
Initial results have been quite encouraging. The deviation in threatens to enter your house.
the flood forecast from actual river flood has been within 15%. • Check your emergency kit.
Safety Tips During Floods
This guide lists simple things you and your family can do • Drink boiled water.
to stay safe and protect your property from floods. • Keep your food covered, don't take heavy meals.
Before flooding occurs. • Use raw tea, rice-water, tender coconut-water, etc.
• All your family members should know the safe route to during diarrhoea; contact your ANM/AWW for ORS and
nearest shelter/ raised pucca house. treatment.
• If your area is flood-prone, consider alternative building • Do not let children remain on empty stomach.
materials. Mud walls are more likely to be damaged • Use bleaching powder and lime to disinfect the
during floods. You may consider making houses where surrounding.
• Help the officials/volunteers distributing relief EARTHQUAKE

materials.
Earthquakes are caused by the abrupt release of strain that
If you need to evacuate: has built up in the earth's crust. Most zones of maximum
• Firstly pack warm clothing, essential medication, earthquake intensity and frequency occur at the boundaries
valuables, personal papers, etc. in waterproof bags, to between the moving plates that form the crust of the earth.
be taken with your emergency kit. Major earthquakes also occur within the interior of crustal
plates such as those in China, Russia and the south-east United
• Take the emergency kit. States. A considerable research has been carried out to predict
• Inform the local volunteers (if available), the address of earthquakes using conventional technologies, but the results
the place you are evacuating to. to date are inconclusive.
• Raise furniture, clothing and valuables onto beds, tables Seismic risk analysis based on historic earthquakes and the
and to the top of the roof (electrical items highest). presence of active faults is an established method for locating
• Turn off power. and designing dams, power plants and other projects in
seismically active areas. Landsat-TM and SPOT images and
• Whether you leave or stay, put sandbags in the toilet Radar interferograms have been used to detect the active faults
bowl and over all laundry/bathroom drain-holes to (Merifield and Lamer 1975; Yeats et al. 1996; Massonnet et al.
prevent sewage back-flow. 1993). Areas rocked by Landers earthquake (South California)
• Lock your home and take recommended/known of magnitude 7.3 were studied using ERS-1 SAR interferometry
evacuation routes for your area. which matched extremely well with a model of the earth's
• Do not get into water of unknown depth and current. motion as well as the local measurements (Masonnet and
Advagna 1993).
If you stay or on your return :
Active faults on the seafloor could also be detected by side-
• Stay tuned to local radio for updated advice. scan sonar system (Prior et al, 1979). The earthquake prediction
• Do not allow children to play in, or near, flood waters. is still at experimental stage. Successful prediction of minor
• Avoid entering floodwaters. If you must, wear proper earthquake have, however, been reported. Among the major
protection for your feet and check depth and current earthquakes, Chinese scientists predicted an earthquake 1-2
with a stick. Stay away from drains, culverts and water days ahead in 1975 (Vogel, 1980). Information on earthquake
over knee-deep. is, generally, obtained from a network of seismographic stations.
However, very recently the space geodetic techniques and high
• Do not use electrical appliances, which have been in resolution aerial and satellite data have been used for
floodwater until checked for safety. earthquake prediction. Space geodetic technique with Global
• Do not eat food, which has been in floodwaters. Positioning System (GPS) provides an accuracy of a centimetre
over 1000 km and, thus, helps in measuring the surface
• Boil tap water (in cities) until supplies have been declared
deformations and monitoring accelerated crystal deformations
safe. In case of rural areas, store tube well water in
prior to earth quakes with required accuracy.
plastic jars or use halogen tablets before drinking.
• Be careful of snakes, snakebites are common during Earthquake risk assessment involves identification of
floods. seismic zones through collection of geological/structural,
geophysical (primarily seismological) and geomorphologic data Prepare Your Family

and mapping of known seismic phenomena in the region, (mainly
Before the Earthquake
epicenters with magnitudes). Such an effort calls for considerable
amount of extrapolation and interpolation on the basis of Now is the time to formulate a safety plan for you and your
available data. family. If you wait until the earth starts to shake, it may be
too late. Consider the following safety measures:
There is also a tendency for earthquake to occur in "gaps"
which are in places along an earthquake belt where strong • Always keep the following in a designated place: bottled
earthquake had not previously been observed. The knowledge drinking water, non-perishable food (chura, gur, etc.),
of trends in time or in space helps in defining the source first-aid kit, torchlight and battery-operated radio with
regions of future shocks (Karnik and Algermissen, 1978). extra batteries.
Satellite imagery could be used in delineating geotectonic • Teach family members how to turn off electricity, gas,
structures and to clarify seismological conditions in earthquake etc.
risk zones.
• Identify places in the house that can provide cover
Accurate mapping of geomorphologic features adjoining during an earthquake.
lineaments reveals active movement or recent tectonic activity
• It may be easier to make long distance calls during an
along faults. The relationship between major lineaments and
the seismic activity has been observed in Latur area of earthquake. Identify an out-of-town relative or friend
Maharastra, India. as your family's emergency contact. If the family
members get separated after the earthquake and are
Space techniques have overcome the limitations of ground not able to contact each other, they should contact the
geodetic surveys/measurements and have become an essential designated relative/friend. The address and phone
tool to assess the movement/displacements along faults/plate number of the contact person/relative should be with all
boundaries to even millimetre level accuracy. the family members.
Using Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), it has Safeguard Your House
been possible to record accurately the plate movement of the
order of centimetre along baseline of hundreds of kilometre. • Consider retrofitting your house with earthquake-safety
Similarly, satellite-based Global Positioning system (GPS) has measures. Reinforcing the foundation and frame could
emerged as a powerful geodetic tool for monitoring (geological) make your house quake resistant. You may consult a
changes over time which is the key for understanding the long- reputable contractor and follow building codes.
term geo-dynamical phenomena. GPS has been particularly • Kutchha buildings can also be retrofitted and
useful in measuring the more complex deformation patterns strengthened.
across plate boundaries where large and regional scale strain
builds up. Plate movements, slips along faults etc. have been During Quake
measured using differential GPS to an accuracy of sub- Earthquakes give no warning at all. Sometimes, a loud
centimetres. rumbling sound might signal its arrival a few seconds ahead
of time. Those few seconds could give you a chance to move to
Safety Tips
a safer location. Here are some tips for keeping safe during a
Earthquakes usually give no warning at all. quake.
• Take cover. Go under a table or other sturdy furniture; After the Quake
kneel, sit, or stay close to the floor. Hold on to furniture
Here are a few things to keep in mind after an earthquake.
legs for balance. Be prepared to move if your cover moves.
The caution you display in the aftermath can be essential for
• If no sturdy cover is nearby, kneel or sit close to the floor your personal safety.
next to a structurally sound interior wall. Place your
• Wear shoes/chappals to protect your feet from debris
hands on the floor for balance.
• After the first tremor, be prepared for aftershocks.
• Do not stand in doorways. Violent motion could cause
Though less intense, aftershocks cause additional
doors to slam and cause serious injuries. You may also
damages and may bring down weakened structures.
be hit be flying objects.
Aftershocks can occur in the first hours, days, weeks,
• Move away from windows, mirrors, bookcases and other or even months after the quake.
unsecured heavy objects.
• Check for fire hazards and use torch-lights instead of
• If you are in bed, stay there and cover yourself with candles or lanterns.
pillows and blankets.
• If the building you live in is in a good shape after the
• Do not run outside if you are inside. Never use the lift. earthquake, stay inside and listen for radio advises. If
• If you are living in a kutcha house, the best thing to you are not certain about the damage to your building,
do is to move to an open area where there are no trees, evacuate carefully. Do not touch downed power line.
electric or telephone wires.
• Help injured or trapped persons. Give first aid where
If outdoors: appropriate. Do not move seriously injured persons
• Move into the open, away from buildings, streetlights, unless they are in immediate danger of further injury.
and utility wires. Once in the open, stay there until the In such cases, call for help.
shaking stops. • Remember to help your neighbours who may require
• If your home is badly damaged, you will have to leave. special assistance-infants, the elderly, and people with
Collect water, food, medicine, other essential items and disabilities.
important documents before leaving. • Listen to a battery-operated radio for the latest
• Avoid places where there are loose electrical wires and emergency information.
do not touch metal objects that are in touch with the • Stay out of damaged buildings.
loose wires.
• Return home only when authorities say it is safe. Clean
• Do not re-enter damaged buildings and stay away from up spilled medicines, bleaches or gasoline or other
badly damaged structures. flammable liquids immediately. Leave the area if you
If in a Moving Vehicle smell gas or fumes from other chemicals. Open closet
and cupboard doors cautiously.
Move to a clear area away from buildings, trees, overpasses,
or utility wires, stop, and stay in the vehicle. Once the shaking • If you smell gas or hear hissing noise, open windows
has stopped, proceed with caution. Avoid bridges or ramps that and quickly leave the building. Turn off the switch on
might have been damaged by the quake. the top of the gas cylinder.
• Look for electrical system damages—if you see sparks, monitor many of the active volcanoes around the world.
broken wires, or if you smell burning of amber, turn off Repetitive coverage, regional scale, and low cost of thermal
electricity at the main fuse box. If you have to step in infrared images from satellites make it an alternative tool for
water to get to the fuse box, call an electrician first for monitoring volcanoes.
advice.
Although the spatial resolution of NOAA environment
• Check for sewage and water lines damage. If you suspect satellite is too coarse to record details of surface thermal
sewage lines are damaged, avoid using the toilets. If patterns, the plumes of smoke and ash from volcanoes could
water pipes are damaged, avoid using water from the be detected which is useful in planning the rehabilitation of
tap. affected areas. Studies have shown that the upward migration
• Use the telephone only for emergency calls. of magma from the earth's crust just before eruption inflates
the volcanic cone. Such premonitory signs can easily and quickly
• In case family members are separated from one another be detected with the aid of differential SAR interferometry.
during an earthquake (a real possibility during the day Extensive calibrations in a variety of test areas have shown
when adults are at work and children are at school), that by using this technique, changes on the earth's surface can
develop a plan for reuniting after the disaster. Ask an be detected to a centimetre accuracy.
out of state/district relative or friend to serve as the
"family contact". Make sure everyone in the family knows LANDSLIDES
the name, address, and phone number(s) of the contact
Aerial photographs and large-scale satellite images have
person(s).
been used to locate the areas with the incidence of landslide.
VOLCANIC ERUPTION Higher spatial resolution and stereo imaging capability of IRS
-IC and -1D enable further refining the location and monitoring
Many times precursors of volcanic eruptions have been of landslides. A number of studies have been carried out in
observed in various areas of volcanic activity. Ground India using satellite data and aerial photographs to develop
deformations, changes in the compositions of gases emitting appropriate methodologies for terrain classification and
from volcanic vents, changes in the temperatures of fumaroles, preparation of maps showing landslide hazards in the Garhwal
hot springs and crater lakes as well as earth tremors are Himalayan region, Nilagiri hills in south India and in Sikkim
preceding volcanic eruptions. forest area.
Thermal infrared remote sensing has been applied for Such studies have been carried out using mostly aerial
volcanic hazard assessment. However, deficiencies of equipment photographs because of their high resolution enabling contour
and coverage suggest that thermal infrared has not been mapping with intervals of better than 2m in height. The
adequately evaluated for surveillance of volcanoes. The National availability of 1m resolution data from the future IRS mission
Remote Sensing Agency has demonstrated the potential of may help generating contour maps at 2m intervals making
multi-temporal Landsat-TM thermal band data in the thereby space remote sensing a highly cost effective tool in
surveillance of active volcanoes over Barren island volcano landslide zonation.
which erupted during March 1991 to September 1991
(Bhattacharya et al. 1992). During a Landslide:
In the last three decades, aircraft and satellite-based thermal • Stay alert and awake. Many debris-flow fatalities occur
infrared (TIR) data have been used extensively to detect and when people are sleeping. Listen to a Weather Radio or
portable, battery-powered radio or television for Media and Community Education Ideas:
warnings of intense rainfall. Be aware that intense, • In an area prone to landslides, publish a special
short bursts of rain may be particularly dangerous, newspaper section with emergency information on
especially after longer periods of heavy rainfall and landslides and debris flows. Localize the information by
damp weather. including the phone numbers of local emergency services
• If you are in areas susceptible to landslides and debris offices, the Red Cross, and hospitals.
flows, consider leaving if it is safe to do so. Remember • Report on what city and county governments are doing
that driving during an intense storm can be hazardous. to reduce the possibility of landslides. Interview local
If you remain at home, move to a second story if possible. officials about local land-use zoning regulations.
Staying out of the path of a landslide or debris flow
• Interview local officials and major insurers. Find out if
saves lives.
debris flow is covered by flood insurance policies and
• Listen for any unusual sounds that might indicate contact your local emergency management office to learn
moving debris, such as trees cracking or boulders more about the programme.
knocking together. A trickle of flowing or falling mud • Work with local emergency services to prepare special
or debris may precede larger landslides. Moving debris reports for people with mobility impairments on what
can flow quickly and sometimes without warning. to do if evacuation is ordered.
• If you are near a stream or channel, be alert for any • Support your local government in efforts to develop and
sudden increase or decrease in water flow and for a enforce land-use and building ordinances that regulate
change from clear to muddy water. Such changes may construction in areas susceptible to landslides and debris
indicate landslide activity upstream, so be prepared to flows. Buildings should be located away from steep
move quickly. Don't delay! Save yourself, not your slopes, streams and rivers, intermittent-stream channels,
belongings. and the mouths of mountain channels.
• Be especially alert when driving. Embankments along After the Landslide:
roadsides are particularly susceptible to landslides.
• Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of
Watch the road for collapsed pavement, mud, fallen
additional slides.
rocks, and other indications of possible debris flows.
• Check for injured and trapped persons near the slide,
What to Do if You Suspect Imminent Landslide Danger: without entering the direct slide area. Direct rescuers
• Contact your local fire, police, or public works to their locations.
department. Local officials are the best persons able to • Help a neighbour who may require special assistance—
assess potential danger. infants, elderly people, and people with disabilities.
• Inform affected neighbours. Your neighbours may not Elderly people and people with disabilities may require
be aware of potential hazards. Advising them of a additional assistance. People who care for them or who
potential threat may help save lives. Help neighbours have large families may need additional assistance in
who may need assistance to evacuate. emergency situations.
• Evacuate. Getting out of the path of a landslide or • Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest
debris flow is your best protection. emergency information.
• Watch for flooding, which may occur after a landslide • Work with local emergency to prepare special reports
or debris flow. Floods sometimes follow landslides and for people with mobility impairments on what to do if
debris flows because they may both be started by the evacuation is ordered.
same event. • Support your local government in efforts to develop and
• Look for and report broken utility lines to appropriate enforce land-use and building ordinances that regulate
authorities. Reporting potential hazards will get the construction in areas susceptible to landslides and debris
utilities turned off as quickly as possible, preventing flows. Buildings should be located away from steep
further hazard and injury. slopes, streams and rivers, intermittent-stream channels,
• Check the building foundation, chimney, and and the mouths of mountain channels.
surrounding land for damage. Damage to foundations, Before a Landslide: How to Plan
chimneys, or surrounding land may help you assess the
safety of the area. Develop a Family Disaster Plan
• Replant damaged ground as soon as possible since Learn about landslide risk in your area. Contact local
erosion caused by loss of ground cover can lead to flash officials, state geological surveys or departments of natural
flooding. resources, and university departments of geology. Landslides
occur where they have before, and in identifiable hazard
• Seek the advice of a geotechnical expert for evaluating locations. Ask for information on landslides in your area, specific
landslide hazards or designing corrective techniques to information on areas vulnerable to landslides, and request a
reduce landslide risk. A professional will be able to professional referral for a very detailed site analysis of your
advise you of the best ways to prevent or reduce landslide property, and corrective measures you can take, if necessary.
risk, without creating further hazard.
If you are at risk from landslides:
Media and Community Education Ideas:
• Talk to your insurance agent.
• In an area prone to landslides, publish a special
newspaper section with emergency information on • Develop an evacuation plan.
landslides and debris flows. Localize the information • Discuss landslides and debris flow with your family.
by including the phone numbers of local emergency Everyone should know what to do in case all family
services offices, the American Red Cross chapter, and members are not together. Discussing disaster ahead of
hospitals. time helps reduce fear and lets everyone know how to
• Report on what city and county governments are doing respond during a landslide or debris flow.
to reduce the possibility of landslides. Interview local
CROP PEST AND DISEASES
officials about local land-use zoning regulations.
One of the successful programmes where space technology
• Interview local officials and major insurers regarding
has been used in risk assessment from crop pests/diseases is
the National Flood Insurance Programme. Find out if
the Desert Locust Satellite Applications project of the UN/FAO
debris flow is covered by flood insurance policies from
for the International Desert Locust Commission. Temporal and
the National Flood Insurance Programme and contact
spatial distribution of desert vegetation and rainfall derived
your local emergency management office to learn more
from NOAA-AVHRR data have been used to identify the
about the programme.
potential Locust breeding grounds. In India, the desert locust However, prediction of certain events likes earthquake,
is epidemic over 2 lakhs sq.km spread over Rajasthan, Gujarat volcanic eruption and flood is still at experimental level.
and Haryana states. Improved desert locust forecasting system Developments in space-based earth observation and weather
is being tried with the help of satellite data by the locust watch capabilities in future may help refining existing models/
warning organizations by narrowing down the potential breeding approaches for prediction of such events and their management.
areas to undertake aerial spraying for arresting further growth
of locust. HOUSING STRUCTURES: SOME BEST PRACTICES
Raised Houses
FOREST FIRE
The agrarian society have always settled on the banks of
Several thousands of hectares of forests are burnt annually
rivers for the fertile lands and the water available; though this
due to man-made forest fires causing extensive damage to may have been to raise food, the place of shelter also shifted
forest wealth. The behaviour of forest fire depends upon three to the river banks and flood plane of a river. However due
parameters: fuel, weather, and topography. Each parameter various environmental and man made reasons over a period of
has several characteristic parameters. time water started entering the homes of people and great
The most important task in the preparedness phase is to damage was done to life and belongings. The village university
assess the risk. For risk assessment variables such as land use/ started its own research and arrived at such a practice that has
land cover, demography, infrastructure and urban interface sustained more than 100 years now!—The "saang ghar" (houses
are considered. Effective mitigation of forest fire involves fuel on raised platforms).
(land cover, weather, terrain, vegetation type and moisture Nilima Basumatary of Molan village under Simenchapori
level) mapping, identification of fire risk areas, rapid detection, gaon Panchayat of Jonai block in Dhemaji district of Assam
local and global fire monitoring and assessment of burnt areas. talks of her village and her own home which is raised more
The analysis of near-real time low spatial resolution (1km) than 12 feet on wooden stilts. Her family of 3 male members
and 7 female members experience floods every year but are
and high repetivity data from NOAA and high spatial resolution
saved from water because of the height of their house.
data with low repetivity from earth resources satellites could
provide the information on areas under fire. The IRS satellite A practice of coping with floods and a method of minimizing
data have been used for monitoring forest fires over Nagarhole the damage caused by floods, these houses are built on raised
Wild Life Sanctuary of Southern India. wooden stilts generally. Sometimes strong bamboo variety
(Bholuka) is also used for the pillars (stilts); the platform is
CONCLUSIONS made of timber or bamboo matting/weave. Some families also
make cement concrete pillars (stilts) and use CGI sheet roofing.
Apart from loss of human lives, natural disasters inflict
Roofing is either thatch or CGI sheet and is always sloping roof.
severe damage to ecology and economy of a region. Space
The selection of wood is also done in such a way that the timber
technology has made significant contribution in all the three
itself contains bitter oils in it.
phases, i.e. preparedness, prevention and relief of disaster
management. With a constellation of both INSAT and IRS Reasons how the practitioners evaluate the effectiveness of
series of satellites, India has developed an operational these houses:
mechanism for disaster warning especially cyclone and drought, The most effectiveness of this practice is that the
and their monitoring and mitigation. houses are saved from ravages of flood
The wear and tear of the houses is less and repair and These houses are extensively used by the Mishing
maintenance intervals are long. If these houses are community in the plains of Bramhaputra river basin. The main
made of timber (stilts and platforms) they stand for concentration of Mishing people are in the Dhemaji, Lakhimpur,
more than 40 years without major repairs. Majuli and Sadia areas of Assam. This practice has also taken
the form of tradition, even if Mishing people do not live in the
The belongings are safe from the high moisture content flood plane, they build saang ghar and ceremonies of birth,
of the otherwise mud houses. death and marriages are not complete without a saang ghar
During floods as the people and children do not come for the Mishings. Gradually these types of houses are replicated
in direct contact with water they are safe from various by the other tribes like Dewris, Bodos, Ahoms, etc. depending
health hazards. on the need.
Most importantly, the livestock are saved during the RAISED GRANARY
flood period as they are shifted to the saang ghar.
One of the best practices which has been traditionally
Apart from flood water even if there is sand deposition developed and adopted by the community in Dhemaji district
these houses are safe. of Assam in North Eastern India is ensuring security of food
The children can continue to study, the pregnant, grains during disaster. Generally there are two harvesting
elderly, disabled and sick are safe from drowning periods in a year in Assam; one falls just before or in between
and other related dangers. the monsoons and the other falls in the post monsoon period.
In the first harvest i.e. pre monsoon marginal farmers also
The house of Sri Mukhesor Chungkrang aged about 32 gather crops which provide food security at least for a few
years of Kashinath Chapori located in Simenmukh Gaon months; this has to be stored through the monsoon season. The
Panchayat with a family of 5 male members and 3 female were second harvesting season also calls for proper storage of the
saved from the disastrous floods of 1998 even when the entire grains to last till beginning of monsoons.
village was drowned. He has a saang ghar of nearly 6-8 feet
The community needs to provide security to their food
high.
grains from the inundation period (floods). In order to provide
Mr. Chungkrang and others of the community feel that safety to the food grains the people of this part of the country
though the cost involved in the construction of the Saang Ghar have designed the raised granary. This is a granary built on
is slightly on the higher side compared to the houses made on raised stilts which is separately built from the houses people
the ground (Maati ghar); however the sustainability of such live in generally. The normal height from the ground is about
houses for a longer period and less wear and tear makes it cost 5 feet to 8 feet depending on the level of flood waters experienced
effective in the long run! Over and above that the knowledge here. In some cases these granaries are seen to be 12 feet high
of construction of such houses are with the community. also. This enables people to have access to the food grains by
In their opinion close accessibility to fertile land and river boats and bamboo ladders.
water for irrigation, riverine fishery and water source as such The case of Sri Haren Doley of No.2 Dewrighat village
is only possible because of having such houses near the rivers. located in Muktiar Gaon Panchayat shows his raised granary
In case such houses were not there the community would have which is built about 15 feet high and is located near the channel
to migrate in search of greener pastures and shift to relief of Tongani River which swells up during monsoons. This river
camps. also floods the adjoining areas when the embankment at Arne
chapori breaches. The recent breaches that took place here was According to Smt Doley this practice has helped them in
in 1998 may and in June 2002. The main water of Bramhaputra the following ways and she suggests that this practice should
then drains into this channel. The water from this channel be adopted as far as possible:
reaches the Granary of Sri Doley and submerges the area below The houses are protected from submergence during
it. However his stock of food grain was intact and he could floods.
access it by use of boat. His family consisting of 7 female
members and 6 male members had sufficient to eat even though The houses and especially the mud plastered walls
they were living on houses with water below that. During high have less wear and tear even during the monsoons
floods in case of such granaries the families can move to the comparatively.
granary for temporary shelter instead of going to the relief The belongings are safe from water.
camps.
During floods as the people and children do not come
BAMBOO PROTECTED PLINTH in direct contact with water they are safe from various
health hazards.
In case of communities who do not practice building of Saan
ghar, build houses as in other parts of the country, however Most importantly, the livestock are saved during the
with a difference. These houses are on raised mud plinth and flood period.
the plinth is protected by bamboo fencing. Homestead rising The children can continue to study, the pregnant,
is a process whereby the community inhabiting in the flood elderly, disabled and sick are safe from drowning
planes practice. In places where there is water logging for a
and other related dangers.
considerably long period of time the houses are raised on plinth.
This structure helps the community overcome inundation of Grains and seeds are safe from drowning flood waters.
the houses and related miseries.
BEST PRACTICES IN USE OF BOATS
However simply raising of homestead land is not sufficient.
When the water enters the village, the water current is so high Boats have been one of the major means of transportation
that the raised homestead land tends to get eroded. Since the since time immemorial. The Mishing community has always
level of the village plane is low, and the homestead is high, the lived near the rivers big or small; fish and boats are an integral
raised homestead needs some protection from erosion. This has part of their lives. Boats have become an essential household
been developed by the community as bamboo fencing of the item for the Mishing community and every member of the
raised structure. community knows how to use a boat. Apart from using the
boats for rescue and communication, the boats enable the sick
The house of Smt. Nirmita Doley aged 50 years of Kebaranga to get aid and the students to reach schools/colleges and the
village under Ujoni Sissi Tongani Gaon Panchayat has a total women to carry the seedlings to farms and harvest back home.
family of 12 members 6 male and 6 female. They have raised
their homestead with mud at two different levels. The main The main communication during monsoons for the people
homestead land is raised by two feet and the plinth of the house of Dhemaji and other flood affected areas of Lakhimpur District
is raised by four feet, in all the house is raised by six feet in of Assam is boats or other such floats made and adapted locally.
height. The homestead land and the house plinth are protected The boats are generally made in two ways one from wooden
by bamboo fencing; the one for the house is more intricately planks and the other is carving out the boats from big logs to
woven and the one for the homestead is done differently. make small boats. The smaller boats are used by every household
during the monsoons by women, children also. The best practice to have the same during all times. There was the shift from
developed by the community is some specific modifications in river water to deep bores, wells, hand pumps etc. in search of
the boats compared to other parts of the country to adapt to safe drinking water and according to the local needs the
the characteristics of the local rivers. variations. The people of Upper Assam adopted hand pumps
as the water table is quite high; however during the flood these
The boats are elongated and have more space length wise
hand pumps used to get submerged. To get safe drinking water
than the breath and can take more loads all along the length
during the monsoons, the community adopted the following
rather than being concentrated in the middle of the boat unlike
methods:
other parts of the country. This practice is developed and
adopted to keep the boat steady in swirling currents and The hand pumps are raised by using a short pipe
undercurrents. affixing it just below the head of the pump by 3 to
The narrow breath of the boat helps the boat man to cut
5 feet height.
across the current thereby reducing the labour of the boatman Apart from this to keep the hand pump steady, support
and enhancement of speed. is provided to the hand pump by bamboo pieces. A
The boats also have an upwards bend in the front which wood log acts as a staircase to enable the user reach
gives the boats a little different look. This helps the boats to the hand pump.
move swiftly and efficiently across high river water current and This was seen in the case of Sri Gopal Hazong aged about
underwater current. 57 years having a family of 4 male members and 1 female. They
The boats are sealed with bitumen and coal tar is used to live in Nalbari village of Simenmukh Panchayat. He has raised
paint the boats, this increases the longevity of the boat in spite his hand pump and even when water threatens the village a
of keeping it afloat in water throughout the year. lot of people have access to safe drinking water. How this
Mr. Kingkong Pegu aged nearly 40 years of No.1 Dewrighat practice has helped the family and community:-
villages located in Ujoni Sissi Gaon Panchayat has total 10 This practice of raising the hand pump enables the
members in the family. He owns one such long boat with the community to stop their hand pumps from getting
help of which he and his family members carry on business submerged.
ferrying over small channels with the help of the boat. Even
Accessibility to safe drinking water even during times
during high current the boat of Mr. Pegu could carry essential
of emergency.
relief materials and Fair price Commodities during monsoons
when the rivers swelled up in June-October 2002. Cost effective measure as compared to reinstalling the
hand pump; once the pump is submerged or gets dug
HAND PUMP RAISING under the soil (soil deposition is very common in this
The basic fact that civilizations have grown on the banks area and more than 36 hand pumps are seen to have
of rivers is a clear indication to the fact that water is the prime been dug under 5-10 feet of sand) the head may be
requirement of life. One of the most essential requirements of recovered but the pipes and the filter cannot be
people and animals during the floods is drinking water. recovered.
The growth of civilization and community based research This practice can also be adopted when there is water
has generated consciousness on safe drinking water and means and later the hand pump can be disinfected.
All over the world there is crisis for safe drinking water • Call the Fire Emergency Number which should be pasted
during floods and in such situation, this practice adopted by near your telephone along with police and other
the community in Dhemaji district of Assam, North East India, emergency services and let them know that you are
can be replicated world over! trapped by smoke.
• If you have a balcony and there is no fire below it, go
TIPS ON FIRE ACCIDENTS
out.
High-Rise Fires:
• If there is fire below, go out to the window. DO NOT
• Calmly leave the apartment, closing the door behind OPEN THE WINDOW but stay near the window.
you. Remember the keys!
• If there is no fire below, go to the window and open it.
• Pull the fire alarm near the closest exit, if available, Stay near the open window.
or raise an alarm by warning others.
• Hang a bed sheet, towel or blanket out of the window
• Leave the building by the stairs. to let people know that you are there and need help.
• Never take the elevator during fire! • Be calm and wait for someone to rescue you.
If the exit is blocked by smoke or fire: (A) Kitchen Fires: It is important to know what kind of
• Leave the door closed but do not lock it. stove or cooking oven you have in your home—gas,
electric, kerosene or where firewood is used. The stove
• To keep the smoke out, put a wet towel in the space at is the No. 1 cause of fire hazards in your kitchen and
the bottom of the door. can cause fires, which may destroy the entire house,
• Call the emergency fire service number and tell them especially in rural areas where there are thatched roof
your apartment number and let them know you are or other inflammable materials like straw kept near the
trapped by smoke and fire. It is important that you kitchen. For electric and gas stoves ensure that the
listen and do what they tell you. switch or the gas valve is switched off/turned off
• Stay calm and wait for someone to rescue you. immediately after the cooking is over. An electric burner
remains hot and until it cools off, it can be very
If there is a fire alarm in your building which goes off: dangerous. The oven using wood can be dangerous
• Before you open the door, feel the door by using the back because burning embers remain. When lighting the fire
of our hand. If the door is hot or warm, do not open the on a wooden fuel oven, keep a cover on the top while
door. lighting the oven so that sparks do not fly to the thatched
• If the door is cool, open it just a little to check the roof. After the cooking is over, ensure that the remaining
hallway. If you see smoke in the hallway, do not leave. fire is extinguished off by sprinkling water if no adult
remains in the kitchen after the cooking. Do not keep
• If there is no smoke in the hallway, leave and close the any inflammable article like kerosene near the kitchen
door. Go directly to the stairs to leave. Never use the fire.
elevator.
Important Do's in the Kitchen:
If smoke is in your apartment:
• Do have an adult always present when cooking is going
• Stay low to the floor under the smoke. on the kitchen. Children should not be allowed alone.
• Do keep hair tied back and do not wear synthetic clothes • Don't use radios or other small appliances (mixers,
when you are cooking. blenders) near the sink.
• Do make sure that the curtains on the window near the Common Tips
stove are tied back and will not blow on to the flame
• Do keep the phone number of the Fire Service near the
or burner.
telephone and ensure that everyone in the family knows
• Do check to make sure that the gas burner is turned the number.
off immediately if the fire is not ignited and also switched
• Do keep matches and lighters away from children.
off immediately after cooking.
• Do sleep with your bedroom closed to prevent the spread
• Do turn panhandles to the centre of the stove and put
of fire.
them out of touch of the children in the house.
Do you know that you should never run if your clothes are
• Do ensure that the floor is always dry so that you do
on fire and that you should—"STOP—DROP-ROLL."
not slip and fall on the fire.
• Do keep matches out of the reach of children.
Important Don'ts
• Don't put towels, or dishrags near a stove burner.
• Don't wear loose fitting clothes when you cook, and
don't reach across the top of the stove when you are
cooking.
• Don't put things in the cabinets or shelves above the
stove. Young children may try to reach them and
accidentally start the burners, start a fire, catch on fire.
• Don't store spray cans or cans carrying inflammable
items near the stove.
• Don't let small children near an open oven door. They
can be burnt by the heat or by falling onto the door or
into the oven.
• Don't lean against the stove to keep warm.
• Don't use towels as potholders. They may catch on fire.
• Don't overload an electrical outlet with several
appliances or extension cords. The cords or plugs may
overheat and cause a fire.
• Don't use water to put out a grease fire. ONLY use
baking soda, salt, or a tight lid. Always keep a box of
baking soda near the stove.
110 Disaster Management Disaster Management : ASEAN 111
The ARPDM consists of 29 activities, which are categorised

into five major components. To spearhead with the
implementation, the ACDM has prioritised 5 out of 29 activities
as priority projects: (i) Establishment of the ASEAN Response
Action Plan; (ii) Refresher Courses/ Expertise Development;
5 (iii) ASEAN Disaster Information Sharing and Communication
Network (ASEAN DISCNet), i.e. Development of ACDM Website
and NDMO Websites; and Publication of ASEAN Disaster
DISASTER MANAGEMENT : ASEAN Management Information Network (ADMIN) Newsletter;
(iv) Partnerships with Relevant Organisations and NGOs;
and Mobilising Financial Support and Resources; and (v) ASEAN
The ASEAN Committee on Disaster Management (ACDM) Day for Disaster Management; and Enhancing Disaster
was established in early 2003 following the decision of the Management Public Education and Awareness Programmes.
ASEAN Standing Committee (ASC). The institutional
One of the priority projects under the ARPDM is the
mechanism (in the form of experts group) has existed since the
Establishment of an ASEAN Regional Disaster Management
'70s but was only strengthened towards 2003 with the elevation
Framework. Under this, activities will include development of
of the experts group into a full-fledged committee. The ACDM
a regional agreement on disaster management and emergency
consists of heads of national agencies responsible for disaster response; development of standard operating procedures to
management of ASEAN Member Countries. The ACDM assumes operationalise disaster response mechanism under the
overall responsibility for coordinating and implementing the agreement; enhancing quick response team of Member
regional activities. The ACDM met for the first time in December Countries; and conduct of simulation exercises.
2003.
REGIONAL PROGRAMME
THE ASEAN REGIONAL PROGRAMME
A Regional Strategy for Disaster Reduction
In pursuing a region of disaster-resilient nations and safer
communities, the ACDM has developed an ASEAN Regional The ASEAN Regional Programme on Disaster Management
Programme on Disaster Management (ARPDM) to provide a (ARPDM) was launched in May 2004. The ARPDM provides the
framework for cooperation for the period of 2004-2010. The framework for promoting concerted regional cooperation on
ARPDM outlines ASEAN's regional strategy on disaster disaster management in the ASEAN region.
management, as well as priority areas and activities for disaster The programme outlines ASEAN's regional strategy, priority
reduction. The ARPDM is also used as a platform for cooperation areas and activities for disaster reduction. The ARPDM as a
and collaboration with ASEAN Dialogue Partners and relevant platform for cooperation and collaboration is being implemented
international organisations. Ongoing partners of ACDM include: through partnerships with other ongoing activities.
the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service,
the Pacific Disaster Centre, the United Nations Office for ARPDM Activity Profile
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), UN High The ARPDM consists of two types of activities:
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), UNICEF, IFRC, Asian
1. Regional activities covering cross-boundary issues and
Disaster Preparedness Centre (ADPC), etc. involving inter-country collaboration; and
2. Regional activities in support of national activities. The development of the ASEAN Agreement on Disaster
Management and Emergency Response is now ongoing.
The programme also has the following features:
Following the mandate given by the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting
1. Implementation in sub-regional clusters involving three on Disaster Management in early December 2004, the ACDM
to four countries, as appropriate; met on 22-24 March 2005 in Bali, Indonesia to discuss and
2. Synergy with on-going disaster management negotiate the draft regional agreement. The second negotiation
programmes undertaken by international and regional session was held on 9-10 May 2005 in Jakarta, Indonesia. It
organisations; and is expected that the ASEAN Agreement on Disaster
Management and Emergency Response will be finalised and
3. Partnerships with on-going mechanisms already
signed by mid 2005.
functioning in a hazard-specific or thematic sector.
The Agreement is expected to provide a framework for the
The ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and development of operational procedures to respond collectively
Emergency Response and expeditiously to disasters. The Agreement will include
The Special ASEAN Leaders' Meeting on Aftermath of provisions for movement of relief assistance, expedited customs
Earthquake and Tsunami held on 6 January 2005 adopted the and immigration clearance, etc. The utilisation of military and
Declaration on Action to Strengthen Emergency Relief, civilian personnel in disaster relief and the establishment of
Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Prevention on the Aftermath a centre to coordinate regional disaster response have been
of Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster on 26 December 2004. proposed as part of the Agreement.
The Declaration distinguishes three phases: emergency relief, The Agreement will also include provisions for setting up
rehabilitation and reconstruction, and prevention and an ASEAN disaster relief fund. The Agreement will also provide
mitigation. for simulation exercises to test emergency responses on a regular
During the emergency relief phase, the Declaration called basis.
the UN to take lead in mobilising international community to
PART-I. GENERAL PROVISIONS
support national relief emergency programmes of the affected
countries in their role as national coordinators. The international Article 1: Use of Terms
financial institutions are called upon to take lead during the
For the purposes of this Agreement:
rehabilitation and reconstruction phase, upon the request and
leadership of the country concerned, to support the respective 1. "Assisting Entity" means a State, international
national programmes of the affected countries. organisation, and any other entity or person that offers
and/or renders assistance to a Receiving Party or a
On prevention and mitigation, the Declaration calls for Requesting Party in the event of a disaster emergency.
support for ASEAN's various agreed initiatives and on-going
programmes, the development of a regional instrument on 2. "Competent Authorities" means one or more entities
designated and authorised by each Party to act on its
disaster management and emergency response, the
behalf in the implementation of this Agreement.
establishment of tsunami early warning systems for the Indian
Ocean and the Southeast Asian region, and implementation of 3. "Disaster" means a serious disruption of the functioning
other preventive measures such as public education and of a community or a society causing widespread human,
awareness, and capacity building. material, economic or environmental losses.
4. "Disaster management" means the range of activities, 13. "Requesting Party" means a Party that requests from
prior to, during and after the disasters, designed to another Party or Parties assistance in the event of a
maintain control over disasters and to provide a disaster emergency.
framework for helping at-risk persons and/or
communities to avoid, minimise or recover from the Article 2: Objective
impact of the disasters. The objective of this Agreement is to provide effective
5. "Disaster risk" means the probability of harmful mechanisms to achieve substantial reduction of disaster losses
consequences, or expected losses in terms of deaths, in lives and in the social, economic and environmental assets
injuries, property, livelihoods, economic activity or of the Parties, and to jointly respond to disaster emergencies
damage to the environment resulting from interactions through concerted national efforts and intensified regional and
between natural or human-induced hazards and international cooperation. This should be pursued in the overall
vulnerable conditions. context of sustainable development and in accordance with the
provisions of this Agreement.
6. "Disaster risk reduction" means a conceptual framework
of elements considered with the possibilities to minimise Article 3: Principles
vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout a society,
The Parties shall be guided by the following principles in
to avoid through prevention or to limit through
the implementation of this Agreement:
mitigation and preparedness the adverse impacts of
hazards, within the broad context of sustainable 1. The sovereignty, territorial integrity and national unity
development. of the Parties shall be respected, in accordance with the
Charter of the United Nations and the Treaty of Amity
7. "Disaster emergency" means a situation where a Party
and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, in the
declares that it is unable to cope with a disaster.
implementation of this Agreement. In this context, each
8. "National Focal Point" means an entity designated and affected Party shall have the primary responsibility to
authorised by each Party to receive and transmit respond to disasters occurring within its territory and
information pursuant to the provisions of this external assistance or offers of assistance shall only be
Agreement. provided upon the request or with the consent of the
9. "Hazard" means a potentially damaging physical event, affected Party.
phenomenon and/or human activity, which may cause 2. The Requesting or Receiving Party shall exercise the
the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and overall direction, control, coordination and supervision
economic disruption or environmental degradation. of the assistance within its territory.
10. "Member State" means a Member Country of the 3. The Parties shall, in the spirit of solidarity and
Association of Southeast Asian Nations. partnership and in accordance with their respective
11. "Party" means a Member State that has consented to needs, capabilities and situations, strengthen cooperation
be bound by this Agreement and for which the Agreement and coordination to achieve the objectives of this
is in force. Agreement.
12. "Receiving Party" means a Party that accepts assistance 4. The Parties shall give priority to prevention and
offered by an Assisting Entity or Entities in the event mitigation, and thus shall take precautionary measures
of a disaster emergency. to prevent, monitor and mitigate disasters.
5. The Parties shall, to the extent possible, mainstream disaster risks in its respective territories covering, among
disaster risk reduction efforts into sustainable others, the following aspects:
development policies, planning and programming at all a. natural and human-induced hazards;
levels.
b. risk assessment;
6. The Parties, in addressing disaster risks, shall involve,
as appropriate, all stakeholders including local c. monitoring of vulnerabilities; and
communities, non-governmental organisations and d. disaster management capacities.
private enterprises, utilising, among others, community- 2. The Parties shall assign risk levels to each identified
based disaster preparedness and early response hazard according to agreed criteria.
approaches.
3. Each Party shall ensure that its National Focal Point,
Article 4: General Obligations at agreed regular intervals, communicates the above
information to the ASEAN Coordinating Centre for
In pursuing the objective of this Agreement, the Parties shall:
Humanitarian Assistance on disaster management,
a. cooperate in developing and implementing measures to hereinafter referred to as "the AHA Centre", established
reduce disaster losses including identification of disaster in accordance with Article 20 of this Agreement.
risk, development of monitoring, assessment and
4. The AHA Centre shall receive and consolidate data as
early warning systems, stand-by arrangements for
analysed by and recommendations on risk level from
disaster relief and emergency response, exchange of
the National Focal Points. On the basis of such
information and technology, and the provision of mutual
information, the AHA Centre shall disseminate to each
assistance;
Party, through its National Focal Point, the analysed
b. immediately respond to a disaster occurring within their data and risk level arising from the identified hazards.
territory. When the said disaster is likely to cause The AHA Centre may also, where appropriate, conduct
possible impacts on other Member States, respond analysis on possible regional-level implications.
promptly to a request for relevant information sought
by a Member State or States that are or may be affected PART III. DISASTER PREVENTION AND MITIGATION
by such disasters, with a view to minimising the
Article 6: Prevention and Mitigation
consequences;
1. The Parties shall, jointly or individually, develop
c. promptly respond to a request for assistance from an strategies to identify, prevent and reduce risks arising
affected Party; and from hazards.
d. take legislative, administrative and other measures as 2. Each Party shall undertake measures to reduce losses
necessary to implement their obligations under this from disasters which include:
Agreement.
a. developing and implementing legislative and other
PART-II. DISASTER RISK IDENTIFICATION regulatory measures, as well as policies, plans,
programmes and strategies;
Article 5: Risk Identification and Monitoring
b. strengthening local and national disaster
1. Each Party shall take appropriate measures to identify management capability and coordination;
c. promoting public awareness and education and b. utilisation of military and civilian personnel,
strengthening community participation; and transportation and communication equipment,
d. promoting and utilising indigenous knowledge and facilities, goods and services and to facilitate their
practices. trans-boundary movement; and
3. The Parties shall cooperate in developing and c. coordination of joint disaster relief and emergency
implementing regional disaster prevention and response operations.
mitigation programmes to complement national-level 3. The Parties shall, jointly or individually enhance their
efforts. national capacities, as appropriate, inter alia, to:
a. facilitate mobilisation of national resources to
PART IV. DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
support such regional stand-by arrangements for
Article 7: Disaster Early Warning disaster relief and emergency response;
1. The Parties shall, as appropriate, establish, maintain b. coordinate with the ASEAN Food Security Reserve
and periodically review national disaster early warning Board to facilitate release of rice from the ASEAN
arrangements including: Emergency Rice Reserve; and
a. regular disaster risk assessment; c. conduct training and exercises to attain and maintain
b. early warning information systems; the relevance and applicability of such Standard
Operating Procedures.
c. communication network for timely delivery of
information; and 4. Each Party shall regularly inform the AHA Centre of
its available resources for the regional stand-by
d. public awareness and preparedness to act upon the arrangements for disaster relief and emergency response.
early warning information.
5. The AHA Centre shall facilitate the establishment,
2. The Parties shall cooperate, as appropriate, to monitor maintenance and periodical review of regional stand-by
hazards which have trans-boundary effects, to exchange arrangements for disaster relief and emergency response.
information and to provide early warning information
through appropriate arrangements. 6. The AHA Centre shall facilitate periodic review of
regional standard operating procedures.
Article 8: Preparedness
Article 9: ASEAN Stand-by Arrangements for Disaster
1. The Parties shall, jointly or individually, develop Relief and Emergency Response
strategies and contingency/response plans to reduce
losses from disasters. 1. On a voluntary basis, each Party shall earmark assets
and capacities, which may be available for the regional
2. The Parties shall, as appropriate, prepare Standard stand-by arrangements for disaster relief and emergency
Operating Procedures for regional cooperation and response, such as:
national action required under this Agreement including
the following: a. emergency response/search and rescue directory;
a. regional stand-by arrangements for disaster relief b. military and civilian assets;
and emergency response; c. emergency stockpiles of disaster relief items; and
d. disaster management expertise and technologies. which it is able to meet the request. In the event that
2. Such earmarked assets and capacities shall be it is not practicable for the Requesting Party to specify
communicated to each Party as well as the AHA Centre the scope and type of assistance required, the Requesting
and updated as necessary by the Party concerned. Party and Assisting Entity should, in consultation, jointly
assess and decide upon the scope and type of assistance
3. The AHA Centre shall consolidate, update and required.
disseminate the data on such earmarked assets and
capacities, and communicate with the Parties for their 4. Each Party to which a request for assistance is directed
utilisation. shall promptly decide and notify the Requesting Party,
directly or through the AHA Centre, whether it is in a
4. To facilitate the utilisation of assets provided for in position to render the assistance requested, and of the
paragraph 1, each Party shall designate a network of scope and terms of such assistance.
pre-designated areas as entry points for supplies and
expertise from Assisting Entities. 5. Each Party to which an offer of assistance is directed
shall promptly decide and notify the Assisting Entity,
PART V. EMERGENCY RESPONSE directly or through the AHA Centre, whether it is in a
position to accept the assistance offered, and of the
Article 10: National Emergency Response scope and terms of such assistance.
1. Each Party shall ensure according to their national 6. The Parties shall, within the limits of their capabilities,
legislation that the necessary measures are taken to identify and notify the AHA Centre of military and
mobilise equipment, facilities, materials, human and civilian personnel, experts, equipment, facilities and
financial resources required to respond to disasters. materials which could be made available for the provision
2. Each Party may forthwith inform other Parties and the of assistance to other Parties in the event of a disaster
AHA Centre of such measures. emergency as well as the terms, especially financial,
under which such assistance could be provided.
Article 11: Joint Emergency Response through the
Provision of Assistance Article 12: Direction and Control of Assistance
1. If a Party needs assistance in the event of a disaster Unless otherwise agreed:
emergency within its territory, it may request such 1. The Requesting or Receiving Party shall exercise the
assistance from any other Party, directly or through the overall direction, control, coordination and supervision
AHA Centre, or, where appropriate, from other entities. of the assistance within its territory. The Assisting Entity
2. Assistance can only be deployed at the request, and shall, where the assistance involves military personnel
with the consent, of the Requesting Party, or, when and related civilian officials, designate in consultation
offered by another Party or Parties, with the consent with the Requesting or Receiving Party, a person who
of the Receiving Party. shall be in charge of and retain immediate operational
supervision over the personnel and the equipment
3. The Requesting Party shall specify the scope and type
provided by it. The designated person, referred to as the
of assistance required and, where practicable, provide
Head of the assistance operation, shall exercise such
the Assisting Entity with such information as may be
supervision in cooperation with the appropriate
necessary for that Party to determine the extent to authorities of the Requesting or Receiving Party.
2. The Requesting or Receiving Party shall provide, to the and telecommunications, facilities and materials brought
extent possible, local facilities and services for the proper into the territory of the Requesting or Receiving Party
and effective administration of the assistance. It shall for the purpose of the assistance;
also ensure the protection of personnel, equipment and b. facilitate the entry into, stay in and departure from its
materials brought into its territory by or on behalf of territory of personnel and of equipment, facilities and
the Assisting Entity for such purposes. Such military materials involved or used in the assistance; and
personnel and related civilian officials are not to carry
arms. c. cooperate with the AHA Centre, where appropriate, to
facilitate the processing of exemptions and facilities in
3. The Assisting Entity and Receiving Party shall consult respect of the provision of assistance.
and coordinate with each other with regard to any claims,
other than an act of gross negligence or contractual Article 15: Identification
claims against each other, for damage, loss or destruction 1. Military personnel and related civilian officials involved
of the other's property or injury or death to personnel in the assistance operation shall be permitted to wear
of both Parties arising out of the performance of their uniforms with distinctive identification while performing
official duties. official duties.
4. The relief goods and materials provided by the Assisting 2. For the purpose of entry into and departure from the
Entity should meet the quality and validity requirements territory of the Receiving Party, members of the
of the Parties concerned for consumption and utilisation. assistance operation shall be required to have:
Article 13: Respect of National Laws and Regulations a. an individual or collective movement order issued
1. Members of the assistance operation shall refrain from by or under the authority of the Head of the
any action or activity incompatible with the nature and assistance operation or any appropriate authority of
purpose of this Agreement. the Assisting Entity; and
2. Members of the assistance operation shall respect and b. a personal identity card issued by the appropriate
abide by all national laws and regulations. The Head authorities of the Assisting Entity.
of the assistance operation shall take all appropriate 3. Aircrafts and vessels used by the military personnel
measures to ensure observance of national laws and and related civilian officials of the Assisting Entity may
regulations. Receiving Party shall cooperate to ensure use its registration and easily identifiable license plate
that members of the assistance operation observe without tax, licenses and/or any other permits. All
national laws and regulations. authorised foreign military aircrafts will be treated as
friendly aircrafts and will receive open radio frequencies
Article 14: Exemptions and Facilities in Respect of the
and Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) by the Receiving
Provision of Assistance
Party authorities.
In accordance with its national laws and regulations, the
Requesting or Receiving Party shall: Article 16: Transit of Personnel, Equipment, Facilities
and Materials in Respect of the Provision of Assistance
a. accord the Assisting Entity exemptions from taxation,
duties and other charges of a similar nature on the 1. Each Party shall, at the request of the Party concerned,
importation and use of equipment including vehicles seek to facilitate the transit through its territory of duly
notified personnel, equipment, facilities and materials responders at local, national and regional levels;
involved or used in the assistance to the Requesting or and
Receiving Party. The Party concerned shall exempt from f. strengthen and enhance the technical capacity of
taxation, duties and other charges of a similar nature the Parties to implement this Agreement.
for such equipment, facilities and materials.
2. The AHA Centre shall facilitate activities for technical
2. AHA Centre, where possible and appropriate, shall cooperation as identified in paragraph 1 above.
facilitate the processing of transit of personnel,
equipment, facilities and materials in respect of the Article 19: Scientific and Technical Research
provisions of assistance. 1. The Parties shall individually or jointly, including in
cooperation with appropriate international
PART-VI. REHABILITATION
organisations, promote and, whenever possible, support
Article 17: Rehabilitation scientific and technical research programmes related to
For the purpose of the implementation of this Agreement, the causes and consequences of disasters and the means,
the Parties shall, jointly or individually, develop strategies and methods, techniques and equipment for disaster risk
implement programmes for rehabilitation as a result of a reduction. In this regard, the protection of the
disaster. The Parties shall promote, as appropriate, bilateral, Intellectual Property Rights of the Parties concerned
regional and international cooperation for rehabilitation as a must be respected.
result of a disaster. 2. The AHA Centre shall facilitate activities for scientific
and technical research as identified in paragraph 1
PART-VII. TECHNICAL COOPERATION AND above.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
PART-VIII. CENTRE FOR HUMANITARIAN
Article 18: Technical Cooperation
ASSISTANCE
1. In order to increase preparedness and to mitigate
disasters, the Parties shall undertake technical Article 20: ASEAN Coordinating Centre for Humanitarian
cooperation, including the following: Assistance
a. facilitate mobilisation of appropriate resources both 1. The ASEAN Coordinating Centre for Humanitarian
within and outside the Parties; Assistance on disaster management (AHA Centre) shall
b. promote the standardisation of the reporting format be established for the purpose of facilitating cooperation
of data and information; and coordination among the Parties, and with relevant
United Nations and international organisations, in
c. promote the exchange of relevant information, promoting regional collaboration.
expertise, technology, techniques and know-how;
2. The AHA Centre shall work on the basis that the Party
d. provide or make arrangements for relevant training, will act first to manage and respond to disasters. In the
public awareness and education, in particular,
event that the Party requires assistance to cope with
relating to disaster prevention and mitigation;
such a situation, in addition to direct request to any
e. develop and undertake training programmes for Assisting Entity, it may seek assistance from the AHA
policy makers, disaster managers and disaster Centre to facilitate such request.
3. The AHA Centre shall carry out the functions as set out Article 22: National Focal Point and Competent
in ANNEX and any other functions as directed by the Authorities
Conference of the Parties.
1. Each Party shall designate a National Focal Point and
PART-IX. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS one or more Competent Authorities for the purpose of
implementation of this Agreement.
Article 21: Conference of the Parties
2. Each Party shall inform other Parties and the AHA
1. A Conference of the Parties is hereby established. The Centre, of its National Focal Point and Competent
first meeting of the Conference of the Parties shall be Authorities, and of any subsequent changes in their
convened by the Secretariat not later than one year designations.
after the entry into force of this Agreement. Thereafter,
ordinary meetings of the Conference of the Parties shall 3. The AHA Centre shall regularly and expeditiously
continue to be held at least once every year, as far as provide to the Parties and as necessary to relevant
possible, in conjunction with appropriate meetings of international organisations the information referred to
ASEAN. in paragraph 2 above.
2. Extraordinary meetings shall be held at any other time Article 23: The Secretariat
upon the request of one Party provided that such request
is supported by at least one other Party. 1. The ASEAN Secretariat shall serve as the Secretariat
to this Agreement.
3. The Conference of the Parties shall keep under
continuous review and evaluation the implementation 2. The functions of the Secretariat shall include the
of this Agreement and to this end shall: following:
a. take such action as is necessary to ensure the a. arrange for and service meetings of the Conference
effective implementation of this Agreement; of the Parties and of other bodies established by this
Agreement;
b. consider reports and other information which may
be submitted by a Party directly or through the b. transmit to the Parties notifications, reports and
Secretariat; other information received in accordance with this
c. consider and adopt protocols in accordance with Agreement;
Article 25 of this Agreement; c. consider inquiries by and information from the
d. consider and adopt any amendment to this Parties, and consult with them on questions relating
Agreement; to this Agreement;
e. adopt, review and amend as required any Annexes d. ensure the necessary coordination with other
to this Agreement; relevant international bodies and, in particular, to
f. establish subsidiary bodies as may be required for enter into administrative arrangements as may be
the implementation of this Agreement; and required for the effective discharge of the Secretariat
functions; and
g. consider and undertake any additional action that
may be required for the achievement of the objective e. perform such other functions as may be assigned to
of this Agreement. it by the Parties.
Article 24: Financial Arrangements Article 26: Amendments to the Agreement

1. A Fund is hereby established for the implementation of 1. Any Party may propose amendments to the Agreement.
this Agreement.
2. The text of any proposed amendment shall be
2. It shall be known as the ASEAN Disaster Management communicated to the Parties by the Secretariat at least
and Emergency Relief Fund. sixty days before the Conference of the Parties at which
3. The Fund shall be administered by the ASEAN it is proposed for adoption. The Secretariat shall also
Secretariat under the guidance of the Conference of the communicate proposed amendments to the signatories
Parties. to the Agreement.
4. The Parties shall, in accordance with the decisions of 3. Amendments shall be adopted by consensus at an
the Conference of the Parties, make voluntary ordinary meeting of the Conference of the Parties.
contributions to the Fund. 4. Amendments to this Agreement shall be subject to
5. The Fund shall be open to contributions from other ratification, approval or acceptance by the Parties to
sources subject to the decision of or approval by the this Agreement. The Depositary shall circulate the
Parties. adopted amendment to all Parties for their ratification,
6. The Parties may, where necessary, mobilise additional approval or acceptance. The amendment shall enter
resources required for the implementation of this into force on the thirtieth day after the deposit with the
Agreement from relevant international organisations, Depositary of the instruments of ratification, approval
in particular, regional financial institutions and the or acceptance of all Parties.
international donor community. Article 27: Adoption and Amendment of Annexes
PART-X. PROCEDURES 1. Annexes to this Agreement shall form an integral part
of the Agreement and, unless otherwise expressly
Article 25: Protocols provided, a reference to the Agreement constitutes at
1. The Parties shall cooperate in the formulation and the same time a reference to the annexes thereto.
adoption of protocols to this Agreement, prescribing 2. Annexes shall be adopted by consensus at an ordinary
agreed measures, procedures and standards for the
meeting of the Conference of the Parties.
implementation of this Agreement.
3. Any Party may propose amendments to an Annex.
2. The text of any proposed protocol shall be communicated
to the Parties by the Secretariat at least sixty days 4. Amendments to an Annex shall be adopted by consensus
before the opening of a Conference of the Parties. at an ordinary meeting of the Conference of the Parties.
3. The Conference of the Parties may, at ordinary meetings, 5. Annexes to this Agreement and amendments to the
adopt protocols to this Agreement by consensus of all Annexes shall be subject to ratification, approval or
Parties to this Agreement. acceptance. The Depositary shall circulate the adopted
4. Any protocol to this Agreement adopted in accordance Annex or the adopted amendment to an Annex to all
with the previous paragraph shall enter into force in Parties for their ratification, approval or acceptance.
conformity with the procedures as provided for in that The Annex or the amendment to an Annex shall enter
protocol. into force on the thirtieth day after the deposit with the
Depositary of the instruments of ratification, approval Article 34: Reservations

or acceptance of all Parties.
Unless otherwise expressly provided by this Agreement no
Article 28: Rules of Procedure and Financial Rules reservations may be made to the Agreement.
The first Conference of the Parties shall by consensus adopt Article 35: Depositary
rules of procedure for itself and financial rules for the ASEAN
This Agreement shall be deposited with the Secretary-
Disaster Management and Emergency Relief Fund to determine,
General of ASEAN, who shall promptly furnish each Member
in particular, the financial participation of the Parties to this
State a certified copy thereof and certified copies of protocols,
Agreement.
annexes and amendments.
Article 29: Reports
Article 36: Authentic Text
The Parties shall transmit to the Secretariat reports on the
measures taken for the implementation of this Agreement in This Agreement shall be drawn up in the English language
such form and at such intervals as determined by the Conference and shall be the authentic text.
of the Parties. In Witness Whereof the undersigned, being duly authorised
by their respective Governments have signed this Agreement.
Article 30: Relationship with Other Instruments
Done at Vientiane, Lao PDR, this Twenty-Sixth Day of July
The provisions of this Agreement shall in no way affect the
in the Year Two Thousand and Five, in a single copy in the
rights and obligations of any Party with regard to any existing
English Language.
treaty, convention or instrument to which they are Parties.
Article 31: Settlement of Disputes
Any dispute between Parties as to the interpretation or
application of, or compliance with, this Agreement or any
protocol thereto, shall be settled amicably by consultation or
negotiation.
PART-XI. FINAL CLAUSES

Article 32: Ratification, Acceptance, Approval and
Accession
This Agreement shall be subject to ratification, acceptance,
approval or accession by the Member States. Instruments of
ratification, acceptance, approval or accession shall be deposited
with the Depositary.
Article 33: Entry into Force
This Agreement shall enter into force on the sixtieth day
after the deposit of the tenth instrument of ratification,
acceptance, approval or accession.
132 Disaster Management Policy of Disaster Risk Management 133
against future disasters. The Bank recognizes that adequate

institutional capacities and a meaningful participation of civil
society are particularly important to manage risks related to
natural hazards at the regional, national and local levels and
for the successful achievement of this policy's objectives.
6 The Bank will make an additional effort to take into account:
the incentive structures and competing priorities influencing
POLICY OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT investment decisions for disaster risk management by national,
regional or local governments; the increased role of private
sector investment and public/private sector partnerships;
improvements in the quality of and access to information through
Introduction
research and new technologies; the growing importance of
This Disaster Risk Management Policy has been developed regional and global challenges and opportunities, and the need
in the context of an increase in the number and seriousness for inter-agency coordination for effective action.
of disasters in Latin America and the Caribbean, and the
The Bank acknowledges that development processes such
awareness that disasters have significant bearing on the
as rapid urbanization and environmental degradation may
economic and social development of most countries in the region,
influence vulnerability to natural hazards and that vulnerability
affecting disproportionately the poorest countries and people.
is often gender and poverty specific.
This policy, which emphasizes risk reduction, is intended to
improve the institutional and policy framework of the Bank to Objectives
support disaster risk management in order to help protect the
The purpose of the Bank's disaster risk management policy
socioeconomic development of borrowing member countries and
is to guide the Bank's efforts to assist its borrowers in reducing
improve the effectiveness of the Bank's assistance. A proactive
risks emanating from natural hazards and in managing
stance to reduce the toll of disasters in the region requires a
disasters, in order to support the attainment of their social and
comprehensive approach with an emphasis on actions taken
before a hazard results in a disaster rather than on post disaster economic development goals.
recovery. This approach seeks to make disaster risk prevention The policy has two interrelated specific objectives:
an integral part of governance. (i) To strengthen the Bank's effectiveness in supporting its
It involves the following set of activities: risk analysis to borrowers to systematically manage risks related to
identify the types and magnitude of potential impacts faced by natural hazards by identifying these risks, reducing
member countries and that affect development investments; vulnerability and by preventing and mitigating related
prevention and mitigation measures to address the structural disasters before they occur; and
and nonstructural sources of vulnerability; financial protection
(ii) To facilitate rapid and appropriate assistance by the
and risk transfer to spread financial risks over time and among
Bank to its borrowing member countries in response to
different actors; emergency preparedness and response to
disasters in an effort to efficiently revitalize their
enhance a country's readiness to cope quickly and effectively
development efforts and avoid rebuilding vulnerability.
with an emergency; and post-disaster rehabilitation and
reconstruction to support effective recovery, and to safeguard (iii) Scope.
Areas of Coverage causing widespread or serious human, material, economic or

environmental losses, which exceed the coping ability of the
The Disaster Risk Management Policy applies to the Inter-
affected society, community or project using its own resources.
American Development Bank (IDB), in both its public and
private sector activities, and to the Multilateral Investment "Natural hazard" refers to natural processes or phenomena
Fund (MIF). affecting the biosphere that may constitute a damaging event.
Such hazards include: earthquakes, windstorms, hurricanes,
Activities and instruments subject to this policy include the
landslides, tidal waves, volcanic eruptions, floods, frosts, forest
development and implementation of country strategies and
fires and drought, or a combination thereof. Hazards emanating
country programme dialogues, financial and nonfinancial
from climatic variations such as those linked to the El Nino
products, public and private sector operations, financial
phenomenons are covered by this policy.
intermediation, and relevant aspects of the Bank's project
procurement practices. "Vulnerability" is a condition determined by physical, social,
economic and environmental factors or processes, which increase
This policy provides two lines of action addressing: (i) the
the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards.
prevention and mitigation of disasters that occur as a result
of natural hazards, through programming and proactive project "Disaster risk management" is the systematic process that
work at regional, national and local levels; and (ii) post disaster integrates risk identification, mitigation and transfer, as well
response to the impacts of natural hazard events, and physical as disaster preparedness to reduce the impacts of future
damage (such as structural collapse and explosions) resulting disasters. It incorporates emergency response, rehabilitation
from technological accidents or other types of disasters resulting and reconstruction to lessen the impacts of current disasters
from human activity. while avoiding rebuilding vulnerability.
With respect to natural hazards, this policy covers the Areas outside the Present Policy
range of events from low frequency/high consequence hazards
The prevention and mitigation of disasters caused by social
to high frequency/low consequence hazards. High consequence
and political violence (also referred to as conflict-driven
hazards typically result in a "declared" disaster that exceeds
disasters) will be treated separately from this policy since the
the coping ability of the affected country or community using
planning and application of policies, strategies and measures
its own resources. When high frequency/low consequence
that identify and reduce risks associated with these events are
hazards (such as frequent floods, forest fires or droughts) are
very different than those necessary to prevent and mitigate
poorly managed they can have significant cumulative impacts
natural hazards.
on a country's efforts to reduce poverty and attain social equity
objectives, as well as on its economic development. The prevention of technological hazards will be managed
as part of the Bank's regular project design and implementation
The Bank does not have a comparative advantage in the
process in accordance with applicable sector policies.
area of humanitarian assistance. Such assistance should only
be addressed through emergency technical cooperations (as Bank activities to address and revert environmental
described in Directive B-3) or through non-IDB sources. degradation, which may be an underlying reason for increased
vulnerability to natural hazards and in some case increased
Key Definitions
hazards, will be managed through the Bank's Environment and
"Disaster," as used in this policy, refers to a serious Safeguards Compliance Policy, which also provides safeguards
disruption of the functioning of a society, community or project to ensure that all Bank operations and activities are
environmentally sustainable. Epidemics and pandemics such financial protection such as through risk transfer, and
as HIV/AIDS are outside the policy scope. These are covered investment projects conducive to reducing vulnerability at the
by the Bank's Public Health Policy. national, regional and municipal levels.
Lending operations to address financial emergencies are Where the natural hazards may affect more than one
treated through the Bank's Emergency Lending Guidelines. country, the Bank will encourage regional approach within the
existing programming framework. The Bank will promote the
Risk management related to the Bank's personnel and
use of the Disaster Prevention Sector Facility and the Disaster
installations is covered in the Bank's Business Continuity Plan.
Prevention Fund described in Section V of this policy and other
Directives means it offers to finance the recommended actions resulting
The following directives provide the principles that the from the assessment process.
Bank will follow to manage disaster risk related to programming Risk and Project Viability
and project work in both the public and private sectors, and
the Bank's response to a disaster. Identification and reduction of project risk. Bank-financed
public and private sector projects will include the necessary
Risk Management through Programming and Operations measures to reduce disaster risk to acceptable levels as
Programming determined by the Bank on the basis of generally accepted
standards and practices. The Bank will not finance projects
Dialogue with borrowing member countries. The Bank will that, according to its analysis, would increase the threat of loss
seek to include the discussion on proactive disaster risk of human life, significant human injuries, severe economic
management in the dialogue agenda with borrowing member disruption or significant property damage related to natural
countries. The Bank will give due consideration to vulnerability hazards.
associated with natural hazards and risk management in
relation to the priority areas of intervention discussed and During the project preparation process project teams will
agreed with the borrowers for the development of country and identify if the projects have high exposure to natural hazards
regional strategies, and operational programmes. or show high potential to exacerbate risk. The findings will be
reported to the Bank through the social and environmental
The Bank will identify countries according to their level of project screening and classification process. Project teams should
exposure to natural hazards based on existing indicators and consider the risk of exposure to natural hazards by taking into
Bank experience. For countries that are highly exposed to account the projected distribution in frequency, duration and
natural hazards the Bank will identify their potential intensity of hazard events in the geographic area affecting the
vulnerability as a major development challenge and propose a project.
country level disaster risk assessment. When the assessments
Project teams will carry out a natural hazard risk assessment
identify that potentially important disruptions in the country's
for projects that are found to be highly exposed to natural
social and economic development could be caused by disasters
hazards or to have a high potential to exacerbate risk. Special
resulting from natural hazards, the Bank will encourage the
care should be taken to assess risk for projects that are located
inclusion of disaster risk management activities in the country
in areas that are highly prone to disasters as well as sectors
strategy and operational programme agreed with the borrower.
such as housing, energy, water and sanitation, infrastructure,
These may include policy reforms, and specific institutional
industrial and agricultural development, and critical health
strengthening and land use planning activities, measures of
and education installations, as applicable.
In the analysis of risk and project viability, consideration response to disasters if: (i) a state of emergency or disaster has
should be given to both structural and non-structural mitigation been officially declared by the government; (ii) the impact of
measures. This includes specific attention to the capacity of the the loan reformulation has been estimated taking into account
relevant national institutions to enforce proper design and the intended uses and project objectives of the loan or loans
construction standards and of the financial provisions for proper to be reformulated relative to the new proposed use of the
maintenance of physical assets commensurate with the foreseen funds, thereby creating the conditions for more informed
risk. When significant risks due to natural hazard are identified decisions on the part of the approving authorities; (iii) adequate
at any time throughout the project preparation process, transparency and sufficient mechanisms for monitoring,
appropriate measures should be taken to establish the viability auditing and reporting the use of the redirected funds is in
of the project, including the protection of population and place, while taking into account the need of a timely response
investments affected by Bank financed activities. Alternative given the nature of the situation; and (iv) a significant
prevention and mitigation measures that decrease vulnerability share of the redirected funds will be earmarked to reduce
must be analyzed and included in project design and the borrower's vulnerability to future disasters and improve
implementation as applicable. the country's capacity for comprehensive disaster risk
management.
These measures should include safety and contingency
planning to protect human health and economic assets. Expert Reconstruction
opinion and adherence to international standards should be
Avoiding rebuilding vulnerability. Operations that finance
sought, where reasonably necessary. In the case of physical
rehabilitation and reconstruction after a disaster require special
assets, the Bank will require that, at the time of project
precautions to avoid rebuilding or increasing vulnerability.
preparation, the borrower establish protocols to carry out
periodic safety evaluations (during construction as well as during These include the precautions mentioned in A-2, as well as
the operating life of the project) and appropriate maintenance correcting deficiencies in risk management policies and
of the project equipment and works, in accordance with generally institutional capacity as reflected in A-1. A significant share
accepted industry norms under the circumstances. of the new investment will be earmarked to reduce vulnerability
to future disasters and improve the country's capacity for
The Bank's social and environmental project screening and
comprehensive disaster risk management. Particular attention
classification process will evaluate the steps taken by project
must be given to lessons learned from recent hazard events.
teams to identify and reduce natural hazard risk.
The Bank will not assume that pre-disaster conditions persist
Post Disaster Operations in whole or in part in the affected area.
In order to provide timely assistance at different stages Disaster risk assessment of the reconstruction project should
after a disaster, the Bank may employ special procedures for be carried out taking into account the specifics of the area, the
processing and reformulating loans to streamline preparation sector and the infrastructure concerned, as well as the current
and expedite execution, including the Bank's Special environmental, social and economic situation and any changes
Procurement Procedures for Emergency Situations. in the affected area as a result of the disaster.
Loan Reformulation Humanitarian Assistance
Redirecting resources from existing loans. The Bank may Limited Bank role. Humanitarian assistance with Bank
approve the reformulation of existing loans in execution in funding may be granted only if a state of emergency or disaster
has been officially declared by the government. This funding implementation of this policy and the achievement of its
will be provided only through emergency technical cooperations, objectives.
to be implemented during or immediately after a disaster. The
The Bank has several specialized instruments at its disposal
resources should be administered by international or local aid
that contribute to the implementation of this policy. These
organizations specialized in humanitarian assistance. The
instruments may be used to assist its borrowing member
Bank's representative, in coordination with the government of
countries in managing disaster risk, in addition to the Bank's
the beneficiary country, is responsible for identifying the aid
regular lending and technical cooperation mechanisms. They
organizations that will receive the funding and administer the
include, interalia, the Disaster Prevention Sector Facility, the
assistance.
Disaster Prevention Fund and the Multidonor Disaster
In the event that the Bank enters into a future agreement Prevention Trust Fund that provide financing for the
to administer resources provided by outside sources that include identification, prevention or mitigation of risk, and preparation
humanitarian assistance among the activities eligible for for disasters.
financing, this assistance should be designed in a manner that
Instruments for post disaster operations include the
is consistent with the principles set out in the present policy.
Immediate Response Facility (link), the Emergency Technical
Policy Implementation Cooperation (link), and the Special Procurement Procedures
This policy enters into effect three months after its approval for Emergency Situations (link). The Bank will review existing
by the Board of Executive Directors. This will allow sufficient instruments and may establish new mechanisms to increase its
time to implement administrative changes and procedures efficiency and effectiveness.
within the institution. The policy will apply to operations that The policy cannot specifically encompass all circumstances,
enter the Bank's pipeline after the date the policy enters into and consequently, it is conceivable that departures from one
effect. or more of the directives in the policy may need to be considered.
To support this policy, Bank management will issue specific In such circumstances, proposals advocating a departure in
guidelines on how to apply the policy's principles and each of either programming activities or in project development and
its directives. The guidelines may be updated by management execution must demonstrate the exceptional characteristics of
from time to time as necessary to reflect lessons learned and the situation that justify the departure. Project proposals with
emerging good practices. The guidelines and the companion deviations from the policy should include the measures to
paper to this policy will include a complete list of definitions. mitigate the associated effects and formally request any specific
exceptions to the policy.
The Bank will use its standard procedures including those
of the environmental classification and screening process for Relation to Other Policies
monitoring performance and evaluating compliance with the
This policy will supersede OP-704 on Natural and
directives set out in this policy. The Bank will have an
Unexpected Disasters. This policy will be implemented in a
independent evaluation carried out three years after the policy
manner that is consistent with all relevant Bank policies and
enters into effect, to assess its impact on Bank activities,
strategies. Operational departments currently states that the
particularly concerning the integration of disaster risk
country strategy process is considered initiated once an
management in the programming process as outlined in A-1
Annotated Outline, Issues Paper or Policy Dialogue Paper has
and disaster risk management in the project cycle as outlined
been created).
in A-2. The Bank will publicly report its experience with the
Terminology: Basic terms of Disaster Risk Reduction the level of risk, or the effects of a disaster. Capacity may
The ISDR Secretariat presents these basic definitions on include physical, institutional, social or economic means as well
disaster risk reduction in order to promote a common as skilled personal or collective attributes such as leadership
understanding on this subject, for use by the public, authorities and management. Capacity may also be described as capability.
and practitioners. The terms are based on a broad consideration Capacity Building
of different international sources. This is a continuing effort to
be reflected in future reviews, responding to a need expressed Efforts aimed to develop human skills or societal
in several international venues, regional discussions and infrastructures within a community or organization needed to
national commentary. Feedback from specialists and other reduce the level of risk.
practitioners to improve these definitions will be most welcome. In extended understanding, capacity building also includes
development of institutional, financial, political and other
Acceptable Risk
resources, such as technology at different levels and sectors of
The level of loss a society or community considers acceptable the society.
given existing social, economic, political, cultural, technical and
environmental conditions. In engineering terms, acceptable Climate Change
risk is also used to assess structural and non-structural measures The climate of a place or region is changed if over an
undertaken to reduce possible damage at a level which does extended period (typically decades or longer) there is a
not harm people and property, according to codes or "accepted statistically significant change in measurements of either the
practice" based, among other issues, on a known probability of mean state or variability of the climate for that place or region.
hazard.
Changes in climate may be due to natural processes or to
Biological Hazard persistent anthropogenic changes in atmosphere or in land use.
Processes of organic origin or those conveyed by biological Note that the definition of climate change used in the United
vectors, including exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is more
toxins and bioactive substances, which may cause the loss of restricted, as it includes only those changes which are
life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption attributable directly or indirectly to human activity.
or environmental degradation. Examples of biological hazards: Coping Capacity
outbreaks of epidemic diseases, plant or animal contagion,
insect plagues and extensive infestations. The means by which people or organizations use available
resources and abilities to face adverse consequences that could
Building Codes lead to a disaster.
Ordinances and regulations controlling the design, In general, this involves managing resources, both in normal
construction, materials, alteration and occupancy of any times as well as during crises or adverse conditions. The
structure to insure human safety and welfare. Building codes strengthening of coping capacities usually builds resilience to
include both technical and functional standards. withstand the effects of natural and human-induced hazards.
Capacity Counter Measures
A combination of all the strengths and resources available All measures taken to counter and reduce disaster risk.
within a community, society or organization that can reduce They most commonly refer to engineering (structural) measures
but can also include non-structural measures and tools designed • Public commitment and institutional frameworks,
and employed to avoid or limit the adverse impact of natural including organisational, policy, legislation and
hazards and related environmental and technological disasters. community action;
Disaster • Application of measures including environmental

management, land-use and urban planning, protection
A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or of critical facilities, application of science and technology,
a society causing widespread human, material, economic or partnership and networking, and financial instruments;
environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected
• Early warning systems including forecasting,
community or society to cope using its own resources. A disaster
dissemination of warnings, preparedness measures and
is a function of the risk process. It results from the combination
reaction capacities.
of hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity
or measures to reduce the potential negative consequences of Early Warning
risk.
The provision of timely and effective information, through
Disaster Risk Management identified institutions, that allows individuals exposed to a
hazard to take action to avoid or reduce their risk and prepare
The systematic process of using administrative decisions,
for effective response.
organization, operational skills and capacities to implement
policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society and Early warning systems include a chain of concerns, namely:
communities to lessen the impacts of natural hazards and understanding and mapping the hazard; monitoring and
related environmental and technological disasters. This forecasting impending events; processing and disseminating
comprises all forms of activities, including structural and non- understandable warnings to political authorities and the
structural measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation population, and undertaking appropriate and timely actions in
and preparedness) adverse effects of hazards. response to the warnings.
Disaster Risk Reduction (Disaster Reduction) Ecosystem
The conceptual framework of elements considered with the A complex set of relationships of living organisms functioning
possibilities to minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks as a unit and interacting with their physical environment.
throughout a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation The boundaries of what could be called an ecosystem are
and preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards, within the somewhat arbitrary, depending on the focus of interest or study.
broad context of sustainable development. Thus the extent of an ecosystem may range from very small
The disaster risk reduction framework is composed of the spatial scales to, ultimately, the entire Earth (IPCC, 2001).
following fields of action, as described in ISDR's publication El Nino-southern Oscillation (ENSO)
2002 "Living with Risk: a global review of disaster reduction
initiatives", page 23: A complex interaction of the tropical Pacific Ocean and the
global atmosphere that results in irregularly occurring episodes
• Risk awareness and assessment including hazard of changed ocean and weather patterns in many parts of the
analysis and vulnerability/capacity analysis; world, often with significant impacts, such as altered marine
• Knowledge development including education, training, habitats, rainfall changes, floods, droughts, and changes in
research and information; storm patterns.
The El Nino part of ENSO refers to the well-above-average Forecast

ocean temperatures along the coasts of Ecuador, Peru and
Definite statement or statistical estimate of the occurrence
northern Chile and across the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean,
of a future event (UNESCO, WMO).
while the Southern Oscillation refers to the associated global
patterns of changed atmospheric pressure and rainfall. La Nina This term is used with different meanings in different
is approximately the opposite condition to El Nino. Each El disciplines.
Nino or La Nina episode usually lasts for several seasons.
Geological Hazard
Emergency Management Natural earth processes or phenomena that may cause the
The organization and management of resources and loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic
responsibilities for dealing with all aspects of emergencies, in disruption or environmental degradation.
particularly preparedness, response and rehabilitation.
Geological hazard includes internal earth processes or
Emergency management involves plans, structures and
tectonic origin, such as earthquakes, geological fault activity,
arrangements established to engage the normal endeavours of
tsunamis, volcanic activity and emissions as well as external
government, voluntary and private agencies in a comprehensive
processes such as mass movements: landslides, rockslides, rock
and coordinated way to respond to the whole spectrum of
falls or avalanches, surfaces collapses, expansive soils and debris
emergency needs. This is also known as disaster management.
or mud flows.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Geological hazards can be single, sequential or combined
Studies undertaken in order to assess the effect on a specified in their origin and effects.
environment of the introduction of any new factor, which may
upset the current ecological balance. Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
EIA is a policy making tool that serves to provide evidence Analysis that combine relational databases with spatial
and analysis of environmental impacts of activities from interpretation and outputs often in form of maps. A more
conception to decision-making. It is utilised extensively in elaborate definition is that of computer programmes for
national programming and for international development capturing, storing, checking, integrating, analysing and
assistance projects. An EIA must include a detailed risk displaying data about the earth that is spatially referenced.
assessment and provide alternatives solutions or options. Geographical information systems are increasingly being
Environmental Degradation utilised for hazard and vulnerability mapping and analysis, as
well as for the application of disaster risk management
The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet measures.
social and ecological objectives, and needs. Potential effects are
varied and may contribute to an increase in vulnerability and Greenhouse Gas (GHG)
the frequency and intensity of natural hazards. A gas, such as water-vapour, carbon dioxide, methane,
Some Examples: Land degradation, deforestation, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons
desertification, wildland fires, loss of biodiversity, land, water (HCFCs), that absorbs and re-emits infrared radiation, warming
and air pollution, climate change, sea level rise and ozone the earth's surface and contributing to climate change (UNEP,
depletion. 1998).
Hazard decisions. Land-use planning involves studies and mapping,

analysis of environmental and hazard data, formulation of
A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or
alternative land-use decisions and design of a long-range plan
human activity that may cause the loss of life or injury, property
for different geographical and administrative scales.
damage, social and economic disruption or environmental
degradation. Land-use planning can help to mitigate disasters and reduce
Hazards can include latent conditions that may represent risks by discouraging high-density settlements and construction
future threats and can have different origins: natural (geological, of key installations in hazard-prone areas, control of population
hydrometeorological and biological) or induced by human density and expansion, and in the siting of service routes for
processes (environmental degradation and technological transport, power, water, sewage and other critical facilities.
hazards). Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in Mitigation
their origin and effects. Each hazard is characterised by its
location, intensity, frequency and probability. Structural and non-structural measures undertaken to limit
the adverse impact of natural hazards, environmental
Hazard Analysis degradation and technological hazards.
Identification, studies and monitoring of any hazard to Natural Hazards
determine its potential, origin, characteristics and behaviour.
Natural processes or phenomena occurring in the biosphere
Hydrometeorological Hazards that may constitute a damaging event. Natural hazards can
Natural processes or phenomena of atmospheric, be classified by origin namely: geological, hydrometeorological
hydrological or oceanographic nature, which may cause the loss or biological. Hazardous events can vary in magnitude or
of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption intensity, frequency, duration, area of extent, speed of onset,
or environmental degradation. spatial dispersion and temporal spacing.
Hydrometeorological hazards include: floods, debris and Preparedness
mud floods; tropical cyclones, storm surges, thunder/hailstorms,
Activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective
rain and wind storms, blizzards and other severe storms;
response to the impact of hazards, including the issuance of
drought, desertification, wildland fires, temperature extremes,
timely and effective early warnings and the temporary
sand or dust storms; permafrost and snow or ice avalanches.
evacuation of people and property from threatened locations.
Hydrometeorological hazards can be single, sequential or
combined in their origin and effects. Prevention
LA NINA Activities to provide outright avoidance of the adverse impact

of hazards and means to minimize related environmental,
Land-use Planning technological and biological disasters. Depending on social and
Branch of physical and socio-economic planning that technical feasibility and cost/benefit considerations, investing
determines the means and assesses the values or limitations in preventive measures is justified in areas frequently affected
of various options in which land is to be utilized, with the by disasters. In the context of public awareness and education,
corresponding effects on different segments of the population related to disaster risk reduction changing attitudes and
or interests of a community taken into account in resulting behaviour contribute to promoting a "culture of prevention".
Public Awareness Retrofitting (or Upgrading)

The processes of informing the general population, Reinforcement of structures to become more resistant and
increasing levels of consciousness about risks and how people resilient to the forces of natural hazards.
can act to reduce their exposure to hazards. This is particularly
Retrofitting involves consideration of changes in the mass,
important for public officials in fulfilling their responsibilities
stiffness, damping, load path and ductility of materials, as well
to save lives and property in the event of a disaster. Public
as radical changes such as the introduction of energy absorbing
awareness activities foster changes in behaviour leading towards
dampers and base isolation systems. Examples of retrofitting
a culture of risk reduction. This involves public information,
includes the consideration of wind loading to strengthen and
dissemination, education, radio or television broadcasts, use of
minimize the wind force, or in earthquake prone areas, the
printed media, as well as, the establishment of information
strengthening of structures.
centres and networks and community and participation actions.
Risk
Public Information
Information, facts and knowledge provided or learned as The probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses
a result of research or study, available to be disseminated to (deaths, injuries, property, livelihoods, economic activity
the public. disrupted or environment damaged) resulting from interactions
between natural or human-induced hazards and vulnerable
Recovery conditions.
Decisions and actions taken after a disaster with a view to Conventionally Risk is Expressed by the Notation
restoring or improving the pre-disaster living conditions of the
stricken community, while encouraging and facilitating Risk = Hazards × Vulnerability. Some disciplines also include
necessary adjustments to reduce disaster risk. Recovery the concept of exposure to refer particularly to the physical
(rehabilitation and reconstruction) affords an opportunity to aspects of vulnerability.
develop and apply disaster risk reduction measures. Beyond expressing a possibility of physical harm, it is crucial
Relief/Response to recognize that risks are inherent or can be created or exist
within social systems. It is important to consider the social
The provision of assistance or intervention during or contexts in which risks occur and that people therefore do not
immediately after a disaster to meet the life preservation and necessarily share the same perceptions of risk and their
basic subsistence needs of those people affected. It can be of underlying causes.
an immediate, short-term, or protracted duration.
Risk Assessment/Analysis
Resilience/Resilient
A methodology to determine the nature and extent of risk
The capacity of a system, community or society potentially by analysing potential hazards and evaluating existing
exposed to hazards to adapt, by resisting or changing in order conditions of vulnerability that could pose a potential threat
to reach and maintain an acceptable level of functioning and or harm to people, property, livelihoods and the environment
structure. This is determined by the degree to which the social on which they depend.
system is capable of organizing itself to increase its capacity
for learning from past disasters for better future protection and The process of conducting a risk assessment is based on a
to improve risk reduction measures. review of both the technical features of hazards such as their
location, intensity, frequency and probability; and also the Some Examples: Industrial pollution, nuclear activities
analysis of the physical, social, economic and environmental and radioactivity, toxic wastes, dam failures; transport,
dimensions of vulnerability and exposure, while taking industrial or technological accidents (explosions, fires, spills).
particular account of the coping capabilities pertinent to the
Vulnerability
risk scenarios.
The conditions determined by physical, social, economic
Structural/Non-structural Measures
and environmental factors or processes, which increase the
Structural measures refer to any physical construction to susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards.
reduce or avoid possible impacts of hazards, which include
For positive factors, which increase the ability of people to
engineering measures and construction of hazard-resistant and
cope with hazards, see definition of capacity.
protective structures and infrastructure.
Wildland Fire
Non-structural measures refer to policies, awareness,
knowledge development, public commitment, and methods and Any fire occurring in vegetation areas regardless of ignition
operating practices, including participatory mechanisms and sources, damages or benefits.
the provision of information, which can reduce risk and related
People Protection
impacts.
No Security Unless you are Prepared for a Time of
Sustainable Development
Need: A time of need is when the unexpected happens. The
Development that meets the needs of the present without present international situations do not exclude the possibility
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their of Japan being subjected to armed attacks or large-scale terrorist
own needs. attacks. The fire services' responsibility is to start rescue
activities in the shortest possible time as a partner that is close
It contains within it two key concepts: the concept of "needs",
to residents by going straight to the scene. To save as many
in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which
lives as possible in a disaster stricken area, which may extend
overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations
over quite a large territory, it is necessary to act immediately.
imposed by the state of technology and social organization on
We are required to conduct speedy and smooth operations to
the environment's ability to meet present and the future needs.
convey a warning notice precisely and securely, guide people
(Brundtland Commission, 1987).
beyond prefectural borders for safe evacuation, and inject the
Sustainable development is based on socio-cultural sufficient quantity of materials and equipment necessary for
development, political stability and decorum, economic growth rescue or fire-fighting operations.
and ecosystem protection, which all relate to disaster risk
Development of a legal system steadfast in handling national
reduction.
crisis and a system to mitigate damage from an armed attack
Technological Hazards (People Protection Law).
Danger originating from technological or industrial The People Protection Law was legislated and promulgated
accidents, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or in June 2004. Under the law, the national government is now
certain human activities, which may cause the loss of life or obligated to develop a full security system for the entire country
injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or to ensure people's safety, including the proper and prompt
environmental degradation. implementation of measures to protect people, using its own
initiative and employing every available resource including its • Fire service personnel may prohibit people's access to
organization and functions. a dangerous place and conduct evacuation or other
necessary measures (in case there is no policeman at
Fire and Disaster Management Agency will take charge of
the site.)
liaison and coordination with autonomous bodies in addition to
notification of warnings and evacuation instructions, Finder's Obligation to Inform
recommendation in guiding people beyond prefectural borders • Those who find symptoms of disaster by armed attacks
for evacuation, and for personal safety information gathering shall report to city mayor, village mayor, fire service
and provision. Having established two offices, the People personnel, policemen, etc.
Protection Office and the People Protection Management Office,
to fulfil these responsibilities, Fire and Disaster Management Instructions of the Director General of the Fire and
Agency will continue to enhance organizations essential for the Disaster Management Agency
implementation of measures to protect people in the future. • Instruction to Governor
Enhancement of Autonomous Body Capabilities • Instructions to mayors of cities and villages
It is autonomous bodies that play important roles in • Instruction related to support
conveying alarms, providing evacuation instructions and giving • Securing safety related to fire and disaster management
guidance to people, and carrying out fire fighting and rescue
operations in a disaster caused by an armed attack or a large- Under the Mission of Protecting People's Lives from
scale terrorist attack. For this reason, Fire and Disaster Terrorism
Management Agency provides support to establish effective Fire and Disaster Management Agency requested the
organizations at autonomous body levels, gives education and prefectural governments to check and enhance their risk
training to their personnel, and deploys and builds up the management systems and improve their arrangements for
necessary inventories of materials and equipment. vigilance as a measure against terrorism with the present Iraq
situation in mind. Further, it has developed cooperative
Matters related to Fire and Disaster Management in the
arrangements with the police and the self-defence force as it
People Protection Law
is essential to enhance cooperation between the fire defence
Tasks of Fire Services organizations in implementing adequate measures to control
Fire services must protect the lives and properties of citizens terrorist attacks.
from fires by armed attacks by using its facilities and members Considering the NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical
and prevent and minimize the damage from armed attacks. hazard) model proposed by the national government for
Guiding Evacuees cooperation of the relevant organs for controlling terrorist
attacks, Fire and Disaster Management Agency has requested
• City or village mayor must guide evacuees to a safe that prefectural governments develop specific programmes to
place by commanding city employees, chief of fire defence ensure their functionality according to the distribution of
headquarters, chief of Volunteer Fire Corps, etc. responsibility and activities suiting the local conditions.
• City employees, fire department members and members Following this request, the prefectural governments are making
of Volunteer Fire Corps may issue necessary warnings efforts to coordinate and enhance cooperation with the relevant
or instructions. organs with emphasis on relatively large fire defence
headquarters by organizing joint drills with a view to terrorist endeavour to develop and improve the comprehensive fire-
attacks involving NBC. fighting ability in each region centring on permanent fire defence
forces and Volunteer Fire Corps.
Development of Materials and Equipment to Control
Terrorist Attacks involving NBC Over 1 million fire service personnel working on the fire
fighting fronts in the country.
To act promptly against a terrorist attack involving NBC,
while ensuring the safety of firefighters, special materials and Permanent fire defence forces mean fire departments and
equipment for personal protection and hazard detection will branch stations operated under cities, towns, and villages, which
become necessary. Fire and Disaster Management Agency is employ dedicated personnel for fire services. Permanent fire
rendering support, for example by means of loaning free of defence forces of the country consist of about 1,55,000 fire
charge pressurized chemical protection garments, mobile service personnel and 10 to 100 firemen are deployed to each
detectors for biological hazards, etc., to regional fire defence fire station according to the actual conditions of the area. Such
headquarters to ensure smooth deployment of the necessary a large number of fire service professionals covering the entire
materials and equipment to the regions needing them for the country as a network are keeping their watchful eyes on our
purpose of enhancing their ability to control disasters from society, ensuring people's safety 24 hours a day, 365 days a
NBC terrorism. year.
Further, it has developed an NBC terrorism manual In each city, town, and village, there are people devoting
targeting the fire service personnel and members of Volunteer themselves to fire services as a members of Volunteer Fire
Fire Corps throughout the country and distributed it to the fire Corps. Volunteer Fire Corps encompass about 928,000 members
stations and Volunteer Fire Corps in the country. In the Fire who have other professions for a living. Volunteer Fire Corps
and Disaster Management College, trainees are given education were born from necessity and have developed to date according
and training specifically addressing NBC terrorism to improve to the respective communities' needs. It is the Fire and Disaster
fire service personnel' skills in this aspect. Management Agency's responsibility to improve the
environment to facilitate the full utilization of the abilities of
Fire Services the roughly 1 million fire service personnel and members of
Fire and Disaster Management Agency links about 1,600 Volunteer Fire Corps working on fronts across the country.
fire departments and about 3,200 branch stations throughout Further, to enhance fire-fighting capability on the regional
the country as a network. Practical fire-fighting activity must level, the Agency is promoting research into the forms of fire
always consider emerging risks to ensure its effectiveness when services desired by residents and their suitability for each city,
applied to fires and disasters expected to grow in their complexity town, or village while promoting the deployment of materials
and diversity in the future. and equipment including high-performance fire-fighting vehicles
In enhancing fire-fighting ability at regional levels, it is such as fire engines and chemical fire engines.
important to improve the skills of fire service personnel employed Timely, adequate action to control the 60,000 fires that
in fire defence headquarters, etc., and deploy state-of-the-art occur in a year.
materials and equipment. In addition, the Fire and Disaster
Management Agency intends to continue its effort to improve Everybody has seen in his/her life a red fire engine hurrying
the working environment so that fire service personnel may to the site blowing its siren loudly. While fire-fighting vehicles
perform their duties safely and efficiently, and it will also include various types, such as fire engines, ladder trucks, and
rescue vehicles to name a few, the mobilized firefighters are Corps are working for communities to protect people's lives and
also assigned various roles. There are firefighters engaged in property through fire-fighting activities when a fire occurs, life-
direct fire-fighting activities using water hoses and impulse saving and rescue activity, patrolling and guidance for
guns, those giving first aid to the injured and transporting evacuation in a natural disaster, such as an earthquake, storm,
them to hospitals, and those engaged exclusively in life-saving or flood, fully utilizing their knowledge of and skills in fire
activity. At a fire site, a large number of fire-fighters with fighting and disaster preventing activities acquired as members
speciality skills are playing their roles in a smooth, organized of Volunteer Fire Corps.
manner, fulfilling the respective tasks assigned to them. Fire
In addition to physical training when not on call, they
and Disaster Management Agency is constructing a system to
shoulder a variety of roles including the organization of first-
ensure safer, surer fire-fighting activity including the production
aid classes, fire prevention instruction to residents, special
of a behavioural manual that considers every possibility at a
lookout patrols, and public relations activities. Members of
fire site, for which one will never find any parallels.
Volunteer Fire Corps as fire fighting and disaster preventing
Stern Drill Simulating a Fire Site leaders of residents who also shoulder the roles that would
otherwise be performed by a fire department in the remote
Fire-fighters participate in drills as part of their routine,
islands and the towns and villages in mountains that have no
which simulate the conditions exactly the same as those of
fire departments.
actual fire sites, except that the fire is controlled for the purpose
of training. Wearing a full outfit, such as a protection garment Also, in the areas where permanent fire defence forces are
and a respirator, an ordinary person would find it difficult to available, they play an imperative role, ensuring good
do anything due to its weight. Wearing a personal outfit weighing communication with residents through preventive activities
around 30kg and holding a water hose, a firefighter climbs a when not on call and functioning as fire fighting and rescue
ladder. In some cases, he runs around wearing the same outfit forces taking advantage of readily available manpower in a
and holding a dummy weighing as much as a heavy adult man. time of need.
At a fire site, fire-fighters can never stop working for their own The mobility of Volunteer Fire Corps members, who are
reasons. Since they know their usual training may determine familiar with the geography and individual residents of the
the life or death of a person in need of help on a fire site, they area, has made a great contribution in many a serious disaster,
undertake training very seriously. Fire and Disaster preventing further disaster and saving local residents. Volunteer
Management Agency supports such fire-fighters' enthusiasm Fire Corps are increasing their importance under improving
for improvement of their skills with various measures. cooperation between them and fire departments as well as
Fire Services other autonomous disaster preventing organizations led by
local residents.
The number of Volunteer Fire Corps established in cities,
towns, and villages of the country is about 3,600, and To support such activities conducted by Volunteer Fire
approximately 928,000 members devote themselves to fire Corps, Fire and Disaster Management Agency is providing
services in their respective communities, while they have their people with disaster prevention education using the Internet
own occupations for a living. Their courageous act to fight and acting to encourage people to participate in Volunteer Fire
against disaster is based solely on their resolution to protect Corps through PR in mail magazines, in addition to the
their communities on their own and their sense of responsibility promotion of improvement in activity environments and
to live up to people's trust in them. Members of Volunteer Fire machinery and equipment of Volunteer Fire Corps.
A Shining Volunteer Spirit—in the Case of the Tokachi their attentive performance is highly valued. Activity to improve
Offshore Earthquake communication with or enlighten people through web sites and
newsletters is also a suitable task for female members of
In 2003, the Tokachi offshore earthquake occurred. It caused
Volunteer Fire Corps. The number of Volunteer Fire Corps
damage to Hokkaido and an extensive area surrounding it
female members increased by about 8,000 for the last several
including part of the Tohoku region. It was quite a severe
years and they are expected to play more roles in the future.
earthquake recording tremors registering seismic intensity of
6 minus twice in one day. As soon as the earthquake occurred, Desire to Spread Good Activities Invented Locally
a number of Volunteer Fire Corps members began their work
Volunteer Fire Corps continue to promote various activities
to remove debris or check the safety of elderly people living
contributing to the communities' disaster prevention
alone.
programmes, maintaining close relations with towns when not
Further, it was reported that 7,000 members of Volunteer on call, or in a time of need.
Fire Corps in total were out in the field to look out for tsunamis,
Fire and Disaster Management Agency, therefore,
search for missing people, guide residents to safe refuges, guard
endeavours to convey information on local Volunteer Fire Corps'
against secondary disaster, cover the ground to prevent
innovative activities to people throughout the country. This is
landslides and restore collapsed houses. The image of Volunteer
done because the Agency thinks that if many people learn of
Fire Corps is set deeply in local residents' minds as a strong
the actual achievements of these activities, it will become a
spiritual support that guards their safety.
great influence on the disaster prevention efforts of these
Expectation for Female Members of Volunteer Fire Corps communities.
Activity
The Agency intends to continue various supportive measures
More than 10,000 female members of Volunteer Fire Corps to foster members of Volunteer Fire Corps' motivation such as
are now actively working nationwide. It is true that the changing the introduction of the activities of Volunteer Fire Corps' to the
social conditions have opened the way for utilization of women's public through the Agency's web sites and other media and the
abilities in society as an effective means to activate organizations institutionalization of a system to commend exemplary
and fulfil communities' increasing needs in the country. Volunteer Fire Corps in the name of the Commissioner of the
Fire and Disaster Management Agency.
There is another reason that fire services involve services
of high public necessity best performed with women's First-aid, Rescue Operations
affectionate, considerate minds, such as disaster prevention
We want to save the lives that can be saved.
guidance given to ordinary homes, calls for elderly people living
alone for disaster preventing instructions, guidance to spread The required period of time for an ambulance to arrive at
first-aid knowledge and skills, and so on. the site from an initial call in a fire department (119) is about
6 min. Would the result be different if first aid were performed
For this reason, female members of Volunteer Fire Corps,
during this period? Or, what if advanced first aid that is currently
who were very few in the initial stage, have increased steadily
banned by law was given by Emergency Life-Saving Technician
in number. For example, in 2002, Matsuyama city of Ehime
that rushes to the scene? The minutes required to transport
prefecture recruited 62 female members of Volunteer Fire Corps,
a person to a hospital are precious for saving life. We are
who give first-aid guidance to the handicapped utilizing the
promoting the institutional improvement and provide support
visual and auditory senses by mastering sign language, and
to improve the life saving rate.
Quick action determines life or death. Present pre-hospital sick person, only an Emergency Life-Saving Technician can
care conditions in Japan. perform the approved advanced emergency care. If the range
of pre-hospital emergency care were expanded, it is estimated
The number of emergency call-outs in Japan was about
that the precious lives of more than 1,000 persons a year could
4.56 million in 2002 including call-outs using helicopters (3.6%
be saved.
increase from the previous year). The number of persons
transported by ambulance is 12,482 a day on average. This Currently, about 13,000 ambulance team members out of
means that ambulance teams go out once every 6.9 seconds. about 58,000 have been qualified as Emergency Life-Saving
The number of persons transported by ambulance was about Technicians. The emergency life saving technician programme
4.33 million, which means that every 1 in 29 individuals was was introduced in 1991 to improve the approved first aid given
transported to a hospital by an ambulance team. This number at the rescue site and transport by ambulance and the range
is expected to increase in the future, so it is not an exaggeration of approved treatments by rescue team members was expanded.
to say that the first aid during the period from initial call at They have produced great advancements in life saving for
a home to arrival at the hospital might determine the destiny patients with cardiac and respiratory arrests as well as further
of a severely injured or sick person. developments in other areas of advanced life saving activities.
And due to some expanding of the range of emergency care they
"A life saving chain system" for saving previous lives is a
can give, more improvement can be expected.
must. The starting point for such a chain is to form a system
where a chain of activities from initial call to first-aid, transport The clearest improvement is an approval of electrical shock
and hospital for a severely injured or sick person are conducted treatment since April 2003. Although only about one year has
quickly and smoothly. To promote building of such a system, passed, many precious lives have actually been saved. At the
Fire and Disaster Management Agency is encouraging the same time, an additional new treatment for supplying oxygen
establishment of a higher medical control system for advanced by inserting a tube into the trachea via the mouth will be
rescue activities, such as an improvement in emergency approved starting July 2004, and cardiac treatment, which is
treatment skills of rescue team members and cooperation with helpful in restoring the heartbeat, will be approved starting
medical institutions. At the same time, we will promote the April 2006. However, it goes without saying that it is necessary
planned deployments of the emergency rescue equipment for Emergency Life-Saving Technicians to update their medical
necessary for providing advanced first aid. knowledge and know-how to operate this medical equipment.
Improvement of Emergency Life-Saving Technician First-aid, Rescue Operations
Programme and its Effect
Considering that the average time of ambulance arrival on
If a moving ambulance is a kind of general hospital, more site is about 6 minutes and that 50% of the victims die in about
persons might be saved. Or, even if it is difficult for it to be 3 minutes after cardiac arrest, the first aid made by bystanders
a general hospital, what if it has functions for sending (persons who happen to be present at the site) is thought to
electrocardiogram or X-ray data of severely injured or sick be a very important key for life saving. Thus, there is no doubt
persons to medical doctors? In the near future, such a medical that many lives can be saved if skills and knowledge of first
system might become a reality. The present concerns are how aid were widely acquired by the general public. Fire and Disaster
to transport severely injured or sick persons to a medical Management Agency established the " Implementation manual
institution as soon as possible while improving the pre-hospital on promotion activities to diffuse and enlighten first-aid" in
care that is provided. When transporting a severely injured or March 1993.
According to these procedures, Fire and Disaster natural disasters, and distress in the mountains. A rescue team
Management Agency is implementing improved practical consists of two groups one that has been given advanced special
guidance so that even ordinary people can perform cardio- instruction and training required for rescue activities, and one
pulmonary resuscitation for a person after cardiac arrest. The that has rescue vehicles full of supplies and equipment. Special
number of students attending the lecture was around 250,000 rescue teams numbering 1,493 are deployed at 859 fire defence
in 1994, but it has gradually increased and exceeded 1.02 headquarters with a total number of team members of about
million during 2002. Currently, it is popular to learn certain 24,000.
first aid skills at local fire stations.
It is a duty to deploy a special rescue team in cities with
Innovative life saving item: [AED (Automated External a population of 100,000 or more. Rescue activities have become
Defibrillator)] more complex and diversified recently, and the supplies and
equipment special rescue teams require have become more
If a person collapses due to a heart problem, the cause is
sophisticated and specialized. In view of this, the Fire and
usually ventricular fibrillation, which, in many cases, results
Disaster Management Agency is preparing a subsidy for local
in a poor condition where the heart cannot supply blood to the
governments to purchase these.
entire body. In this situation, the most effective treatment is
defibrillation (electrical shock) treatment to stimulate the cardiac Special Hard Training for Rescue Teams
muscle. Originally, only a medical doctor was allowed to perform
Hard training of rescue teams is performed in a deep diving
this treatment, but Emergency Life-Saving Technicians have
pool using an aqualung and on a single rope at a dizzying
now been approved to perform this treatment, which now saves
height. A wide range of strenuous activities that simulate various
many lives.
emergency situations are conducted to facilitate the first priority
Now we can say that the AED is quite useful for performing of saving life. Rescue activities require an immediate and
defibrillation (electrical shock). In many countries, such as the appropriate response to save victims in various conditions and
United States, many AED are deployed in public locations, a variety of circumstances.
such as airports. As it can be easily operated by following the
It goes without saying that the skills and instincts of rescue
audio instructions after turning the device on, any ordinary
team members as specialists will determine the destiny of
person can use it. Also in Japan, the restrictions are revised
people's lives. A rescue team consists of selected firefighters
to make it available for use.
who are brave, in good physical condition, and have excellent
Special Rescue Teams are Reliable in an Emergency judgement. In order to be qualified, they must pass strenuous
It is a member of a rescue team who first grabs the hand testing, so the rescue team members in their orange uniforms
of a person who needs help. People who need help are those are well respected by other firefighters.
who remained on an island in a swollen river, are in distress
FIRE PREVENTION
on a mountain with a help sign, or who are confined in an
automobile in an accident. Rescue team members are Wish to Protect People from Present Danger
professionals who rush to dangerous disaster sites where people
What is more difficult than extinguishing a fire is preventing
who need help are in critical condition, and then bring the
a fire from occurring. The Kabukicho building fire which occurred
distressed persons out alive. It is a professional team with
in Shinjuku ward, took as many as 44 precious lives. In order
courage that undertakes rescue activities in any dangerous
to minimize the damage caused by fire, the Fire and Disaster
situation, such as fires, traffic accidents, explosions, drownings,
Management Agency is actively promoting the review of fire- Management Agency will make more plans for measures for
prevention equipment, etc. and the reformation of fire control correcting violations and implement the laws for fire prevention,
standards. In residential fires, the number of elderly people placing maximum priority on human life.
who fail to escape and lose their lives is increasing yearly. It
Determined to Correct Violations and Sealing Off of
is our urgent task to precisely analyze the state of damage
Escape Routes
caused by fire, to install fire-prevention equipment, and to
adopt measures for fire control, which minimize damage. Fire and Disaster Management Agency will back up the
duties of the concerned fire defence organizations for the
Prevent Fire—In the Worst Case, Minimize the Damage
correction of violations in the days ahead, aiming to reduce the
The Kabukicho building fire in Shinjuku, which occurred violation rate. It will strictly perform on-site inspections, and
in September 2001, has exposed the reality that anyone can be maintains the policy that strict law enforcement will be applied
a victim in everyday life. As many as 44 casualties in a relatively if any violation is not corrected. It takes all necessary painstaking
small building resulted from the careless management of the effort for earlier correction of violations, such as extensive
building, such as no fire door closing and no working automatic education of the staff of the Violation Correction Support Centre
fire alarm systems. and promoting the effective utilization of a violation database.
As for the staircases, which were the only lifeline, large Promoting Preparedness Against Home Fires
amounts of various inflammable materials were placed on them,
It is quite natural that we smoke once in a while, heat a
which caused the fire to spread rapidly. To prepare for an
room using a stove and use a small kitchen range for cooking
emergency in buildings such as the outbreak of fire, the Fire
in our daily life in a house or building. The use of " fire" is
Defence Law stipulates " Standards for fire-prevention
indispensable for our daily life. If we cannot use " fire," we feel
equipment and others," encouraging smooth operation of initial
very inconvenienced. If we are careless in using " fire", on the
fire extinguishing, alarming, evacuating, and fire fighting, which
other hand, it may start a fire, which damages or harms people
minimize damage, and " Standards for fire control" for the
and buildings. The number of building fires is about 30,000 a
drawing up of a fire defence plan, execution of fire drills,
year and 60% of the fires are house fires and 90% of deaths
management of capacity venue, and other measures in
are due to house fires. Looking at the causes of house fires we
preparation for the outbreak of fire, etc. led by fire marshals.
see that the top one is cigarettes, followed by stoves and then
Regulations have no meaning when they are not observed even
small kitchen ranges. We can see from this data that a fire
if they are defined. It was a distressing fire that left bitter
starts very near to us.
feelings in all persons related to fire protecting activities.
The number of deaths caused by house fires exceeded 1,000
Taking this fire of Shinjuku, Kabuki-cho building as a
in 2003. This is the worst record in 17 years since 1986. More
trigger, on-site inspections were implemented simultaneously
than half of the deaths are people who are older than 65. We
nationwide. To cope with this serious problem, the Fire and
need to take urgent measures to cope with the arrival of an
Disaster Management Agency has promoted the development
aging society. Considering the results of " A survey on fire
of laws for correction of violations and carried out thorough
fighting and rescue" conducted by the Cabinet Office in 2003,
measures for correction.
which covers the effects of residential smoke alarm systems
As a result of the revised laws, the number of violations and measures taken in Europe, the Fire and Disaster
was reduced to about 45% in June 2003, then to about 36% at Management Agency has been promoting the development of
the year-end on December 31. Hereafter, the Fire and Disaster
laws to strengthen measures for preventing house fires and the energy source that generates less vibration and noise, and
Fire Service Law was revised by the Diet in 2004. The Agency produces only water as a by-product. Strong focus worldwide
will promote measures to realize a safe and secure life including is being placed on fuel cell technology, and in Japan it is
promoting development of low-cost and handy home fire alarm expected to play a key role in stimulating the economy since
devices. the country has few natural energy resources. The government
has the policy to prepare the infrastructure required to
Research and Development of Scientific Technologies
successfully introduce fuel cell technologies by 2005. Fire and
for Fire Prevention
Disaster Management Agency is now studying issues from the
It is not possible to fully implement countermeasures for viewpoint of regulations and security.
fires without understanding what causes them. Today, fires
The first is the issue of extinguishing facilities to cope with
may occur in unexpected places due to a complexity of reasons.
fire accidents of cars equipped with fuel cells, which might
Preventing fires, mitigating damage, and identifying causes
occur in underground parking areas, etc. The second is the
are not possible without the latest scientific technologies. As
safety standard when the fuel cells are introduced in residences.
the centre of research and development of new fire-fighting
The last one is the safety standard when a hydrogen supply
technologies, National Research Institute of Fire and Disaster,
station is installed adjacent to conventional gasoline stations.
an independent governmental body, shoulders this responsibility
Fire and Disaster Management Agency is aiming to encourage
as the only research institute for fire and disaster in Japan.
a resolution to these issues at an early stage, in order to make
It performs research on issues socially and politically required
use of fuel cells for people's daily life.
placing full importance on the defined time limit as well as
continuously conducting basic research. Utilizing the Power of Private Enterprise for Fire
Prevention—Promotion Programme for Scientific Fire and
Research with overriding priority to be achieved within
Disaster Prevention Technologies
these five years are " Promotion of utilizing information
technologies against fire and disaster," " Security for the weak In order to efficiently cope with disasters, such as fire
such as older people, etc.," " Advanced technologies to support fighting, under the urban and specialized conditions faced today,
fire-fighting activities," and " Safety evaluation of dangerous the relevant agencies should make use of advanced scientific
materials and handling facilities." As for basic research, " technologies much more than before.
Combustion phenomena of materials," And " Basic theory and Specifically, advanced activities for fire fighting and
application method of technologies for fire fighting," are being ambulance, rescue service, development of information systems,
continuously promoted. In order to make efficient progress in and promotion of environmental preservation, etc., are the
this research, various activities, such as cooperative research main focus of recent interest. In order to mix and make use
among industries, governmental institutions, and universities of advanced scientific technologies comprehensively, the entire
as well as international exchanges, are being implemented. society, including private companies and universities, should
Safe Use of Fuel Cells cooperate more fully.
Next generation automobiles will no longer require gasoline. For this purpose, the Fire and Disaster Management Agency
The leading alternative technology could be fuel cells. A fuel has founded the " Promotion Programme for Fire and Disaster
cell, which generates electrical power through a chemical Prevention Technologies," an effective research fund programme
reaction of hydrogen and oxygen, is an environmentally friendly for prevention of fire and disaster in making full use of the
technological capability of the private sector.
In order to resolve the difficult issues currently faced, the successfully put it out. On the 28th, however, another fire
programme solicits universities, research institutes, and private broke out from a separate naphtha storage tank (33,000kl).
companies for broad research themes. The programme seeks
It was caused because the floating roof lid of the tank sank
to identify excellent themes for sponsorship. In FY2003,
and volatile naphtha was exposed to air, and resulted in a total
applications for 131 themes were received, and of these, 16
fire. With reinforcements sent from within Hokkaido and
were selected for their excellence.
Emergency Fire Response Teams mobilized, 91 fire-fighting
Water mist fire extinguisher to reduce the damage caused teams consisting of 298 fire-fighters in total engaged themselves
by conventional sprinklers in fire-fighting operations, divided into forces to carry out their
Water mist is a new type of fire extinguisher that only respective assignments, such as the direct fire-fighting operation,
requires one-half to one-third as much water as a conventional an operation to prevent the spread of the fire to other tanks,
sprinkler while maintaining the same level of extinguishing an operation to transport foam extinguishing agents to the site,
capability. It is expected to replace halon as a new etc., and continued their urgent efforts. The fire, however,
environmentally friendly extinguisher. Because it causes less continued burning for about 44 hours until 6:55 A.M. on the
property damage than a conventional sprinkler and is easy to 30th, when it was finally put out.
install even in areas with a short water supply, it could be In recent years, there have been a number of serious
widely used in ceilings as well as for fire hose nozzles. There accidents, including fires and explosions that have occurred at
are still many unknown factors relating to the fire extinguishing industrial establishments of representative major Japanese
principles of water mist sprinklers, so further study and step- businesses. Fire and leakage accidents at facilities handling
by-step developments are planned for this technology. dangerous materials registered a record high with 540 cases
Challenge of reducing frequent industrial disasters in 2000 and today remain at that level. The year 2003, however,
turned out to be the worst year ever with frequent large-scale
Safe society, which must not be a vulnerable one. We will
industrial disasters, which included the above-mentioned
not stop making efforts until the world where we can prevent
petroleum tank fire in Hokkaido, a fire at Exxon Mobil in
every calamity before it actually happens is realized.
Nagoya, and the complete incineration of the tire plant at
Industrial disasters can have a grave impact on neighbouring Bridgestone's Tochigi factory.
residents' lives
Such a large-scale fire at an industrial establishment, once
A petroleum tank fire started at the Hokkaido refinery of started, can result in a serious, fatal accident, and will take
Idemitsu Kosan after the occurrence of the Tokachi offshore tremendous time and effort to put out. Further, nobody can
earthquake on September 26, 2003. The fire triggered a big deny that it causes a huge amount of damage to corporate
social anxiety in addition to extremely difficult fire-fighting assets, threaten people's lives in the surrounding neighbourhood,
activities. In the beginning, a fire started from the ring area and has a significant impact on society. Fire and Disaster
of a crude oil storage tank (33,000kl). This was attributable to Management Agency has started its effort to address this
crude oil leaking from the perimeter of the floating roof lid of problem in cooperation with the relevant government
the tank. Fire services had expected and were prepared for a departments to improve the present situation for fire defence,
fire of this type as a possible fire caused by an earthquake. disaster prevention and industrial security points of view and
In fact, the Tomakomai Fire Defence headquarters, the is developing measures aimed at stopping such industrial
jurisdiction of which the fire broke out in, fought against it and disasters.
Action plan for industrial disaster prevention calling for of a large-capacity foam spraying system is being considered
unified efforts by the relevant authorities and industry to improve the ability to fight complex petroleum disasters
because of the lesson learned in a petroleum tank accident in
Fire and Disaster Management Agency intends to develop
Hokkaido.
an action plan to prevent dangerous material-induced accidents
for the prevention of industrial disaster, which can develop into Fire and Disaster Management Agency has undertaken
a serious disaster, and promote disaster-preventing measures this project by first revising the Petroleum Complex Disaster
calling for unified efforts by the government and the private Prevention Act. Presently, the Agency is studying the most
sector. effective measures for utilizing a large-capacity foam spray
system.
It clarifies requisite items for implementation by
corporations, associations and various industrial establishments. As the pivot of disaster control, preparing for the"
More specifically, it states clearly the responsibility of a unpredictable" and " sudden crises"
corporations top management for ensuring safety and that
The Fire, Disaster and Risk Management Centre is the Fire
safety should be given priority in corporate activity. It also calls
and Disaster Management Agency's operation command room
for actions on the part of corporations to perfect necessary
for disaster control established within the Ministry of Public
arrangements for ensuring safety, implement measures to
Management, Home Affairs, Posts and Tele-communications.
identify risks and mitigate possible damage, and disclose
With an information network developed to link it permanently
information necessary for smooth fire-fighting activity.
with the Japan Meteorological Agency and prefectural/municipal
Further the Fire and Disaster Management Agency has fire defence headquarters, it is the place where the disaster
enhanced cooperation with regional authorities such as control headquarters placed under the command of the
prefectural fire defence organizations to develop systems Commissioner of Fire and Disaster Management Agency is
realizing faster fire-fighting operations. established and Fire and Disaster Management Agency's
personnel promptly gather as soon as a large-scale disaster
In FY2004, it will launch the ‘lock cooperation conference
takes place.
for dangerous material-induced accident prevention’ to reinforce
government-industry cooperation at regional levels. With this, Utilizing advanced means of information gathering including
integrated administration to ensure security of dangerous the fire and disaster management radio, local satellite
materials across the national and regional governments will be communication network, helicopter TV transmission system,
put in place. etc., it will assess the states of a disaster-stricken area accurately.
Introduction of a Large-capacity Foam Spraying System Then, utilizing the Fire and Disaster Management Agency's
information analysis functions, such as disaster management
A large-capacity foam spray system is a firefighting system
information, extensive area cooperation support, Emergency
that can discharge an over 10,000 litres per minute. In
Fire Response Teams movement information and petroleum
comparison with the 3,000 litre per minute discharged from a
complex local information management systems, it will issue
large fire engine for elevated point fire fighting, its superiority
commands calling for prompt, adequate countermeasures.
in capacity is obvious.
The raging energy of a large-scale disaster can devastate
It may be more adequate to describe it as a capacity
everything, including lives and property. To practice fire-fighting
corresponding to any large fire engines for elevated point fire
and rescue operations leaving nothing to be regretted later and
fighting to convey its image correctly. Presently, the introduction
fulfil the responsibilities as a command tower, the Fire and the cooperation of Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation
Disaster Management Agency always tries to prepare for (NTT) and show clearly where you should evacuate when a
unpredictable situations by faithfully conducting exercising disaster breaks out. They contain useful disaster prevention
drills simulating real disaster situations. information including what you should do first when a disaster
breaks out, what you should do in your usual life to ensure
This is to learn by experience the strain the members
smooth evacuation, etc. Red pages are the pages you should
would be exposed to in an actual disaster control operation,
consult in a time of need. Please keep in mind to rip out the
while providing important feedback for improvement, such as
pages from the telephone directory and put them in your pocket
those concerning the functionality of fire defence forces and the
at a critical moment.
need for revision of the relevant laws, which are not identifiable
through mere desk planning. Drills simulating the imminent Fire and Disaster Management Helicopters Utilized Fully
great Tokai earthquake are performed not only at the Fire and for Multiple Purposes
Disaster Management Agency but also at various other
Helicopters have been utilized for rescue operations in
government departments that are concerned with disaster
mountains and floods as well as life saving operations, and the
control.
need for their use is expected to grow in the future. This is
Fire Services Today and in the Past because they will play important roles in an extensive area
The history of fire services in Japan dates back to the Edo cooperation system mobilized in possible large-scale disasters
era. Then society had fire defence organizations such as and special disasters, such as NBC terrorism. They can get
Machibikeshi, known for the famous 48 teams named after the near a disaster-stricken area for disaster information gathering
letters of the Japanese alphabet, Daimyoubikeshi and from above and transport materials and equipment for disaster
Joubikeshi, each engaged in fire services. Joubikeshi among control operations even if transportation networks on the ground
them was, so to speak, the origin of today's permanent fire are devastated.
defence forces, which could be mobilized immediately upon the Fire and Disaster Management Agency is providing active
outbreak of a fire. support to promote the deployment of fire and disaster
On the other hand, Machibikeshi, which was closely related management helicopters and the development of manuals for
to each community, was rather similar to today's Volunteer their effective utilization.
Fire Corps as its members had their own professions for a
ADVANCED PLANS THAT WORK
living such as being a scaffolding man. To search for the
counterpart of Daimyoubikeshi in today's fire defence Managing the Disaster—Systems and Strategies to
organizations, it may correspond to fire-fighting teams organized Consider
by big businesses with special facilities such as a petroleum
complex, as they protected Edo Castle and the mansions of No business regrets having a solid business continuity and
feudal lords. disaster management plan once a disasters strike. However,
the token business continuity plans are worthless in actual
Red Pages in the Hello Page Telephone Directory disasters. It is worth the time and the costs to do the planning
Did you know about the red pages provided inside the front right.
cover of a Hello Page telephone directory distributed to each A means of accounting for and contacting staff, visitors and
home? They are edited on a regional basis in the country with anyone on site in the event of a major incident should be
included in the disaster management plan. Emergency damage • International recovery

assessment, identifying shelters, assembly, travel, and relocation • Suppliers plans and contractual obligations
policies should be devised, agreed upon and communicated.
• Outsourcer plans and contractual obligations
Emergency Management—Command and Control
A Successful Business Continuity Plan—Management
A crisis command and control centre needs to be established Before the Disaster
immediately when disaster strikes. Information is critical, and
Successful BC management disaster planning does not end.
a good plan has thought through the implementation of
To ensure a viable ongoing BC management plan, the BC
communications to the control centre.
manager should continue to update and audit the plan, as the
In the event of a major disaster, key staff and personal company grows and policies change.
should know what to do, and what tasks the company is relying
on them to complete. When communicating these emergency Testing—The Disaster Plan
tasks, succession planning and natural attrition should be It is also important to have ongoing training and awareness
considered and addressed. of the disaster management plan. When possible, it is good to
Do not overlook communications and public relations when 'exercise' the plan. Have a trial run. Find the flaws before the
developing your company's disaster management strategies. disaster. Proper management of the business continuity and
Cover media management thoroughly with employees. Everyone disaster management plan is not an isolated function. It should
should know and understand the media policy for the company, involve all critical functions of the company. Many companies
and procedures to follow. have found it helpful to have an interactive exercise testing
readiness and response for the most likely disaster scenarios.
Disaster management should also include a plan for
contacting suppliers, business partners, or other key This seems to clearly point out the new issues, which can be
relationships, keeping them informed and reassured. It is also addressed and updated in the business continuity plan.
important to require that key suppliers also have effective Business Continuity Thinking—Changing the Corporate
(according to industry standards) BC management in place. Culture
Some companies have found it helpful to segment their
management plans for a disaster. A few ideas for segmenting Corporations should strive to integrate the need for business
are below: continuity and disaster managing within their business
processes and management culture. Successful BC programmes
• Initial response
educate and reassure all staff. BCM and disaster planning
• Medium to longer-term response should be a required part of any proposals for capital
• Handover from crisis management expenditures, or new projects within the company. Many
corporations have found it helpful to develop the awareness
• Recovery phase (people, assets, IT, etc.)
and build the culture by considering BC issues—management
• Virtual recovery and planning—in annual performance reviews.
• Physical recovery Testing and Retesting—The BC Plan
• Regional recovery
The plan should be exercised, verified and updated at least
• National recovery twice a year. It should also consider time of day, special
circumstances, community events, and varying levels of impact. contemplate disk recovery, data recovery and hard drive
The revelations from these exercises should be included and recovery.
considered in future BC updates.
Raid Data Recovery Plans—The Key to Simplicity
Effective Disaster Control—Necessary Dynamic in
Business continuity and Data Recovery. plans do not have
Today's Corporations
to be as complicated as we try to make them. In fact, it shouldn't
Disaster management is the newest hurdle top managers be complicated at all. If you have a business continuity and
face in running successful companies today. Managing a disaster disaster recovery plan now, and it is too complicated to
is so vital that entire business industries have been created understand, imagine how difficult it will be to actually use in
around critical planning. Instilling leadership qualities and a the event of an emergency. Toss it and start over. The first rule
disaster management plan is part of the human capital is that the plan must be easily understood.
management dynamic of today's corporation.
Software is Available—A Simple Template is a Good
DISASTER RECOVERY—RESUMING NORMAL Place to Start
OPERATIONS Many options are on the market today to guide companies
Planning Reduces Risks—Lessons Impact through the process of developing their disaster recovery plan.
The BCP Generator is one of them. It is an interactive WORD
Every business in vulnerable. None are immune to the based application that easily guides the planning team through
many and serious incidents which can prevent the normal the process of developing the disaster plan for recovery. It
course of business. The potential causes are many... fire, flood, provides comprehensive templates and guidelines that recover
computer malfunctions, accidents, terrorism, the list is endless. all functions required in the recovery process.
Disaster recovery (DR.) is designed to help reduce the impact
to the company should the worst occur.
Pre-disaster planning makes recovering from the
unthinkable possible. If the company fails to plan for possible
disasters, they plan to fail. It is simple. Having a disaster
recovery plan (DRP) is a fundamental responsibility of every
company. Developing the plan need not be overly time
consuming and complicated. However, it is the most important
thing in the company armoury should a disastrous event take
place.
It is what everyone will turn to the minute disaster strikes.
No company wants to ever have to be in a position to test the
disaster plan; however, having a good plan in place can be the
difference between the loss of the company and it's recovery.
It is vital that a recovery plan is understandable, and workable
and well-thought out enough to guide everyone through the
crisis. Anything less is worthless. The disaster plan should
180 Disaster Management First Aid and Patient Care 181
in first aid and many other medical techniques have been

fuelled in large by wars: the American Civil War prompted
Clara Barton to organize the American Red Cross. Today, there
are several groups that promote first aid, such as the military
and the Scouting movement. New techniques and equipment
7 have helped make today's first aid simple and effective.
Aims
FIRST AID AND PATIENT CARE The 3 main aims of first aid, commonly referred to as the
"3 Ps" are:
Preserve life
First Aid is the provision of limited care for an illness or
injury, which is provided, usually by a lay person, to a sick or Prevent further injury
injured patient until definitive medical treatment can be Promote recovery
accessed, or until the illness or injury is dealt with (as not all
illnesses or injuries will require a higher level of treatment). In addition, some trainers may also advocate a 4th 'P'—
Protect yourself, although this is not technically an 'aim' of
It generally consists of series of simple, sometimes life providing first aid, and some people would consider that it is
saving, medical techniques, that an individual, either with or adequately covered by 'Prevent further injury' as this is to the
without formal medical training, can be trained to perform casualty, yourself or others.
with minimal equipment. First aid can also be performed on
animals other than humans, although this discussion refers Training
specifically to human first aid. Much of first aid is common sense, and people are almost
History certain to learn some elements as they go through their life
(such as knowing to apply an adhesive bandage to a small cut
The Knights Hospitaller were probably the first to specialize on a finger).
in battlefield care for the wounded.
However, effective life-saving first aid requires hands-on
Similarly, knights founded the Order of St. John in the training by experts, especially where it relates to potentially
11th century to train other knights specifically how to treat fatal illnesses and injuries, such as those that require
common battlefield injuries. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), as the procedures may
St. John Ambulance was formed in 1877 to teach first aid be invasive, and carry a risk of further injury to the patient—
(a term devised by the order) in large railway centres and which the '3 aims' of first aid above, clearly try to avoid.
mining districts. The order and its training began to spread As with any training, it is more useful if it occurs before
throughout the British Empire and Europe. an actual emergency, although in many countries, emergency
As well, in 1859 Henry Dunant helped organize villagers ambulance dispatchers will give basic first aid instructions
in Switzerland to help victims of the Battle of Solferino. Four over the phone while the ambulance is on its way.
years later, four nations met in Geneva and formed the To be adequately trained, a person must attend a course
organization which has grown into the Red Cross. Developments (hopefully leading to a qualification recognised in their country),
but then, due to regular changes in procedures and protocols, In order to preserve life, all persons require to have an open
based on updated clinical knowledge, must attend regular airway—a clear passage where air can move in through the
refresher courses or re-certification in order to ensure they are mouth or nose through the pharynx and down in to the lungs,
doing the best for their patient (and in some countries, to without obstruction. Conscious people will maintain their own
minimise the chance of being held liable for further injury or airway automatically, but those who are unconscious (with a
deterioration). GCS of less than 8) may be unable to maintain a patent airway,
as the part of the brain which autonomously controls in normal
Training in first aid is often available through community
situations this may not be functioning.
organizations such as the Red Cross and St. John Ambulance,
or through commercial providers, who will train people for a If an unconscious patient is lying on his or her back, the
fee. This commercial training is most common for training of tongue may fall backward, obstructing the oropharynx
employees to perform first aid in their workplace. Many (sometimes incorrectly called "swallowing" the tongue). This
community organisations, such as the ones above, also provide can be easily rectified by a first aider tipping the head backwards,
a commercial service, which complements their community which mechanically lifts the tongue clear.
programmes.
If the patient was breathing, a first aider would normally
Key First Aid Skills then place them in the recovery position, with the patient leant
over on their side, which also has the effect of clearing the
There are certain skills which can be regarded as core,
tongue from the pharynx. It also avoids a common cause of
regardless of where or how first aid is taught. These should
death in unconscious patients, which is choking on regurgitated
always be treated in the order of priority, usually given by the
stomach contents.
"3 Bs":
The airway can also become blocked through a foreign
• Breathing
object becoming lodged in the pharynx or larynx, commonly
• Bleeding called choking. The first aider will be taught to deal with this
• Bones through a combination of 'back slaps' and 'abdominal thrusts'.
This means that any first aider should first seek to treat Once the airway has been opened, the first aider would
any problems with Breathing, before attempting to deal with assess to see if the patient is breathing. If there is no breathing,
a bleed or broken bone (which is not to say that they should or the patient is not breathing normally, such as agonal
not be considered at the time—such as in the case of a spinal breathing, the first aider would undertake what is probably the
injury, where a variation on the technique can be used to open most recognised first aid procedure—Cardiopulmonary
the airway). resuscitation or CPR, which involves breathing for the patient,
and manually massaging the heart to promote blood flow around
Preserving Life the body.
As the key skill to first aid is preserving life, the single most Promoting Recovery
important training a first aider can receive is in the primary
diagnosis and care of an unconscious or unresponsive patient. The first aider is also likely to be trained in dealing with
The most common mnemonic used to remember the procedure injuries such as cuts, grazes or broken bones. They may be able
for this is ABC, which stands for Airway, Breathing and to deal with the situation in its entirety (a small adhesive
Circulation. bandage on a paper cut), or may be required to maintain the
condition of something like a broken bone, until the next stage external defibrillators and documentation. It is suitable
of definitive care (usually an ambulance) arrives. for workplace First Aiders and those who manage First
Aid facilities.
First Aid Symbols
Other courses outside these levels are commonly taught,
Although commonly associated with first aid, the symbol
including CPR-only courses, Advanced Resuscitation, Remote
of a red cross is an official protective symbol of the Red Cross.
Area or Wilderness First Aid, Administering Medications (such
According to the Geneva Conventions and other international
as salbutamol or the Epi-Pen) and specialised courses for
law, the use of this and similar symbols is reserved for official
parents, school teachers, community first responders or
agencies of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent, and hazardous workplace first aiders.
as a protective emblem for medical personnel and facilities in
combat situations. Use by any other person or organization is Ireland
illegal, and may lead to prosecution. In Ireland, the workplace qualification is the Occupational
The internationally accepted symbol for first aid is the First Aid Certificate, which is validated by the National
white cross on a green background shown at the start of the Ambulance Training School. They hold the register of all
page. Some organizations may make use the Star of Life, instructors/examiners. The certificate is awarded after a three
although this is usually reserved for use by Ambulance services, day course and is valid for three years from date of issue.
or symbols such as the Maltese Cross (used most notably by Organisations offering the certificate include; the Irish Red
St. John Ambulance), or other symbols. Cross, Order of Malta and the St. John Ambulance.
United Kingdom
FIRST AID TRAINING AROUND THE WORLD
In the United Kingdom, there are two main types of first
Australia aid courses offered.
In Australia, Nationally recognised First Aid certificates An "Emergency Aid for Appointed Persons" course typically
may only be issued by Registered training organisations who lasts one day, and covers the basics, focusing on critical
are accredited on the National Training Information System interventions for conditions such as cardiac arrest and severe
(NTIS). Most First Aid certificates are issued at one of 3 levels: bleeding, and is usually not formally assessed. A "First Aid at
Level 1 (or "Basic First Aid", or "Basic Life Support"): is a Work" course is a four-day course (two days for a re-qualification)
1-day course covering primarily life-threatening emergencies: that covers the full spectrum of first aid, and is formally assessed.
CPR, bleeding, chocking and other life-threatening medical Certificates for the "First Aid at Work" course are issued by
emergencies. the training organisation and are valid for a period of three
years from the date the delegate passes the course.
• Level 2 ("Senior First Aid") is a 2 day course that covers
all the aspects of training in Level 1, as well as specialised Other courses offered by training organisations such as St.
training for treatment of burns, bites, stings, electric John Ambulance, St. Andrew's Ambulance Association or the
shock and poisons. Level 2 reaccreditation is a 1 day British Red Cross include Baby & Child Courses, manual
course which must be taken every 3 years. handling, people moving, and courses geared towards more
advanced life support, such as defibrillation and administration
• Level 3 ("Occupational First Aid") is a 4-day course
of medical gases such as oxygen & entonox).
covering advanced first aid, use of oxygen and Automated
Specific First Aid Disciplines as seen either in the 'traditional' battlefield setting or
in an area subject to damage by large scale weaponry,
There are several types of first aid (and first aider) which
such as a bomb blast or other terrorist activity.
require specific additional training. These are usually
undertaken to fulfil the demands of the work or activity • Bone fracture, a break in a bone initially treated by
undertaken. stabilizing the fracture with a splint.
• Aquatic/Marine first aid—Usually practised by • Burns, which can result in damage to tissues and loss
professionals such as lifeguards or in diver rescue, and of body fluids through the burn site.
covers the specific problems which may be faced after • Choking, blockage of the airway which can quickly result
water-based rescue. in death due to lack of oxygen if the patient's trachea
• Battlefield first aid—This takes in to account the specific is not cleared, for example by the Heimlich Manoeuver.
needs of treating wounded combatants and • Childbirth.
noncombatants during armed conflict.
• Cramps in muscles due to lactic acid build up caused
• Hyperbaric first aid—Which may be practised by SCUBA either by inadequate oxygenation of muscle or lack of
diving professionals, who need to treat conditions such water or salt.
as the bends.
• Joint dislocation.
• Oxygen first aid—Providing oxygen to casualties who
suffer from conditions resulting in hypoxia. • Diving disorders resulting from too much pressure.
• Wilderness first aid is the provision of first aid under • Near drowning or asphyxiation.
conditions where the arrival of emergency responders • Gastro-intestinal bleeding.
or the evacuation of an injured person may be delayed • Gender-specific conditions, such as dysmenorrhea and
due to constraints of terrain, weather, and available testicular torsion.
persons or equipment. It may be necessary to care for
an injured person for several hours or days. • Heart attack, or inadequate blood flow to the blood
vessels supplying the heart muscle.
Conditions that often Require First Aid
• Heat stroke, also known as sunstroke or hyperthermia,
• Altitude sickness, which can begin in susceptible people which tends to occur during heavy exercise in high
at altitudes as low as 5,000 feet, can cause potentially humidity, or with inadequate water, though it may
fatal swelling of the brain or lungs. occur spontaneously in some chronically ill persons.
• Anaphylaxis, a life-threatening condition in which the Sunstroke, especially when the victim has been
airway can become constricted and the patient may go unconscious, often causes major damage to body systems
into shock. The reaction can be caused by a systemic such as brain, kidney, liver, gastric tract.
allergic reaction to allergens such as insect bites or Unconsciousness for more than two hours usually leads
peanuts. Anaphylaxis is initially treated with injection to permanent disability. Emergency treatment involves
of epinephrine. rapid cooling of the patient.
• Battlefield First aid—This protocol refers to treating • Heat syncope, another stage in the same process as heat
shrapnel, gunshot wounds, burns, bone fractures, etc. stroke, occurs under similar conditions as heat stroke
and is not distinguished from the latter by some AMBULANCE

authorities. An ambulance is a vehicle for transporting sick or injured
• Heavy bleeding, treated by applying pressure (manually people, most commonly to, from or between places of treatment
and later with a pressure bandage) to the wound site for an illness or injury. In the modern context, the term
and elevating the limb if possible. ambulance is used to describe a vehicle used to bring medical
• Hyperglycemia, or diabetic coma. care to patients outside of the hospital and when appropriate,
to transport the patient to hospital for follow-up care and
• Hypoglycemia, or insulin shock. further testing.
• Hypothermia, or Exposure, occurs when a person's core
In some jurisdictions there is a modified form of the
body temperature falls below 33.7°C (92.6°F). First aid
ambulance used, that only carries one member of ambulance
for a mildly hypothermic patient includes rewarming,
crew to the scene to provide care, but is not used to transport
but rewarming a severely hypothermic person could
the patient. In these cases a patient who requires transportation
result in a fatal arrhythmia, an irregular heart rhythm.
to hospital will require a patient carrying ambulance to attend
• Insect and animal bites and stings. in addition to the fast responder.
• Muscle strain. The term ambulance comes from the Latin word ambulare,
• Poisoning, which can occur by injection, inhalation, meaning to walk or move about which is a reference to early
absorption, or ingestion. medical care where patients were moved by lifting or wheeling.
The word is most commonly associated with the land-based,
• Seizures, or a malfunction in the electrical activity in
emergency motor vehicles that administer emergency care to
the brain. Three types of seizures include a grand mal
those with acute illnesses or injuries, hereafter known as
(which usually features convulsions as well as temporary
emergency ambulances.
respiratory abnormalities, change in skin complexion,
etc.) and petite mal (which usually features twitching, These are usually fitted with flashing warning lights and
rapid blinking, and/or fidgeting as well as altered sirens to facilitate their movement through traffic. It is these
consciousness and temporary respiratory abnormalities). emergency ambulances that are most likely to display the Star
• Sprain, a temporary dislocation of a joint that of Life, shown on the right, which represents the six stages of
immediately reduces automatically but may result in prehospital medical care.
ligament damage. There are other types of ambulance, with the most common
• Stroke, a temporary loss of blood supply to the brain. being the patient transport ambulance. These vehicles are not
usually (although there are exceptions) equipped with life-
• Sucking chest wound, a life threatening hole in the support equipment, and are usually crewed by staff with fewer
chest which can cause the chest cavity to fill with air qualifications than the crew of emergency ambulances. Their
and prevent the lung from filling, treated by covering purpose is simply to transport patients to, from or between
with an occlusive dressing to let air out but not in. places of treatment. In most countries, these are not equipped
• Toothache, which can result in severe pain and loss of with flashing lights or sirens.
the tooth but is rarely life threatening.
Other vehicles used as ambulances include trucks, vans,
• Wounds and bleeding, including laceration, incision and station wagons, buses, helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft, boats,
abrasion, and avulsion. and even hospital ships.
Functional Types loaded of between 3.5 and 7.5 tonnes. In North America, the
Ambulances can be grouped into types depending on their large box type vehicles are referred to as "mods" (modular) and
function; that is whether or not they transport patients, and the smaller van type vehicle is often called a "high-top".
under what conditions: Car/SUV: Used either as a fly-car for rapid response or for
Emergency Ambulance: The most common type of patients who can sit, these are standard car models adapted
ambulance, which provide care to patients with an acute illness to the requirements of the service using them. Some cars are
or injury. These can be road going vans, helicopters, fixed-wing capable of taking a stretcher with a recumbent patient, but this
aircraft (known as air ambulances) or even converted vehicles often requires the removal of the front passenger seat, or the
such as golf carts. use of a particularly long car. This was often the case with early
ambulances, which were converted (or even serving) hearses,
Patient Transport Ambulance: A vehicle which has the
as these were some of the few vehicles able to accept a human
job of transporting patients to, from or between places of medical
body in a supine position).
treatment, such as hospital or dialysis centre, for non-urgent
care. These can be vans, buses or other vehicles. Motorcycle: In developed areas, these are used almost
Response Unit: Also known as a fly-car, which is a vehicle exclusively for rapid response in an emergency as they can
which is used to reach an acutely ill patient quickly, and provide travel through heavy traffic much faster than a car or van,
on scene care, but lacks the capacity to transport the patient although in the developing world, trailer or sidecar adaptations
from the scene. Response units may be backed up by an make these patient transporting units.
emergency ambulance which can transport the patient, or may Bicycle: Used for response, but usually in pedestrian only
deal with the problem on scene, with no requirement for a areas where road vehicles find access difficult.
transport ambulance. These can be a wide variety of vehicles,
from standard cars, to modified vans, motorcycles, pedal cycles, All Terrain Vehicle: Such as a 'quad bike', these are used
quad bikes or horses. These units can function as a vehicle for for response off road, especially at events. ATVs can be modified
officers or supervisors (similar to a fire chief's vehicle, but for to carry a stretcher, and are used for tasks such as mountain
ambulance services). rescue in inaccessible areas.
Charity Ambulance: A special type of patient transport Golf Cart: Used for rapid response at events. Function
ambulance is provided by a charity for the purpose of taking similar to ATVs, with less rough terrain capability, but with
sick children or adults on trips or vacations away from hospitals, less noise.
hospices or care homes where they are in long term care.
Helicopter: Usually used for emergency care, either in
Examples include the United Kingdom's 'ambulance' project.
places inaccessible by road, or in areas where speed is of the
These are usually based on a bus.
essence, as they are able to travel significantly faster than a
Vehicle Types road ambulance.
Ambulances can be based on many types of vehicle, although Fixed-wing Aircraft: These can be used for either acute
emergency and disaster conditions may lead to other vehicles emergency care in remote areas (such as in Australia, with
serving as makeshift ambulances: their 'Flying Doctors') or for patient transport over long distances
Van: A typical ambulance is of a van construction, based (usually a repatriation following an illness or injury in a foreign
on a standard chassis, usually with a maximum road weight country.)
Boat: Boats can be used to serve as ambulances, especially Jean Larrey (1766-1842), Napoleon Bonaparte's chief physician.
in island areas. Some lifeboats or lifeguard vessels may fit the Larrey was present at the battle of Spires, between the French
description of an ambulance as they are used to transport a and Prussians, and was distressed by the fact that wounded
casualty. soldiers were not picked up by the numerous ambulances (which
Ship: Ships can be used as hospital ships, mostly operated Napoleon required to be stationed two and half miles back from
the scene of battle) until after hostilities has ceased, and set
by national military services, although some ships are operated
about developing a new ambulance system. Having decided
by charities. This can meet the definition of ambulances as they
against using the Norman system of horse litters, he settled
provide transport to the sick and wounded (along with
on two or four-wheeled horse drawn wagons were used to
treatment). These are often send to disaster or war zones to
transport fallen soldiers from the (active) battlefield after they
provide care for the casualties of these events.
had received early treatment in the field. These 'flying
History ambulances' were first used by Napoleons Army of the Rhine
Early Patient Transport is 1793. Larrey subsequently developed similar services for
Napoleon's other armies, and adapted his ambulances to the
The transportation of the sick and injured has been going conditions, including developing a litter which could be carried
on since before recorded history, and there is evidence of forced by a camel for a campaign in Egypt.
transport of those with psychiatric problems or leprosy in to
ancient times. The first record of an ambulance, in terms of a Development of Civilian Services
wagon for transporting invalids, was probably a hammock based In civilian ambulances, a major advance was made (which
cart constructed around 900 A.D. by the Anglo-Saxons. in future years would come to shape policy on hospitals and
During the Crusades of the 11th Century, the Knights of ambulances), with the introduction of a transport carriage for
St. John set up hospitals to treated pilgrims wounded in their cholera patients in London during 1832. The statement on the
battles in the 'holy land', although there is no clear evidence carriage, as printed in The Times, said that "The curative
to suggest how the wounded made their way to these hospitals. process commences the instant the patient is put into the
carriage; time is saved which can be given to the care of the
In Norman times, a litter suspended between horses on two patient; the patient may be driven to the hospital so speedily
poles was used. Variations on the horse litter and horse drawn that the hospitals may be less numerous and located at greater
wagons were used from then right in to the 20th century. distances from each other". This tenets of ambulances providing
Early Battlefield Treatment instant care, allowing hospitals to spaced further apart displays
itself in modern emergency medical planning.
The first record of ambulances being used for emergency
purposes was the use by Queen Isabella of Spain, in 1487. The Advances during the American Civil War
Spanish army of the time was treated extremely well and
More advances in medical care for the military were made
attracted volunteers from across the continent, and part of this
during the United States' Civil War. Union military physicians
was the first military hospitals or 'ambulancias', although
Joseph Barnes and Jonathan Letterman built upon Larrey's
injured soldiers were not picked up for treatment until after
work and designed a prehospital care system for soldiers, which
the cessation of the battle, resulting in many dying on the field.
used new techniques and methods of transport. They ensured
A major change in usage of ambulances in battle came that every regiment possessed at least one ambulance cart,
about with the ambulance volantes designed by Dominique with a two wheel design that accommodated two or three
patients. These ambulances unfortunately proved to be too their homes to a hospital. These ambulances were designed to
lightweight for the task, and were phased out to be replaced resemble private carriages, but were equipped with rollers in
by the "Rucker" ambulance, named for Major General Rucker, their floors and large rear doors to allow for a patient, lying
which was a four wheeled design, and was a common sight on on a specially designed bed, to be easily loaded. Space was
battlefield of that war. Other vehicles were pressed in to service provided for an attendant to ride with the patient, and the
during the civil war, including a number of Steamboats, which entire patient compartment was designed to be easily cleaned
served as mobile hospitals for the troops. It was in this period and decontaminated. Anyone willing to pay the cost of horse
that the practice of transporting wounded soldiers to treatment hire could summon the ambulance by telegram or in person.
facilities by railroad was introduced.
Dedicated Services Begin
Hospital based Services Begin
In June 1887 the St. John Ambulance Brigade was
The first known hospital based ambulance service was established to provide first aid and ambulance services at public
based out of Commercial Hospital, Cincinnati, Ohio (now the events in London. It was modelled on a military-style command
Cincinnati General) by 1865. This was soon followed by other and discipline structure. The St. John Ambulance Association
services, notably the New York service provided out of Bellvue had already been teaching first aid to the public for 10 years
Hospital. prior to that. National or state based branches of St. John
Ambulance now provides ambulance and first aid services in
Edward Dalton, a former surgeon in the Union Army, was
many countries around the world.
charged with creating a hospital in lower New York, and his
experiences from war lead him to start an ambulance service In Queensland, a state in Australia, military medic Seymour
to bring the patients to the hospital faster and in more comfort, Warrian called a public meeting in Brisbane and established
which started in 1869. He claimed the service was the first of an ambulance service after witnessing an event at the Brisbane
its kind, being unaware of the work in Cincinnati four year showgrounds during Show Week in 1892. A fallen rider, suffering
earlier. These ambulances carried medical equipment, such as a broken leg was walked off the field by well meaning but
splints, a stomach pump, morphine, and brandy, reflecting misguided bystanders, worsening his injury. As a result of the
contemporary medicine. Dalton believed that speed was of the meeting, the Queensland Ambulance Transport Brigade was
essence, and horses were left harnessed, being attached to the formed on the 12th September.
ambulance by a 'drop' or 'snap' harness, meaning they were The first ambulance station in Queensland operated out of
ready to go within 30 seconds of being called. the Brisbane Newspaper Company and officers on night duty
The scene was very popular, and it's fame spread—During slept on rolls of newspaper on the floor. They had a stretcher,
the year 1870, the ambulances attended 1401 emergency calls, but no vehicle and transported patients on foot, although in
but twenty one years later, this had more than tripled to 4392. time, they gained horse drawn stretchers and eventually
By the turn of the century, interns accompanied New York City vehicles.
ambulances, treated patients on scene, and often left them at A year after the establishment of the Brisbane centre,
home. another was established in Charters Towers in north
In 1867, the city of London's Metropolitan Asylums Board, Queensland, growing to over 90 community controlled
in the United Kingdom, received six horse-drawn ambulances ambulance centres. In 1991 the independent QATB centres
for the purpose of conveying smallpox and fever patients from amalgamated to form the Queensland Ambulance Service which
is now the fourth largest ambulance service in the world.
Mass Transit Use for Emergency Medical Provision proof steel sheets. These steel shields opened outwards to provide
a small area of cover from fire (nine feet wide by 7 feet high)
In the late 19th century cities, including Bahia, Brazil and
for the ambulance staff when the vehicle was stationary.
St. Louis, Missouri, United States started using trolley cars on
their tram network which were designed to act as ambulances, The British Army was quickly behind the Canadians in
transporting the sick and injured. The trolley cars in Bahia introducing a limited number of automobile ambulances. In
included a fumigating compartment and a two bed nurses work 1905, the Royal Army Medical Corps commissioned a number
area. The design of the tram network in St. Louis was such that of Straker-Squire motor ambulance vans. They were based on
the ambulance streetcar, introduced in 1894 was able to reach a double decker bus manufactured by the same company,
all 16 infirmaries in the city. although on a shorter wheel base. A number of them were
based in Oxfordshire, serving several major encampments in
In Germany, in 1902, an civilian ambulance train was
the area.
introduced (building on the use of trains during military conflict)
for use during railway accidents. It housed a mobile operating The first mass production automobile based ambulance
room and eight stretchers. Rail-road employed surgeons lived (rather than one off models) was produced in the United States
near the railway station where the ambulance train was by the James Cunningham, Son & Company of Rochester, New
stationed, and were summoned to urgently attend in the event York, a manufacturer of carriages and hearses, in 1909. This
of an emergency. The train had priority over the tracks, with ambulance was named the Model 774 Automobile Ambulance.
all other trains obliged to give way. The ambulance featured a proprietary 32 horsepower, 4 cylinder
internal combustion engine. The chassis rode on pneumatic
Introduction of Motor Units
tires, while the body featured electric lights, a suspended cot
In the late 19th century, the automobile was being developed, with two attendant seats, and a side mounted gong.
and started to be introduced alongside horse-drawn models,
World War I
early 20th century ambulances were powered by steam, gasoline,
and electricity, reflecting the competing automotive technologies During World War I, the Red Cross brought in the first
then in existence. However, the first motor powered ambulance widespread battlefield motor ambulances to replace horse drawn
was brought in to service in the last year of the 19th century, vehicles, which was such a success, the horse drawn variants
with the Michael Reese Hospital, Chicago, taking delivery of were quickly phased out. In civilian emergency care, dedicated
the first automobile ambulance, donated by 500 prominent ambulance services were frequently managed or dispatched by
local businessmen, in February 1899. This was followed in individual hospitals, though in some areas, telegraph and
1900, by New York city, who extolled its virtues of greater telephone services enabled police departments to handle
speed, more safety for the patient, faster stopping and a smoother dispatch duties.
ride. These first two automobile ambulances were electrically The equipment carried by the ambulance was changing fast
powered with 2 horse power motors on the rear axle. at this time. Traction splints were introduced during World
The first gasoline powered ambulance was the Palliser War I, and were found to have a positive effect on the morbidity
Ambulance, introduced in 1905, and named for Major Palliser and mortality of patients with leg fractures. Two-way radios
of the Canadian Militia. This three wheeled vehicle (one at the became available shortly after World War I, enabling for more
front, two at the rear) was designed for use on the battlefield, efficient radio dispatch of ambulances. Shortly before World
under enemy fire. It was a heavy tractor unit, cased in bullet War II, then, a modern ambulance carried advanced medical
equipment, was staffed by a physician, and was dispatched by Move to Life Saving, not just Transporting
radio. It was frequently found that ambulances were hearses—
This situation persisted into the 1960s, when a chain events
the only available vehicle that could carry a recumbent patient—
occurred that led to a redesign of the services provided by
and were thus frequently run by funeral homes, these vehicles
ambulance crews, and thus of the ambulance itself: CPR was
which could serve for either purpose were known as combination
developed and accepted as the standard of care for out-of-
cars.
hospital cardiac arrest; defibrillation, based in part on an
Air Ambulances increased understanding of heart arrhythmias, was introduced,
During World War I, aviation moved from experimentation as were new pharmaceuticals to be used in cardiac arrest
to a powerful military force, and following the war, with a situations; in Ireland, a mobile coronary care ambulance
surplus of aircraft in circulation, new uses were found for the successfully resuscitated patients using these technologies; and
aircraft. This included the conversion of planes throughout the well-developed studies demonstrated the need for overhauling
world in to ambulance planes. ambulance services.
Although in 1917, Lieutenant Clifford Peel, a medical These studies placed pressure on governments to improve
student, outlined a system of fixed-wing aircraft and ground emergency care in general, including the care provided by
facilities designed to provide medical services to the Australian ambulance services.
Outback, the first custom built air ambulances did not come
Part of the result was the creation of standards in ambulance
in to existence until the late 1920s. These ideas became reality
construction concerning the internal height of the patient care
under the guidance of the Very Reverend John Flynn in 1928
area (to allow for an attendant to continue to care for the
when the Australian Inland Mission service established the
patient during transport), in the equipment (and thus weight)
Aerial Medical Service, a one year experimental programme.
Physicians in this programme had several responsibilities, one that an ambulance had to carry. Few, or perhaps none of the
of which was to fly out to a patient, treat the patient, and fly then-available ambulances could meet these standards.
the patient to a hospital if the physician could not deliver Most ambulances at the time, were built on a car chassis
adequate care on scene. Eventually, this experiment became (often based on hearses), which could not accept the weight and
the Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia. other demands of the new standards; van (and later, light
World War II truck) chassis would have to be used instead.
In much of the world, ambulance quality fell sharply during Ambulance design therefore underwent major changes in
the second world war, as physicians, needed by the armed the 1970s. The early van-based ambulances looked very similar
services, were pulled off of ambulances. In England, during the to their civilian counterparts, having been given a limited
Battle of Britain, the need for ambulances was so great that amount of emergency vehicle equipment such as audible and
vans were commandeered and pressed into service, often visual warnings, and the internal fittings for carrying medical
carrying several victims at once. Following the war, physicians equipment, most notably a stretcher.
would continue to ride ambulances in some countries, but not As time went on, ambulances matured in parallel to the
in others. Other vehicles, including civilian and police cars newly developed EMS, gaining the capacity to carry additional
were pressed in to service to transport patients due to a lack
equipment (both portable and permanently installed) as EMTs
of a dedicated resource.
and paramedics added this equipment to their arsenal.
Modern Vehicles Ambulances often have two manufacturers. The first is

Modern ambulances are now often custom built (see Design frequently a manufacturer of light trucks (or previously, cars)
and construction below), and as well as the specialist medical such as Mercedes-Benz or Ford. The second manufacturer
equipment now built in to the ambulances, industry wide purchases the vehicle (which is sometimes purchased
improvements in vehicle design have had an impact, including incomplete, having no body or interior behind the driver's seat)
improvements in audible and visual warning equipment to help and turns it into an ambulance by adding bodywork, emergency
protect crews in vulnerable situations (such as at a Road Traffic vehicle equipment, and interior fittings. This is done by one of
Collision), and general improvements such as ABS, which are two methods—either coach-building, where the modifications
particularly valuable for ambulances, due to the speeds reached are started from scratch and built on to the vehicle, or using
and the weight carried. a modular system, where a pre-built 'box' is put on to the empty
chassis of the ambulance, and then finished off.
There have also been improvements to help safeguard the
health and welfare of ambulance crews, such as the addition Modern ambulances are typically powered by internal
of patient tail lifts, ramps and winches, to cut down on the combustion engines, which can be powered by any conventional
amount of manual handling a crew must perform. Ambulance fuel, including diesel, gasoline or liquefied petroleum gas,
design is still evolving, largely due to the growing skills and depending on the preference of the operator and the availability
role of Paramedics and other ambulance crew, which require of different options. Colder regions often use gasoline powered
specialist equipment. Other factors driving improvement include engines, as diesels can be difficult to start when they are cold.
the need to help protect ambulance crews from common Warmer regions may favour diesel engines, as they are thought
accidents, such as traffic collisions and rarer, but potentially to be more efficient and more durable. Diesel power is sometimes
catastrophic incidents such as terrorist activities. chosen due to safety concerns, after a series of fires involving
gasoline powered ambulances during the 1980s. These fires
Design and Construction were ultimately attributed in part to gasoline's higher volatility
Successful ambulance design must take in to account the in comparison to diesel fuel. The type of engine may be
local conditions and available infrastructure. Maintained roads determined by the manufacturer: Ford will only sell vehicles
are necessary for the familiar road going ambulances to arrive for ambulance conversion if they are diesel powered.
on scene and then transport the patient to a hospital, though
Equipment
in rugged areas four-wheel drive or all-terrain vehicles can
make up for a paucity of good roads. Appropriate fuel must be In addition to the equipment directly used for the treatment
readily available and service facilities are necessary to maintain of patients, ambulances may be fitted with a range of additional
the vehicle. equipment which is used in order to facilitate patient care. This
Methods of summoning (e.g. telephone) and dispatching could include:
ambulances usually rely on electronic equipment, which itself Two Way Radio: One of the most important pieces of
often relies on an intact power grid. Similarly, modern equipment in modern emergency medical services as it allows
ambulances are equipped with two-way radios or cellular for the issuing of jobs to the ambulance, and can allow the crew
telephones to enable them to contact hospitals, either to notify to pass information back to control or to the hospital (for
the appropriate hospital of the ambulance's pending arrival, or, example a priority ASHICE message to alert the hospital of the
in cases where physicians do not form part of the ambulance's impending arrival of a critical patient.) More recently many
crew, to confer with a physician for medical oversight. services world wide have moved from traditional UHF/VHF
sets, which can be monitored externally, to more secure systems, Animal-powered ambulances can particularly useful in regions
such as those working on a GSM system, such as TETRA. that are subject to flooding. Three-wheeled motorcycles are
Mobile Data Terminal: Many ambulances are fitted with also used, though they are subject to some of the same limitations
as more traditional over-the-road ambulances. The level of care
Mobile Data Terminals (or MDTs), which are connected
provided by these ambulances varies between merely providing
wirelessly to a central computer, usually at the control centre.
transport to a medical clinic to providing on-scene and continuing
These terminals can function instead of or alongside the two
care during transport.
way radio and can be used to pass details of jobs to the crew,
and can log the time the crew was mobile to a patient, arrived, The design of intermediate technology ambulances must
and left scene, or fulfil any other computer based function. take into account not only the operation and maintenance of
Evidence Gathering CCTV: Many ambulances are now the ambulance, but its construction as well. The robustness of
the design becomes more important, as does the nature of the
being fitted with video cameras used to record activity either
skills required to properly operate the vehicle. Cost-effectiveness
inside or outside the vehicle. They may also be fitted with
can be a high priority.
sound recording facilities. This can be used as a form of protection
from violence against ambulance crews, or in some cases Appearance and Markings
(dependent on local laws) to prove or disprove cases where a
Emergency ambulances are highly likely to be involved in
member of crew stands accused of malpractice.
hazardous situations, including incidents such as a road traffic
Tail Lift or Ramp: Ambulances can be fitted with a tail collision, as these emergencies create people who are likely to
lift or ramp in order to facilitate loading a patient without be in need of treatment.
having to undertake any lifting. This is especially important
They are required to gain access to patients as quickly as
where the patient might be obese. There may also be equipment
possible, and in many countries, are given dispensation from
linked to this such as winches which are designed to pull heavy
obeying certain traffic laws (for instance, they may be able to
patients in to the vehicle.
treat a red traffic light or stop sign as a yield ('give way') sign,
Trauma Lighting: In addition to normal working lighting, or be permitted to break the speed limit.
ambulances can be fitted with special lighting (often blue or
For these reasons, emergency ambulances are often fitted
red) which is used when the patient becomes photosensitive.
with visual and/or audible warnings to alert road users.
Air Conditioning: Ambulances are often fitted with a
Visual warnings on an ambulance can be of two types—
separate air conditioning system to serve the working area
either passive or active.
from that which serves the cab. This helps to maintain an
appropriate temperature for any patients being treated, but Passive Visual Warnings
may also feature additional features such as filtering against
The passive visual warnings are usually part of the design
airborne pathogens.
of the vehicle, and involve the use of high contrast patterns.
Intermediate Technology Older ambulances (and those in developing countries) are more
likely to have their pattern painted on, whereas modern
In parts of the world which lack a high level of infrastructure,
ambulances generally carry retro-reflective designs which reflect
ambulances are designed to meet local conditions, being built
light from car headlights or torches. Popular patterns include
using intermediate technology. Ambulances can also be trailers,
'checker board' (alternate coloured squares, sometimes called
which are pulled by bicycles, motorcycles, tractors, or animals.
'Battenburg', named after a type of cake), chevrons can render their given level of care represented on the six
(arrowheads—often pointed towards the front of the vehicle if pointed star.
on the side, or pointing vertically upwards on the rear) or
Ambulance services that have historical origins in the Order
stripes along the side (these were the first type or retro-reflective
of St. John often use the Maltese cross to identify ambulances.
device introduced, as the original reflective material, invented
This is especially important in countries such as Australia,
by 3M, only came in tape form).
where St. John Ambulance operate one state and one territory
In addition to retro-reflective markings, some services now ambulance service, and all of Australia's other ambulance
have the vehicles painted in a bright (sometimes fluorescent services use variations on a red Maltese cross.
yellow or orange colour for maximum visual impact.
Fire service operated ambulances may display the Cross of
Another passive marking form is the word ambulance spelled St. Florian (often, incorrectly, called a Maltese cross) as this
out in reverse on the front of the vehicle. This enables drivers cross is frequently used as a fire department logo (St. Florian
of other vehicles to more easily identify an approaching being the patron saint of fire-fighters).
ambulance in their rear view mirrors. Ambulances may display
Active Visual Warnings
the name of their owner or operator, and a telephone number
which may be used to summon the ambulance. The active visual warnings are usually in the form of flashing
coloured lights (sometimes known as 'beacons' or 'lightbars').
Ambulances may also carry an emblem (either as part of
These flash in order to attract the attention of other road users
the passive warning markings or not), such as a Red Cross, Red
as the ambulance approaches, or to provide warning to motorists
Crescent or Red Diamond (collective known as the Protective
approaching a stopped ambulance in a dangerous position on
Symbols). These are symbols laid down by the Geneva
the road. Common colours for ambulance warning beacons are
Convention, and all countries signatory to it agree to restrict
blue and red, and this varies by country (and sometimes by
their use to either (1) Military Ambulances or (2) the national
operator).
Red Cross or Red Crescent society. Use by any other person,
organization or agency is in breach of international law. There are several different technologies in use to achieve
the flashing effect. The original method of producing flashing
The protective symbols are designed to indicate to all people
was to place a spinning mirror which moves around a light
(especially combatants in the case of war) that the vehicle is
bulb, called a 'rotating beacon'. More modern methods include
neutral and is not to be fired upon (more detail below in
the use of strobe lights, which are usually brighter, and can
"military ambulances"), hence giving protection to the medics
be programmed to produce specific patterns (such as a left-
and their casualties, although this has not always been adhered
right pattern when parked on the left hand side of the road,
to. In Israel, Magen David Adom, the Red Cross member
indicating to other road users that they should move out away
organization use a Red Star of David, but this does not have
from the vehicle). There is currently the more widespread use
recognition beyond Israeli borders.
of LED flashing lights as they are low profile and low energy.
The Star of Life, shown on the ambulance pictured below, More information on Emergency vehicle equipment.
is widely used, and was originally designed and governed by
In order to increase safety, it is best practice to have 360°
the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, after
coverage with the active warnings, improving the chance of the
legal action by the Red Cross over alleged misuse of their
vehicle being seen from all sides. In some countries, such as
symbol (by using a bright orange cross, felt to be too similar
the United States, this may be obligatory.
to the Red Cross device). It indicates that the vehicle's operators
Audible Warnings Government Ambulance Service: Operating separately

In addition to visual warnings, ambulances can be fitted from (although alongside) the fire and police service of the area,
with audible warnings, sometimes known as sirens, which can these ambulances are funded by local or national government.
alert people and vehicles to the presence of an ambulance In some countries, these only tend to be found in big cities,
before they can be seen. The first audible warnings were whereas in countries such as Great Britain almost all emergency
mechanical bells, mounted to either the front or roof of the ambulances are part of the NHS.
ambulance. Fire or Police Linked Service: In countries such as the
Most modern ambulances are now fitted with electronic USA and France ambulances can be operated by the local fire
sirens, which can produce a range of different noises. Ambulance or police service. This is particularly common in rural areas,
services may specifically train their drivers to use different where maintaining a separate service is not necessarily cost
siren tones in different situations. For instance, on a clear road, effective. This can lead to an illness or injury being attended
approaching a junction, the 'wail' setting may be used, which by a vehicle other than an ambulance, such as Fire truck.
gives a long up and down variation, with a unbroken tone, Voluntary Ambulance Service: Charities or non-profit
whereas, in heavy slow traffic, a 'yelp' setting may be preferred, companies operate ambulances, both the an emergency and
which is like a wail, but speeded up. The speakers for modern patient transport function. This may be along similar lines to
sirens can be integral to the lightbar, or hidden in the grill. volunteer Fire companies and either community or privately
Ambulances cam additionally be fitted with airhorn audible owned. They may be linked to a voluntary fire service, with
warnings. volunteers providing both services. There are charities who
A more recent development is the use of the RDS system focus on providing ambulances for the community, or for cover
of car radios, whereby the ambulance can be fitted with a at private events (sports etc.). The Red Cross provides this
short range FM transmitter, set to RDS code 31, which interrupts service across the world on a volunteer basis. (and in others
the radio of all cars within range, in the manner of a traffic as a Private Ambulance Service), as do other smaller
broadcast, but in such a way that the user of the receiving radio organisations such as St. John Ambulance and the Order of
is unable to opt out of the message (as with traffic broadcasts). Malta Ambulance Corps. These volunteer ambulances may be
seen providing support to the full time ambulance crews during
This feature is built in to every RDS radio for use in
national emergency broadcast systems, but short range units times of emergency. In some cases the volunteer charity may
on emergency vehicles can prove an effective means of alerting employ paid members of staff to operate a full time ambulance
traffic to their presence. It is, however, unlikely that this system service, such in Australia, where St. John Ambulance provide
could replace traditional audible warnings, as it is, by design, the statutory service in the Northern Territory and Western
unable to alert pedestrians, or those not using a compatible Australia with a mixture of both professional (paid) and
radio. volunteer ambulance crews for emergency vehicles.
Private Ambulance Service: Normal commercial
Service Providers
companies with paid employees, but often on contract to the
Some countries closely regulate the industry (and may local or national government. Private companies may provide
require anyone working on an ambulance to be qualified to a only the patient transport elements of ambulance care (i.e. non
set level), whereas others allow quite wide differences between urgent), but in some places, they are contracted to provide
types of operator. emergency care, or to form a 'second tier' response, where they
only respond to emergencies when all of the full-time emergency Privately Funded Service: The ambulance is paid for by
ambulance crews are busy. This may mean that a government the patient themselves, or through their insurance company.
or other service provide the 'emergency' cover, whilst a private This may be at the point of care (i.e. payment or guarantee
firm may be charged with 'minor injuries' such as cuts, bruises must be made before treatment or transport), although this
or even helping the mobility impaired if they have for example may be an issue with critically injured patients, unable to
fallen and just need help to get up again, but do not need provide such details, or via a system of billing later on.
treatment. This system has the benefit of keeping emergency Combined System: Ambulances may be free of charge to
crews available all the time for genuine emergencies.
those who cannot pay (such as those who receive government
Combined Emergency Service: These are full service welfare payments), but chargeable to those who can afford it,
emergency service agencies, which may be found in places such or who are insured. It can be the case that a free government
as airports or large colleges and universities. Their key feature provided system may be charged for if the patient is not found
is that all personnel are trained not only in ambulance (EMT) to be in genuine need, or they already have insurance which
care, but as a firefighter and a peace officer (police function). covers them.
They may be found in smaller towns and cities, where size or Charity Funded Service: Ambulances may be provided
budget does not warrant separate services. This multi-
free of charge to patients by a charity, although donations may
functionality allows to make the most of limited resource or
be sought for services received.
budget, but having a single team respond to any emergency.
Hospital Funded Service: Hospitals may provide the
Hospital Based Service: Hospitals may provide their own
ambulances free of charge, on the condition that patient's use
ambulance service as a service to the community, or where
the hospital's services (which they may have to pay for). In
ambulance care is unreliable or chargeable. Their use would
China, where this is the case, there have been reported incidents
be dependent on using the services of the providing hospital.
where a hospital which was not permitted to run an ambulance
Charity Ambulance: This special type of ambulance is service illegally did so, in an effort to increase its business.
provided by a charity for the purpose of taking sick children
Crewing
or adults on trips or vacations away from hospitals, hospices
or care homes where they are in long term care. Examples There are differing levels of qualification that the ambulance
include the UK's 'ambulance' project. crew may hold, from holding no formal qualification to having
a fully qualified doctor on board. Most ambulance services
COSTS require at least two crew members to be on every ambulance
The cost of an ambulance may be paid for from several (one to drive, and one to attend the patient), although response
sources, and this will depend on the type of service being cars may have a sole crew member, possibly backed up by
provided, by whom, and possibly who to. another double-crewed ambulance. It may be the case that only
the attendant need be qualified, and the driver might have no
Government Funded Service: The full cost of the medical training.
ambulance is borne by the local or national government, with
no cost a point of care. One example of this is in the United Common ambulance crew qualifications are:
Kingdom, where ambulances are provided as of right, to anyone First Responder: A person who arrives first at the scene
who requests one, with costs bourne centrally from taxation as of an incident, and whose job is to provide early critical care
part of the National Health Service. such as CPR or using an AED. First responders may be
dispatched by the ambulance service, may be passers-by, or Registered Nurse (RN): Nurses can be involved in
may be dispatched to the scene from other agencies, such as ambulance work, and as with doctors, this is mostly as air-
the police or fire departments. medical rescuers or critical care transport providers, often in
Ambulance Driver: Some services employ staff with no conjunction with a technician or paramedic. They may bring
medical qualification (or just a first aid certificate) whose job extra skills to the care of the patient, especially those who may
is to simply drive the patients from place to place. be critically ill or injured in locations that do not enjoy close
proximity to a high level of definitive care such as trauma,
Ambulance Care Assistant: Have varying levels of cardiac, or stroke centers.
training across the world, but these staff are usually only
required to perform patient transport duties (which can include Doctor: Doctors are present on ambulances—most notably
stretcher or wheelchair cases), rather than acute care. air ambulances- will employ physicians to attend on the
Dependent on provider, they may be trained in first aid or ambulances, bringing a full range of additional skills such as
extended stills such as use of an AED, oxygen therapy and use of prescription medicines.
other live saving or palliative skills. They may provide Military Use
emergency cover when other units are not available, or when
accompanied by a fully qualified technician or paramedic. Military ambulances include both ambulances based on
civilian designs and armoured but unarmed ambulances based
Emergency Medical Technician: Also known as
upon APCs such as the FV104 Samaritan. Civilian based designs
Ambulance Technician. Technicians are usually able to
may be painted in olive, white or other colours, depending on
perform a wide range of emergency care skills, such as
the operational requirements—the British Royal Army Medical
defibrillation, spinal care, and oxygen therapy. Some countries
Corps has a fleet of white ambulances, based on production
split this term in to levels (such as in the US, where there is
trucks. Military helicopters often function as air ambulances,
EMT-I and EMT-II).
since they are extremely useful for MEDEVAC.
Paramedic: This is a high level of medical training and
Due to the inherently hazardous situation of a battle ground,
usually involves key skills not permissible for technicians,
Military ambulances are often armoured, or based upon
such as cannulation (and with it the ability to administer
armoured fighting vehicles (AFV). Since laws of war demand
a range of drugs such as morphine), intubation and other
ambulances marked with one of the Emblems of the Red Cross
skills such as performing a cricothyrotomy. Dependent on
not to mount weapons, an ambulance AFV is disarmed. It is
jurisdiction, Paramedic can be a protected title, and use of it
a generally accepted practice in most countries to classify the
without the relevant qualification may result in criminal
prosecution. personnel attached to military vehicles marked as ambulances
as noncombatants; however, this application does not always
Emergency Care Practitioner: This position, sometimes exempt medical personnel from enemy fire -accidental or
called 'Super Paramedic' in the media, is designed to bridge the deliberate.
link between ambulance care and the care of a general
practitioner. ECPs are already qualified paramedics who have As a result, medics and other medical personnel attached
undergone further training, and are trained to prescribe to military ambulances are usually put through basic military
medicines (from a limited list) for longer term care, such as training, on the assumption that they will have to fire weaponry
antibiotics, as well as being trained in a range of additional in a combat zone when not attending to injured personnel. The
diagnostic techniques. laws of war allow non-combatant military personnel to carry
212 Disaster Management Rescue Methods in Disasters 213
individual weapons for protecting themselves and casualties,

but not all militaries exercise this right.
Recently, Israel has modified a number of its Merkava
main battle tanks with ambulance features in order to allow
rescue operations to take place under heavy fire in urban
warfare. The modifications were made following a failed rescue 8
attempt in which Palestinian gunmen killed two soldiers who
aided a Palestinian woman in Rafah. RESCUE METHODS IN DISASTERS
Since M-113 armoured personnel carriers and regular up-
armoured ambulances are not sufficiently protected against
anti-tank weapons and improvised explosive devices, it was Artificial respiration is the act of providing air for a person
decided to use the heavily armoured Merkava tank. Its rear who is not breathing or is not making sufficient respiratory
door enables the evacuation of critically wounded soldiers. Israel effort on their own. This is achieved through manual insufflation
did not remove the Merkava's weaponry, claiming that weapons of the lungs either by the rescuer blowing in to the patient's
were more effective protection than emblems since Palestinian lungs, or by using a mechanical device to do so. This method
militants would fire at ambulances whether emblazoned or not. of insufflation has been proved more effective than methods
Some navies operate ocean going hospital ships to lend which involve mechanical manipulation of the patients chest
medical assistance in high casualty situations like wars or or arms, such as the Silvester method.
natural disasters. These hospital ships fulfil the criteria of an It is also known as Expired Air Resuscitation (EAR), Expired
ambulance (transporting the sick or injured), although the Air Ventilation (EAV), mouth-to-mouth resuscitation or
capabilities of a hospital ship are more on par with a Mobile colloquially the kiss of life. Artificial respiration is a part of
Army Surgical Hospital. In line with the laws of war, these most protocols for performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation
ships can display prominent a Red Cross or Red Crescent to (CPR) making it an essential skill for first aid. In some situations,
infer protection under the appropriate Geneva convention, artificial respiration is also performed separately, for instance
however, this designation has not always protected hospital in near-drowning and opiate overdoses.
ships from enemy fire.
The performance of artificial respiration in its own is now
limited in most protocols to health professionals, whereas lay
first aiders are advised to undertake full CPR in any case
where the patient is not breathing sufficiently.
INSUFFLATIONS
Insufflation, also known as 'rescue breaths' or 'ventilations',
is the act of mechanically forcing air into a patient's respiratory
system. This can be achieved via a number of methods, which
will depend on the situation and equipment available. All
methods require good airway management to perform, which
ensures that the method is effective. These methods include:
Mouth to Mouth: This involves the rescuer making a seal is available. Many feature 18mm inlets to support supplemental
between their mouth and the patient's mouth and 'blowing', in oxygen, which increases the oxygen being delivered from the
order to pass air in to the patient's body. approximate 17% available in the air to around 40-50%.
Mouth to Nose: In some instances, the rescuer may need Tracheal intubation is often used for short term mechanical
or wish to form a seal with the patient's nose. Typical reasons ventilation. A tube is inserted through the nose (nasotracheal
for this include maxillofacial injuries, performing the procedure intubation) or mouth (orotracheal intubation) and advanced
in water or the remains of vomit in the mouth. into the trachea. In most cases tubes with inflatable cuffs are
used for protection against leakage and aspiration. Intubation
Mouth to Mouth and Nose: Used on infants (usually up
with a cuffed tube is thought to provide the best protection
to around 1 year old), as this forms the most effective seal.
against aspiration. Tracheal tubes inevitably cause pain and
Mouth to Mask: Most organisations recommend the use coughing. Therefore, unless a patient is unconscious or
of some sort of barrier between rescuer and patient to reduce anesthetized for other reasons, sedative drugs are usually given
cross infection risk. One popular type is the 'pocket mask'. This to provide tolerance of the tube. Other disadvantages of tracheal
may be able to provide higher tidal volumes than a Bag Valve intubation include damage to the mucosal lining of the
Mask. nasopharynx or oropharynx and subglottic stenosis.
Bag Valve Mask (BVM): This is a simple device manually In an emergency a Cricothyrotomy can be used by health
operated by the rescuer, which involves squeezing a bag in care professionals, where an airway is inserted through a
order to expel air in to the patient. surgical opening in the cricothyroid membrane. This is similar
to a tracheostomy but a cricothyrotomy is reserved for emergency
Mechanical Resuscitator: An electric unit designed to
access. This is usually only used when there is a complete
breathe for the patient.
blockage of the pharynx or there is massive maxillofacial injury,
Adjuncts to Insufflation preventing other adjunts being used.
Most training organisations recommend that in any of the Efficiency of Mouth to Patient Insufflation
methods involving mouth to patient, that a protective barrier
Normal atmospheric air contains approximately 21% oxygen
is used, in order to minimise the possibility of cross infection
when created in. After gaseous exchange has taken place in the
(in either direction). Barriers available include pocket masks
lungs, with waste products (notably carbon dioxide being
and keyring-sized face shields. These barriers are an example removed, the air being exhaled by humans normally contains
of Personal Protective Equipment to guard the face against around 17% oxygen. This means that the human body utilises
splashing, spraying or splattering of blood or other potentially only around 19% of the oxygen inhaled, leaving over 80% of the
infectious materials. oxygen available in the exhalatory breath.
These barriers should provide a one-way filter valve which This means that there is more than enough residual oxygen
lets the air from the rescuer deliver to the patient while any to be used in the lungs of the patient, which then crosses the
substances from the patient (e.g. vomit, blood) cannot reach the cell membrane to form oxyhaemoglobin.
rescuer. Many adjuncts are single use, though if they are multi
use, after use of the adjunct, the mask must be cleaned and Oxygen
autoclaved and the filter replaced. The CPR mask is the The efficiency of artificial respiration can be greatly
preferred method of ventilating a patient when only one rescuer increased by the simultaneous use of oxygen therapy. The
amount of oxygen available to the patient in mouth to mouth sixteen times per minute. This type of artificial respiration is
is around 16%. If this is done through a pocket mask with an occasionally seen in films made in the early part of the 20th
oxygen flow, this increases to 40% oxygen. century.
If a Bag Valve Mask or mechanical respirator is used with A second technique, called the Holger Neilson technique,
an oxygen supply, this rises to 99% oxygen. The greater the described in the first edition of the Boy Scout Handbook in the
oxygen concentration, the more efficient the gaseous exchange United States in 1911, described a form of artificial respiration
will be in the lungs. where the person was laid on their front, with their head to
the side, and a process of lifting their arms and pressing on
CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION their back was utilized, essentially the Silvester Method with
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency the patient flipped over. This form is seen well into the 1950s
medical procedure for a victim of cardiac arrest or, in some (it is used in an episode of Lassie during the Jeff Miller era),
circumstances, respiratory arrest. CPR is performed in hospitals, and was often used, sometimes for comedic effect, in theatrical
or in the community by laypersons or by emergency response cartoons of the time. This method would continue to be shown,
professionals. for historical purposes, side-by-side with modern CPR in the
Boy Scout Handbook until its ninth edition in 1979.
CPR consists of artificial blood circulation and artificial
respiration (i.e. chest compressions and lung ventilation). CPR However it wasn't until the middle of the 20th century that
is generally continued, usually in the presence of advanced life the wider medical community started to recognise and promote
support, until the patient regains a heart beat (called "return it as a key part of resuscitation following cardiac arrest. Peter
of spontaneous circulation" or "ROSC") or is declared dead. Safar wrote the book ABC of resuscitation in 1957. In the U.S.,
it was first promoted as a technique for the public to learn in
CPR is unlikely to restart the heart, but rather its purpose the 1970s.
is to maintain a flow of oxygenated blood to the brain and the
heart, thereby delaying tissue death and extending the brief Use in Cardiac Arrest
window of opportunity for a successful resuscitation without The medical term for the condition in which a person's
permanent brain damage. Defibrillation and advanced life heart has stopped is cardiac arrest (also referred to as
support are usually needed to restart the heart. cardiorespiratory arrest). CPR is used on patients in cardiac
History arrest in order to oxygenate the blood and maintain a cardiac
output to keep vital organs alive.
CPR has been known in theory, if not practice, for many
hundreds or even thousands of years; some claim it is described Blood circulation and oxygenation are absolute requirements
in the Bible, discerning a superficial similarity to CPR in a in transporting oxygen to the tissues. The brain may sustain
passage from the Books of Kings (II 4:34), wherein the Hebrew damage after blood flow has been stopped for about four minutes
prophet Elisha warms a dead boy's body and "places his mouth and irreversible damage after about seven minutes. If blood
over his". In the 19th century, doctor H. R. Silvester described flow ceases for 1 or 2 hours, the cells of the body die unless
a method (The Silvester Method) of artificial respiration in they get an adequately gradual bloodflow, (provided by cooling
which the patient is laid on their back, and their arms are and gradual warming, rarely, in nature [such as in a cold
raised above their head to aid inhalation and then pressed stream of water] or by an advanced medical team). Because of
against their chest to aid exhalation. The procedure is repeated that CPR is generally only effective if performed within 7
minutes of the stoppage of blood flow. The heart also rapidly
loses the ability to maintain a normal rhythm. Low body the goal of the 2005 guidelines to maximise the prospect that
temperatures as sometimes seen in drowning prolong the time CPR will be performed successfully.
the brain survives. Following cardiac arrest, effective CPR
CPR is a practical skill and needs professional instruction
enables enough oxygen to reach the brain to delay brain death,
followed up by regular practice on a resuscitation mannequin
and allows the heart to remain responsive to defibrillation
to gain and maintain full competency.
attempts.
In most CPR classes, a simple mnemonic is used to aid
If the patient still has a pulse, but is not breathing, this
memory of the clinical approach to the unconscious patient and
is called respiratory arrest and artificial respiration is more
CPR. The most common one used worldwide is ABC which
appropriate. However, since people often have difficulty
stands for Airway, Breathing and Circulation. This may be
detecting a pulse, CPR may be used in both cases, especially
built upon with extra information (and letters) and can reach
when taught as first aid.
complicated levels such as AcBCDEEEFG, explained further
First Aid in the main article ABC (medical).
CPR is part of the chain of survival, which includes early CPR skills are not confined to medical professionals, but
access (to emergency medical services), early CPR, early are regularly taught to members of the public. Widespread
defibrillation, and early advanced care. Some first aid trainers knowledge of CPR has a community benefit, as CPR must be
also advocate the performance of CPR as part of the choking applied quickly after a patients heart has stopped. Early CPR
protocol, if all else has failed. Sudden cardiac arrest is a in the community is essential to the prevention of brain damage
leading cause of death, happening to approximately one in 8000 during a cardiac arrest and increases the chance of survival.
people per annum outside a hospital setting in the USA. CPR CPR maintains the blood flow and perfusion to the brain,
can double or triple the victim's chances of survival when buying time until a defibrillator and professional medical help
commenced immediately (see 'effectiveness' below). According arrives.
to United States 'Annals of Emergency Medicine', only 25% of It is considered best to obtain training in CPR before a
victims of a witnessed cardiac arrest are administered CPR by medical emergency occurs, although some modern ambulance
a bystander, with a further 33% receiving some CPR as a result dispatchers will talk an untrained lay rescuer through the
of dispatcher instructions. This leaves 41% of victims receiving process over the phone, whilst the crew is en-route. For the
no CPR prior to the arrival of the emergency medical services. most effective results, hands-on training should be given by an
Rapid access to defibrillation is also vital. The most common expert. This will enable the person to perform CPR more safely
cause of cardiac arrest outside of a hospital is ventricular and more effectively. Most organisations advocate regular
fibrillation (VF), a potentially fatal arrhythmia that is usually retraining, in order to keep practice in the skills, and to ensure
(but not always) caused by a heart attack and is responsive to that the person is up to date with the latest guidelines, which
defibrillation. Other causes of cardiac arrest include drowning, change periodically based on the outputs from governing bodies.
drug overdose, poisoning, electrocution. First aid training, including CPR is often provided by a
First Aid Training community organisation or charity (with or without a fee), with
international providers including the Red Cross and St. John
CPR is taught to the general public in order to increase the Ambulance, or more local providers such as St. Andrew's
chance to CPR being performed in the crucial few minutes Ambulance Association in Scotland or the American Heart
before emergency personnel are available. Simple training is Association in the United States. There are also many
commercial organisations who will train people for a fee. PREVALENCE AND EFFECTIVENESS
Training is often provided or paid for by employers who wish,
Chance of Getting CPR
or are required by law, to have trained first aiders on site.
Various studies suggest that in out of home cardiac arrest,
Guidelines
bystanders, lay persons or family members attempt CPR in
In 2005, new CPR guidelines were published by the between 14% and 45% of the time, with a median of 32%. This
International Resuscitation Councils, agreed at the 2005 indicates that around 1/3 of out-of-home arrests have a CPR
International Consensus Conference on Cardiopulmonary attempt made on them. However, the effectiveness of this CPR
Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science. is variable, and the studies suggest only around half of bystander
The primary goal of these changes was to simplify CPR for lay CPR is performed correctly.
rescuers and healthcare providers alike, to maximise the
There is a clear correlation between age and the chance of
potential for early resuscitation. The important changes for
CPR being commenced, with younger people being far more
2005 were:
likely to have CPR attempted on them prior to the arrival of
• A universal compression-ventilation ratio (30:2) emergency medical services. It was also found that CPR was
recommended for all single rescuers of infant (less than more commonly given by a bystander in public, than when an
one year old), child (1 year old to puberty), and adult arrest occurred in the patient's home, although health care
(puberty and above) victims (excluding newborns). The professionals are responsible for more than half of out-of-hospital
primary difference between the age groups is that with resuscitation attempts. This is supported by further research,
adults the rescuer uses two hands for the chest which suggests that people with no connection to the victim are
compressions, while with children it is only one, and more likely to perform CPR than a member of their family.
with infants only two fingers (pointer and middle fingers).
There is also a correlation between the cause of arrest and
Whilst this simplification has been introduced, it has
the likelihood of bystander CPR being initiated. Lay persons
not been universally accepted, and especially amongst
are most likely to give CPR to younger cardiac arrest victims
healthcare professionals, protocols may still vary.
in a public place when it has a medical cause; victims in arrest
• The removal of the emphasis on lay rescuers assessing from trauma, exsanguination or intoxication are less likely to
for pulse or signs of circulation for an unresponsive receive CPR.
adult victim, instead taking the absence of normal
breathing as the key indicator for commencing CPR. Chance of Getting CPR in Time
• The removal of the protocol in which lay rescuers provide CPR is only likely to be effective if commenced within 6
rescue breathing without chest compressions for an adult minutes after the blood flow stops, because permanent brain
victim, with all cases such as these being subject to cell damage occurs when fresh blood infuses the cells after that
CPR. time, since the cells of the brain become dormant in as little
as 4-6 minutes in an oxygen deprived environment and the
Research has shown that lay personnel cannot accurately cells are unable to survive the reintroduction of oxygen in a
detect a pulse in about 40% of cases and cannot accurately traditional resuscitation. Research using cardioplegic blood
discern the absence of pulse in about 10%, the pulse check step infusion resulted in a 79.4% survival rate with cardiac arrest
has been removed from the CPR procedure completely for lay intervals of 72±43 minutes, traditional methods achieve a 15%
persons and de-emphasized for healthcare professionals. survival rate in this scenario, by comparison. New research is
currently needed to determine what role CPR, electroshock, Type of Arrest ROSC Survival
and new advanced gradual resuscitation techniques will have
with this new knowledge. Witnessed In-Hospital Cardiac Arrest 48% 22%
Unwitnessed In-Hospital Cardiac Arrest 21% 1%
A notable exception is cardiac arrest occurring in conjunction
with exposure to very cold temperatures. Hypothermia seems Bystander Cardiocerebral Resuscitation 40% 6%
to protect the victim by slowing down metabolic and physiologic Bystander Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation 40% 4%
processes, greatly decreasing the tissues' need for oxygen. There No Bystander CPR (Ambulance CPR) 15% 2%
are cases where CPR, defibrillation, and advanced warming
Defibrillation within 3-5 minutes 74% 30%
techniques have revived victims after substantial periods of
hypothermia.
ALTERNATIVE METHODS
Chance of Surviving
Cardiocerebral Resuscitation
Used alone, CPR will result in few complete recoveries, and
The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation
those that do survive often develop serious complications.
(ILCOR) approach described above has been challenged in recent
Estimates vary, but many organizations stress that CPR does
years by advocates for Cardiocerebral Resuscitation (CCR).
not "bring anyone back," it simply preserves the body for
CCR is simply chest compressions without artificial respiration.
defibrillation and advanced life support. However, in the case
The ventilation component of CPR has been a topic of major
of "non-shockable" rhythms such as Pulseless Electrical Activity
controversy over the past decade. In March 2007, a Japanese
(PEA), defibrillation is not indicated, and the importance of
study in the medical journal The Lancet presented strong
CPR rises. On average, only 5%-10% of people who receive CPR
evidence that compressing the chest, not MTM ventilation, is
survive. the key to helping someone recover from cardiac arrest.
The purpose of CPR is not to "start" the heart, but rather The CCR method is championed by the University of
to circulate oxygenated blood, and keep the brain alive until Arizona's Sarver Heart Centre, and a recent study by the
advanced care (especially defibrillation) can be initiated. university, claims a 300% greater success rate over standard
As many of these patients may have a pulse that is impalpable CPR. The exceptions were in the case of drowning or drug
by the layperson rescuer, the current consensus is to overdose.
perform CPR on a patient that is not breathing. A pulse check
is not required in basic CPR since it is so often missed when The method of delivering chest compressions remains the
present, or even felt when absent, even by health care same, as does the rate (100 per minute), but the rescuer delivers
only the compression element which, the University of Arizona
professionals.
claims, keeps the bloodflow moving without the interruption
Studies have shown the importance of immediate CPR caused by insufflations.
followed by defibrillation within 3-5 minutes of sudden VF
An editorial by Gordon Ewy MD (a proponent of CCR) in
cardiac arrest improve survival. In cities such as Seattle where
the same issue of The Lancet calls for an interim revision of
CPR training is widespread and defibrillation by EMS personnel
the AHA/ILCOR Guidelines based on the results of the Japanese
follows quickly, the survival rate is about 30 percent. In cities
study, but the next scheduled revision of the Guidelines is not
such as New York City, without those advantages, the survival
until 2010. The initial response of the AHA was that no interim
rate is only 1-2 percent.
change is necessary.
Self-CPR who is not breathing and has no circulation. A 1996 study

published in the New England Journal of Medicine showed that
A form of "self-CPR" termed "Cough CPR" may help a
CPR success rates in television shows was 75%.
person maintain blood flow to the brain during a heart attack
while waiting for medical help to arrive and has been used in It is important to note that CPR techniques portrayed on
a hospital emergency room in cases where "standard CPR" was television and in film are purposely incorrect. Actors performing
contraindicated. simulated CPR will keep their elbows bent, to prevent force
from reaching the fictional victim's heart. As well as causing
"Cough CPR" was the subject of a hoax chain e-mail entitled
significant local trauma, in theory performing CPR on healthy
"How to Survive a Heart Attack When Alone" which wrongly
persons may disrupt heart rhythms, and may cause cardiac
cited "Via-Health Rochester General Hospital" as the source of
arrest.
the technique. Rochester General Hospital has denied any
connection with the technique. Application on Animals
Rapid coughing has been used in hospitals for brief periods It is entirely feasible to perform CPR on animals like cats
of cardiac arrhythmia on monitored patients. One researcher and dogs. The principles and practices are virtually identical
has recommended that it be taught broadly to the public. to CPR for humans. One is cautioned to only perform CPR on
However, "cough CPR" cannot be used outside the hospital unconscious animals to avoid the risk of being bitten.
because the first symptom of cardiac arrest is unconsciousness
OCCLUSIVE DRESSING
in which case coughing is impossible. Further, the vast majority
of people suffering chest pain from a heart attack will not be An occlusive dressing is an air and watertight trauma
in cardiac arrest and CPR is not needed. In these cases dressing used in first aid. These dressings are generally made
attempting "cough CPR" will increase the workload on the with a waxy coating so as to provide a total seal, and as a result
heart and may be harmful. When coughing is used on trained do not have the absorbent properties of gauze pads. They are
and monitored patients in hospitals, it has only been shown to typically used to treat open, or "sucking," chest wounds to
be effective for 90 seconds. alleviate or prevent a tension pneumothorax (serious
complications of a collapsed lung). They are also used in
The American Heart Association (AHA) and other
conjunction with a moist sterile dressing for intestinal
resuscitation bodies, do not endorse "Cough CPR", which it
eviceration.
terms a misnomer as it is not a form of resuscitation. The AHA
does recognize a limited legitimate use of the coughing technique: Occlussive dressings come in various forms, including
"This coughing technique to maintain blood flow Vaseline Gauze, which sticks to the skin surrounding the wound
during brief arrhythmias has been useful in the using vaseline.
hospital, particularly during cardiac catheterization. If you do not have a commercial occlusive dressing available
In such cases the patients ECG is monitored and suspect that a patient has a "sucking" chest wound (sucking
continuously, and a physician is present." at wound site, respiratory distress, decreased breath sounds on
one side of chest), a piece of plastic or the side of a plastic bag
Place in Film and Television can be placed over the wound and taped to the chest on 3 sides,
CPR is often severely misrepresented in movies and leaving one side open as a "flutter valve" to allow for exhalation.
television as being highly effective in resuscitating a person Whether the seal is taped on 3 or 4 sides varies by jurisdiction.
Check with your state laws or medical director in EMS services To a limited extent, it is possible to protect against risks
to determine how your area handles occlusive dressings. to the airway from the tongue by tilting the head back and
lifting the jaw. However, an unconscious person will not remain
They can also be used to enhance the penetration and
in this position unless held constantly, and crucially it does not
absorption of topically-applied medications, such as ointments
safeguard against risks due to fluids. If the person is placed
and creams. Furthermore, they may be used in vivo acute
in the recovery position, the action of gravity will both keep
toxicity tests of dermal irritation and sensitisation. The test
the tongue from obstructing the airway and also allow any
animal is shaved and the test material is applied to the skin
fluids to drain. Also the chest is raised above the ground, which
and wrapped in an occlusive material. The skin is then exposed
helps to make breathing easier.
after 23 hours and an assessment for redness and oedema is
made. When to Use the Recovery Position?
Recovery Position The recovery position is recommended for unconscious
people, those who are too inebriated to assure their own
The recovery position is a first aid technique recommended
continued breathing, victims of drowning, and also for victims
for assisting people who are unconscious, or nearly so, but are
of suspected poisoning (who are liable to become unconscious).
still breathing. It is frequently taught as part of classes in CPR
It is suitable for any unconscious person who does not need
(cardiopulmonary resuscitation) or first aid.
CPR.
When an unconscious person is lying face upwards, there
are two main risks factors which can lead to suffocation: Putting a Victim in the Recovery Position
• The tongue can fall to the back of the throat, due to loss Before using the Recovery Position, perform the preliminary
of muscular control. The back of the tongue then first aid steps. First assess whether the scene is safe for the
obstructs the airway. rescuer. If not, leave. Assess whether the victim is Alert,
Breathing and has Circulation (ABCs). If the victim is alert and
• Fluids, possibly blood but particularly vomit, can collect
an adult, obtain consent before performing first aid. For children,
in the back of the throat, causing the person to drown.
attempt to obtain consent from a parent, guardian, or other
When a person is lying face up, the esophagus tilts
responsible caregiver. If the victim is not alert, and is not
down slightly from the stomach towards the throat.
breathing, check for a pulse. If there is no pulse, perform
This, combined with loss of muscular control, can lead
cardiopulmonary resuscitation. If there is circulation, perform
to the stomach contents flowing into the throat, called
Rescue breathing. The initial assessment should be done quickly,
passive regurgitation. As well as obstructing the airway,
in a minute or less.
fluid which collects in the back of the throat can also
then flow down into the lungs; stomach acid can attack Next, alert trained emergency medical personnel. Call the
the inner lining of the lungs and cause a condition emergency telephone number or other emergency services.
known as aspiration pneumonia.
If No Spinal or Neck Injury is Indicated
Many fatalities occur where the original injury or illness
The correct position is called the "lateral recovery position."
which caused unconsciousness is not itself inherently fatal, but
Start with the victim laying on the back and with the legs
where the unconscious person suffocates for one of these reasons.
straight out. Kneel on one side of the victim, facing the victim.
This is a common cause of death following unconsciousness due
Move the arm closest to you so it is perpendicular to the body,
to excessive consumption of alcohol.
with the elbow flexed (perpendicular). Move the farthest arm DR., ABC Danger, Response, Airway, Breathing, Circulation.
across the body so that the hand is resting across the torso. Then move them into the recovery position to open the air way.
If they do not start breathing, begin CPR. If they begin to
Bend the leg farthest from you so the knee is elevated.
breath, keep them in that position.
Reach inside the knee to pull the thigh toward you. Use the
other arm to pull the shoulder that is farthest from you. Roll First Aider Priorities. 1 Breathing, every thing else comes
the body toward you. Leave the upper leg in a flexed position second. 2 Get Help, your are the stop gap that keeps them alive
to stabilize the body. until they get to the Hospital.
Victims who are left in this position for long periods may Additional note for pregnant victims
experience nerve compression. Still, that is usually a more
A pregnant woman should always rest on her left side, as
desirable outcome for the victim than choking to death.
laying on the right side may cause the uterus to compress the
If Spinal or Neck Injuries are Possible Inferior vena cava, possibly resulting in death.
When the injury is apparently the result of an accidental Additional note for victims with torso wounds.
fall, collision or other trauma, the risk of spinal or neck injuries A victim with torso wounds should be placed with the
should be assumed. Normally, only trained medical personnel wounds closest to the ground to minimize the possibility of
should attempt to move a victim with neck or spinal injuries. blood affecting both lungs, resulting in asphyxiation.
Such movements run the risk of causing permanent paralysis
or other injuries. USING INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AS A POINT OF
Movement of spinal-injured victims should be minimized. LEVERAGE
Such victims should only be moved to a recovery position when The challenge of disaster management is reducing the harm
it is necessary to drain vomit from the airway. disasters cause to society, the economy, and the lives of
In such instances, the correct position is called the "HAINES individuals and communities. That task requires disaster
modified recovery position." HAINES is a portmanteau of High managers to reduce uncertainty, to calculate and compare costs
Arm IN Endangered Spine. In this modification, one of the and benefits, and to manage resources, often on a much larger
patient's arms is raised above the head (in full abduction) to scale and at a much faster pace than are supported by methods
support the head and neck. and means for solving ordinary problems. IT provides capabilities
that can help people grasp the dynamic realities of a disaster
There is less neck movement (and less degree of lateral more clearly and help them formulate better decisions more
angulation) than when the lateral recovery position is used, quickly. And IT can help keep better track of the myriad details
and, therefore, HAINES use carries less risk of spinal-cord involved in all phases of disaster management.
damage.
The committee concluded that IT has as-yet-unrealized
First Aider Notes potential to improve how communities, the nation, and the
If an individual has suffered a fall or injuries that suggest global community handle disasters. Briefings to the committee
damage to the spine, as a FIRST AIDER ONLY your priority suggested that some progress is being made in using IT to
is to keep the airway open. If breathing, then leave them in enhance disaster management. Presentations made at its June
the position you found them. If Breathing has stopped, regardless 2005 workshop, additional briefings to the committee, and
of possible injury to the person, perform your standard checks. reports on responses to recent disasters indicated, however,
that disaster management organizations have not fully exploited Other examples of "low-hanging fruit" include the following:
many of today's technology opportunities. This situation stands • Use of sensors, wikis (editable Web sites), blogs, and
in contrast to the considerable success enjoyed by some sectors data-mining tools to capture, analyze, and share lessons
such as financial services and transportation in adopting new learned from operational experiences;
IT technologies routinely and aggressively.
• Use of database, Web, and call centre technologies to
This report describes both short and long-term opportunities establish a service to provide information about available
to enhance responsiveness and increase resilience by applying equipment, material, volunteers, and volunteer
IT to disaster management. As in other sectors, successful use organizations;
of IT involves multiple factors-making smarter use of existing
technologies, creating opportunities to develop and adopt new • Use of planning, scheduling, task allocation, and resource
technologies, and evolving organizational practices to best management tools to help in formulating disaster
employ those technologies. Accordingly, this report also management plans and tracking execution of the plans
examines mechanisms to facilitate the development and effective and to ensure timely recognition of problems and
use of IT. associated follow-up decision making; and
• Use of deployable cell phone technology to rapidly
Short-Term Opportunities to Use IT
establish stand-alone communications capabilities for
Although the committee believes that investment in IT use in disasters where local infrastructure is damaged.
research and development (R&D) for disaster management To exploit such short-term opportunities involves identifying
should be guided in the long run by a comprehensive, them, establishing policies and procedures for their use, and
stakeholder-driven roadmap (see below), it also sees providing training to users.
opportunities for short-term investment in a number of specific
areas that would yield significant benefits. In government mission areas such as defence and energy,
a research infrastructure has been built over decades to ensure
The committee heard of many instances in which responders long-term, mission-driven scientific and engineering advances-
were able to make use of readily available technology-either an effort that has included a long history of investments in IT.
provided by their organizations or acquired personally-that The Department of Defence, for example, funds a mix of shorter-
proved valuable during a disaster. The network effects associated and longer-term R&D carried out through the Defence Advanced
with many of these technologies can create a critical mass of Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and the service laboratories
users that provides a potential point of interoperability and as in-house, university-based, and contract research. These
cooperation across agencies. investments are aimed at building a variety of capabilities,
For example, ad hoc use of 802.11x wireless capabilities in such as the military's transition to a capability for network-
laptops carried by some first responders, peer-to-peer use of centric warfare that are also relevant to disaster management.
Land Mobile Radio System (LMRS) radios, and use of Family To make the sort of IT-enabled progress in disaster management
Radio Service/General Mobile Radio Service "walkie-talkies" that is envisioned in this report, the disaster management
all can help to provide communications even when the community should also devote significant attention and
communications infrastructure is damaged. Such technology investment to a long-term research programme.
options may already be in the hands of users but may not be A number of agencies could play a role in developing and
deployed in disasters because policies and procedures for their implementing such a programme. The directly relevant mission
use are not in place.
of the Department of Homeland Security's (DHS's) Science and expand capacity to meet emergency needs, that can
Technology Directorate is "to protect the homeland by providing autonomously reconfigure themselves, that can handle
Federal and local officials with state-of-the-art technology and the range of communication needs and environmental
other resources." Other agencies have relevant capabilities in conditions that arise in disasters, that have well-defined
terms of IT and disaster-related research programmes, points of interoperability, and that are able to distinguish
modalities, constituencies, and existing connections with between and properly prioritize communications.
particular research communities, including the National Science • Better situational awareness and common operating
Foundation (NSF), the National Institute of Standards and picture. Situational awareness is the ability for actors
Technology (NIST), DARPA, the National Oceanic and in a disaster-from national coordinators to emergency
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the research responders to the general public-to have information
laboratories of the armed services. about an incident, to understand what that information
In a number of federal programmes, multiple agencies work means in the context of the situation and their goals,
jointly to tackle broad problems. One possible model for such and to project patterns and trends. The common
an inter-agency programme is the Earthquake Hazard Reduction operating picture is a shared understanding of a situation
Programme, in which NIST has a lead role and the U.S. by a group of people who need to act together to achieve
Geological Survey (USGS), FEMA, and NSF are participants. common goals. The aim is to improve a person's ability
Similarly, for disaster management, a lead agency (logically to do his or her job more effectively.
DHS) could provide a clear single point of responsibility, • Improved decision support and resource tracking and
coordinate activities, report on progress, and so forth; the lead allocation. Whereas situation awareness provides
agency would not be responsible for all aspects of execution, decision makers with information relevant to their tasks
which would fall to all of the participating agencies and their and goals, decision support focuses on assisting them in
contractors and grantees. formulating prospective actions-helping them
R&D activities also need to be well coupled to the parts of understand and assess characteristics and consequences
DHS that are responsible for mitigation, preparedness, response, of alternative courses of action and follow-up on decisions,
and recovery activities to ensure that requirements are grounded closing the feedback loop from decision to result.
in operational needs and to ensure that solutions can be • Greater organizational agility for disaster management.
transferred into federal operations and the parts of DHS The use of IT has enabled and driven changes to
responsible for developing policy to ensure that technological organizational structures and processes (e.g., more
and organizational questions are considered together. distributed decision making). Agility is at a premium in
Key IT-Enabled Capabilities disasters because no one type of organization or group
of organizations is always best suited for the variety of
• More robust, interoperable, and priority-sensitive
problems that arise. Related issues with significant IT
communications. Disaster management requires robust,
implications include building rapport among people who
priority-sensitive communications systems capable of
do not share a history of cooperation and more quickly
supporting interoperation with other systems. Providing
integrating the operations of multiple organizations.
these requires communication networks that are more
resilient to disruption than today's commercial networks, • Better engagement of the public by (1) supplying
that can last longer without utility power, that can information and (2) making use of information and
resources that members of the public can supply. engineered constructions which make the disaster-prone areas
Although IT is used today to alert and inform the public mere vulnerable, tardy communication, poor or no budgetary
before, during, and after a disaster, more use could be allocation for disaster prevention, developing countries suffer
made of new communications modalities, and more or less chronically by natural disasters. Asia tops the list
information could be better tailored and targeted to the of casualties due to natural disaster. Among various natural
needs of particular population. More attention should hazards, earthquakes, landslides, floods and cyclones are the
be paid to the information and resources held by the major disasters adversely affecting very large areas and
public because members of the public collectively have population in the Indian subcontinent. These natural disasters
a richer view of a disaster situation, may possess are of (i) geophysical origin such as earthquakes, volcanic
increasingly sophisticated technology to capture and eruptions, land slides and (ii) climatic origin such as drought,
communicate information, and are an important source flood, cyclone, locust, forest fire.
of volunteers, supplies, and equipment. One important
Though it may not be feasible to control nature and to stop
factor is how to engage the entire population, given the
the development of natural phenomena but the efforts could
existence of groups with cultural and language
be made to avoid disasters and alleviate their effects on human
differences and other special needs.
lives, infrastructure and property. Rising frequency, amplitude
• Enhanced infrastructure survivability and continuity of and number of natural disasters and attendant problem coupled
societal functions. Large disasters upset physical with loss of human lives prompted the General Assembly of the
infrastructure, such as the electric grid, transportation, United Nations to proclaim 1990s as the International Decade
and health care-as well as IT systems. IT infrastructures for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) through a resolution
themselves need to be more resilient; IT can also improve 44/236 of December 22, 1989 to focus on all issues related to
the survivability and speed the recovery of other natural disaster reduction.
infrastructure by providing better information about
In spite of IDNDR, there had been a string of major disaster
the status of systems and advance warning of impending
throughout the decade. Nevertheless, by establishing the rich
failures. Finally, IT can facilitate the continuity of
disaster management related traditions and by spreading public
disrupted societal functions by providing new tools for
awareness the IDNDR provided required stimulus for disaster
reconnecting families, friends, organizations, and
reduction. It is almost impossible to prevent the occurrence of
communities.
natural disasters and their damages. However it is possible to
Disaster Management reduce the impact of disasters by adopting suitable disaster
mitigation strategies.
Various disasters like earthquake, landslides, volcanic
eruptions, fires, flood and cyclones are natural hazards that kill The disaster mitigation works mainly address the following:
thousands of people and destroy billions of dollars of habitat (i) minimise the potential risks by developing disaster early
and property each year. The rapid growth of the world's warning strategies, (ii) prepare and implement developmental
population and its increased concentration often in hazardous plans to provide resilience to such disasters, (iii) mobilise
environment has escalated both the frequency and severity of resources including communication and telemedicinal services
natural disasters. and (iv) to help in rehabilitation and post-disaster reduction.
With the tropical climate and unstable land forms, coupled Disaster management on the other hand involves: (i) pre-
with deforestation, unplanned growth proliferation non- disaster planning, preparedness, monitoring including relief
236 Disaster Management Losses of Natural Disasters 237
management capability. (ii) prediction and early warning. (iii)

damage assessment and relief management.
Disaster reduction is a systematic work which involves
with different regions, different professions and different
scientific fields, and has become an important measure for
human, society and nature sustainable development. 9
Role of Space Technology
Space systems from their vantage position have
LOSSES OF NATURAL DISASTERS
unambiguously demonstrated their capability in providing vital
information and services for disaster management.The Earth
The United States has experienced natural disasters since
Observation satellites provide comprehensive, synoptic and
the nation's founding over 200 years ago. During the 1980's and
multi temporal coverage of large areas in real time and at
1990's the United States experienced numerous, expensive-and
frequent intervals and 'thus'—have become valuable for
frequently deadly-natural disasters.
continuous monitoring of atmospheric as well as surface
parameters related to natural disasters. Geo-stationary satellites These disasters and their impacts have become part of our
provide continuous and synoptic observations over large areas history: the drought in the central United States in 1988,
on weather including cyclone-monitoring. Hurricane Andrew in 1992, and the Northridge California
earthquake of 1994 were the nation's three most costly to date.
Polar orbiting satellites have the advantage of providing
Through the course of this committee's study, the nation
much higher resolution imageries, even though at low temporal
experienced a severe ice storm in the northeast United States,
frequency, which could be used for detailed monitoring, damage
devastating floods along the Rio Grande and in southeast Texas,
assessment and long-term relief management. The vast
heavy rains and landslides in southern California, a five-week
capabilities of communication satellites are available for timely
succession of wildfires in Florida, a severe drought in south and
dissemination of early warning and real-time coordination of
east Texas, and three major hurricanes which impacted the
relief operations.
southeastern United States.
The advent of Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSAT) and
The committee also conducted its study during the fabled
Ultra Small Aperture Terminals (USAT) and phased—array
El Nino of 1997-1998. This warming of surface water in the
antennae have enhanced the capability further by offering low
central and South Pacific and attendant effects on global weather
cost, viable technological solutions towards management and
patterns was-rightly or wrongly-blamed for many of the nation's
mitigation of disasters. Satellite communications capabilities-
and planet's weather-related hazards during this period, and
fixed and mobile are vital for effective communication, especially
''some forecasters have warned the nation to brace itself for
in data collection, distress alerting, and position location and
much more expensive disasters in the future" (Larson, 1998).
coordinating relief operations in the field. In addition, Search
and Rescue satellites provide capabilities such as position A Brief Introduction to their Effects
determination facilities onboard which could be useful in a
Anyone who has lived through a major hurricane or an
variety of land, sea and air distress situations.
earthquake does not have to be told of a natural disaster's
destructive impacts. People are often killed and many others
are injured. Homes, office buildings, shopping centres, highways, heavy El Nino-caused winter rains. FEMA relief payments
and other physical facilities are destroyed. reached $300 million by the end of March 1998 and 18
presidentially declared disasters occurred from the fall of 1997
El Nino Caused Natural Disasters of 1997-1998
through April 1998, and all were partly attributed to El Nino's
A recent series of weather disasters were caused by the influence on the atmosphere. El Nino events have become
record largest El Nino of 1997-1998, an event to which several stronger and more frequent since 1980, certainly one reason
intense storms across the United States were attributed. The for the increased losses from weather-related natural disasters
term El Nino ("the child" or "the Christ child") refers to a over the past 15 years.
warming of surface waters in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
In true megadisasters-such as the Northridge earthquake
Through history, this pool of warm surface water periodically
in California or Hurricane Andrew in Florida-the destruction
appeared off coastal Ecuador, Peru, and Chile near Christmas.
can severely interrupt work, traffic, and the daily routine of
The tremendous amount of energy contained within this water
a large area for months and, to some extent, years after the
has the ability to disrupt atmospheric patterns throughout the
event.
region and across the planet. The El Nino which developed in
the eastern tropical Pacific during the summer of 1997, and Experts in the field of disaster cost estimation use various
lasted through much of 1998, was exceptionally warm and terms to describe the effects of disasters, not always consistently.
ultimately "blamed'' for several weather-related disasters in It is therefore important to define at the outset how these terms
the United States during that period. are used in this report:
As forecasted when the El Nino developed during June- • The impacts of a disaster is the broadest term, and
August 1997, California was assaulted by a series of coastal includes both market-based and nonmarket effects. For
storms and heavy rains causing floods, numerous landslides, example, market-based impacts include destruction to
and damages to the state's valuable agriculture, with losses property and a reduction in income and sales. No market
totaling nearly $1 billion statewide. Florida, Texas, and other effects include environmental consequences and
southern states were struck by a large number of severe storms psychological effects suffered by individuals involved in
and numerous tornadoes. Tornadoes led to more than 60 deaths, a disaster. In principle, individual impacts can be either
and El Nino-caused losses in Florida exceeded $500 million. A negative or positive, though obviously the impacts of
record early snowstorm swept across the High Plains in October disasters are predominantly undesirable.
1997, and severe ice storms struck the Northeast in January • The loss of disasters represents market-based negative
1998, creating losses in excess of $300 million and 28 deaths. economic impacts. These consist of direct losses that
The effects of El Nino on storm activity occurred from result from the physical destruction of buildings, crops,
September 1997 through April 1998. The property insurance and natural resources and indirect losses that represent
industry identified 15 catastrophes (events each causing greater the consequences of that destruction, such as temporary
than $25 million) during the 8-month period ending in May unemployment and business interruption.
1998, when El Nino's influence on the weather had largely • The costs of disasters, as the term is conventionally
ended. The total insured losses by these catastrophes reached used, typically refers to cash payouts by insurers and
$1.7 billion. Even after the storm activity ended, more damages governments to reimburse some (and in certain cases
occurred. Widespread fires broke out in Florida during June, all) of the losses suffered by individuals and businesses.
fueled by a heavy growth of underbrush caused by the unusually Losses suffered by those who are uninsured, those whose
losses do not make them eligible for insurance payments, Studies of the impacts of natural disasters vary in their
and those who do not receive government relief should coverage of losses. Some measure only direct losses whereas
be counted in any complete compilation of the impacts others purport to include indirect losses. Despite the difficulty
of a disaster-but these losses are not included as "costs," of comparing different loss estimates, it is useful to be aware
as that term is used in this report. of the significant impacts disasters-especially megadisasters-
• The damages caused by disasters refer to physical can have. Based on available studies, Table 1 summarizes the
destruction, measured by physical indicators, such as four most expensive natural disasters in recent American
the numbers of deaths and injuries or the number of history.
buildings destroyed. When valued in monetary terms, Table 1: The Four Most Expensive Natural Disasters
damages become direct losses. in the United States (in current dollars at the time of
the disaster)
The formal charge to this committee was to "identify the
cost components that, when combined, would most accurately Year Event Reported Loss Source
reflect the total cost of a natural disaster event. To the extent
possible, the committee will identify the relative importance of 1988 Droughts $39 billion Riebsame et al., 1991
the components for accurate characterization of an individual 1992 Hurricane Andrew $30 billion Pielke, 1995
event and the significance of the different components across 1993 Midwest floods $19 billion Changnon, 1996
the spectrum of hazards.
1994 Northridge earthquake $44 billion Eguchi et al., 1998
The committee will also suggest possible sources for accurate
cost information, regardless of whether data are generally
a
Direct and indirect losses combined. Other estimates refer only to
direct losses.
available from these sources at present."
Given the formal distinction made between losses and costs, Table 1 is interesting, not only because of the magnitude
the committee felt that its deliberations and report should of the costs of these large disasters, but also because it highlights
focus upon the losses and human impacts of natural disasters their diverse nature: no single type of disaster dominates the
(which include costs), rather than the costs alone. One important list.
request of this committee was to identify those data, which It bears emphasis that the loss estimates illustrated in
should be consistently collected in compiling estimates of a Table 1 should be viewed as best guesses, for there is no official
natural disaster's impact. The committee felt that these data disaster cost accounting system in the United States. What
should include not only the cash payouts from governments information we have must be compiled from different studies
and insurance companies (costs), but also a wider range of that use different estimation techniques and raw data sources.
impacts. In addition, although insured property losses tend to be
This report concentrates on how best to measure the estimated reasonably well, there is much greater uncertainty
economic losses in disasters, as they are either the most easily about uninsured losses, which can be substantial.
measured or the best understood. Nonetheless, it was recognized This point is underscored in Table 1, which shows the top
that noneconomic consequences of disasters, such as disasters ranked by their property insurance claims. Notice
environmental impacts, can be very important and, in some that on this list Hurricane Andrew ranks first and Northridge
instances, may exceed direct economic losses. second. Neither the 1993 Midwest floods nor the 1988 drought
even make the list because most of the losses in those events officials, consumer organizations, and the media regarding
were not privately insured or were indirect. insurance issues associated with catastrophes.
Table 2: Ten Costliest Natural Catastrophes, Ranked Property Claims Services was originally a division of the
By Insurance Claims Paid National Board of Fire Underwriters, which initiated the
catastrophe identification system in 1949. This system was
Month/Year Catastrophe Estimated insured developed to address the insurers' needs to quantify the impact
loss ($ Millions) of catastrophes on insurance coverages. As more Americans
bought homes and moved to suburban areas after World War II,
August 1992 Hurricane Andrew: wind, 15,500
there was little information about severe weather events across
flooding, tornadoes the country. Since 1949, PCS has identified over 1,200
January 1994 Northridge, California, earthquake 12,500 catastrophes affecting U.S. insurers.
September 1989 Hurricane Hugo 4,195 PCS currently identifies a catastrophe as an event, which
October 1995 Hurricane Opal 2,100 causes $25 million, or more in insured, direct property damage,
March 1993 20-state winter storm 1,750
and affects a significant number of property owners. This
threshold has been adjusted through time: when PCS was
October 1991 Oakland, California fire 1,700
founded in 1949, $1 million of insured, direct property damage
September 1996 Hurricane Fran 1,600 constituted a catastrophe, in 1983 it was revised to $5 million,
September 1992 Hurricane Iniki 1,600 and was revised for a third time in 1997 to $25 million. For
May 1995 Texas and New Mexico, Wind, 1,135
those events that exceeded the PCS definition of a catastrophe,
the costs have increased as follows: 933 major events resulted
hail, flooding
in costs of $22 billion from 1949 to 1988; 312 major events
October 1989 Loma Prieta, California earthquake 960 resulted in costs of $79 billion from 1989 to 1997 (Kunreuther
Note: Dollar losses are stated in the year of the event.
and Roth, 1998).
Source: Insurance Information Institute, 1998. The causes of the mounting costs of disasters in the United
States will continue to be debated. But certainly a major
The United States has borne significant costs not just from contributing factor has been the increased exposure of property
the major events shown in Tables 1 and 2 but also from the and human beings to disasters. The nation's population has
combination of the hundreds of smaller natural disasters that grown significantly since World War II, and more people than
occur every year. Catastrophes in the United States are ever before live and work in disaster-prone areas-especially
identified, tracked, and reported by Property Claims Services coastlines, floodplains, and seismically active regions. Various
(PCS), an insurance industry organization specializing in the forms of economic development have also driven up the costs
property insurance business. of natural disasters.
PCS is best known for its work in catastrophes and is For example, the destruction of wetlands, the clearing of
recognized internationally as the singular source of information forests for a range of human activities, and the paving of roads
concerning insured damage resulting from most major natural and parking lots all have increased the peaks of runoff from
disasters in the United States. PCS also serves as the property heavy rainfall. Furthermore, greater wealth means we simply
insurance industry's liaison with federal and state government have more to lose in disasters. Policymakers and citizens should
be aware of these trends as they make decisions, which affect those losses can be reduced by various mitigation strategies-
the location of future housing and business developments. These so that cost-effective mitigation strategies can be designed and
societal trends help explain predictions of continuing increases implemented.
in the losses from future natural hazards.
The same is also true for the private sector, where cost-
Why Loss Estimates Matter effective mitigation measures can and should be used to reduce
losses in future disasters.
Who should care about disaster loss estimates, and why?
There are several reasons, which matter to different Policymakers should have an interest in accurate direct
constituencies. loss data for reasons that extend beyond mitigation. At this
writing, Congress is considering proposals to establish a federal
The federal government has a strong interest, on behalf of
reinsurance programme to support the private sector's supply
taxpayers, in accurate and comprehensive direct loss data.
of homeowners insurance for claims related to natural disasters
Largely through the Federal Emergency Management Agency,
(although critics of these proposals argue, among other things,
but also through several other agencies, the federal government
that the expansion of reinsurance capacity in recent years
covers a substantial portion of disaster-induced losses that are
makes federal intervention less necessary). If such a programme
suffered by local and state governments, as well as by individuals
and businesses that are otherwise privately uninsured. Figures is enacted, historical loss data will be essential both to potential
1-2 and 1-3 provide data on federal government payouts from buyers and the government (as the seller of the reinsurance,
1988 to 1997 and 1986 to 1997. a type of insurance the government makes available to insurers
to help protect them in the event of catastrophic events) so that
As these figures demonstrate, FEMA provides only part of all parties can be informed when bidding for or negotiating
the federal disaster assistance effort. Other key federal agencies reinsurance contracts.
with disaster assistance programmes include the Small Business
Administration (SBA), U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), An understanding of losses and their growth has been the
U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), U.S. Department of basis for enacting foresighted legislation. Ex post analysis of
Interior (DOI), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), the 1993 Mississippi floods, for example, led to needed revisions
Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), National in crop insurance, flood insurance premiums, as well as broader
Weather Service (NWS), Department of Energy (DOE), and programmatic changes in flood insurance.
Department of Labour (DOL). Insurers clearly have a commercial interest in accurate
Although extreme geophysical events cannot be avoided, data on costs covered under their policies: claims for property
their impacts can be reduced by government policies, or hazard damage and related economic costs and for loss of life and
mitigation initiatives such as reinforcing structures to enable injuries. Insurers also maintain their own payout data in order
them to better withstand the shock of an earthquake, elevating to operate their businesses.
structures to reduce flood damages, land use planning to But to set actuarially sound rates, each insurer needs
decrease structural exposures to natural hazards, and other comprehensive data on payouts made by all insurers. Historical
measures. claims data must be combined with models that project the
Because mitigation can be costly, however, it is important probabilities of future events over a range of possible
for policymakers at all levels of government also to be aware magnitudes-as uncertain as these probabilities are-so that
of the total losses of disasters-and ideally of the extent to which insurers can estimate expected future payouts.
State insurance regulators must know and be able to project know to what extent the losses are privately borne, especially
disaster related costs in order to properly regulate or monitor through insurance, and what portion is paid by local, state, and
insurance premiums. Individuals and businesses have an federal governments.
interest in knowing the costs and losses of different types of
From the national taxpayer perspective, policies should
disasters to help inform decisions about insurance, mitigation,
aim to internalize to the maximum extent the losses of disasters-
and government policies for compensation of victims.
that is, induce individuals, businesses, and local and state
As mentioned, however, there is no comprehensive disaster governments to recognize and accept responsibility to purchase
loss information available from either public or private sources. insurance (or to establish the functional equivalent of self-
Imagine if that were the case for statistics about the overall insurance pools) or mitigate such losses rather than to have the
U.S. economy: no indicators of national or regional federal government come in after the fact and pay for the
unemployment, output, or inflation. Policymakers would be expense of reconstruction and cleanup.
severely hampered in their efforts at setting sound economic
But of course there are limits to the losses insurers bear.
and monetary policies. Private actors in the economy would not
For example, although the typical homeowners' insurance policy
know whether it was in their interest to increase or reduce
covers damages to the physical structure of a home, some
their investments, consumption, or other economic activities.
policies may not cover the entire replacement cost (unless such
Finally, researchers and experts in disaster loss estimation protection is specifically purchased).
could benefit enormously from having a standardized database
Homeowners' policies also may cover some, but not all, of
of losses and other impact information that would permit them
the contents of a residence. In addition, private homeowners'
to improve their models that estimate both direct and indirect
insurance typically does not cover flood loss (flood insurance
losses of disasters. Such improvements, in turn, would assist
must be purchased separately through the National Flood
policymakers in designing cost-effective mitigation policies by
Insurance Programme, managed by FEMA), and it may not
simulating benefits and costs of alternative policies.
cover earthquake damage unless specifically purchased (and
Fortunately, some cost data for natural disasters are even then, coverage may be limited).
collected in the public and private sectors. So do insurance
A common dilemma that disaster managers and
companies. But data are not now generally available for
policymakers face involves the issue of extending federal
uninsured and indirect losses. More broadly, there is no
financial assistance to homeowners who refuse (or who are
comprehensive and reasonably accurate database that pulls all
unable to do so due to low income) to adequately insure their
of the relevant information together in a way that can be easily
property against disasters, despite warnings or previous
accessed and used by a variety of professionals. In making this
experience with the same type of disaster. Extending federal
observation, we do not mean to suggest that the federal
assistance to those who did not insure and are financially
government should create a database containing loss information
capable of doing so discourages the purchase of insurance and
for every adverse natural event. Instead, the objective should
the adoption of appropriate mitigation measures.
be to compile data on disasters that cross some threshold.
Starting in the late 1980's, FEMA received a regular annual
Who Bears the Loss? appropriation of $320 million to cover the costs of its relief
It is important not only to assemble the total losses of efforts. For fiscal year 1999, Congress reduced this figure to
disasters but also to apportion those losses among all those who $308 million. FEMA's regular annual appropriations, however,
bear them-at least initially. Citizens and policymakers should seldom cover all the costs of federal disaster relief it is responsible
for paying in a single fiscal year. Table 3 lists the ten costliest doller figures are in nominal terms (and thus have not been
disasters measured by FEMA relief payments. Clearly, the adjusted for inflation).
sums shown in the table have greatly exceeded FEMA's
It is important to keep in mind that the federal government
relatively meager annual appropriations. FEMA has been able
is not the only level of government involved in providing disaster
to make its payments only by receiving supplemental
assistance. Local and state governments also shoulder significant
appropriations at various times.
responsibility for managing emergencies. Federal agencies,
Until the Northridge earthquake, these supplementals were particularly FEMA, stimulate and guide emergency planning
treated as emergencies for budget purposes and simply added efforts, furnish substantial response and recovery funding,
to the deficit. Beginning with the Northridge earthquake coordinate response efforts after (and sometimes before) a
supplemental request, Congress required all disaster governor secures help from the president, and fund many
supplementals (for FEMA and other federal agencies) to be disaster mitigation endeavours. In addition, significant costs
offset with cuts in expenditures elsewhere. are borne by volunteer disaster relief organizations, which are
Table 3 Top Ten Disasters Requiring FEMA important sources of loss data.
Assistance (Through Mid-1998) COMMITTEES OF NATURAL DISASTERS
Event Amount of Assistance This committee was requested to identify the cost
(in millions of dollars) components that, when combined, would most accurately reflect
the total cost of a natural disaster event. The committee thus
1994 Northridge, California, earthquake 5,997 identified the data it felt should be consistently used in compiling
1992 Hurricane Andrew (Florida, Louisiana) 1,772 accurate loss estimates.
1989 Hurricane Hugo (North Carolina, South The committee acknowledged that many of the losses in
Carolina, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands) 1,318 natural disasters are intangible and difficult to quantify, such
1993 Midwest floods l,147 as personal anguish, the loss of family treasures, and the
1989 Loma Prieta, California, earthquake 837 disruption of family and work routines. Indeed, these losses
may sometimes be greater than the losses of direct physical
1996 Hurricane Fran (Eastern states) 560
destruction. Despite the importance of such losses, however,
1995 Hurricane Marilyn (Puerto Rico, the great difficulties in objectively measuring them make their
Virgin Islands) 524
use in consistent and accurate loss estimations problematic.
1994 Tropical Storm Alberto
(Alabama, Florida, Georgia) 438
The committee's recommendations for those data to be used
in compiling accurate loss estimates thus focus on direct losses,
1997 Upper Midwest floods (Minnesota,
as they are easier to objectively measure. This chapter is devoted
North Dakota, South Dakota) 425 to direct loss measurement and those direct loss data, which
1996 Mid-Atlantic and northeast floods 366 should be included in loss estimates.
Source: FEMA, 1998. It is useful to distinguish between the physical destruction

caused by natural disasters to human beings and property,
The table excludes Hurricane Georges because payout data which is the subject of the current chapter, and the consequences
were not available at the time the report was prepared. The of that destruction, considered in the next chapter. In economic
terms, physical destruction may be thought of as a loss in asset expenditures on mitigation, provided they are matched to some
value (and is often referred to as the direct loss from the event), degree (with some exceptions) by state and/or local governments.
whereas the consequences of that destruction may be considered
In the balance of this chapter, we address three central
to be the loss of income and/or production and impacts on the
questions:
environment that cannot be readily stated in monetary terms
(all of which are included among a disaster's indirect impacts). • What information about the destruction caused by
natural disasters should ideally be collected and
So-called direct losses in turn consist of two more refined reported?
types of losses. Primary direct losses are those resulting from
the immediate destruction caused by the event, such as • What data about the destructive impacts of natural
shake damage from an earthquake or water and wind damage disasters are actually collected and reported?
from a hurricane. Secondary direct losses are those additional • What steps need to be taken to ensure that all of the
impacts resulting from follow-on physical destruction, such as relevant information about the destruction due to natural
fire following an earthquake (due perhaps to breaks in gas disasters is collected and reported consistently?
lines) or additional water damage to unrepaired structures
Data Relating to Physical Destruction: The Ideal
from rain following a hurricane (as happened after Hurricane
Andrew). Researchers seem never to have enough data. But collecting
A third important distinction is the difference between information is costly for those who must supply it as well as
reimbursed and unreimbursed losses from natural disasters. for those who must compile, organize, and distribute it. The
Reimbursed losses-referred to in this report as the ''costs" of challenge for policymakers interested in obtaining
a natural disaster-include loss claims that are paid by private comprehensive and accurate data on the direct costs of natural
insurers or local, state, and federal governments. In contrast, disasters is to balance the benefits of allowing many
unreimbursed losses are the uncompensated impacts that constituencies (including the government) access to the
victims must bear. information against the costs imposed on others (and the
government) in attempting to collect and distribute it.
Different types of disasters tend to produce different
proportions of reimbursed and unreimbursed losses. For In principle, the desired data should be collected in a
example, a larger fraction of the total losses from earthquakes disaggregated form across several dimensions. Once collected,
typically is unreimbursed-primarily because many consumers the data can be reaggregated and reported in multiple ways,
and businesses choose not to purchase insurance coverage and depending on the purposes for which they may be used.
secondarily because insurance policies for these disasters • Whatever data are compiled should ideally be categorized
typically contain large deductibles-than is the case for hurricanes by type of disaster so that insurers, citizens, and
and other windstorms. It cannot be emphasized too strongly policymakers can be informed of the relative severities
that policymakers concerned with devising effective mitigation and costs of the various events. In our judgment, these
measures must take account of all losses, whether reimbursed should be classified as hurricanes, floods (caused by
or unreimbursed. events other than hurricanes), earthquakes, wildfires,
landslides, volcanic eruptions, drought, winter storms,
Some natural disasters trigger the expenditure of additional
windstorms, hail, tornadoes, and all other events with
resources devoted to mitigating future disasters. For example,
losses above a certain threshold. Different kinds of
presidentially declared disasters generally trigger FEMA
disasters entail different types of losses and it is
important in both the private and public sectors to be insurance. If the roof is blown off, it may be difficult to
aware of these impacts. distinguish which caused the damage first-the roof being
• Similarly, all cost and loss data should be coded by the dislodged or the rising water.
state(s) and, if possible, by county and zip code where • The definition of a "major" natural disaster (for which
the losses occur in order to identify where mitigation loss data are to be compiled) should be consistent. One
measures may be most necessary. In addition, state- definition would include all events that the president
specific data will be essential if the federal government certifies as a "major disaster" under the Stafford Act
is authorized to offer disaster related reinsurance to the (and thus whose victims become eligible for disaster
private market, because it is possible that some coverage assistance provided through FEMA), as well as events
may be offered on a state or regional basis. in which costs rise above a certain dollar threshold
• For each major event (or annually by type of event, as (such as the $25 million now used by PCS). The Robert
the case may be), efforts should be made to collect and T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance
report data for both the type of damage caused, and Act (P.L. 93-288, as amended) is the core statute under
which parties initially bear the losses (we stress the which federal emergency management is conducted.
term "initially" because some losses are eventually The Stafford Act authorizes the president to issue major
passed forward to consumers). Natural disasters disaster or emergency declarations, sets broad eligibility
generally result in the following categories of destruction: criteria, and specifies the type of assistance the president
to property (structures, contents, and transportation may authorize. There necessarily is some element of
vehicles) with different types of owners (individual judgment required in deciding at what point to cut off
residences, businesses, and government-owned the cumulating claims following a specific event or
infrastructure); to agricultural products (crops and whether to treat a series of events-such as several days
livestock); and to people (injuries and death, life of heavy rainfall or an earthquake followed by several
insurance payouts, and medical treatment expenses). aftershocks-as a single event for purposes of satisfying
In addition, disasters require expenditures for response the dollar threshold. Rather than offer specific
and cleanup and temporary living expenses of displaced recommendations for this problem, we suggest that the
people. These losses are absorbed by insurers, agencies we recommend be charged with additional data
governments, businesses, individuals, and collection responsibilities (described later in this chapter)
nongovernmental organizations (such as charities and strive to ensure that the methods used for different
relief agencies). types of disasters are consistent.
• As a practical matter, some loss data that are now • Measuring precisely the losses of natural disasters takes
collected do not (and indeed cannot) distinguish between time. In the case of earthquakes, many victims may not
primary and secondary impacts. But conceptually the know for weeks or months the extent of the damage
distinction is important. As an example, the roofs of their homes or businesses have suffered. Initial loss
homes blown off by hurricanes (a primary impact) will estimates may thus understate actual losses, potentially
be covered by homeowners' insurance. A well-constructed by wide margins. For example, it was several months
home, whose roof stays attached during a hurricane, after the 1994 Northridge earthquake until many
but is damaged by rising water (a secondary impact), building owners realized that their buildings required
is not covered unless the homeowner carries flood major renovation. Ultimately, privately insured damages
from that earthquake, initially estimated at $2.5 billion, used a common threshold for the entire period since 1949-such
exceeded $10 billion. Any comprehensive loss database as the 1997 cutoff of $25 million, adjusted backward in prior
should therefore be held open to reflect revised data years for inflation-the total number of catastrophes in the PCS
(just as economic data are now revised, often years database would be somewhat lower.
later, to take account of new information and methods
The PCS database is the most comprehensive one available
of estimation).
for insured losses generated by natural disasters. One useful
• Ideally, not only should detailed loss data be collected feature of the data is that they are maintained separately for
for all major disasters, but an attempt should also be each major event, by state. A drawback, however, is that the
made to gather as much historical data as are available. data combine rather than disaggregate losses to property,
The more complete the database, the greater use it will contents, business interruption and additional living expenses
be to all potential users-in government and in the private of individuals and families. Another drawback is that the PCS
sector. database does not include damage due to floods, and it combines
cost data for wind and hailstorms and tornadoes.
Direct-Impact Data: The Reality
Separately, the Institute for Business and Home Safety
The reality is short of the ideal. The types of loss data that
(IBHS) in 1994 began to compile more disaggregated catastrophe
are currently collected, at least by some organizations (private
claims information, using the PCS dollar cost thresholds. The
or public), are reviewed below. We do so by identifying the
IBHS database compiles actual paid losses of large insurers
sources of the data, classified by parties that bear those losses.
who account for most of the property-casualty market. Estimates
Insurance Claims are then made (using market shares) of the claims paid by
other, smaller insurers. The IBHS database has the advantage
Disaster-induced losses typically are reimbursed to some
of breaking down damages suffered by businesses and
extent by insurance companies. Many people who die in a
individuals, to buildings and their contents, and by location
natural disaster may have life insurance; others who are injured
(state, county, and zip code).
may carry medical insurance. In principle, these claims data
are kept by the policyholders' insurance companies. As a Neither PCS nor IBHS maintains data on insured claims
practical matter, however, it is not clear to what extent these paid to individuals for injuries and deaths. In principle, these
companies identify claims that are disaster related. data are available from medical and life insurers, but to this
committee's knowledge, no systematic effort has been made by
The situation is clearer for disaster-related property damage.
any organization, public or private, to assemble it.
The most comprehensive database of insurance claims payments
for property damage is the one compiled by Property Claims We recommend that the agency charged with assembling
Services for catastrophe-triggered events. PCS has collected the loss data make use of the PCS and IBHS databases. To the
these data since 1949, using a dollar cost threshold to determine extent the agencies find these sources of information inadequate,
whether an event qualifies as a major disaster. If so, each event we recommend that the federal government work with relevant
is assigned a number and claims for it are updated as they come insurance trade associations and with state insurance
in. As mentioned, the PCS threshold was initially commissioners (either with their trade association, the National
$1 million and has twice been revised upward (to $5 million Association of Insurance Commissioners, or the commissioners
in 1983 and to $25 million in 1997). By these criteria, PCS has of individual states) to obtain data suitable for federal purposes.
collected data on approximately 1,200 catastrophes. If PCS Since the data sought would be aggregated across insurers, it
should not run up against the confidentiality concerns of is conditioned on state matches of 25 percent of the total. The
insurers. president may waive all or part of the state match, which often
occurs in especially large disasters (as was the case in Hurricane
The state insurance commissioners in particular should
Andrew and the Mississippi floods).
have an interest in cooperating with the federal government
in a data collection effort, as they have direct responsibility for FEMA can distribute, however, only the funds that are
overseeing both the rates and the solvency of the insurers who made available to it by the Congress through the appropriations
do business in their states. process. In recent years, FEMA's disaster payments have
In that capacity, they also have the legal means to compel significantly exceeded the agency's annual appropriation for
production of the data. Working with the federal government such assistance (which, as noted in the first chapter, for the
to standardize data requests would ease the burdens on insurers past several years has been $320 million, but in fiscal year 1999
while providing the government and the public with the was lowered to $308 million).
information in the most suitable form. The additional funds have been provided through
One interesting complication with losses to insurers should supplemental appropriations, which until 1995 were added to
be noted. In a worst case, some disasters could be large enough the overall federal budget without offsets (reductions in other
that they force the bankruptcy of one or more insurers (as was expenditures) in other federal programmes. Since then, Congress
the case with Hurricane Andrew). In that event, claims on has required cuts in appropriations of other agencies to pay for
insurers would appear to exceed the losses that the industry supplemental disaster aid.
actually bears. In fact, this is not likely to be the case. States FEMA maintains current and historical data on the
have guaranty funds, which pay claims of failed insurers. These assistance it pays, by event, by state, and by type of aid: for
funds typically are financed by post-event assessments on other, infrastructure damage, payments to individuals for property
surviving insurers doing business in the state. As a result, the damage, and payments to individuals for adjustment (temporary
insurance industry as a whole is almost certainly likely to bear housing, unemployment, inspections, crisis counseling, and legal
all of the claims on it even though individual insurers might services). In addition, FEMA separately maintains data on
be forced into insolvency. grants and contracts for mitigation of hazards. FEMA does not,
Losses to Government however, maintain data on private-sector costs arising from
disasters.
All branches of government-federal, state, and local and
tribal-bear losses associated with natural disasters, which fall The Small Business Administration (SBA) is another
into four categories. important source of disaster aid, providing low-interest (between
4-8 percent) loans to credit worthy businesses and individuals
First, the largest costs are disaster payments made to
(approximately 60 percent of disaster victims who apply) who
individuals and businesses by the various governments,
have suffered property damage from a disaster. The SBA
primarily agencies of the federal government.
currently compiles its lending data by event and by type of
The main source of federal disaster aid is FEMA, which property (and could, if given the resources, aggregate the
provides grants to individuals, states, and local governments assistance by type of disaster).
suffering damage due to presidentially declared disasters. When
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) also offers
the president declares an area eligible for disaster assistance,
lending assistance to farmers and ranchers for losses to crops
FEMA makes money available to the states, which normally
and livestock due to disasters declared by the president or HHS provides a modest amount of health care assistance
governors. It is important to note that the true costs of federal out of its own budget). And perhaps the largest response
loan programmes are not measured by the total amount of costs are those that fall on the Department of Interior, which
loans disbursed, but instead by the present value of the interest typically spends several hundred million dollars a year fighting
subsidies on those loans. fires.
Second, governments bear damage-related losses to the Finally, the federal government operates two major
buildings and infrastructure they own. To a significant extent, insurance programmes that offer coverage-and thus make
the federal government assumes much of the costs that otherwise payouts-for certain disaster-induced damages.
would be borne by the states and localities. For example, The U.S. Department of Agriculture provides insurance
damaged buildings owned by state and local governments (and covering crop losses from a range of weather-related impacts
certain nonprofit organizations) are eligible for compensation (e.g., drought, flood, hail, excess moisture), and losses due to
by FEMA if the disasters are large enough to merit a presidential insects.
declaration.
The department collects data on loss payouts by type of
The Federal Highway Administration (FHA) compensates crop but not by type of disaster. Meanwhile, the National Flood
states for up to 90 percent of the costs associated with the Insurance Programme (NFIP), provides flood insurance to
repair of roads if a disaster is declared either by the president businesses and individuals in flood-prone areas.
or the state's governor.
The NFIP includes three essential components: risk
In addition, the Department of Housing and Urban identification, hazard mitigation, and insurance. While the
Development (HUD) provides funds for repair of damaged authority for the NFIP rests with FEMA, effective integration
housing and public facilities through its regular Community of these three components requires cooperation between the
Development Block Grant programme (some portion of whose federal, state, and local governments and the private property
grants some localities use for disaster recovery) or, in the event insurance sector (Pasterick, 1998). By definition, the losses
of large disasters, through supplemental appropriations granted from this programme are well identified with a single type of
by Congress. disaster (although it is not clear if the data on flood losses can
be broken out by type of loss-that is, to structures, personal
The federal government also bears the losses of damages
property, and the like).
to property that it owns directly. Obvious examples include
damaged federal buildings and facilities. Less known but often The growth in the costs of natural disasters during the
significant are damages caused by drought, fires, and floods to 1990's-both to the private sector and to the government-suggests
federally owned land and forests. For example, the Mississippi that federal, state, and local governments should adopt a more
floods of 1993 caused $143 million in damages to federal facilities systematic approach to data collection for their disaster costs.
(Changnon, 1996b). Such a database would be useful for several reasons:
Third, all levels of government bear costs in responding to • A comprehensive data base and accompanying report
disasters, although for major disasters FEMA compensates would inform policymakers in both the executive and
local and state governments for their response and cleanup. In legislative branches, as well as the broader public, how
addition, FEMA reimburses the Department of Health and sizable these losses probably are and clarify which
Human Services (HHS) for post-disaster counseling (although government agencies actually deliver disaster-related
aid and services. In addition, this information is critical on taxpayer-supported government expenditures. As it
for developing and implementing cost-effective ways to is, the prospect that they might receive some disaster
mitigate the losses of natural disasters. aid reduces the incentive of individuals and businesses
to purchase insurance to cover such expenses. What
• Comprehensive data on the federal government's
many uninsured individuals and businesses may not
spending on disasters would assist both the executive
realize is that although they may well receive some
and legislative branches in budgeting and planning for
compensation from the federal government if they are
disaster-related expenditures. The committee recognizes
victims of a major disaster, the federal aid is unlikely
that members of each branch have incentives not to
to be as generous or promptly paid as it would be if the
budget all such expenditures in advance, as there are
individuals opted to purchase insurance. To the extent
political gains from appearing to take concrete actions
individuals and businesses in areas subject to
in the immediate aftermath of a disaster, such as
catastrophic hazards are informed of the limits of federal
proposing and voting on large disaster relief
aid for disasters, it is possible that some who now are
supplementals (additional items in the federal budget).
uninsured, perhaps out of ignorance, will buy insurance,
However, the short-run political gains have economic
modify existing structures to better withstand disaster
consequences: the supplementals require offsetting cuts
impacts, or otherwise internalize risks that the
in other programmes in midyear, as has been the case government (and taxpayers) now carry.
since the Northridge supplemental considered by
Congress in 1995. Offsets randomly interrupt the Losses to Businesses
functioning of other parts of the federal government, To the extent businesses have insurance for property
delaying the delivery of services and potentially adding damage, their covered losses are included in the losses borne
to the cost of implementing or developing government by insurance companies. Nonetheless, because insurance policies
programmes. The availability of a comprehensive data carry deductibles, even insured commercial operations suffer
base, with suitable historical data, might enable some losses, whereas businesses that self-insure for natural
policymakers to smooth out disaster-related costs by disasters absorb all of the losses themselves.
budgeting them at actuarially appropriate levels, with
any surpluses banked in a reserve to be drawn down Business losses are, for all practical purposes, not covered
in years when actual payouts are larger than anticipated. by government disaster programmes (though both homeowners
But even small steps toward better planning, short of and businesses can write off their uninsured losses for tax
establishing a single or multiple disaster accounts in purposes). To be sure, the Small Business Administration and
the appropriations process, cannot be taken until and the U.S. Department of Agriculture provide loans for
unless the information is compiled. reconstruction, but a loan is still a loan, not a grant. Even
businesses that qualify for federal lending assistance eventually
• Assembling the federal government's disaster cash
bear the full losses themselves. In 1993 the flooded railroads
payouts data can also be usefully compared to the tally
in the Midwest experienced uninsured losses of $169 million
of losses absorbed by the private sector (insured and
(Changnon, 1996a).
self-insured). Such a comparison would reveal the
relative financial burdens of the government and the In principle, insurers who pay claims made by businesses
private sector in connection with disasters. It might also have the data to compute the total amounts of deductibles that
encourage greater use of insurance rather than reliance their commercial clients must absorb, but no organization
currently compiles that information. In addition, some federal amounts of their deductibles for given events or types of
agencies may have data on their disaster-related loans that disasters. Similarly, it should be possible for FEMA and/or
could permit estimates to be made of the losses incurred by other government agencies that now provide disaster aid to
businesses that qualify for federal loans (although these data individuals to ascertain their total property damages.
may not be disaggregated by kind of disaster, location, or type
In practice, none of these data on self-insured losses absorbed
of damage-that is, to structures or contents).
by individuals are systematically compiled by any organization.
To the committee's knowledge, there is no organization The same is true with respect to losses suffered by individuals
that maintains data on disaster-related losses absorbed by who do not qualify for or who do not seek either private insurance
businesses that self-insure. payments or government assistance.
Losses to Individuals Even more important than the monetary damages suffered
by individuals in disasters are the injuries and fatalities that
Finally, many individuals also self-insure some or all of
often occur. Through the National Weather Service (NWS), the
their losses from disasters, although the extent of reinsurance
federal government currently collects comprehensive data on
varies by type of disaster. According to information supplied
injuries and fatalities in all weather-related events, however
by a PCS representative, roughly 95 percent of buildings
small.
damaged by hurricanes are typically insured, whereas only
about 10-15 percent of all California homes are covered by These data are provided to FEMA. As valuable as it is, the
earthquake insurance. NWS data set contains two shortcomings for purposes of this
report: it excludes fatalities and injuries from earthquakes and
Similarly, most potential victims of flood damage do not
other geohazards, and it is not clear if the data on disasters
purchase insurance through the National Flood Insurance
below some dollar loss threshold can be easily separated from
Programme. For example, in the 1993 Mississippi River flooding
the larger disasters that, in our view, should be the primary
these numbers were disturbingly low: ''in the counties and
focus of a comprehensive federal disaster data collection effort.
communities affected, it is estimated that no more than 10
percent of insurable properties had flood insurance coverage" Standardizing Loss Estimates
(Wright, 1996). As with businesses, even insured individuals
In addition to the lack of a comprehensive database, there
carry deductibles on their policies.
exists no standardized estimation technique or framework for
Other individuals may receive some federal aid, which may compiling loss estimates from individual disasters. Most
or may not fully compensate their property losses and temporary estimates are ad hoc, consisting of those losses that were
expenses. And still other individuals and their families may significant in a particular event. As a result, the range of loss
suffer losses but receive no compensation from either private estimates of a natural disaster tends to vary widely, sometimes
or public sources. as much as 10-fold.
For example, a 1997-winter storm caused $25 million of Table 2 is an example of one framework used in compiling
uninsured losses to property owners in Lincoln, Nebraska, and a loss estimate for Hurricane Andrew. This estimate, like all
a 1996 snowstorm in Cleveland caused homeowners $5 million others, is not standardized, and different groups and individuals
in uninsured losses. compiled their own, unique loss estimates from Hurricane
Andrew. There is a range of loss estimates following a disaster,
Again, in principle, insurance companies-property-casualty
but no official estimate (or official scorekeeper).
and medical-should be able to compute or estimate the total
Table 2. Current Dollar Estimates of $30 Billion in The lack of a consistent framework for loss estimation
Damages Directly Related to Hurricane Andrew in makes it difficult to accurately compare the losses of natural
South Florida. disaster events to one another.
Type of Loss Amount Sources and Notes For example, did Hurricane Georges actually cause less
(billions of damage than Hurricane Hugo or was the loss estimation
dollars) framework simply different?
Common insured 16.5 Sheets, 1994; includes homes, And of the varying estimates of losses, which one is to be
private property mobile homes, commercial and consistently used? Clearly, the lack of a standard framework
industrial properties and their makes it extremely difficult to accurately identify trends in
contents, boats, autos, farm natural disaster losses.
equipment and structures, etc.
Moreover, this inability makes it more difficult for the
Uninsured homes 0.35 Miami Herald, 16 February 1993,
reported in Rappaport, 1993.
federal government to identify which disaster mitigation policies
represent the more cost-effective options.
Federal disaster 6.5 Anderson et al., 1992; represents
package 90% of $7.2 billion package (the In an effort to help standardize the data used in estimating
rest went to Louisiana). the direct losses in natural disasters, we suggest the framework
Public infrastructure shown in Table 3.
State 0.050 Filkins, 1994; tax revenue shortfall. This table could be refined by distributing it to parties
County 0.287 Rappaport, 1993. affected by disasters and asking them for input regarding
additional items to be included.
City 0.060 Tanfani, 1992; Miami only.
Schools 1.0 Rappaport, 1993. If used consistently, this framework should allow the federal
government to begin to compile more consistent loss estimates,
Agriculture
better understand trends in losses, and ultimately provide a
Damages 1.04 McNair, 1992a,b. basis for better decisions in hazard mitigation policy.
Lost sales 0.48 Fatsis, 1992.
The committee recommends that this framework be applied
Environment 2.124 Rappaport, 1993; includes state to all of the various types of hazards identified earlier in this
request for cleanup and repair of
chapter.
parks, marinas, beaches, and reefs.
Aircraft 0.02 Rappaport, 1993. In compiling data for loss estimates, it is generally
recommended that losses be calculated as the cost required to
Food claims 0.096 FEMA Flood Insurance
restore buildings and structures to their pre-disaster condition.
Administration, reported in
Rappaport, 1993. Different hazards naturally affect structures, infrastructure,
and people differently.
Red Cross 0.070 Swenson, 1993.
Defense Department 1.412 GAO, 1993; for DOE and USACE
Use of the framework proposed in Table 3 should promote
expenses during recovery. a more systematic compilation of the types of losses associated
with different disasters.
Source: Pielke, 1995.
Table 3: Sample Data on Direct Impacts per Each Recommendations

"Major" Event (dollar amounts should be entered in
We recommend the following steps be taken:
each cell in the table, except for human losses)
Recommendation 1: One agency of the federal government
Who Initially Bears The Loss
should be made responsible for compiling a comprehensive
Type of Loss Insurers Government Business Individuals NGO data base containing the losses of natural disasters, adhering
to the structure outlined in Table 3 wherever it is feasible. The
Property:
committee believes that the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA)
Government within the U.S. Department of Commerce, in consultation with
Structures FEMA and other federal agencies involved in natural disaster
Contents preparedness, response, and mitigation activities, is best suited
Business for this purpose.
Structures
The U.S. Department of Commerce is a logical agency to
Contents
carry out this assignment because two of its major components
Residential
already have related responsibilities: the National Weather
Structures Service compiles loss estimates for all weather-related disasters
Contents and the Bureau of Economic Analysis regularly compiles and
Landscapes reports data on the nation's economic performance, an activity
Autos, boats and planes closely related to collecting and reporting data on the economic
Infrastructure: impacts of natural disasters. Along with the Census Bureau
Utilities and STAT-USA, BEA is part of the Commerce Department's
Transportation Economics and Statistics Administration.
Agricultural products:
BEA's mission is to produce and disseminate accurate,
Crops timely, and relevant statistics that provide government,
Livestock businesses, households, and individuals with a comprehensive,
Human losses: up-to-date picture of economic activity. BEA's national, regional,
Deaths and international economic accounts present basic information
Injuries on key issues such as U.S. economic growth, regional economic
Cleanup and response costs development, and the nation's position in the world economy.
Adjustment costs, temporary living aid The BEA develops its figures of economic performance in a
setting relatively free of political bias and vested interests. For
Note: If possible, direct primary and secondary losses should be
tabulated separately. all these reasons, it appears to be the agency most capable of
compiling consistent disaster loss estimates to the nation.
a. Ideally, losses of federal, state, and local and tribal
governments should be separately collected and recorded. In compiling its loss estimates on earthquakes in particular,
the U.S. Department of Commerce should draw on the data
b Includes costs of added police protection immediately
supplied by state, local, and regional governments that use the
after the event.
HAZUS (Hazards, U.S.) earthquake loss estimation tools
c. Includes expenditures of charities such as the Red Cross. developed by the National Institute of Building Sciences for
FEMA. The data bases, tools (e.g., GIS), and engineering and and the estimated cost of repairing projected damage and other
technical knowledge used in the HAZUS model for earthquake effects. Not only can HAZUS be used to estimate local impacts,
loss estimation appear to be applicable to estimating losses it can be used to compare seismic risks across regions throughout
from major hurricanes. As such, Commerce should explore with the continental United States.
FEMA the prospects for extending the HAZUS model to cover
HAZUS aims to provide local, state, and regional officials
loss estimation from major hurricanes.
information to plan for earthquakes, mitigate against future
The U.S. Department of Commerce might also find it useful losses, and prepare for emergency response and recovery. In
to solicit comments on Table 3 and specifically should request addition, HAZUS may be used to prepare a quick loss estimate
interested parties to identify types of loss data that could be following an earthquake or to provide the basis to assess the
collected at reasonable cost following a major disaster. Similarly, nationwide risk of losses from earthquakes.
the U.S. Department of Commerce could make use of simulation Recommendation 2: The agency charged with the overall
models such as the HAZUS model used by FEM.
data collection should obtain insured paid claims data from
It is worth noting that a programme for the collection of available sources, such as PCS and IBHS.
accurate natural disaster loss data must proceed on various
In addition, the agency should work with relevant trade
time scales. That is, some post disaster information tends to
associations, especially the National Association of Insurance
dissipate rapidly, requiring a rapid response with professional
Commissioners (NAIC), to obtain any additional data that may
expertise. Other loss information can take a long time to stabilize,
be useful. The NAIC could be instrumental in achieving
requiring a long-term commitment to data collection.
consensus among state regulators to induce regulated insurance
Finally, any agency charged with the additional data companies to provide the appropriate data. The agency charged
collection responsibilities recommended here should be given with data collection should do its best to avoid double counting
an appropriate level of resources to do the job effectively. losses reported by different sources.
FEMA and the National Institute of Building Safety (NIBS) Recommendation 3: The agency charged with data
have developed an earthquake loss estimation methodology collection responsibilities must also strive to collect data on
entitled HAZUS (Hazards, U.S.). This software programme losses incurred by uninsured individuals, businesses, and
was developed to help provide a standardized methodology for governments that are not otherwise reimbursed by disaster aid
estimating the losses associated with earthquakes. FEMA began from some other level of government (typically the federal
work on HAZUS in October 1992 and released the programme government).
in the spring of 1997.
Several avenues for estimating the disaster losses absorbed
HAZUS uses mathematical formulas and information about by the uninsured should be explored, including: (1) post-event
building stock, local geology and the location and size of potential sampling (for very large disasters); (2) extrapolations from
earthquakes, economic data, and other information to estimate other data bases, such as the data compiled by the SBA from
losses from potential earthquakes. HAZUS a geographic loan applicants who presumably are not insured or not well-
information system (GIS) to map and display ground shaking insured; (3) data compiled by insurers and commercial sources
the patterns of building damage, and local demographic of insurance data (such as PCS) that may indicate the amounts
information. Given a hypothetical earthquake event, HAZUS of deductibles absorbed by individuals and businesses who do
estimates (among other things) the violence of ground shaking, receive insurance payments; and (4) extrapolations from insured
the number of buildings damaged, the number of casualties, claims data.
Recommendation 4: The federal agency charged with To carry out such an exercise it would be necessary for
the overall data collection effort should encourage and work OMB (working with FEMA and the federal agency charged
with states and localities to collect disaster-related data. with the more comprehensive data collection effort) to develop
a standardized definition of what events to include in the
Such data need not be reported to the federal government
database. One obvious defining characteristic could be dollar
after every disaster but could be reported annually. Congress
loss above a certain threshold, as determined by a preliminary
could amend the Stafford Act to require such reporting as a
assessment of direct losses (for example, by using loss estimation
condition for states and localities to receive federal disaster aid
models such as HAZUS). In this connection, the relevant
in the future, although such a requirement could be viewed as
agencies should explore with organizations that currently
an unfunded mandate and thus subject to further analysis
maintain insurance claims data the feasibility of using different
before being implemented. In addition, it is not clear if the
dollar cost thresholds than the ones they may currently be
federal government has the legal authority to audit any cost
using (such as the $25 million per-event threshold now employed
data submitted by the states and localities. This hurdle might
by PCS) for purposes of determining which events should be
be overcome, however, if the National Emergency Management
included in the data base. It may also be appropriate to add
Association (NEMA) developed ways to collect the data from
human losses to the defining criteria.
the individual states. FEMA should work with NEMA to bring
this result about. The committee recognizes that because it may not be
Recommendation 5: The Office of Management and possible, or practical in light of the costs, to require all agencies
immediately to work with a standardized definition. Accordingly,
Budget, in consultation with FEMA, should develop annual,
the use of any agreed upon definition should be phased in over
comprehensive estimates of the payouts for all disaster costs
some reasonable period. Once the standard becomes effective,
incurred by federal agencies.
it should not be costly for agencies to organize their data
As outlined above, these costs at the very least should be around it. If modest resources were appropriated, it would also
broken down into four categories: compensation payments to be useful for the agencies to reorganize their historical cost
individuals and businesses (including the estimated subsidy data to be consistent, to the extent possible, with the new
cost of any loans designed to help cover disaster-related definitions so policymakers would have sufficient data from the
expenses); response costs; losses to government-owned past to make long-term projections.
infrastructure (including both state and local costs that are
Recommendation 6: An effort should be made to collect
reimbursed by the federal government and damage to federally
loss data for direct primary and secondary losses separately.
owned facilities and property); and payouts from federal
insurance programmes (with annual premium receipts being Secondary losses can be significantly affected by the
shown separately). It would also be useful if the data in each availability and effectiveness of emergency response measures.
category were disaggregated by type of event and loss (such as Separate data on secondary losses can help policymakers to
losses to buildings, other infrastructure, and compensation for assess existing response measures, in design and in practice,
lost income, in the case of disaster-related unemployment and to develop improvements in the future.
insurance payments). Furthermore, to provide some perspective
on current and future loss estimates, it would be extremely INDIRECT LOSSES OF NATURAL DISASTERS
helpful if these data were assembled for some historical period. Indirect losses of natural disasters, or losses resulting from
The results could be published in OMB's Analytical Perspectives the consequences of physical destruction, have not been
that accompanies the annual budget.
measured, studied, and modeled to the same extent as direct may be lumped with other types of insurance payments. In the
losses (the monetized losses of physical destruction). Recent case of unemployment insurance, it may be difficult to separate
unprecedented business interruption losses-$6.5 billion in claims attributable to the disaster and claims that would have
Northridge (Gordon and Richardson, 1995) and a staggering arisen as a consequence of typical business and economic cycles.
$100 billion of interruption losses in the 1995 Kobe earthquake-
Limited available sources of data and the often high cost
have focused attention on the need for more intensive scientific
of primary data collection have led to attempts to measure
study and measurement of these indirect losses. Evidence to
indirect losses using statistical models of the type that have
date suggests that the proportion of indirect impacts increases
long been utilized for economic forecasting and economic impact
in larger disasters, and thus may constitute a larger fraction
analysis. A modeling approach is also potentially able to project
of total losses and damage in large disasters than in smaller
expected future outcomes over a period of years, and estimate
disasters (Gordon and Richardson, 1995 and Toyoda, 1997).
indirect losses associated with a particular actual event. The
By their nature, indirect losses are harder to measure than forward-looking capability is critical for developing simulation
losses stemming directly from physical damage. For example, models for planning mitigation and emergency responses.
a ruptured power line is readily observed and the cost of its
Recent studies evaluating model-based estimates suggest
repair evaluated. Far less obvious are losses such as those of
that the models designed for traditional economic forecasting
industries that are forced to close down because they lack
and impact analysis do not accurately estimate indirect effects
critical power supplies, firms with power that lose business
that occur in the wake of a natural disaster. These models must
because suppliers or buyers lacked power, and firms that lose
be substantially revised in order to be reliable in estimating
business because employees of firms affected by the power
indirect effects. Prospects of their long-run cost-effectiveness
outage have reduced incomes and consequently spent less.
compared with primary data collection helps justify the research
Compared to a natural disaster's direct effects, indirect losses
and testing necessary to make the needed revisions.
are more difficult to identify and measure, and are generally
spread over a much wider area. This chapter identifies types of indirect effects and critiques
current methods of measuring indirect losses, particularly
Additionally, there are almost no programmes or processes
existing modeling methodologies. It also describes ways in which
in place to draw upon in measuring indirect losses. Two
models can be more usefully employed to generate reasonable
exceptions to this observation are business interruption
estimates of indirect losses. Our recommendations cumulatively
insurance and unemployment insurance. The usefulness of
constitute an agenda that addresses the current lack of
these data are limited, as many firms do not carry business
information on indirect effects of natural disasters. As we believe
interruption insurance, and that many indirect effects may not
that the Bureau of Economic Analysis could best assume
qualify for reimbursement under such insurance. Similarly,
responsibility for the collection of data on direct losses, we
unemployment insurance data do not adequately reflect
conclude that the BEA should also be charged with implementing
employment and income losses that may occur in the wake of
the recommendations outlined in this chapter. Many of these
a natural disaster. For many, proving eligibility can be
recommendations call for new studies, surveys, and research.
troublesome; for others, the key impact is not unemployment
Our knowledge of the losses exacted by natural disasters in the
per se but reduced work and income that does not qualify for
United States is fragmented and woefully incomplete. If
programme assistance. In both situations, the coverage problem
significant strides are to be made in reducing those losses,
is exacerbated by the complexity of extracting the information
sufficient funding will be required to support the studies and
from existing sources. Business interruption reimbursements
research described in this report.
Types of Indirect Losses Disasters also have longer-term indirect impacts: altered
migration flows, changes in development and housing values
In the short-term, disasters can produce indirect losses and
resulting from changes in insurance costs, reduced consumption
gains. Losses include:
(if borrowing occurred to repair and replace damaged structures
• Induced losses in sales, wages, and/or profits due to loss and goods), and altered government expenditures that derive
of function. The inability to operate may derive from from new patterns of migration and development.
either direct physical damage to commercial structures
or from infrastructure failure. From a very broad temporal and spatial perspective, the
net indirect economic impacts of disasters may be zero. Though,
• Input/output losses to firms forward-linked or backward- this may seem counter-intuitive, measured over the entire
linked in production to businesses closed as a result of economy, the negative and positive effects may cancel out. Still,
direct physical damage or infrastructure failure. precisely because the winners and losers are different groups
Slowdowns or shutdowns are induced by reductions in of individuals and businesses, redistributional indirect impacts
demands for inputs and supplies of outputs from of disasters are not zero.
damaged firms.
These are three key reasons for identifying and measuring
• Spending reductions from the income losses triggered indirect impacts of disasters: (1) to inform plans for assistance
by firm closures or cutbacks-so-called multiplier, or to disaster victims; (2) to value mitigation measures; and, (3)
ripple, effects. Employees of the firms experiencing to plan emergency response programmes. Indirect losses of
reduced production and sales suffer income losses and concern to (1) and (3) are losses that occur in the immediate
subsequently curtail their own expenditures, initiating region of impact near the time of the event. To the extent that
a new round of firm cutbacks. mitigation costs are to be borne primarily by persons and firms
In addition, disasters may generate short-term gains from: in the immediate area of potential impact, then region-specific
net loss savings are the pertinent impacts. Even if the mitigation
• Changes in future production, employment, and income
is federally funded, region-specific savings may still be more
and/or changes in these flows outside the damaged area
relevant than total savings. Assuming federal aid to immediate
(and the ripple effects thereof). Current production
victims continues, there is a legitimate societal interest in
outside the immediate area of impact or future
preventing those immediate losses. The valuation of mitigation
production within the affected region may compensate
measures should logically include long-run regional impacts
for initial disaster-induced losses.
(like the delayed responses to nationwide drought in the 1930s
• Income gains outside the impact area to owners of and 1950s), but the substantial passage of time between disaster
commodities inflated in price by disaster-induced and impact renders measurement of these phenomena
shortages. Both agricultural commodities lost in a particularly formidable.
disaster and construction materials demanded during
Recommendation 1: Measurement, study and modeling
reconstruction are particularly likely to generate these
of indirect losses of natural disasters should concentrate on
windfall profits outside the region.
those losses that occur in the region of impact near the time
• Positive economic stimuli of jobs and production of the event. The geographic boundaries and the time horizon
generated from cleaning up and rebuilding and the over which the measurement of indirect losses should occur
multiplier effect of those increases. need to be defined and standardized.
Current Methods using the primary survey data collected pursuant to

Recommendation 3.
Two methods of ex post measurement of indirect flow losses
have been identified by Brookshire et al. (1997). The first relies Recommendations 3 and 3 address necessary measurement
upon surveys of businesses and households (primary data), and of indirect losses after natural disasters. However, ex post
the second utilizes secondary data such as tabulations of measurement by itself does not directly address the three
insurance claims, small business loans, and other forms of primary purposes noted above for quantifying indirect effects.
disaster relief. In fact, however, there are no mechanisms to Determining appropriate amounts of resources for victims of
systematically ensure that surveys are conducted, nor is there disasters cannot wait until after a disaster (when a survey
a standard survey format. As a result, no database exists that might be conducted). Valuing mitigation requires estimation of
would allow the calibration of sophisticated simulation models expected loss savings over time. Measurement of actual losses
of indirect losses to study low-probability events with potentially from one particular event contributes only limited information
very large indirect losses. The lack of such a database has in for that purpose. Finally, planning emergency response
turn inhibited development of simple, rule-of-thumb necessarily must precede a disaster.
relationships that might permit efficient estimation of indirect
These ex ante approaches require a modeling methodology
losses for many purposes.
that permits forecasting (or simulation) of indirect losses.
Recommendation 2: The agency charged with collecting Standard regional economic forecasting or impact models have
the direct loss data should commission surveys for the collection been used to "predict" indirect losses of natural disasters. These
of detailed indirect economic loss data from recent disasters, include input-output (I-O) impact models (e.g., Rose and
and establish a programme for consistently collecting such data Benavides, 1997; NIBS, 1997; Boisevert, 1992; Cochrane, 1997),
on future disasters until a secondary methodology for ''standard" computable general equilibrium models (Brookshire and McKee,
disasters can be validated. Once an adequate indirect loss 1992; Boisevert, 1995), and simultaneous equation econometric
database is established, such survey data should be collected models (Ellison et al., 1984; Guimares et al., 1993; West and
for all future disasters that have initial total losses (based on Lenze, 1994).
model projections) that exceed $10 billion (in 1998 dollars).
The evidence to date suggests that such models appear to
Because survey data collection is relatively expensive, even overstate both indirect regional economic losses from natural
when the survey has a narrowly limited time and location, it disasters and indirect regional economic gains from
would be desirable to develop a method based on secondary reconstruction. For example, using historical analogies to other
data to use in ex post estimation of indirect losses for most earthquakes, Kimbell and Bolton (1994) estimated that
natural disasters. Initially, however, it is necessary to build a reconstruction following the Northridge earthquake would add
data bank of estimated losses from primary survey data to 20,000 jobs to the Los Angeles economy over four quarters. This
validate the indirect methods. Once an adequate database has estimate is far below the 270,000-job gain predicted by Cochrane
been established, continued surveys of major events are essential et al. (1996) for the entire rebuilding period (i.e., approximately
to better understand the significance of indirect losses in larger 3 years) using an input-output methodology. Actual data for
disasters. the Los Angeles area following the earthquake are not consistent
Recommendation 3: A study to validate alternative with such a large positive impact (Bolton and Kimbell, 1995).
Similarly, West (1996), analyzed regional econometric model
techniques for estimating indirect losses from secondary data
simulations of the impact of Hurricane Andrew published in
should be conducted. This study would test proposed methods
West and Lenze (1994) and concluded they were clearly too
high, not by a whole order of magnitude, but perhaps by 70 to Optimal Methods

85 percent.
The study suggested in Recommendation 4 would provide
The core of the problem with statistically based regional an important component of a model system for measuring
models is that the historical relationships embodied in these indirect economic flow effects. But to use such a model for
models are likely to be disrupted in a natural disaster. planning emergency response and valuing mitigation activities,
Temporary or emergency measures taken after disasters are one needs a microsimulation model to generate a timeline of
not characteristic of usual socioeconomic conditions, and are regional commercial/industrial closures (or cutbacks) that trigger
therefore not reflected in the model. Economic resiliency can indirect losses. A microsimulation model simulates the behaviour
be expected from changes in historical regional production of individual units, such as businesses or households. It contains
functions, changes in historical purchase and sale patterns, a set of rules that define the behaviour of each unit (the rules
temporary reassignment of labour from outside the area, may be probabilistic). The model provides information on an
increased overtime of labour in shortage, and temporary housing exogenous event (such as a natural disaster), allows the
arrangements (such as doubling up with relatives or residing individual unit to respond, and then aggregates the results
in a hotel). from those units to estimate the impacts on the economy, the
market, or industries and businesses. The model may also
In short, regional economic models have been developed
provide iterative feedback to the individual units.
over time primarily to forecast future economic conditions or
to estimate the effects of a permanent change (e.g., the opening The type of microsimulation model we envision, focused on
or closing of a manufacturing plant). The abruptness, specific buildings and structures, has five major components:
impermanence, and often-unprecedented intensity of a natural 1. a regional data base;
disaster does not fit the event pattern upon which most regional
economic models are based. The models are thus inappropriate 2. an event-to-loss mapping capability;
for simulating natural disaster losses. There has been relatively 3. an emergency infrastructure repair response algorithm;
little analysis on how to modify these models in order to increase 4. a private commercial/industrial repair response
their accuracy for disaster loss analysis. Secondary regional algorithm; and
data currently available on sales, employment, wages, and
income following natural disasters provide an opportunity to 5. a residential reconstruction algorithm.
test possible model modifications, but this testing has not been Data and techniques available for developing these five
systematically undertaken. components differ, and the need to fill in critical information
Recommendation 4: A study to test regional economic and methodological gaps leads to the remaining
model modifications for disaster loss analysis should be recommendations of this section.
conducted. Such a study would utilize secondary regional data The first component of the suggested microsimulation model,
currently available on sales, employment, wages, and income a regional database, should contain a fully geocoded inventory
following natural disasters. of structures and infrastructure capable of identifying
This recommendation focuses on efficiently using currently commercial/industrial closures from specific structure and
available secondary data, a critical first round of work that lifeline (roads, water, and electricity) losses. Critical documented
logically precedes collection of new primary data for supporting aspects of each structure include: typical input-output linkages
such model-based approaches. to the regional economy; potential substitutes from outside the
regional economy for traditional regional input-output linkages; methods (to determine process-determined lifeline needs). Such
infrastructure critical and feasible for bringing employees to a survey is critical if existing models of physical damages for
work; in the case of retailing and service establishments, determining indirect losses are to be effective. Accurate
infrastructure critical and feasible for bringing customers to estimation of indirect losses requires clear knowledge of the
other places of business; numbers of employees and wages of levels of direct damage and business resiliency.
employee; and profit income in the region.
We now consider the remaining features of the suggested
Much of the data on firm location, employment, and wages microsimulation model. The second module would ideally
are currently available from reports already required by the determine which commercial/industrial closures would occur
federal-state cooperative programme on unemployment due to direct damage to buildings, loss of lifelines to businesses,
insurance. Considerable study has also been done on modeling and loss of lifelines critical for transporting employees and/or
building and lifeline performance in natural disasters. The customers. The model's third element would determine how
missing links are how lifeline losses and building losses long these losses of functionality occur. This depends on the
determine closures. Kiremidjian et al. (1997) estimated the timeline for infrastructure repair. The fourth part of the model
effects of water system loss on Palo Alto, California, for two characterizes private commercial/industrial repair response.
scenario events.
Repair time is critical to implementing the ideal model's
These studies illustrate the importance of lifeline availability third and fourth modules (Chang et al., 1996; Shinozuka et al.,
for economic functionality, but there are no comprehensive 1997; Shinozuka et al., 1998). However, this parameter is one
models that systematically relate these phenomena. Similarly of the more uncertain parameters in the modeling process.
lacking is research on the role of building damage in determining There are many ways in which a damaged lifeline can be
indirect losses. repaired. Thus, in the best cases outages may last only a few
minutes or hours (Lopez et al., 1994); but in the worst,
Some survey data on lifeline resiliency have been collected.
interruptions can last several months, as after the 1995 Kobe
Several years ago, the Disaster Research Center (DRC) of the
earthquake (Takada and Ueno, 1995). Experience teaches us
University of Delaware conducted an extensive survey of
that such losses are initially, primarily a function of restoration
businesses in the Memphis region. Specific questions were
time, but then tend to increase exponentially as restoration
asked regarding the degree of dependency on different lifeline
time is extended.
services and the amount of time that each business could operate
without full service. This information needs to be extended Similarly, there are very limited data on length of time to
beyond lifelines and to other parts of the United States to recover full use of a commercial/industrial building. The Applied
better understand regional resiliency to natural disasters. Technology Council (1985) provides heuristic estimates used in
Recommendation 5: A range of businesses in different NIBS (1997) and Kiremidjian et al. (1997). However, there are
no formal simulation models of restoration that parallel
regions of the United States should be surveyed to determine
simulation models of physical damage. Restoration depends
their resiliency to: (1) physical building damage (including
not just on physical damage but also on the capacity of the
feasibility of short-term relocation); (2) loss of infrastructure
construction industry and the ability to move needed materials
and utilities (roads, bridges, electricity, water, gas), and;
and labour to the disaster area.
(3) loss of traditional suppliers and markets. Results should be
verified by statistical methods (to examine consistency of results Recommendation 6: A formal restoration model that
by nature of business and size of business) and engineering utilizes available technical and economic data and is consistent
with observations from actual natural disasters should be CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
developed. Development of such a model may well uncover
This report has explained the gaps in our knowledge of
additional data needs. These likely would relate to physical and
natural disaster losses and why these gaps should be filled.
economic aspects of the construction industry and could be
Poor knowledge of the resulting economic losses hinders
incorporated into questionnaires for existing surveys of
implementation of effective disaster mitigation policies and
construction firms.
emergency response programmes. Better loss estimates would
The second, third, and fourth modules of the suggested benefit federal, state, and local governments, insurers, scientists
microsimulation model jointly determine a timeline of regional and researchers, and private citizens (both as taxpayers and
commercial/industrial closures (or cutbacks) that trigger indirect insurance purchasers).
losses. Wage and profit income lost from closures are estimated
It is clear that data on economic losses of natural disasters
from data in the regional database. Broader measurement of
to the nation are incomplete and spread widely across the
indirect losses must also include a fifth component, residential
public and private sectors. Information on both direct and
reconstruction.
indirect costs is lacking. If data on uninsured direct losses are
This module translates damage to residential structures limited, our understanding of indirect losses is even more
into a reconstruction/rebuilding profile, which depends upon: incomplete. These indirect losses are clearly difficult to identify
(1) residential damage; (2) available funds for rebuilding; (3) and measure. However, in large disasters they may be significant
any "Jacuzzi" effects (enhancing the original structure beyond and, within the immediately affected regions, potentially greater
reconstruction); and, (4) decisions to abandon totally destroyed than the direct losses due to physical destruction, especially in
structures and migrate from the region. large disasters.
Given income and reconstruction flows simulated in the Losses Versus Costs
microsimulation model, the modified regional impact model
In generating a national indicator of disaster damage, the
can be used to simulate multiplier or ripple effects. Given an
focus should be upon the losses resulting from disasters, rather
actual disaster, the system can forecast indirect losses for
than costs. Losses encompass a broader set of damages than
purposes of planning regional aid. Equally important, it should
costs. Losses include direct physical destruction to property,
be used in the context of a probability distribution of disasters
infrastructure, and crops, plus indirect losses that are the
to evaluate mitigation proposals and to improve the efficiency
consequence of disasters, such as temporary unemployment
of emergency response efforts.
and lost business. Costs typically refer only to cash payouts
Recommendation 7: Research should be conducted on from insurers and governments. The term "losses," as defined
linking a comprehensive indirect loss model to a probabilistic above, better portrays the true economic impacts of disasters.
physical damage catastrophe model, for purposes of evaluating
mitigation and improving the efficiency of emergency response Direct Losses
programmes. One step toward producing more complete loss estimates
In sum, the recommendations outlined in this chapter would be to assign one agency of the federal government to
suggest a mix of primary data collection, more intensive use compile a comprehensive data base identifying the direct costs
of available secondary data, and development of new modeling of natural disasters, as well as the individuals and groups who
techniques that will permit significant, cost-effective bear these costs. These data should be collected for each natural
improvement in measurement and prediction of indirect losses. disaster exceeding a given dollar loss threshold. The U.S.
Department of Commerce's Bureau of Economic Analysis policymakers are to better plan for future disaster-related
appears to have the capabilities to compile such a database, expenditures, including mitigation programmes and activities.
with considerable input and assistance from FEMA and other
The largest current gap in direct loss data involves uninsured
relevant federal agencies. Whatever agency is selected should
losses borne by businesses and individuals. These data might
be given sufficient resources to accomplish this assignment.
be obtained through post-event sampling (in large disasters)
The recommended loss estimate database would be compiled and extrapolating these losses from other databases. Data from
from many sources, including organizations such as Property loan applicants to the SBA's disaster relief programme or data
Claims Services and the Institute for Business and Home Safety from insurers like PCS would indicate the deductibles paid by
(which compile data on paid insurance claims) and other federal, insured businesses and individuals.
state, and local agencies.
Indirect Losses
The assistance of relevant professional associations, such
Indirect losses in natural disasters stem from the
as the National Association of Insurance Commissioners, should
consequences of physical damage (direct losses). Physical
be enlisted to obtain other relevant data. A synthesis report damages in disasters typically initiate events that alter economic
containing data on disaster losses should be published flows. Businesses may be disrupted after a disaster due to
periodically, preferably annually. One way the federal damaged infrastructure (power, water, transportation,
government might make sure it receives at least the state and communications), and many workers may be temporarily
local data is by amending the Stafford Act, requiring the data unemployed. These indirect losses have not been studied or
to be submitted as a condition for future federal disaster aid. measured as closely as direct losses, largely because they are
A related recommendation is for the federal Office of notoriously difficult to identify and accurately measure.
Management and Budget, with advice from FEMA, to develop Due to the limited sources of indirect loss data, statistical
annual, comprehensive estimates of the payouts for the direct models are often used to compile indirect loss estimates. Though
losses (due directly physical damage) made by federal agencies. these models may help address problems due to a lack of
These data should be divided into at least four categories: available data, they must become more reliable if they are to
1. compensation payments to individuals and businesses be used as guides in setting mitigation and other hazard-
(including subsidies on loans to help cover disaster- related policies.
related expenses); If this is to occur, however, accurate, firsthand (primary)
2. response costs; data on indirect losses must be available for model calibration
and validation. The recommended data collection and
3. losses to government-owned infrastructure (including
coordination programme should thus also include surveys for
state and local costs that are reimbursed by the federal the collection of detailed primary data on indirect economic
government); and, losses from recent disasters (again, sufficient resources for this
4. payouts from federal disaster insurance programmes effort must be budgeted). Once a sufficiently reliable database
(with annual premiums shown separately). of these indirect losses has been generated, the agency should
continue to collect indirect loss data on large disasters-those
These data should be assembled for some historic period
with model estimates of greater than $10 billion in losses.
in order to provide information of trends of disaster losses and
While the indirect loss database is being constructed, efforts
payouts. Such an effort is critical if the federal government and
toward more effective uses of secondary data (data generated
for purposes other than indirect loss estimation, such as impacts on ecosystems (e.g., floods can help rejuvenate floodplain
unemployment insurance payouts) should be continued. We vegetation and are important drivers of many ecological
thus recommend that an assessment of methods for estimating processes in floodplains); and, (3) these impacts are mainly
indirect losses with secondary data be conducted. nonmarket and are exceptionally difficult to quantify and/or
monetize. Though there are emerging efforts in quantifying
It is important to understand the timing of economic
and monetizing ecosystem services (e.g., Costanza, 1997), they
disruptions that trigger indirect losses in order to plan for
are in their infancy and are not yet widely accepted.
efficient emergency responses and to assess the cost-
effectiveness of alternate mitigation strategies. The committee Though no specific recommendations regarding how
recommends that a microsimulation model be developed to environmental costs should be incorporated in loss estimates
create a timeline of regional commercial and industrial closures. we provide here, we encourage policymakers in the relevant
Other models that should be devised include a formal restoration executive branch agencies to devote more attention and perhaps
model and a comprehensive indirect loss model. research to these issues. It is important in assessing
environmental impacts to distinguish between impacts of
Moving Towards Better Knowledge of Disaster Losses
disasters on the natural environment from those on the human-
The lack of accurate information on these losses is a barrier made landscape environment.
to more effective hazard mitigation. As a step toward improving
As mentioned, events that societies label as natural
mitigation programmes, efforts at centralizing these data and
''disasters" may also have beneficial ecological consequences.
compiling better loss estimates must be strengthened. The
However, these benefits tend to only manifest themselves
federal government and private sector should combine their
months or years after an extreme event (e.g., rejuvenation of
knowledge and data in providing better estimates of direct
a coniferous forest months and/or years after fires), or are often
losses. The federal government must mount and back a
not readily apparent (e.g., recharging of groundwater stocks
significant data collection and research effort if better estimates
after a flood). These benefits to ecological systems are of course
of losses due to disasters are to be compiled, especially indirect
typically overshadowed by immediate, negative impacts on
losses. With a strong commitment, this could be accomplished
societies and structures; hence, the use of the term natural
within the next ten years. Until relatively accurate estimates
"disasters."
are available, the true economic losses in natural disasters will
remain poorly understood and the benefits of disaster mitigation Background Principles
activities only imprecisely evaluated.
Three principles apply to the assessment of the costs and
Environmental Impacts of Natural Disasters benefits of extreme geophysical events to the nation's ecological
systems. First, although the more tangible, quantifiable damages
It is recognized that many significant nonmarket effects
of extreme events to infrastructure and economies may be
result from natural disasters, including environmental impacts.
difficult to calculate precisely, the costs to and benefits for
Though our committee had a keen interest in these topics, it
natural ecosystems-even from such apparently straightforward
became clear that these impacts-though often significant-did
impacts as numbers of fish killed or trees destroyed-are even
not fit easily with this study's main report and conclusions for
less tangible and may be nearly impossible to quantify precisely.
the following reasons: (1) not all disasters result in significant
Moreover, even if the physical effects can be measured, the
ecosystem impacts (e.g., many earthquakes have but minor
monetary values of those impacts cannot be stated with
impacts on ecosystems); (2) some extreme events have positive
precision.
Second, existing ecological systems have already adapted are thus not necessarily damaging to ecosystems, and in some
in many respects to the forces created by extreme events, such circumstances can bring great benefits. Furthermore, the effects
as floods or droughts. This process is lengthy, extending over take months and years after the disturbance to assess,
thousands of years and involving the evolution of species and suggesting that immediate ecological or environmental
complex physical systems. The effects of geophysical extremes accountings are prone to error.
often are not undesirable. For example, major natural
Finally, as was outlined in the report, it is useful to assess
disturbances, such as fires or floods, rejuvenate old forests. The
the impacts of natural disasters by type of disasters. Because
critical factors are the frequency, intensity, and extent of natural
of their great spatial extent and longevity, major floods and
disturbances. If disturbances occur too frequently and over
droughts generally create the greatest environmental impacts,
large areas, then only pioneering, short-lived, and opportunistic
whereas earthquakes, hurricanes, thunderstorms, and winter
species survive.
storms cover less territory and their effects on the ecosystem
If disturbances occur too infrequently, then slower-growing, are less pervasive and long-lasting. Below, we briefly review
superior competitors for light, water, and nutrients replace the some case studies to illustrate the diverse environmental impacts
pioneers. Maximum diversity is maintained by an intermediate of different categories of disasters, and the difficulties in precisely
level of disturbance, so that patches of pioneers and superior quantifying and monetizing these impacts.
competitors alike occur within the landscape. All of this suggests
Floods
that attempts to eliminate natural disturbances (rather than
attempts to mitigate their adverse impacts) can be Major floods create myriad effects on river-floodplain
counterproductive and in some cases, as in the 1927 and 1993 ecosystems. During periods of low flow, typically in midsummer,
floods on the Mississippi River and the Yellowstone fires in the rivers occupy channels. During rainy seasons, rivers spill
1988, can make a disaster worse. into their floodplains, recharging the surrounding wetlands,
forests, and lakes with fresh supplies of water, nutrients, and
Third, precisely because many disasters are indeed
sediments. During great floods, floodplains do not merely store
"natural," they often produce mixed outcomes for the
water, but become part of the flowing river itself, conveying
environment: benefits to some parts of the natural system and
water slowly downstream through the forests and marshes.
losses to others. For example, some thinning of tree branches
Plant and animal species have adapted over time to exploit,
caused by high winds or ice accumulations from winter storms
tolerate, or escape seasonal floodpulses and exceptional great
can allow for subsequent stronger tree development, and studies
floods. The combination of the flood-adapted animals and plants,
of the 1993 flood in the Midwest revealed major ecological
the seasonal flows and great floods, the river and its channels,
benefits in the immersed floodplains. To the average human
and the complex patchwork of floodplain habitats constitute
observer, floodplain forests appear to change scarcely at all
the dynamic and phenomenally productive river-floodplain
from year to year, and therefore the death of trees during or
ecosystem.
after a major flood seems catastrophic.
Large river-floodplain ecosystems provide valuable
However, the diversity of vegetation on the floodplain is a
hydrological and ecological services and functions, such as flood
product of disturbances, such as major fires, droughts, and
storage and conveyance; the maintenance of biodiversity;
floods that occur very infrequently in terms of a human life
retention, recycling, and conversion of potentially polluting
span. Without droughts, floodplains would not get dry enough
nutrients into useful biomass; production of fish, wildlife, and
to burn, and fire-intolerant species would crowd out the wet
forests; and the provisions of corridors for migratory fish and
prairies and trees. Even the most extreme geophysical events
wildlife. Annual floodpulses help regulate and maintain these virtually disappeared. About 52 species of fishes, representing
ecosystems by promoting exchanges of water, sediment, 15 families, spawned on the floodplain during the flood (Maher,
nutrients, and organisms between the rivers and their 1995). The abundant juvenile fish became food for larger fish
floodplains. Moreover, infrequent great floods and droughts and fish-eating birds, such as herons and egrets. The flood also
help maintain habitat and species diversity (Sparks, 1996). took a heavy toll on trees, the longest-living organisms in the
floodplain.
Flood of 1993. Though the record flood of 1993 in the Upper
Midwest was an economic disaster, it was a boon to many The 1993 flood caused a serious economic and environmental
plants and animals that lived in and along the Missouri and pest, the zebra mussel, to wash from the Upper Illinois River
Upper Mississippi Rivers. Even the few species that appear to downstream into the lower Illinois and the Mississippi. In the
have been harmed by the flood, such as some trees, may benefit process, zebra mussel larvae were carried far back into the
in the long term. Any harm that did occur may have been more floodplain and upstream into tributaries that were backed up
the result of human factors rather than the flood itself, including by the mainstream rivers. Another potential pest was introduced
failure of human-made levees, excessive loading of rivers and when a fish farm on a tributary of the Mississippi flooded and
the Gulf of Mexico with herbicides and agricultural fertilizers, Asian black carp escaped. The carp is able to consume
widespread dispersal of introduced pests, and the excessive endangered native mussels and clams and competes with the
drawdown of the Mississippi River after the flood. native fish and ducks that already consume zebra mussels.
It is not surprising that the flood of 1993 had both positive The flood moved tremendous amounts of water to the Gulf
and negative effects on the river-floodplain ecosystems. Many of Mexico. Through erosion and flooding of agricultural soils
mobile organisms have adapted to exploit such seasonal floods. throughout the Midwest, the floodwaters picked up vast
For example, the flood benefited fish that spawned on the quantities of various chemicals, including some from flooded
inundated floodplain, and wading birds in turn exploited the industries along the rivers. Substantial quantities of these
huge crop of young fish. In contrast, long-lived, stationary agricultural (and other) chemicals were transported into the
organisms, such as trees, were severely stressed or died as a streams and rivers, either as dissolved matter or in suspension,
result of the exceptionally long period of inundation. And yet and into the floodplains. This polluted water infiltrated
the outcome for trees was not all bad. Many seedlings cannot floodplains and contaminated ground water aquifers.
germinate or grow in the shade of mature trees, so old forests
There was an immense discharge of freshwater to the Gulf
were rejuvenated when mature trees died because of the 1993
of Mexico during the summer of 1993. The delivery of this
flood.
water and its dissolved and suspended materials affected the
Every component of the river-floodplain ecosystem, from ecosystem of the Gulf of Mexico. Discharges of herbicides and
the bottom to the top of the food chain, responded to the nitrates to the Gulf of Mexico were substantially higher in 1993
exceptional flood of 1993. At the shallow margins of the flood, than in prior years, stimulating plankton blooms. When the
nutrients were apparently released from newly flooded soils, plankton died and sank, the decaying organic matter used up
stimulating phytoplankton. Aquatic insects likewise oxygen in the bottom layer of water, lowering oxygen levels
concentrated in the shallow water, perhaps consuming either over an area of 6,000 square miles (the so-called "dead zone")
the plankton or the remains of flooded terrestrial vegetation. and threatening valuable fisheries. The total amount of atrazine
Submergent aquatic plants grew in areas where the flood did delivered to the Gulf of Mexico by the Mississippi River from
not persist too long so they could reach sunlight. Where the April to August 1993 was 1.2 million pounds, up about 25
flood rose higher and lasted longer, submersed aquatic plants percent from loads delivered during 1992. One million tons of
nitrate-nitrogen were discharged to the Gulf of Mexico from increased dust and pollutants. Droughts also lead to more
April to August 1993, a value 37 percent larger than loads for wildfires, while adversely changing salinity levels in coastal
1992 (Goolsby et al., 1993). estuaries and reducing the flushing of pollutants.
In summary, the flood of 1993 exacerbated two preexisting Drought of 1988. The best documentation of environmental
environmental problems related to human activity. First, it damages from a drought came from studies of the 1988 drought,
facilitated the spread of a serious economic and environmental which affected large portions of the United States. This event
pest, the European zebra mussel, that accidentally had caused enormous reductions in streamflows in two major
previously been introduced to the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes drought-affected regions. Plans to divert additional water from
drainage by transoceanic ships (and facilitated other introduced the Great Lakes to enhance the record low flows of the Upper
pests, such as the Asian tiger mosquito). Mississippi River system were halted by environmental concerns
over the potential impacts of lowered water levels on the lakes
Second, nutrient loading of the Gulf of Mexico was
(Changnon, 1989).
substantially increased by the flood, and the summer "dead
zone" in the Gulf consequently expanded, with potential Many streams were unable to handle industrial discharges
detrimental impacts on the largest fishery in the United States. and agricultural pollution, greatly limiting water quality and
At the same time, the 1993 flood also vividly demonstrates the the use of water. Water supplies dropped to seriously low levels
complexity and uncertainty over the range of positive and in the southeast United States, where many uses of river waters,
negative impacts upon floodplain ecosystems, as well as the including hydropower generation and navigation on major
overwhelming task of trying to distill precise figures for the full rivers, had to be curtailed. Saltwater intrusion up the Mississippi
costs and benefits of an extreme geophysical event. River beyond New Orleans was so severe that underwater sills
were built to halt the intrusion.
Droughts
The 1988 drought led to 68,000 wildfires that burned 5.1
Unlike floods, droughts generally damage ecological systems
million acres of federal forestland. Fire-fighting costs alone
and yield few offsetting benefits. In fact, the most subtle and
amounted to $300 million. The best-known fires were those in
enduring impacts of droughts occur in the environment. The
Yellowstone National Park, which captured national attention.
cumulative stress on wetlands, wildlife, forests, ground water,
The dry conditions in areas adjacent to the fires greatly reduced
and soils cannot be measured accurately, and many effects
the number of tree seedlings, with mortality of 40 percent of
occur slowly and over a period of years, making them extremely
the trees planted in the 10 years prior to 1988, including 150
difficult to quantify.
million pine seedlings. The drought led to increased insect
The problems generated by droughts begin with changes attacks on commercial forests, and 5.7 billion board feet of
in the quantity and quality of water available in the hydrologic lumber were lost because of pine bark beetles. The total loss to
system. Drought damages both plant and animal species by U.S. forests was estimated at $5 billion (Riebsame et al., 1991).
depriving them of food and water, increasing their susceptibility
The 1988 drought also caused sizable but unmeasured losses
to disease, and increasing their vulnerability to predation. As
of fish, waterfowl, and wildlife. High water temperatures in
with floods, droughts produce a loss of biodiversity, and often
bays along the East Coast caused an increase in oyster diseases,
increase erosion of dried soils when rain eventually comes.
resulting in a 1988 harvest of 375 million bushels, the lowest
Droughts also degrade water quality, shifting salt concentration,
on record for Chesapeake Bay (Avery, 1988; Changnon et al.,
pH levels and dissolved oxygen, while increasing water
1996).
temperatures. Even air quality is diminished because of
Finally, the high temperatures associated with the 1988 erosion rates, and if they occur in mountainous areas the
drought had profound effects on human health. Several resulting flood can create massive damages to ecosystems in
thousands of deaths were attributed directly or indirectly related narrow mountain valleys.
to the high temperatures. Many of these deaths occurred in the
Earthquakes
large urban areas of the central and eastern United States.
Municipal governments responded by establishing cooling Although the dominant losses from earthquakes are to
centres. Not surprisingly, a comprehensive study of the structures and potentially to humans, these events can also
environmental impacts of the 1988 drought concluded that result in adverse environmental consequences. Examples include
there were "no winners" in the ecosystems (Riebsame et al., flora and fauna damaged by the shocks and shifts in land
1991). surfaces, as well as alterations in local hydrologic systems. For
example, the famed New Madrid earthquake in the central
Hurricanes and Tropical Storms
United States in the 19th century changed the course of the
Hurricanes and tropical storms create environmental Mississippi River and created a cutoff lake.
damages within paths that vary from 50 to 150 miles in width.
In the most affected areas, trees, shrubs, land cover, and
The environmental consequences largely consist of damages to
habitats can also be destroyed. There are currently no estimates
trees and underbrush in the storm path. At the same time, the
of the environmental or ecosystem losses from earthquakes
long-term ecosystem damages of these storms are uncertain.
(although the national, long-term impact is probably not great).
To be sure, during coastal storms in particular there is often
significant erosion of shores and beaches. In the long run, High Winds
however, nature generally has adapted to these events, so the Strong and persistent synoptic scale (nonstorm) high winds
extent of negative impacts of these events is not clear. can sweep over large areas and cause damage to trees and
Severe Local Storms plants. High winds can also help promote large-scale fires,
typically in dry western areas. Recent wind-driven fire
Severe local thunderstorms-such as a major tornado striking
catastrophes in California accounted for insured property losses
Wichita or a thunderstorm producing large hailstorms in Dallas-
of $1.5 billion in October 1992, rated as the third largest fire
are often labelled as natural disasters due to the attendant
loss in the nation's history (III, 1993). Major brushfires enhanced
looses of life and economic losses, but in general these events
by strong winds occurred in California in October 1993 and
are localized. They are not events that create serious, large-
again in November 1993, together causing $815 million in
scale damages to the natural ecosystem. Nonetheless, it is
insured property losses (III, 1995).
possible that the cumulative environmental impacts of severe
storms over a period as short as a year can be significant. Broad These huge, wind-driven fires consumed all underbrush,
areas can suffer from numerous forest fires triggered by cloud- ground cover, and trees over hundreds of square miles, but
to-ground lightning. High winds and hail cause localized there is no known report documenting the value of these losses
damages to plants and forests, although the total losses are to the natural or landscape environments.
considered to be relatively minor on a regional or national High winds and waves caused by severe extratropical
scale. cyclones damage beaches and shoreline ecosystems. This is a
Heavy rains that lead to flash floods also can be problem mainly along the East Coast when strong "Nor'easters"
environmentally damaging, at least locally. They increase soil strike along shores ranging from 500 to 1,000 miles in length
and in the Great Lakes, where winter storms create waves that
296 Disaster Management Glossary 297
severely erode beaches. However, these shoreline effects also

can be viewed as an inherent part of nature to which coastal
ecosystems have adapted.
Summary
Although natural disasters are by definition undesirable G LOSSARY
for humans, they often carry several ecological benefits. Floods
are a prime example of the mixed economic and environmental
effects. At the other extreme, droughts not only produce Aa: Hawaiian word used to describe a lava flow whose
economic damage, but virtually all of their environmental surface is broken into rough angular fragments.
impacts are also undesirable.
Active volcano: A volcano that is erupting. Also, a volcano
There are only limited quantitative data of the that is not presently erupting but that has erupted
environmental costs of natural disasters. Relatively little effort within historical time and is considered likely to do so in the
by the private sector, academics and scientists, or the future.
government has gone into this activity. Nonetheless, such studies
as have been conducted reveal that numerous environmental Ash: Fine particles of pulverized rock blown from an
problems caused by natural disasters often have significant explosion vent. Ash may be either solid or molten when first
consequences for ecosystems, and eventually people, societies, erupted.
and economies. Thus, even though these environmental impacts Ash fall: Volcanic ash that has fallen through the air from
may not readily translate into monetized losses (or gains) their an eruption cloud. A deposit so formed is usually well sorted
importance strongly suggests they should be considered by and layered.
governments, academia, and the private sector in the study and
design of hazard mitigation and land use policies. Ash flow: A turbulent mixture of gas and rock fragments,
most of which are ash-sized particles, ejected violently from a
crater or fissure. The mass of pyroclastics is normally of very
high temperature and moves rapidly down the slopes.
Avalanche: A large mass of material or mixtures of material
falling or sliding rapidly under the force of gravity.
Bomb: Fragment of molten or semi-molten rock, 2 1/2
inches to many feet in diameter, which is blown out during an
eruption. Because of their plastic condition, bombs are often
modified in shape during their flight or upon impact.
Caldera: The Spanish word for cauldron, a basin-shaped
volcanic depression; by definition, at least a mile in diameter.
Such large depressions are typically formed by the subsidence
of volcanoes. Crater Lake occupies the best-known caldera in
the Cascades.
Central Vent: A central vent is an opening at the Eruption cloud: The column of gases, ash, and larger rock
Earth's surface of a volcanic conduit of cylindrical or pipelike fragments rising from a crater or other vent. If it is of sufficient
form. volume and velocity, this gaseous column may reach many
miles into the stratosphere, where high winds will carry it long
Central Volcano: A volcano constructed by the ejection
distances.
of debris and lava flows from a central point, forming a more
or less symmetrical volcano. Eruptive vent: The opening through which volcanic
material is emitted.
Cinder cone: A volcanic cone built entirely of loose
fragmented material (pyroclastics.) Fault: A crack or fracture in the earth's surface. Movement
along the fault can cause earthquakes or, in the process of
Composite Volcano: A steep volcanic cone built by both
mountain-building, can release underlying magma and permit
lava flows and pyroclastic eruptions.
it to rise to the surface.
Compound Volcano: A volcano that consists of a complex
Fissures: Elongated fractures or cracks on the slopes of a
of two or more vents, or a volcano that has an associated
volcano. Fissure eruptions typically produce liquid flows, but
volcanic dome, either in its crater or on its flanks. Examples pyroclastics may also be ejected.
are Vesuvius and Mont Pelee.
Fumarole: A vent or opening through which issue steam,
Conduit: A passage followed by magma in a volcano. hydrogen sulfide, or other gases. The craters of many dormant
Crater: A steep-sided, usually circular depression formed volcanoes contain active fumaroles.
by either explosion or collapse at a volcanic vent. Harmonic tremor: A release of seismic energy associated
Debris avalanche: A rapid and unusually sudden sliding with the underground movement of magma.
or flowage of unsorted masses of rock and other material. As Hot Spot: A volcanic center, 60 to 120 miles across and
applied to the major avalanche involved in the eruption of persistent for at least a few tens of million of years, that is
Mount St. Helens, a rapid mass movement that included thought to be the surface expression of a persistent rising
fragmented cold and hot volcanic rock, water, snow, glacier ice, plume of hot mantle material. Hot spots are not linked to arcs,
trees, and some hot pyroclastic material. and may not be associated with ocean ridges.
Dome: A steep-sided mass of lava extruded from a volcanic Hyaloclastite: A deposit formed by the flowing or intrusion
vent. Its surface is often rough and blocky as a result of of lava or magma into water, ice, or water-saturated sediment,
fragmentation of the cooler, outer crust during growth of the and its consequent granulation or shattering into small angular
dome. fragments.
Dormant volcano: The term is used to describe a volcano Intensity: A measure of the effects of an earthquake at a
which is presently inactive but which may erupt again. particular place. Intensity depends not only on the magnitude
Eruption: The process by which solid, liquid, and gaseous of the earthquake but also on the distance from the epicenter
materials are ejected into the earth's atmosphere and onto the and the local geology.
earth's surface by volcanic activity. Eruptions range from the Intrusion: The process of emplacement of magma in pre-
quiet overflow of liquid rock to the tremendously violent existing rock. Also refers to igneous rock mass so formed within
expulsion of pyroclastics. the surrounding rock.
Joint: A surface of fracture in a rock. Pyroclastic flow: Flowage of a mixture of hot gases and
unsorted pyroclastic material that can move at a maximum
Lahar: A flow of water-saturated volcanic debris down the
speed of 100 miles an hour.
slope of a volcano in response to gravity. A type of mudflow.
Repose: The interval of time between volcanic eruptions.
Lava: Magma, which has reached the surface through a
volcanic eruption. The term is applied to streams of liquid rock Rift zone: A zone of volcanic features associated with
that flow from a crater or fissure. underlying dikes. The location of the rift is marked by cracks,
faults, and vents.
Lava Flow: An outpouring of lava onto the land surface
from a vent or fissure. Also, a solidified tongue like or sheet Ring of Fire: The regions of mountain-building earthquakes
like body formed by outpouring lava. and volcanoes, which surround the Pacific Ocean.
Lava lake: A lake of molten lava, usually basaltic, in a Seamount: A submarine volcano.
volcanic crater or depression. The term refers to solidified and Stratovolcano: A volcano composed of both lava flows and
partially solidified stages as well as to the molten, active lava pyroclastic material.
lake.
Strombolian eruption: A type of volcanic eruption
Magma: Molten rock beneath the surface of the earth. characterized by jetting of clots or fountains of fluid basaltic
Magma chamber: The subterranean cavity containing the lava from a central crater.
gas-rich liquid magma, which feeds a volcano. Vent: The opening at the earth's surface through which
Mantle: The zone of the earth below the crust and above volcanic materials issue forth. Usage of vent.
the core. Vesicle: A small air pocket or cavity formed in volcanic
Mudflow: A flowage of water-saturated earth material rock during solidification.
possessing a high degree of fluidity during movement. A Volcanic arc: A generally curved linear belt of volcanoes
less-saturated flowing mass is often called a debris flow. A above a subduction zone, and the volcanic and plutonic rocks
mudflow originating on the flank of a volcano is properly called formed there.
a lahar.
Vulcan: Roman god of fire and the forge, after whom
Phreatic eruption: An explosive volcanic eruption caused volcanoes are named.
when water and heated volcanic rocks interact to produce a
Vulcanian: A type of eruption consisting of the explosive
violent expulsion of steam and pulverized rocks. Magma is not ejection of incandescent fragments of new viscous lava, usually
involved. on the form of blocks.
Plinian eruption: An explosive eruption in which a steady,
turbulent stream of fragmented magma and magmatic gases
is released at a high velocity from a vent. Large volumes of
tephra and tall eruption columns are characteristic.
Pyroclastic: Pertaining to fragmented (clastic) rock
material formed by a volcanic explosion or ejection from a
volcanic vent.
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hazards, people’s vulnerability and disasters, Wiltshire, E. Philip Kinder, Pennsylvania, Diane Publishing, 1994.
Routledge, 2004. Grazulis, Tom P. : Significant Tornadoes 1680-1991, St. Johns
Brian Lesser : Disaster Preparedness and Recovery: Photographic Bay, Environmental Films, 1993.
Materials, American Archivist, Winter, 1983. Greene, Mott : Natural Knowledge in Preclassical Antiquity,
Brooks, Constance : Disaster Preparedness, Washington, DC, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
Association for Research Libraries, 1993. Hadfield, Peter : Sixty Seconds that Will Change the World: The
Cronon, William :Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Coming Tokyo Earthquake, Boston, C.E. Tutle, Co., 1992.
Nature, New York, WW Norton and Co., 1995. Harris, Stephen L. : Fire and Ice: The Cascade Volcanoes,
Davis, Mike : Ecology of Fear, New York, Metropolitan Books, Seattle, The Mountaineers, 1980.
1998. Harvey, R. : Preservation in Australian and New Zealand
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Amsterdam, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003.
304 Disaster Management Bibliography 305
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Cooperative Action by Victorian Academic Libraries Ltd, in Times of Disaster, Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press,
Melbourne, 1994. 1989.
John D. : The Last Great Subsistence Crisis in the Western Quarantelli, E.L. : What is a Disaster—Perspectives on the
World, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977. Question, New York, Routledge, 1998.
John E. McIntyre : Planning Manual for Disaster Control in Robert A. : Insurance for Libraries: Part I and Insurance for
Scottish Libraries & Record Offices, Edinburgh, National Libraries: Part II, Conservation Administration News, 1994.
Library of Scotland, 1985.
Roubos- Bennett, M. : Redefining Disasters: A Decade of Counter
Jones S. : Building an Emergency Plan: A Guide for Museums
Disaster Planning, State Library of New South Wales,
and other Cultural Institutions, Getty Conservation
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Institute, Los Angeles, 1999
Jordan, William : The Great Famine, Princeton, Princeton Saffady, William : Managing Vital Electronic Records, ARMA
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Julia Niebuhr : Handbook for the Recovery of Water Damaged Sally A. : Disaster Planning, Preparedness and Recovery for
Business Records, Prairie Village, KS, Association of Records Libraries and Archives—A RAMP Study with
Managers and Administrators, 1986. Guidelines, Paris, UNESCO, 1988.
Kahn, Miriam B. : Disaster Response and Planning for Stephen J. : Fire in America: A Cultural History of Wildland
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Keyes K.E. : Emergency Management for Records and Press, 1982.
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American Weather, New York, Doubleday, 1996. Stommel, Elizabeth : Volcano Weather: The Story of 1816, The
Ling, Ted. : Solid, Safe, Secure: Building Archives Repositories Year Without a Summer, Newport, Seven Seas Press, 1983.
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Lundquist, Eric G. : Salvage of Water Damaged Books, Trinkley, Michael : Can You Stand the Heat? A Fire Safety
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Primer for Libraries, Archives and Museums, Atlanta, GA,
Francisco, Document Reprocessors, 1986.
Southeastern Library Network, 1993.
McPhee, John : The Control of Nature, New York, Farrar,
Trinkley, Michael : Hurricane! Surviving the Big One: A Primer
Straus, Giroux, 1989.
for Libraries, Museums and Archives, 2nd ed. Columbia,
Morris, John : Managing the Library Fire Risk, Berkeley, Univ.
SC, Chicora Foundation, 1998.
of California, 1979.
Varley, Anne : Disaster, Development Environments, New York,
Norris, Debra Hess : Disaster Recovery: Salvaging Photograph
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Odum, Howard T. : Environment, Power and Society, New Walker, Bridget : Women and Emergencies, Oxford, Oxfam,
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306 Disaster Management Index 307
Waters, Peter : Procedures for Salvage of Water-Damaged

Library Materials, Washington, DC, Library of Congress,
1979.
Watson, Lyall : Earthwork: Essays on the Edge of Natural
History, London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1956.
Webster, Noah : A Brief History of Epidemic and Pestilential
INDEX
Diseases, with the Principle Phenomena of the Physical
World which Proceed and Accompany Them, Hartford,
Hudson and Goodwin, 1799. A Communication, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11,
Adoption, 128, 129, 247. 59, 63, 82, 103, 111,
Wellheiser, Johanna : An Ounce of Prevention: Integrated
Air Ambulances, 190, 198, 211. 118, 119, 159, 161, 173,
Disaster Planning for Archives, Libraries, and Record 232, 233, 235, 236.
Ambulance, 12, 16, 58, 59,
Centres, Toronto, Scarecrow Press, 2002. Conditions, 9, 60, 66, 74, 76,
161, 162, 163, 169, 180,
Worster, Donald : Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s, 181, 182, 184, 185, 189, 88, 114, 139, 142, 143,
New York, Oxford University Press, 1979. 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 144, 148, 150, 151, 153,
195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 155, 157, 158, 160, 162,
Zenaida, D. : Women and Children During Disaster: 165, 169, 185, 186, 187,
Vulnerabilities and Capacities, Elaine Enarson and Betty 200, 201, 202, 203, 204,
205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 190, 193, 200, 202, 233.
Hearn Morrow, 1995. Continuity Plan, 136, 177.
210, 211, 212, 219, 223.
Arrangements, 16, 116, 118, Cooperation, 16, 59, 60, 67,
119, 124, 126, 127, 128, 69, 71, 72, 76, 110,
146, 155, 172, 278. 111, 115, 118, 121, 124,
Autonomous, 154, 159. 125, 141, 155, 159, 162,
171, 172, 173, 175, 230,
B 233, 259.
Bank Action Plan, 71. Coordinating Centre, 117, 125.
Bank Policy, 69. Corporate, 171, 172, 177.
Biological Hazard, 142. Corps Activity, 160.
Business Continuity Plan, 136, Counter Measures, 143.
177. Crop Pest, 97.
Cultivation, 3.
C Culture, 66, 149, 150, 177.
Campaigns, 29. Cyclone, 2, 5, 6, 7, 26, 61,
Civil War, 181, 193, 194. 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82,
Climate Change, 28, 143, 146, 98, 235, 236.
147. Cyclone Management, 79.
Commission, 76, 84, 97, 152,
D
276.
Committee, 57, 61, 110, 223, Departments, 18, 57, 62, 63,
229, 230, 237, 240, 249, 65, 77, 79, 83, 84, 97,
260, 265, 267, 271, 286. 141, 156, 157, 159, 171,
174, 197, 210.
Depositary, 129, 130, 131. E Evacuation, 11, 14, 58, 64, H

Disaster Management, 6, 7, 8, Earthquake, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 82, 86, 95, 97, 149, Hazards, 1, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10,
18, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 13, 20, 21, 24, 29, 31, 153, 154, 155, 159, 175, 13, 20, 29, 36, 46, 55,
60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 186, 212. 57, 58, 60, 61, 66, 82,
67, 69, 98, 110, 111, 39, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, Examples, 13, 14, 72, 142, 91, 93, 94, 96, 100,
112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 146, 151, 153, 190, 208, 103, 107, 114, 117, 118,
117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 54, 56, 61, 87, 88, 89, 231. 133, 134, 135, 136, 137,
122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 91, 92, 99, 112, 151, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147,
128, 130, 131, 133, 146, F
159, 160, 170, 174, 232, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152,
151, 154, 155, 156, 157, 234, 237, 239, 241, 242, Financial Instruments, 66, 67, 153, 156, 234, 235, 237,
158, 159, 161, 162, 163, 244, 247, 248, 250, 253, 68, 145. 240, 244, 257, 261, 265,
164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 254, 262, 267, 268, 269, Financial Rules, 130. 267, 268.
169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 272, 277, 281, 295, 299. Fire Corps Activity, 160. Humanitarian Assistance, 134,
174, 175, 176, 177, 178, Ecosystem, 10, 145, 152, 286, Fire Prevention, 165, 168, 169. 117, 125, 139, 140.
229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 287, 289, 290, 291, 294, Fire Prevention, 159, 167.
234, 235, 236. 295. Fire Services, 154, 156, 157, I
Disaster Plan, 97, 177, 178, Emergency Management, 4, 8, 158, 160, 170, 174. Identification, 10, 59, 67, 75,
179. 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, First Aid, 12, 35, 43, 80, 81, 84, 87, 98, 116, 123,
Disaster Preparedness, 5, 19, 17, 18, 20, 62, 95, 96, 85, 91, 158, 161, 162, 135, 137, 141, 148, 243,
55, 56, 110, 116, 118, 146, 176, 244, 253, 270. 163, 164, 180, 181, 182, 259.
135, 267. Employment, 12, 272, 274, 183, 184, 185, 186, 188, Implementation, 10, 12, 58,
Disaster Prevention, 6, 66, 67, 278, 280. 195, 210, 213, 218, 219, 60, 61, 72, 111, 112,
68, 72, 117, 118, 124, Environment, 1, 4, 5, 6, 20, 225, 226, 227. 113, 115, 124, 126, 127,
137, 141, 159, 160, 161, 56, 69, 70, 83, 93, 114, Floods, 6, 10, 56, 83, 84, 85, 128, 130, 134, 135, 138,
169, 171, 172, 173, 175, 135, 145, 146, 151, 156, 86, 96, 99, 100, 101, 140, 141, 153, 154, 163,
235. 157, 221, 234, 250, 264, 102, 103, 104, 106, 134, 172, 176, 283.
Disaster Risk Management, 55, 287, 288, 292. 135, 145, 148, 175, 235. Information, 7, 13, 15, 59, 66,
65, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, Environmental Degradation, Forecast, 84, 147, 278, 282. 67, 68, 71, 72, 75, 76,
73, 132, 133, 134, 136, 114, 133, 135, 142, 146, Forest Fire, 5, 6, 98, 235. 79, 81, 83, 84, 87, 91,
139, 140, 144, 147. 147, 148, 149, 152. 95, 96, 97, 98, 111,
Disaster Risk Reduction, 57, 72, G
Environmental Impact 114, 116, 117, 118, 120,
114, 116, 125, 142, 144, Assessment, 146. Geographic Information Systems, 124, 126, 127, 133, 144,
149, 150, 152. Equipment, 11, 14, 15, 64, 147. 145, 147, 150, 152, 154,
Disciplines, 15, 147, 151, 186. 92, 119, 120, 121, 122, Governance, 132. 161, 168, 169, 172, 173,
Diseases, 27, 97, 142, 293. 123, 124, 125, 138, 153, Government, 9, 13, 15, 16, 175, 176, 184, 201, 205,
Drought, 2, 5, 6, 20, 25, 26, 154, 156, 157, 159, 162, 17, 55, 57, 60, 62, 76, 219, 229, 231, 233, 234,
27, 74, 75, 76, 77, 98, 163, 165, 166, 175, 180, 78, 79, 80, 84, 95, 97, 236.
135, 148, 235, 237, 241, 181, 186, 189, 194, 197, 139, 140, 146, 153, 155, Information Systems, 15, 118,
251, 258, 259, 275, 292, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 169, 171, 172, 174, 207, 147, 169.
293, 294. 205, 213, 214, 231, 234. 208, 209, 231. Institutional Arrangements, 126.
Drought Monitoring, 75, 76. Eruption, 4, 5, 20, 21, 22, Greenhouse Gas, 147. Instruments, 66, 67, 68, 69,
Drought Prediction, 75. 23, 24, 54, 92, 93, 99, Guidelines, 136, 140, 179, 219, 72, 129, 130, 134, 141,
Drought Preparedness, 75. 297, 298, 299, 300, 301. 220, 223. 145.
Insufflation, 213, 214, 215. 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, O 161, 165, 166, 167, 168,
International Organisations, 16, 244, 253, 270, 284. Occurrence, 6, 20, 29, 45, 51, 169, 171, 172, 173, 175,
110, 125, 127, 128. Medical Provision, 196. 53, 58, 147, 170, 235. 219, 235.
Medical Treatment, 180, 190, Operations, 8, 11, 15, 17, 62, Project, 55, 67, 70, 71, 72,
J 252. 75, 76, 77, 84, 97, 134,
67, 79, 80, 119, 134,
Joint Emergency Response, 120. Mission, 77, 93, 155, 198, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139,
135, 136, 138, 139, 140,
Judgement, 165. 231, 267. 140, 141, 173, 190, 208,
141, 153, 154, 161, 163,
Justice, 9. Mitigation, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 233, 245, 246, 273.
171, 172, 173, 175, 178,
13, 55, 57, 61, 62, 66, Protect People, 153, 154, 165.
L 212, 232, 233, 236, 261.
67, 68, 69, 74, 75, 98, Protection, 9, 40, 43, 46, 81,
Opportunities, 15, 133, 230,
Lahar, 21, 22, 300. 112, 114, 115, 117, 118, 82, 86, 94, 102, 122,
231.
Landslides, 6, 13, 22, 23, 24, 124, 132, 134, 135, 138, 125, 132, 137, 138, 145,
Organisation, 113, 185, 219.
35, 53, 93, 94, 95, 96, 141, 144, 149, 232, 235, 150, 152, 153, 154, 156,
Organisations, 14, 16, 18, 62,
97, 135, 147, 160, 234, 236, 244, 245, 246, 247, 158, 202, 204, 212, 215,
110, 111, 112, 116, 125,
235, 237, 238, 251. 249, 250, 251, 252, 257, 247, 266.
Law, 17, 61, 64, 153, 154, 127, 128, 182, 184, 185,
259, 265, 267, 273, 275, Provision, 12, 116, 120, 121,
161, 166, 167, 168, 184, 277, 279, 282, 283, 285, 207, 214, 219, 220. 122, 123, 145, 150, 152,
204, 220. 286, 296. 154, 180, 186, 196.
P
Loan Reformulation, 138, 139. Monitoring, 5, 7, 56, 75, 76, Provisions, 113, 114, 115, 124,
78, 83, 87, 88, 93, 98, Patient Care, 180, 199, 201. 130, 138, 289.
M 116, 117, 139, 140, 145, People Protection Law, 153, 154. Public Information, 15, 150.
Management, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 148, 235, 236. Policy, 28, 58, 68, 69, 70, 72,
10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 73, 124, 132, 133, 134, R
18, 19, 20, 55, 56, 57, N 135, 136, 137, 140, 141, Raised Granary, 101.
58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 65, National Emergency Response, 145, 146, 167, 169, 176, Raised Houses, 99.
66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 120. 193, 232, 247, 265. Recovery Position, 183, 226,
72, 73, 76, 77, 79, 80, National Laws, 122. Pollution, 3, 59, 146, 153, 227, 228, 229.
83, 86, 88, 92, 93, 95, National Organisations, 16. 293. Red Crescent, 16, 184, 204,
96, 97, 98, 99, 101, Natural Disasters, 2, 3, 4, 5, Prediction, 7, 75, 78, 87, 99, 212.
102, 103, 110, 111, 112, 6, 7, 20, 54, 56, 60, 236. Red Cross, 12, 16, 35, 64, 95,
113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 66, 67, 68, 70, 74, 98, Preparedness, 5, 7, 10, 11, 96, 180, 181, 182, 184,
120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 165, 212, 234, 235, 236, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 185, 197, 204, 207, 211,
125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 33, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 212, 219, 264, 266.
130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 242, 243, 245, 246, 249, 61, 62, 75, 98, 110, Regional Policy, 68, 69.
135, 136, 137, 139, 140, 250, 251, 252, 253, 255, 114, 116, 118, 124, 132, Regulations, 95, 96, 122, 142,
141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 256, 259, 260, 261, 265, 135, 144, 145, 146, 149, 166, 169.
146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 267, 271, 273, 275, 276, 167, 232, 235, 267. Rehabilitation, 5, 7, 60, 93,
152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 277, 278, 280, 282, 283, Prevalence, 76, 221. 112, 124, 132, 135, 139,
157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 285, 286, 289, 294, 296. Prevention, 6, 55, 61, 62, 66, 146, 150, 235.
162, 163, 164, 165, 166, Natural Hazards, 6, 20, 55, 66, 67, 68, 72, 75, 98, 112, Relationship, 88, 130.
167, 169, 170, 171, 172, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 114, 115, 117, 118, 124, Reports, 76, 95, 97, 126, 127,
173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 144, 146, 149, 151, 234, 132, 134, 135, 137, 138, 130, 229.
178, 213, 229, 230, 231, 235, 244. 141, 144, 149, 159, 160, Rescue Methods, 213.
312 Disaster Management Disaster Management 313
Research, 66, 87, 99, 104, T

124, 125, 133, 144, 150, Technical Cooperation, 71, 124,
157, 168, 169, 170, 220, 125, 141.
221, 230, 231, 232, 273,
Technology, 5, 7, 28, 60, 69,
280, 282, 286, 287.
74, 77, 97, 98, 116,
Respiration, 213, 215, 216,
217, 218, 223.
124, 143, 145, 152, 168, C ONTENTS
169, 170, 202, 203, 229,
Resuscitation, 164, 181, 183,
230, 231, 232, 234, 236,
185, 213, 216, 217, 219,
281.
220, 221, 222, 223, 224, Preface
Terminology, 11, 142.
226, 227.
Terrorism, 69, 155, 156, 175, 1. Introduction 1
Risk Identification, 67, 116,
178.
135, 259.
Training, 11, 15, 18, 19, 60, 2. Occurrence of Disasters 20
Risk Management, 55, 65, 66,
61, 62, 70, 81, 119,
67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 3. Study Programme in Disaster Management 55
73, 132, 133, 134, 135, 124, 144, 154, 156, 158,
136, 139, 140, 144, 147, 159, 165, 177, 180, 181, 4. Types of Disaster 74
155, 173. 182, 184, 185, 186, 209,
Risk Reduction, 57, 66, 67, 68, 210, 211, 214, 218, 219, 5. Disaster Management : ASEAN 110
72, 114, 116, 125, 132, 220, 222, 231.
Transport, 5, 58, 60, 61, 62, 6. Policy of Disaster Risk Management 132
142, 144, 149, 150, 152.
65, 149, 153, 161, 162,
7. First Aid and Patient Care 180
S 163, 171, 175, 189, 190,
Satellites, 5, 7, 8, 75, 78, 83, 191, 192, 193, 195, 198, 8. Rescue Methods in Disasters 213
93, 98, 236. 199, 200, 203, 207, 209,
Scientific Research, 124. 210, 211. 9. Losses of Natural Disasters 237
Society, 1, 2, 7, 8, 59, 66, Treatment, 85, 162, 163, 164,
180, 184, 187, 189, 190,
Glossary 297
99, 113, 114, 133, 134,
135, 142, 143, 144, 150, 192, 193, 194, 201, 203, Bibliography 302
157, 160, 167, 169, 170, 208, 209, 252.
171, 174, 204, 229, 236. Index 307
Space Systems, 7, 236. V
Space Technology, 5, 7, 74, 97, Volcanic Eruption, 4, 5, 20, 21,
98, 236. 22, 54, 92, 99, 300,
Spraying System, 172, 173. 301.
Strategy, 5, 60, 69, 110, 111, Volcano, 22, 92, 297, 298,
136, 141. 299, 300, 301.
Sustainable Development, 7, 29,
62, 65, 77, 114, 115, W
116, 144, 152, 236. World War, 197, 198, 243.

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Introduction 1

Response Emergency managers are trained in a wide variety of

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS PSC's work is based on a wide range of policies and

The UK's largest ever emergency exercise was carried out

caused when a buildup of snow is released down a slope, it is

• At nearby Lake Nyos in 1986 a much larger eruption Drought

• Ebola hemorrhagic fever, which has claimed hundreds International Campaigns

SPACE Descriptor Magnitude Average Annually

Impact Event Great 8 and higher 1 ¹

An impact event is a natural disaster in which an Major 7—7.9 17 ²

• A similar flare on April 2, 2001. 8.0 to 9.9 1 1 0 1 2 1

Hindu Kush Region,

Fact Sheet 04: Largest and Deadliest Earthquakes by Year 1990—2005

Date Magnitude Fatalities Region

Fact Sheet 03: Largest Earthquakes in the World

Near East Coast of Kamchatka

Near Coast of Peru 01/26

South of Fiji Islands 05/10

New Ireland Region, 06/04

Date Magnitude Fatalities Region

Fact Sheet 05: List of Some Significant Earthquakes

1819 Jun 16 23.6 68.6 Kutch, Gujarat 8.0

1905 Apr. 04 32.3 76.3 Kangra, H.P 8.0

1943 Oct 23 26.8 94.0 Assam 7.2

1967 Dec 10 17.37 73.75 Koyna, Maharashtra 6.5

1975 Jan 19 32.38 78.49 Kinnaur, Hp 6.2

1988 Aug 06 25.13 95.15 Manipur-Myanmar

1988 Aug 21 26.72 86.63 Bihar-Nepal Border 6.4

1997 May 22 23.08 80.06 Jabalpur, MP 6.0

Question: During an Earthquake (EQ), should you

Answer: Yes, only if you live in an old, unreinforced adobe.

In modern homes, doorways are no stronger than any other

• Check your house and garage for foundation bolts. These

Mobile Homes: Before entering a damaged building:

seismological centres to locate many small earthquakes which

titled 'National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Long-term Management

• Help the officials/volunteers distributing relief EARTHQUAKE

geophysical (primarily seismological) and geomorphologic data Prepare Your Family

The ARPDM consists of 29 activities, which are categorised

Article 24: Financial Arrangements Article 26: Amendments to the Agreement

Depositary of the instruments of ratification, approval Article 34: Reservations

PART-XI. FINAL CLAUSES

against future disasters. The Bank recognizes that adequate

Areas of Coverage causing widespread or serious human, material, economic or

Disaster • Application of measures including environmental

Disaster Risk Reduction (Disaster Reduction) Ecosystem

The El Nino part of ENSO refers to the well-above-average Forecast

Hazard decisions. Land-use planning involves studies and mapping,

LA NINA Activities to provide outright avoidance of the adverse impact

Public Awareness Retrofitting (or Upgrading)

included in the disaster management plan. Emergency damage • International recovery

in first aid and many other medical techniques have been

and is not distinguished from the latter by some AMBULANCE

Modern Vehicles Ambulances often have two manufacturers. The first is

Audible Warnings Government Ambulance Service: Operating separately

individual weapons for protecting themselves and casualties,

Self-CPR who is not breathing and has no circulation. A 1996 study

management capability. (ii) prediction and early warning. (iii)

Source: FEMA, 1998. It is useful to distinguish between the physical destruction

Table 3: Sample Data on Direct Impacts per Each Recommendations

Current Methods using the primary survey data collected pursuant to

high, not by a whole order of magnitude, but perhaps by 70 to Optimal Methods

severely erode beaches. However, these shoreline effects also