Wave Optics Interference
Wave Optics Interference
Theories of light
(1) Newton’s corpuscular theory: says light propagates as a stream of tiny
invisible particles called corpuscles. They start from the source and travel in all
directions along a straight line with very high speed. When they strike the eye they
produce the sensation of vision. Newton attributed different colours of light to
different sized particles.
Success: With this theory Newton was able to explain rectilinear propagation of light
and laws of reflection.
Drawback: (1) According to this theory light travels faster in denser medium
compared to that in rarer medium. This contradicts the experimental results.
(2) It fails to explain interference, diffraction and polarization. Hence the theory was
discarded.
(2) Huygens’ wave theory: says each point in a light source sends out waves
in all directions through a hypothetical medium called ether. i.e. light is a periodic
disturbance transmitted in the form of mechanical longitudinal waves with constant
𝜂 is the modulus rigidity and 𝜌 the density of the medium. Hence, to account high
velocity of light, ether must possess high rigidity and low density – the elasticity of
ether must be many times, greater than that of steel and its density many times less
than that of the best vacuum which is not possible.
(2) The presence of ether could not be proved experimentally. Michelson – Morley
experiment failed to establish the presence of ether.
[Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory: According to this theory proposed by Maxwell, light waves are
oscillations of electric and magnetic field vectors transmitted in space. The directions of electric and
magnetic field vectors are at right angles to each other and also right angles to the direction of wave
propagation. Thus light is a transverse electromagnetic wave.
Success: (1) This theory explains the properties of light like rectilinear propagation, reflection,
refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization.
(2) It also shows how light can travel in free space also. (3) This theory unifies electricity, magnetism
1
and optics. (4) This theory gives the expression for the velocity of light in free space as c=
0 0
where o is the permeability in free space and its value is 4 10-7Hm-1 and o is the permittivity in
free space and its value is 8.854 10-12 Fm-1. Substituting for the constants in the above equation,
the value of c is 3 108ms-1.
Drawback: This theory fails to explain the energy distribution in black body radiation spectrum and
photoelectric effect.
Planck’s quantum theory: According to this theory, the emission and absorption of radiation does
not take place continuously as explained by Maxwell’s theory. But it takes place in discrete packets
of energy called photons and the amount of energy contained in each packet is called quanta. The
energy of each photon equal to h, where h is the Planck ’s constant whose value is 6.625 x 10 -34 Js
and is the frequency of the emitted radiation. Success: This theory explains black body radiation
spectrum. Einstein explained photoelectric effect using this theory. This theory also explains
Compton effect.
Drawback: This theory cannot explain the properties of light like interference, diffraction and
polarization which are based on wave nature of light.
Dual nature of light: The properties of light such as reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction
and polarization are explained by considering light to travel in the form of waves. The properties of
light like photoelectric effect or processes of emission, absorption and scattering of light can be
explained by assuming light to behave like particles only. Thus a single theory cannot explain all the
properties of light. Hence the conclusion is that light has dual nature i.e., particle and wave nature.]
The shape of the wavefront depends on the shape of the source of light. 1. Spherical
wavefront – This is due to a point source of light. 2. Cylindrical wavefront – This is
due to a linear source of light. 3. Plane wavefront – When a point source of a linear
source is placed at a large distance, then the part of the spherical or cylindrical
wavefront can be considered as a plane wavefront.
Huygens’ Principle
S is the source of light sending out light
waves in all directions. After any given
interval of time (t) all the particles of the
medium on a surface XY will be vibrating
in phase. Thus XY is a portion of the
sphere of radius vt and centre S. v is the
velocity of propagation of waves. XY is
called primary wavefront.
According to Huygens' principle, all
points on the primary wavefront (1, 2,
3…….) are sources of secondary
disturbance. The secondary waves from
these sources travel with the same
velocity as the original wave and the
envelop of all the secondary wavelets
after any given interval of time gives rise to secondary wavfront. In the diagram
shown XY is the primary wavefront. After an interval of time t’ the secondary waves
travel a distance vt’. With the points 1,2,3… as centres spheres of radii vt’ are drawn.
The envelop X1Y1 is the secondary wavefront. The backward wavefront X2Y2 is not
considered in the Huygens’principle.
Based on Huygens wave theory and Huygens principle, by constructing wavefronts,
reflection and refraction of light can be explained.
Thus by the time the secondary waves from A reach C and waves from B reach D,
the reflected rays would have reached M from P . Thus AC = BD = PM. In the absence
of mirror, the waves would have moved to N from P. Thus PM = PN. I would be the
virtual image of the object O. Also 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑢 , the object distance and 𝐼𝑃 = 𝑣 , the
image distance. Further the curvature of the incident spherical wavfront is same as
the reflected spherical wavefront.
From Sagitta’s theorem, for the curvature CND with O as centre and CD as cord,
(𝐶𝑃)2
𝑃𝑁 = 2 𝑂𝑁
X
As N is close to P, ON = OP. Thus 𝑃𝑁 = A C
(𝐶𝑃)2
……(1)
2 𝑂𝑃
The secondary waves of light undergo refraction at XY and travels in the denser
medium of refractive index 𝑛2 with a velocity 𝑣2 . CMD represents refracted spherical
wavefront. By the time t, light waves travel from point A to C or from B to D. the
refracted waves travel from P to M with velocity 𝑣2 . In the absence of refracting
Also 𝑃𝑁 = 𝑣1 𝑡 X
……(1) and 𝑃𝑀 = C
Medium 1 (Rarer medium) A
𝑣2 𝑡 ……(2) Medium 2 (Rarer medium)
Refractive index 𝑛1
Refractive index 𝑛2
Dividing (2) by (1), Velocity 𝑣1
Velocity 𝑣2
𝑃𝑀 𝑣2 𝑡
we get = or
𝑃𝑁 𝑣1 𝑡 I O P M N
𝑃𝑀 𝑣2
= …..(3)
𝑃𝑁 𝑣1
(𝐶𝑃)2
As N is close to P, ON = OP. Thus 𝑃𝑁 = 2 𝑂𝑃
……(4)
(𝐶𝑃)2
For the curvature CMD with I as centre and CD as cord, 𝑃𝑀 = 2 𝐼𝑁
(𝐶𝑃)2
As M is close to P, IM = IP. Thus 𝑃𝑀 = 2 𝐼𝑃
……..(5)
(𝐶𝑃)2 2 𝑂𝑃 𝑣2
Substituting for PN and PM from (4) and (5) in (3), we get 2 𝐼𝑃
× (𝐶𝑃)2 = 𝑣1
𝑂𝑃 𝑣2 𝑐 𝑐
or = …..(6) By definition 𝑛1 = and 𝑛2 = where 𝑐 is the speed
𝐼𝑃 𝑣1 𝑣1 𝑣2
𝑛1 𝑣
of light in vacuum, 𝑛2
= 𝑣2 ………(7)
1
𝑂𝑃 𝑛
Comparing equations (6) and (7) = 𝑛1
𝐼𝑃 2
𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒏𝟏 𝟏
As 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 and 𝐼𝑃 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, = =
𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒏𝟐 𝟏 𝒏𝟐
𝑛2
( since 1𝑛2 = 𝑛1
)
The two light waves arriving out of phase at a point on the screen interfere
destructively giving rise to a dark band. This is due to overlapping of a crest of one
wave on the trough of the other or vice versa. Thus the phenomenon of interference
is defined as folloss,
The modification in the intensity of light energy, when two or more light waves
superpose on each other is called interference.
This phenomenon is based on the principle of superposition. According to this
principle, when two or more light waves travel through a point in a medium
simultaneously, the net effect at that point is the algebraic sum of the effects
produced due to individual waves. At any instant, the resultant displacement is
equal to the vector sum of the individual displacements produced by each wave.
It is not possible to show interference due to two independent sources of light. This
is because, the two sources may have different amplitudes, different wavelengths
and the phases of two may vary. Hence there is a requirement of coherent sources.
Coherent sources: The two light sources that are responsible for producing
interference must be coherent sources.
The two light sources are said to be coherent if the two light waves are in the same
phase or have constant phase difference.
(1) Division of wavefront – For experimental purposes two virtual sources formed
due to a single source can act as coherent sources. It is also possible to achieve
coherence between a real source and a virtual source. In these cases a wavefront
coming from a source is divided into two parts. For example in case of Young’s
double slit experiment, the primary wavefront incident on the double slit is divided
to two parts. Other example is the Fresnel’s biprism in which a biprism divides the
wavefront into two parts and forms two virtual coherent sources toproduce
interference.
(2) Division of amplitude – Here the amplitude of wave emitted by a source of light
is divided into two parts where one part is reflected and the other part is
transmitted. These reflected or transmitted rays superpose and produce
interference. In case of thin film, the incident light is partly reflected at the top
surface of the film and the other part is refracted. The refracted light is again
reflected at the bottom surface of the film and comes out of the film parallel to the
first reflected ray. These tao rays are coherent and they superpose to produce
interference. Other examples are Newton’s rings, Michelson’s interferometer, colors
in thin films etc.
The condition for constructive interference is that the phase difference between two
light waves must be even multiples of or the path difference must be integral
multiples of . The maximum value of intensity is given by 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟒𝒂𝟐 .
Thus biprism is used to divide the incident wavefront into two parts to produce
coherent sources. The light from these coherent sources interfere to produce fringes.
Theory of Biprism
Expression for the fringe width in the interference pattern :
Light from a monochromatic source is directed on
to a slit S. The biprsim splits the waves into two
parts producing two coherent sources A and B
separated by a small distance d. The screen is
placed at a large distance D from the sources and
parallel to it.
Consider a point O on the screen which is
equidistant from both the slits such that AO = BO.
Thus the path difference between the light waves
from the slits reaching the point O is zero resulting
in a bright fringe at O called the central bright
fringe.
(BP)2 – (AP)2 = D 2 + x + − D 2 + x −
2 2
2 2
d d
(BP)2 – (AP)2 = x + − x −
2 2
2 2 xd d 2 2 2 xd d 2
or (BP + AP) (BP – AP) = x + + − x − + = 2xd
2 4 2 4
As d is very small compared to D, BP AP. D. Thus BP + AP = 2D
From the above equation 2D (BP – AP ) = 2xd
xd
or BP – AP =
D
To get a bright fringe at point P, the path difference = m
xd 𝑚D
Thus =m or 𝑥 =
D 𝑑
𝑚D
The distance of the mth bright fringe from the centre O is 𝑥𝑚 = … (3)
𝑑
(𝑚−1) D
The distance of the (n - 1) th bright fringe O is 𝑥𝑚−1 = … (4)
𝑑
D
The distance between two consecutive bright fringes is 𝑥𝑚 − 𝑥𝑚−1 =
𝑑
To get a dark fringe at point P, the path difference = (2m + 1)
2
xd (2𝑚+1) D
Thus = (2m + 1) or 𝑥=
D 2 2𝑑
(2𝑚+1) D
The distance of the mth dark fringe from the centre O is 𝑥𝑚 =
2𝑑
(2(𝑚−1)+1) D
The distance of the (m - 1)th dark fringe O is 𝑥𝑚−1 =
2𝑑
D
The distance between two consecutive dark fringes is 𝑥𝑚 − 𝑥𝑚−1 =
𝑑
Thus the distance between any two consecutive bright or dark fringes called fringe
𝝀𝑫
width is 𝜷=
𝒅
Note : The intensity of the coherent sources depends on the width of the two slits.
If x1 and x2 are the widths of the two slits and I1 and I2 are the corresponding
I x
intensities, then 1 = 1
I 2 x2
Also if a and b are the amplitudes of the light waves from the two sources then
I1 a 2 a I1 I m a x ( a + b )2
= or = Also = .
I2 b2 b I2 I mi n ( a − b )2
(𝟐𝒎+𝟏)𝝀𝑹
or 𝒓=√ …..(5)
𝟐
𝑟2
For dark rings, 2 𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 or 2 2𝑅
= 𝑚𝜆 or 𝒓 = √𝒎𝝀𝑹 …..(6)
When m = 0, the radius of the dark ring is zero and the radius of the bright ring is
𝝀𝑹
𝒓=√ . Therefore the centre is dark and alternately dark and bright rings are
𝟐
formed.
Result : The radius of the dark ring is proportional to √𝒎 , √𝝀 and √𝑹 . Also
the radius of the bright ring is proportional to √𝟐𝒎 + 𝟏 , √𝝀 and √𝑹 .
The diameter of a dark ring is 𝐷 = 2𝑟 = 2√𝑚𝜆𝑅. Thus, the diameter of central dark
ring is zero. The diameter of the first dark ring is 𝐷1 = 2√𝜆𝑅. Similarly for the second,
third etc.. are 𝐷2 = 2√2𝜆𝑅 , 𝐷3 = 2√3𝜆𝑅.
The difference in diameters of 16th and the 9th rings are 𝐷16 − 𝐷9 = 2√16𝜆𝑅 − 2√9𝜆𝑅
Thus 𝐷16 − 𝐷9 = 2√𝜆𝑅 . Similarly 𝐷4 − 𝐷1 = 2√𝜆𝑅.
Therefore the fringe width decreases with the order of the fringe and the fringes get
closer with increase in their order.
2
In general, 𝐷𝑚 − 𝐷𝑛2 = 4(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝜆𝑅 . The radius of curvature of the convex lens can
𝑫𝟐𝒎 − 𝑫𝟐𝒏
be determined using the relation 𝑹 = .
𝟒(𝒎−𝒏)𝝀
The Newton's rings apparatus consists of a Plano-convex lens of large radius of
curvature (L) placed on an optically flat glass plate (G), so that the convex surface is
in contact with the glass plate as shown. Light from source S is incident on a glass
plate (B) inclined at 45 with the direction of incident rays.
1 The distance between the two coherent sources of lightis 0.16 mm. Interference
fringes are obtained on a screen placed at a distance of 1.2 m from the sources.
It is found that for a certain monochromatic source of light the second bright
fringe is at a distance of 9.6 mm from the central fringe. What is the wavelength
of the source?
𝑚D
[ Hint : 𝑥𝑚 =
𝑑
, ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 2, 𝜆 = 6.4 × 10−7 𝑚 ]
2 The distance between two coherent sources is 1 mm and the screen is 1 m away
from the sources. The second dark band is 0.1 cm from the central bright fringe.
Find the wavelength and the distance of the second bright band from the central
bright band.
(2𝑚+1) D
[ Hint : 𝑥𝑚 =
2𝑑
, ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑚 = 1, 𝜆 = 6.667 × 10−7 𝑚
𝑚D
For second bright fringe m = 2, 𝑥𝑚 = 𝑑
= 1.33 × 10−3 𝑚 ]
3 A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 650 nm and 520 nm is used to
obtain interference fringes in a Young’s double slit experiment. (a) Find the
distance of the third bright fringe on the screen from the central maximum for
the wavelength 650 nm, (b) What is the least distance from the central maximum
when the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide. Assume d = 2 mm,
𝑚D 𝑚 1 D
D = 1.2 m. [ Hint : 𝑥𝑚 =
𝑑
, ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 3, 𝑥3 = 0.177 × 10−2 𝑚, 𝑑
=
(𝑚+1) 2 D 𝑚 1 D
𝑑
, 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑚 = 4, 𝑥 = 𝑑
= 0.156 × 10−2 𝑚
4 In a biprism experiment interference fringes are obtained in the focal plane of an
eye-piece at a distance of 1m from slit. The separation between the images for
conjugate positions of a convex lens are 3.17mm and 1.75 mm. If the width of the
fringes is 0.025 cm, find the wavelength of light used.
𝜆𝐷 𝛽𝑑
[ Hint : 𝑑 = √𝑑1 𝑑2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑1 = 3.17𝑚𝑚, 𝑑2 = 1.75𝑚𝑚, 𝛽 = , 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜆 = =
𝑑 𝐷
−7
5.888 × 10 𝑚 ]
5. In a biprism experiment fringes of width 0.02 cm are observed at a distance of
1m from the slit. Distance between coherent sources is 3mm. Find the wavelength
of light. On placing a thin transparent sheet of refractive index 1.5 in the path of
Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College Page 22