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Natural Disaster Science and Mitigation Engineering:
DPRI Reports

Tetsuya Sumi
Sameh A. Kantoush
Mohamed Saber Editors

Wadi Flash Floods

Challenges and Advanced Approaches
for Disaster Risk Reduction
Natural Disaster Science and Mitigation
Engineering: DPRI Reports

Editor-in-Chief
Hiroshi Kawase, Uji, Kyoto, Japan
Because of the high concentration of population in urban habitats and the strong
linkage to infrastructures that support a modern urban lifestyle, natural disasters
such as fl oods, typhoons, earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides, and volcanoes always
create new areas of severe damage whenever they occur. Japan is a “disaster
country” of sorts: the Japanese have had to survive many different kinds of natural
disasters and consequently they have accumulated a substantial body of knowledge
in the phenomenology and mitigation of natural disasters. This series of books
presents recent advances in all aspects of natural disasters and related mitigation
technologies developed in Japan to be shared with the international community.
The areas covered in this series include
1. Earthquake risk
2. Strong motions and damage prediction for urban structures
3. Volcanic eruptions
4. Ground failures
5. Climate and water disasters
6. Fire and environmental disasters
7. Disaster management and mitigation

Editorial Board

Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Hiroshi Kawase (Kyoto University, DPRI)

Editors
Prof. Manabu Hashimoto (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Prof. Tomotaka Iwata (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Prof. Masato Iguchi (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Prof. Masahiro Chigira (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Prof. Kaoru Takara (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Prof. Tetsuya Sumi (Kyoto University, DPRI)
Prof. Hirokazu Tatano (Kyoto University, DPRI)

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11773

Tetsuya Sumi Sameh A. Kantoush
• •

Mohamed Saber
Editors

Wadi Flash Floods

Challenges and Advanced Approaches
for Disaster Risk Reduction

123
Editors
Tetsuya Sumi Sameh A. Kantoush
Water Resources Research Center (WRRC) Water Resources Research Center (WRRC)
Disaster Prevention Research Institute Disaster Prevention Research Institute
(DPRI) (DPRI)
Kyoto University Kyoto University
Uji, Kyoto, Japan Uji, Kyoto, Japan

Mohamed Saber
Water Resources Research Center (WRRC)
Disaster Prevention Research Institute
(DPRI)
Kyoto University
Uji, Kyoto, Japan

This book was funded by the Water Resources Research Center (WRRC) of the Disaster
Prevention Research Institute (DPRI) at Kyoto University, which provided support for
publishing the book as Open Access through Springer. In addition, the book has been
professionally edited using financial support from Springer’s DPRI book series at DPRI,
Kyoto University. The editors highly appreciate the financial support from WRRC and DPRI.

ISSN 2196-4394 ISSN 2196-4408 (electronic)

Natural Disaster Science and Mitigation Engineering: DPRI Reports
ISBN 978-981-16-2903-7 ISBN 978-981-16-2904-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2904-4
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2022. This book is an open access publication.
Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
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Singapore
To academics, researchers, engineers,
students, professionals, and decision-makers
who are interested in flash flood risk
reduction and sustainable water management
for improving secure development in arid and
semiarid regions
Preface

Introduction

Over the last two decades, a number of studies, research papers, and contributions
have been published on wadi system issues. The first specific and original book was
presented by Sen in 2008, and it was named “Wadi hydrology.” In this book, the
author highlighted the wadi terminology to provide a definition for arid basins and
addressed the assessment methodologies from different aspects of water resources
with innovative and distinctive concepts. Additionally, UNESCO IHP established
the “Global Network on Water and Development Information for Arid Lands
(G-WADI)” in 2004. It was originally initiated to strengthen the capacity to manage
water resources in arid and semiarid regions and build an effective global com-
munity through the integration of networks, centers, organizations, and individuals
(https://gwadi.org/). Although many previous studies have focused on arid envi-
ronment characteristics and rainfall-runoff modeling, water management, and dis-
aster risk reduction, the current situation is still challenging due to climate change
impacts and global warming. Therefore, we present this book as an attempt to
continue the efforts of previous researchers and scientists to develop a tangible and
sustainable management process that considers all water resource aspects in arid
and semiarid regions.
Wadi flash floods (WFFs) have recently become more frequent and devastating,
and they result in significant economic, property, and life losses, as well as envi-
ronmental degradation. The wadi systems of arid and semiarid regions face various
challenges that hamper water resource management for secure sustainable devel-
opment. Among these, challenges are data limitations (availability and quality),
dual disaster events (floods and droughts), water shortage (quantity and quality),
improper management (water and sediment), and weak comprehensive under-
standing of the WFF processes and appropriate WFF approaches (models, strate-
gies, and planning). Although several research studies focused on the use of WFFs
to mitigate flash floods in some arid regions based on impact modeling (Saber et al.
2010, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020a, b; Saber 2010; Kantoush et al. 2011;

vii
viii Preface

Cools et al. 2012; Moawad 2013; Sumi et al. 2013; Abdel-Fattah et al. 2015; Saber
and Habib 2016; Youssef et al. 2016; Abdel-Fattah et al. 2016; Abuzeid et al. 2016;
Abdel-Fattah et al. 2017; Abdel-Fattah et al. 2018; Saber and Yilmaz 2018;
Al-Mamari et al. 2019; Abdrabo et al. 2020; Prama et al. 2020; Abdel-Fattah et al.
2021), the spatiotemporal variability in both the magnitude and frequency of flash
floods is still not well understood and has not been scientifically evaluated, espe-
cially in terms of climate change. In this book volume, a comprehensive vision and
research directions are introduced with the goal of enhancing the scientific under-
standing of natural disaster science and WFF mitigation. The book stresses the
urgent need to develop sustainable approaches and methods to simulate and forecast
WFFs by focusing on water management, climate change impacts, disaster risk
reduction, society and environmental development.
The book includes selected high-quality papers from five series of the
International Symposium on Flash Floods in Wadi Systems (ISFF) that were held in
2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2020 in Japan and Egypt, Oman, Morocco, and Japan,
respectively. The main merit of this comprehensive book is its focus on research
and technical papers as well as case study applications in different regions world-
wide (see the global maps, Fig. 1) that cover many topics and answer several
scientific questions.
The main factors that lead to increases in wadi flash floods in terms of frequency
and intensity must be identified to develop robust forecasting programs and proper
mitigation strategies for flash flood risk reduction. Additionally, the hydrological
characteristics, such as rainfall spatiotemporal variability, infiltration processes,
runoff generation, and surface and subsurface water interactions, must be investi-
gated along with geomorphological, topographical, and geological features. This
approach represents an optimal method of overcoming the identified issues.
Water resources are highly scarce in arid and semiarid regions; therefore, water
management is a must. There are challenges in water resource management related

Fig. 1 Target regions and country applications reported in the WFF textbook
Preface ix

Fig. 2 Governing factors and

issues for wadi flash flood
management

to the increases in population, agricultural areas, and water demand. Moreover, the
hydrological conditions in such regions are not only extremely variable but also
affected by climate change. Due to the absence of water management and sus-
tainable mitigation strategies, the development of effective hydrological models is
desperately needed to overcome wadi system problems. Therefore, we propose a
multidisciplinary approach relying on the addressed factors (Fig. 2). Such a pro-
posed research strategy focuses on WFF modeling, mitigation, and harvesting as
well as the related socioenvironmental issues. We propose an integrated strategy
based on multidisciplinary research according to the following issues:
• Innovative approaches: What factors are missing in the existing approaches for
flash floods? How can we enhance the forecasting and mitigation of models and
methodologies?
• Databased networks: What are the existing challenges of observation and
monitoring networks for modeling and forecasting? How can we enable these
ungauged wadi basins?
• Teamwork: What are the existing global and national networking programs for
research collaboration? How can we start efficient networks that include
researchers, professionals, engineers, and stakeholders from different countries?
• Risk reduction and sediment management: How can we propose flash flood
risk reduction approaches based on innovative hydrological models and miti-
gation actions?
• Water harvesting and water management: How can we integrate methods for
surface and subsurface water management for water harvesting and groundwater
recharge?
x Preface

• Society and environment: How can we develop wadi societies and commu-
nities by involving the local population in research project implementation?
• Decision making, planning, and governance: How can we improve the
existing national and global plan for wadi society development?

Overview of the Wadi Flash Flood Textbook

The main purpose of this book is to bring together research studies, developments,
and application-related flash flood topics on wadi systems in arid regions. In this
book, the authors and contributors (engineers, researchers, and professionals) have
introduced their recent scientific findings to develop proper, applicable, and inno-
vative tools for mitigation, forecasting, and water management as well as society
development. The main contents include recent scientific achievements and find-
ings, which are introduced in 22 chapters under seven main research themes as
follows:
Part I. Wadi Flash Flood Challenges and Strategies
Part II. Hydrometeorology and Climate Changes
Part III. Rainfall-Runoff Modeling and Approaches
Part IV. Disaster Risk Reduction and Mitigation
Part V. Reservoir Sedimentation and Sediment Yield
Part VI. Groundwater Management

Uji, Kyoto, Japan Tetsuya Sumi

Sameh A. Kantoush
Mohamed Saber

References
Abdel-Fattah, M., Kantoush, S. A., Saber, M., & Sumi, T. (2021). Evaluation of Structural
Measures for Flash Flood Mitigation in Wadi Abadi Region of Egypt. J Hydrol Eng, 26(2),
04020062
Abdel-Fattah, M., Kantoush, S., & Sumi, T. (2015). Integrated management of flash flood in wadi
system of egypt: Disaster prevention and water harvesting. 京都大学防災研究所年報. B=
Annu Disas Prev Res Inst. B, 58(B):485–496
Abdel-Fattah, M., M. Saber, et al. (2017). “A Hydrological and Geomorphometric Approach to
Understanding the Generation of Wadi Flash Floods.” Water 9(7): 553
Abdel-Fattah, M., S. A. Kantoush, et al. (2018). “Rainfall-Runoff Modeling For Extreme Flash
Floods In Wadi Samail, Oman.” J Jpn Soc Civ Eng Ser B1 (Hydraul Eng) 74(5)
Abdel-Fattah M, Kantoush S, Saber M., & Sumi T. (2016). “Hydrological modelling of flash flood
at wadi samail, Oman.” 京都大学防災研究所年報. B= Disaster Prevention Research Institute
Annuals. B 59 no. B:533–541
Abdrabo, K. I., Kantoush, S. A., Saber, M., Sumi, T., Habiba, O. M., Elleithy, D., & Elboshy, B.
(2020). Integrated Methodology for Urban Flood Risk Mapping at the Microscale in Ungauged
Regions: A Case Study of Hurghada, Egypt. Remote Sens 12(21):3548
Preface xi

Abuzied, S., Yuan, M., Ibrahim, S., Kaiser, M., & Saleem, T. (2016). Geospatial risk assessment
of flash floods in Nuweiba area, Egypt.J Arid Environ 133:54–72
Al-Mamari, M. M., S. A. Kantoush, et al. (2019). “Real-Time Measurement of Flash-Flood in a
Wadi Area by LSPIV and STIV.” Hydrology 6(1):27
Cools, J., Vanderkimpen, P., Afandi, G. E., Abdelkhalek, A., Fockedey, S., Sammany, M. E., ... &
Huygens, M. (2012). An early warning system for flash floods in hyper-arid Egypt. Nat
Hazards Earth Syst Sci 12(2):443–457
Kantoush, S. A., Sumi, T., Kojiri, T., Saber, M., Elshennawy, I., Awad, H., & Sefelnaser, A.
(2011). JE-HydroNet: Modern Methodologies for the Management, Monitoring and Planning
of Integrated Water Resources in the Nile Delta of Egypt. In Proceedings of the 34th World
Congress of the International Association for Hydro-Environment Research and Engineering:
33rd Hydrology and Water Resources Symposium and 10th Conference on Hydraulics in
Water Engineering (p. 3928). Engineers Australia.
Moawad, M. B. (2013). Analysis of the flash flood occurred on 18 January 2010 in wadi El Arish,
Egypt (a case study). Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, 4(3):254–274
Prama, M., Omran, A., Schröder, D., & Abouelmagd, A. (2020). Vulnerability assessment of flash
floods in Wadi Dahab Basin, Egypt. Environ Earth Sci, 79(5):1–17
Saber, M. (2010). Hydrological Approaches of Wadi System Considering Flash Floods in Arid
Regions. Kyoto, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University
Saber, M. and E. Habib (2015). Flash floods modelling for wadi system: Challenges and trends.
Landscape Dynamics, Soils and Hydrological Processes in Varied Climates: 317–339
Saber, M., & Yilmaz, K. K. (2018). Evaluation and bias correction of satellite-based rainfall
estimates for modelling flash floods over the Mediterranean region: application to Karpuz
River Basin, Turkey. Water, 10(5), 657
Saber, M., Abdrabo, K. I., Habiba, O. M., Kantosh, S. A., & Sumi, T. (2020). Impacts of triple
factors on flash flood vulnerability in Egypt: urban growth, extreme climate, and misman-
agement. Geosciences, 10(1), 24.
Saber, M., Kantoush, S., Sumi, T., Abdel-Fattah, M., Alharrasi, T., Koshiba, T., ... & Almamari,
M. (2018). Field investigation on wadi system in arid regions: Flash flood indicators and
sedimentation impacts. 京都大学防災研究所年報. B= Disaster Prev Res Inst Ann. B, 61
(B):722–731
Saber, M., Kantoush, S., Sumi, T., Ogiso, Y., & Alharrasi, T. (2019). Reservoir Sedimentation at
Wadi System: Challenges and Management Strategies. 京都大学防災研究所年報. B=
Disaster Prevention Research Institute Annuals. B, 62(B):689–699
Saber, M., S. A. Kantoush, et al. (2020). “Assessment of spatiotemporal variability of water
storage in Arabian countries using global datasets: implications for water resources manage-
ment.” Urban Water J 1–15
Saber, M., S. Kantoush, et al. (2017). “Assessing flash floods prone regions at wadi basins in
Aswan, Egypt.” 京都大学防災研究所年報. B= Disaster Prev Res Inst Annuals. B 60(B):853–
863
Saber, M., T. Hamaguchi, et al. (2015). “A physically based distributed hydrological model of
wadi system to simulate flash floods in arid regions.” Arab J Geosci 8(1):143–160
Saber, M., T. Hamagutchi, et al. (2010). “Hydrological modeling of distributed runoff throughout
comparative study between some Arabian wadi basins.” Annu J Hydraul Eng Jpn Soc Civil
Eng, Japan Society of Civil Engineers 54:85–90
Sumi, T., Saber, M., & Kantoush, S. A. (2013). Japan-Egypt hydro network: science and tech-
nology collaborative research for flash flood management. J Disaster Res 8(1):28–36
Acknowledgements

The main contents of this book are collected from research papers, technical studies,
and case studies presented at the ISFF conferences series; therefore, we would like
to express our deep gratitude to all of the participants and authors for their worthy
contributions to this book. Special gratitude is extended to the reviewers and
experts who have generously helped and contributed significantly to improving the
quality of the submitted book chapters based on their constructive comments and
suggestions. Additionally, the editors greatly appreciate the financial support from
DPRI for publishing this book in Springer’s DPRI book series.

xiii
Summary

The chapters of the book are summarized in this section. The WFF book contains
six themes and a total of 22 chapters focused on several topics associated with arid
and semiarid regions. The first theme (Part I) is “WFF Challenges and Strategies,”
and it includes three chapters (Kantoush et al. 2021; Loudyi and Fekri 2021; and
Boutaghane et al. 2021) that define the research gaps, directions, strategies, and
challenges at the regional scale of the MENA region and the country scale, such as
Morocco and Algeria.
Kantoush et al. (2021) (Chap. 1) provide a state-of-the-art scientific basis in
terms of integrated flash flood management, and it mainly highlights the research
gaps and emerging research methodologies that can contribute to guiding the
management of WFFs in the Middle East and North African (MENA) arid areas.
The chapter also discusses the importance and objectives of the international
symposium on flash floods (ISFF) project and the different dimensions of flash
flood phenomena, causes, and resulting impacts in the MENA region. This chapter
highlights that flash flood disasters in arid environments are associated with several
challenges related to flash flood features, arid environment characteristics, and data
and methodology limitations. At the country scale, two chapters address local
strategies. The second chapter addresses flood risk management practices in
Morocco by Loudyi and Fekri (2021) (Chap. 2). In this chapter, the phenomenon of
floods in Morocco is discussed, and the evolution of approaches to assess flood risk,
related technical and governance aspects, and best practices for managing floods are
highlighted. This chapter provides holistic insights into flood risk management in
Morocco. The authors stated that the engagement of citizens and other public
stakeholders within a participatory approach is recommended for better commu-
nication of flood risk preparedness and resilience enhancement, and it indicates that
the involvement of international organizations, such as OECD and WB, and
international collaboration in research can also offer a great opportunity for
improving flood risk assessment in the country. The third chapter by Boutaghane
et al. (2021) (Chap. 3) highlights the strategies for flood analysis and mitigation in
Algeria. The flood monitoring network is also addressed by highlighting the data
availability and quality and implementing the first forecasting and early warning

xv
xvi Summary

system. The authors stated that there are problems with the length of historical
datasets obtained from hydrometric and pluviometric monitoring networks.
The second theme (Part II) is “Hydrometeorology and Climate Changes,” and it
includes two chapters. The first study by Nayak and Takemi (2021) (Chap. 4)
focuses on the impact of climate change on temperature and precipitation in India.
The study introduces a comprehensive assessment of future climate change in terms
of the climatologies, distribution patterns, annual cycles, and frequency distribu-
tions of temperature and precipitation over India. The results indicate that some
desert regions in the west and tropical humid climate types in the central and south
regions of the country show possible temperature increases of 4–5 °C while the
temperatures over the subtropical humid climates in the north and east regions
of the country show increases of 3–4 °C. The second chapter by Belarbi et al.
(2021) (Chap. 5) presents an analysis of the hydrological behavior of watersheds in
the context of climate change in Algeria. The study focused on the temporal evo-
lution of the rainfall-runoff relations in four basins in northwestern Algeria. The
results show that in the four basins, rainfall deficits started in 1974/1975 and
continue to the present with annual variability. The authors stated that such chan-
ges, which are characterized by downward trends, have motivated them to pay more
attention to the proper functioning of completed or planned projects with the
challenge of attaining sustainable management of water resources in the region to
mitigate persistent drought. Both studies in India and Algeria highlight the
importance of understanding climatic variability and its impacts on water resources
as well as its relation with different climatic environments, and they also provide
insights to understand climatic dynamics and variability.
The third theme (Part III) is “Rainfall-Runoff Modeling and Approaches,” and it
includes five chapters (Tügel et al. 2021; Holzbecher et al. 2021; Abdelmoneim
et al. 2021; Al-mamari et al. 2021; and Banihabib and Vaziri 2021). Tügel et al.
(2021) (Chap. 6) investigated flash floods in the region of El Gouna in Egypt by
using a 2D robust shallow water model that incorporates time-dependent infiltration
to find the most realistic infiltration settings for this desert area. The study con-
cluded that in addition to the overestimation of infiltration, the DSM lacked
accuracy and resolution because some important topographical features were not
well captured. The authors recommended extending their research work to include
infiltration measurements with a rainfall simulator to better represent the natural
conditions during heavy rainfall events and to investigate the effect of surface
sealing and improve the DSM. Holzbecher et al. (2021) (Chap. 7) introduced smart
technology for an early warning system that includes hydrological sensors, remote
sensing, sensor networks, data integration, hydrodynamic simulation and visual-
ization, decision support and early warning systems and the dissemination of
information to decision-makers and the public. Two case studies are presented in
Australia and Oman with similar flood characteristics. The case of the flash flood
guidance system of Oman shows that technical issues associated with flood warning
systems can be addressed and resolved.
Abdelmoneim et al. (2021) (Chap. 8) presented a study on different global
precipitation estimations based on satellite products (PESPs) with high resolution as
Summary xvii

the input to the distributed Hydrological River Basin Environmental Assessment

Model (Hydro-BEAM) to investigate the potential effects on streamflow predictions
over the Blue Nile basin (BNB). A comparison of PESPs with observed gauge data
reveals that the performance of the TRMM 3B42 V7 product is the most precise in
terms of monthly precipitation estimates. Flash flood monitoring is not well
implemented in arid regions; therefore, Al-Mamari et al. (2021) (Chap. 9) high-
lighted the importance of implementing innovative monitoring techniques that can
use noncontact measurements to extract accurate information and data from wadi
channels. Two different image-based techniques were applied in Oman. The first is
photogrammetry processing to quantify postpeak flood discharge by using a drone
survey to build a digital elevation model (DEM) that is calibrated and validated by a
field survey. In the second method, they combined the previous technique with the
large-scale particle image velocimetry (LSPIV) technique to measure flash flood
discharge by installing a fixed camera at the site. The results show acceptable
agreement between the applied techniques and the real observations, and it will
represent a good step to measure and monitor flash floods indirectly. An additional
study by Banihabib and Vaziri (2021) (Chap. 10) focused on using an experimental
rainfall simulator to generate temporally varied rainstorms. A rainstorm simulator
was designed and built using cascading tanks to generate rainstorm hyetographs
that cannot be obtained using traditional rainfall simulators, and the results and
numerical model showed that the instrument can simulate the temporal distributions
of rainstorms with an accuracy of 95%.
The fourth theme (Part IV) is “Disaster Risk Reduction and Mitigation,” and it
includes four chapters (Abdrabo et al. 2021; Huq et al 2021; Saber et al. 2021;
Saeed and Mills 2021). Abdrabo et al. (2021) (Chap. 11) presented a review study
to address the role of urban planning and landscape tools concerning flash flood risk
reduction within arid and semiarid regions. The chapter stated that the application
of the urban planning approach for FRR in arid and semiarid regions has not yet
received adequate attention and concluded that integration of a DRR strategy with
both structural and nonstructural mitigation measures in spatial planning could be
much more effective than applying the approaches separately. The second chapter
by Huq et al. (2021) (Chap. 12) focuses on assessing the vulnerability of flash
floods in the urban city of Dhaka, Bangladesh. The study addresses the importance
of various factors, including social, economic, structural, institutional, political,
geographic, and environmental factors, for measuring the specific nature of people’s
vulnerability levels to different hazards. The results show that slum inhabitants are
more vulnerable to flash flood hazards than nonslum inhabitants. Additionally,
Saeed and Mills (2021) (Chap. 13) explored the flash flooding risk in the Saudi
Arabian city of Jeddah with a particular focus on the Abruq Ar Rughamah
neighborhood. The results show that most of the area, especially the unplanned
area, is located along a natural flood path. This paper concludes that it is important
to develop a risk management strategy that includes limiting urban expansion in
flood-prone areas and redesigning neighborhoods to increase flood resilience. The
last chapter on this theme was introduced by Saber et al. (2021) (Chap. 14), who
presented a comparison study at Wadi Uday in Oman and Sume Basin in Paraiba,
xviii Summary

Brazil. The climatic characteristics are reviewed for both regions, and the
rainfall-runoff inundation model (RRI) was used to simulate the discharge and flood
inundation of recent flood events in the study areas. This simulation highlighted the
severity and frequency of recent flash flood events to better assess the current
mitigation measures in arid and semiarid basins. The findings indicated that flash
floods tend to be more severe and extreme in arid regions than in semiarid regions
despite the lower frequency of flash floods and the water scarcity in arid regions.
Distributed dams also proved to be more effective in preventing flash floods in arid
regions than in semiarid regions
The fifth theme (Part V) is “Reservoir Sedimentation and Sediment Yield,” and
it includes five chapters (Saber et al. 2021; Holzbecher and Hadidi 2021; Djoukbala
et al. 2021; Adam and Suleiman 2021; Banihabib and Tanhapour 2021). In arid and
semiarid environments, little attention has been focused on sedimentation assess-
ments and impacts associated with flash floods, especially in the MENA region,
with hyperarid conditions. Saber et al. (2021) (Chap. 15) highlighted the integration
of field investigation and modeling as well as remote sensing techniques to
understand the sediment dynamics in hyperarid reservoirs in Oman. This chapter
presents an international collaboration project implemented in Oman focusing on
monitoring and observing sedimentation and its impacts on infiltration in the
Asserin Reservoir, Wadi Mijlas, Oman. Detailed field investigations were con-
ducted, including drone surveys, pedon analysis, and infiltration tests, and ques-
tionnaires about flash floods were also implemented. The detailed field survey is
highly important for assessing sediment transport and sedimentation impacts on
infiltration. Holzbecher and Hadidi (2021) (Chap. 16) introduced a multiphysics
approach that coupled shallow water equations (SWEs) representing water height
and velocity with equations for suspended particulate matter and bed loads by using
COMSOL Multiphysics software. The study examined the capability of the
numerical approach to simulate basic processes that change the bottom elevation of
a water body. However, this study demonstrated that basic phenomena associated
with sediment transport, such as scour creation and sediment deposition, can be
captured by a 2D coupled multiphysics approach. Sedimentation in Algeria is
associated with a high level of challenges, especially in the northern and central
basins. Therefore, Djoukbala et al. (2021) (Chap. 17) aimed to estimate the eroded
and transported sediment yields from the whole Hodna Basin area by two
approaches. In the first model, the eroded yield is estimated by mapping erosion
using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). In the second approach,
the data of the gauged subbasins are extrapolated to the ungauged areas based on
homogeneous factors that influence the water erosion-sediment transport process.
The results of the two methods showed that high eroded and transported sediment
yield values were observed in the basin.
Sedimentation is also a challenging issue in Sudan due to its impacts on the
operations of reservoirs and irrigation networks, as highlighted by Adam and
Suleiman (2021) (Chap. 18). This study discusses the sediment management
practices used in the Khashm el-Girba Dam, which crosses the Atbara River in
Eastern Sudan, and their impacts on maintaining reservoir capacity. Practices
Summary xix

including operation policy (OP), trap efficiency (TE), sluicing, sediment sluicing,
and flushing operation (FO) were discussed. The authors stated that the adopted
management practices succeeded in removing a considerable amount of silt and
maintaining the lifetime of the reservoir. Determining the precipitation intensity
threshold of debris flood occurrence was addressed by Banihabib and Tanhapour
(2021) (Chap. 19). In this study, a laboratory model was employed to determine the
precipitation intensity threshold at which debris floods occur using a set of factors,
including sediment layer thickness, bed slope, grain mean diameter, length of
sediment, precipitation intensity, and time of debris flood occurrence.
The sixth theme (Part VI) is “Groundwater Management,” and it includes three
chapters (groundwater in arid regions is an important and basic water resource for
different uses in most arid regions). Ebraheem et al. (2021) (Chap. 20) presented
geophysical methods to determine the locations of saturated fractures and karsts and
the thicknesses of the unconsolidated materials in the wadis. The locations of the
two production wells were determined in the Wadi Ham and Ain Madab Springs
areas in the UAE for feeding the spring during drought seasons. The authors
indicated that to avoid losses of spring water, water should be transported by pipes
or by the construction of sealed small canals toward the bathing pool.
Overexploitation of groundwater has led to declining water levels in many aquifers
in arid regions, as stated by Sherif et al. (2021) (Chap. 21). This study was con-
ducted to evaluate the effect of the Wadi Bih Dam on groundwater resources and to
provide data on the hydrodynamics of the aquifer. The results showed that the
additional recharge provided by dam storage does not balance groundwater
extraction; thus, the present exploitation regime is not sustainable. To achieve
sustainable management of the groundwater resources in Wadi Bih, an integrated
solution must be pursued considering demand management as well as options for
further mitigating the impacts of groundwater abstraction. In terms of water quality
and the impact of groundwater overpumping, Saber et al. (2021) (Chap. 22)
investigated the environmental impacts of the increasing groundwater level through
field observations and chemical analyses of the groundwater wells in the Faris Area,
Aswan. The results revealed that the use of flood irrigation systems in the upper
newly reclaimed land area in the study area is the main cause of the decreasing
groundwater levels, which have led to remarkable environmental degradation in the
city. Additionally, the water quality also drastically changed due to the over-
pumping of groundwater.
In conclusion, the presented chapters comprehensively and significantly high-
light different scientific research disciplines related to wadi flash floods, including
climatology, hydrological models, new monitoring techniques, remote sensing
techniques, field investigations, international collaboration projects, risk assessment
and mitigation, sedimentation and sediment transport, and groundwater quality and
xx Summary

quantity assessment and management. These collections of chapters could provide

valuable guidance and scientific content not only for academics, researchers, and
students but also for decision-makers in the MENA region and worldwide.

Mohamed Saber
[email protected]
Sameh A. Kantoush
[email protected]
Tetsuya Sumi
[email protected]
Reviewers List

Mohamed Abdel-Fattah, Military Technological College, Sultanate of Oman

Takahiro Sayama, Kyoto University, Japan
Reinhard Hinkelmann, Technische Universität Berlin (TUB), Germany
Mitsuteru Irie, Miyazaki University, Japan
Hitoshi Tanaka, Tohoku University, Japan
Kazuki Yamanoi, Kyoto University, Japan
Ali Al-Maktoumi, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman
Takahiro Koshiba, Kyoto University, Japan
Franziska Tuegel, Technische Universität Berlin (TUB), Germany
Koichi Unami, Kyoto University, Japan
Tetsuya Takemi, Kyoto University, Japan
Nohara Daisuke, Kyoto University, Japan
Hesham Eldardiry, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
Ashraf M. Elmoustafa, Ain Shams University, Egypt
Hassan Ayad, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Morocco
Ekkehard Holzbecher, German University of Technology in Oman (GUtech),
Oman
Anis Chkirbene, Borj Cedria Technopark, Tunisia
Ahmed Hadidi, German University of Technology in Oman (GUtech), Oman
Cherifa abdelbaki, Université de Tlemcen, Algérie
Dalila Loudyi, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Morocco
Temur Khujanazarov, Kyoto University, Japan
Hamouda Boutghani, Badji Mokhtar-Annaba University, Algeria
Tayb Boulmaiz, University of Ghardaia, Algeria.
Sohei Kobayashi, Wenzhou University, China

xxi
Contents

Part I Wadi Flash Flood Challenges and Strategies

1 Integrated Strategies for the Management of Wadi Flash Floods
in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Arid Zones:
The ISFF Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sameh A. Kantoush, Mohamed Saber, Mohammed Abdel-Fattah,
and Tetsuya Sumi
2 Flood Risk Management Practices in Morocco:
Facts and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Dalila Loudyi, Moulay Driss Hasnaoui, and Ahmed Fekri
3 Flood Analysis and Mitigation Strategies in Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Hamouda Boutaghane, Tayeb Boulmaiz, El Khansa Lameche,
Abdelouahab Lefkir, Mahmoud Hasbaia, Chérifa Abdelbaki,
Ahmed Walid Moulahoum, Mehdi Keblouti,
and Abdelmalek Bermad

Part II Hydrometeorology and Climate Changes

4 Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Temperature
and Precipitation Over India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Sridhara Nayak and Tetsuya Takemi
5 Analysis of the Hydrological Behavior of Watersheds
in the Context of Climate Change (Northwestern Algeria) . . . . . . . 143
Halima Belarbi, Bénina Touaibia, Nadir Boumechra,
Chérifa Abdelbaki, and Sakina Amiar

xxiii
xxiv Contents

Part III Rainfall-Runoff Modeling and Approaches

6 Validation of Flash Flood Simulations Using Satellite Images
and Community-Based Observations—Impact of Infiltration
and Small-Scale Topographical Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Franziska Tügel, Ahmed Hadidi, Ilhan Özgen-Xian, Jingming Hou,
and Reinhard Hinkelmann
7 Advanced Tools for Flood Management: An Early Warning
System for Arid and Semiarid Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Ekkehard Holzbecher, Ahmed Hadidi,
Nicolette Volp, Jeroen de Koning, Humaid Al Badi,
Ayisha Al Khatri, and Ahmed Al Barwani
8 Hydrologic Assessment of the Uncertainty of Six Remote Sensing
Precipitation Estimates Driven by a Distributed Hydrologic
Model in the Blue Nile Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Hadir Abdelmoneim, Mohamed R. Soliman,
and Hossam M. Moghazy
9 Innovative Monitoring Techniques for Wadi Flash Flood
by Using Image-Based Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Mahmood M. Al-Mamari, Sameh A. Kantoush, and Tetsuya Sumi
10 A Temporally Varied Rainfall Simulator for Flash
Flood Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Mohammad Ebrahim Banihabib and Bahman Vaziri

Part IV Disaster Risk Reduction and Mitigation

11 The Role of Urban Planning and Landscape Tools Concerning
Flash Flood Risk Reduction Within Arid and Semiarid
Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Karim I. Abdrabo, Sameh A. Kantosh, Mohamed Saber,
Tetsuya Sumi, Dina Elleithy, Omar M. Habiba, and Bahaa Alboshy
12 Measuring Vulnerability to Flash Flood of Urban Dwellers . . . . . . 317
Md. Enamul Huq, Zhenfeng Shao, Ahmed Abdullah Al Dughairi,
Md. Nazirul Islam Sarker, Cai Bowen, Abdullah Al Mamun,
Nayyer Saleem, Akib Javed, and Md. Mahabubur Rahman
13 Flash Flood Modeling and Mitigation in Arid and Semiarid
Basins: Case Studies from Oman and Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Mohamed Saber, Sameh A. Kantoush, Mohammed Abdel-Fattah,
Tetsuya Sumi, Jose Andres Moya, and Karim Abdrabo
Contents xxv

14 Assessment of Exposure to Flash Flooding in an Arid

Environment: A Case Study of the Jeddah City Neighborhood
Abruq Ar Rughamah, Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Saeed Alharbi and Gerald Mills

Part V Reservoir Sedimentation and Sediment Yield

15 Integrated Study of Flash Floods in Wadi Basins Considering
Sedimentation and Climate Change: An International
Collaboration Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Mohamed Saber, Sameh A. Kantoush, Tetsuya Sumi, Yusuke Ogiso,
Tahani Alharrasi, Takahiro Koshiba, Mohammed Abdel-Fattah,
Ali Al-Maktoumi, Osman A. Abdalla, Yasuhiro Takemon,
Daisuke Nohara, Sohei Kobayashi, Mahmood Almamari,
Khalid Al Hooti, Ahmed Al Barwani, Hilal Almamari, Dina Ellithey,
Ekkehard Holzbecher, and Ahmed Hadidi
16 Sediment Transport in Shallow Waters as a Multiphysics
Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Ekkehard Holzbecher and Ahmed Hadidi
17 Water Erosion and Sediment Transport in an Ungauged
Semiarid Area: The Case of Hodna Basin in Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Omar Djoukbala, Mahmoud Hasbaia, Oussama Benselama,
Boutaghane Hamouda, Salim Djerbouai, and Ahmed Ferhati
18 Reservoir Sediment Management Practices in Sudan:
A Case Study of Khashm El-Girba Dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Elhadi Adam and Mohammed Suleiman
19 Determining the Precipitation Intensity Threshold of Debris
Flood Occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Mohammad Ebrahim Banihabib and Mitra Tanhapour

Part VI Groundwater Management

20 Assessment of Groundwater Resources in Water Spring Areas
Using Geophysical Methods, Northern UAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Abdel Azim Ebraheem, Mohsen Sherif, Mohamed Al Mulla,
Khaled Alghafli, and Ahmed Sefelnasr
21 Evaluation of the Effect of the Wadi Bih Dam on Groundwater
Recharge, UAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Mohsen Sherif, Abdel Azim Ebraheem, Ampar Shetty,
Ahmed Sefelnasr, Khaled Alghafli, and Mohamed Al Asam
xxvi Contents

22 Assessment of the Impacts of Groundwater Overdrafting

on Water Quality and Environmental Degradation
in the Fares Area, Aswan, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Mohamed Saber, Omar Ahmed, Esmat A. Keheila,
Mohamed Abdel-Moneim Mohamed, Sameh A. Kantoush,
Mohammed Abdel-Fattah, and Tetsuya Sumi
About the Editors

Tetsuya Sumi is a professor at the Water Resources

Research Center, Disaster Prevention Research
Institute, Kyoto University, Japan. He has a degree in
civil engineering from Kyoto University. Subsequently,
he worked for the Japanese Ministry of Construction.
His specialties are hydraulics and dam engineering,
with particular emphasis on integrated sediment man-
agement for reservoir sustainability and river basin
environment improvement. He has contributed to
several international associations and conferences, such
as IAHR, ISRS, and ISE. He organized the 2nd
International Workshop on Sediment Bypass Tunnels
in 2017 in collaboration with ETH-Swiss and
NTU-Taiwan. He recently conducted a general report
of Q100 “Reservoir Sedimentation and Sustainable
Development” at the 26th ICOLD Congress, Vienna,
Austria, July 2018.

Sameh A. Kantoush is currently an associate profes-

sor at Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI),
Kyoto University. He received his master’s and doc-
torate degrees in civil and environmental engineering
from Saga University in Japan and the Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL) in
Switzerland, respectively. Prior to joining Kyoto, he
served at the German University in Cairo (GUC) as an
associate professor in the Civil Engineering Program.
He is a member of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers
(JSCE) and Syndicate of Engineers in Egypt. The
industrial expertise of Dr. Kantoush is predominantly in
infrastructure projects at multinational consulting firms

xxvii
xxviii About the Editors

in many countries. His research interests span the

fundamentals of shallow flow and sediment transport,
wadi flash floods, reservoir sustainability, ecohy-
draulics, dam impacts, and sediment management
techniques.

Mohamed Saber is currently working as a Specially

Appointed Associate Professor at the Disaster
Prevention Research Institute (DPRI), Kyoto
University. He has a Ph.D. in Hydrology from Kyoto
University, Japan, and has worked as an assistant
professor at the Geology Department, Faculty of
Science, Assiut University, Egypt. He has experience
working and holding different positions, such as a senior
researcher, Water Resources Research Center Disaster
Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan;
a visiting professor, Geological Engineering, Middle
East Technical University, Turkey; a postdoctoral
researcher, the University of Louisiana at Lafayette,
LA, USA; a postdoctoral researcher, Kyoto University;
and a research assistant, GCOE_ARS Project, Kyoto
University, DPRI, Japan. He participated in more than 50
different publications and supervised more than 20
undergraduate, professional diploma, master’s, and
doctorate students. His research interests are mainly
focused on wadi hydrology, flood forecasting and risk
management, hydrometeorological analysis and climate
change, water resources management, reservoir sedi-
mentation management, and remote sensing and GIS
applications, as well as machine learning techniques in
flash flood risk assessment.
 Part I
Wadi Flash Flood Challenges and
Strategies
Chapter 1
Integrated Strategies
for the Management of Wadi Flash
Floods in the Middle East and North
Africa (MENA) Arid Zones: The ISFF
Project

Sameh A. Kantoush, Mohamed Saber, Mohammed Abdel-Fattah,

and Tetsuya Sumi

Abstract Sustainable management of wadi flash flood (WFF) risks is desperately

needed to secure development in wadi systems. Due to rapid flow generation with
sudden high flood peaks, spatiotemporal variability of rainfall occurrence, and
poorly sited rapid development, most Middle East and North Africa (MENA)
region have no comprehensive proper protection from WFFs. In arid regions, single
mitigation measures, including storage dams, recharge dams, artificial lakes and
embankments, are implemented, although soft mitigation measures are not domi-
nant, such as early warning systems. The single management strategy under climate
change impacts is not adequate to reduce flash flood risks; an integrated strategy is
required. The objective of the international symposium on flash floods (ISFF)
project has been to develop scientific understanding of WFFs in wadi systems;
monitor, model, and mitigate; issue warnings; and plan urban development by
discussing and networking the strategies in the MENA region. To achieve this goal,
the project defines priorities for future research challenges and potential projects for
WFFs. This chapter provides a state-of-the-art scientific basis in terms of integrated
flash flood management. Further, priorities are defined for the main research gaps,
and the emerging research methodologies can contribute to guide the management
of WFFs in such regions.

Keywords Wadi flash floods
ISFF
Flood risk management
MENA region

S. A. Kantoush (&)
M. Saber
T. Sumi

Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Goka-sho, Uji City, Kyoto
611-0011, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Abdel-Fattah
Civil Engineering and Quantity Surveying Department, Military Technological College, P.O.
Box: 262, P.C: 111, Muscat, Oman

© The Author(s) 2022 3

T. Sumi et al. (eds.), Wadi Flash Floods, Natural Disaster Science and Mitigation
Engineering: DPRI Reports, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2904-4_1
4 S. A. Kantoush et al.

1.1 Introduction

‘Wadi’ is an Arabic word that is commonly used to refer to dry stream channels and
ephemeral streams or valleys typically in arid zones, such as in the Middle East and
North Africa (MENA) countries (Jackson and Bates 1997; Sen 2008). In the past
(before the year 2003, usually in late October or November), rainfall in the wadis
can be described as episodic, varying widely on spatial and temporal scales, with
many years receiving no precipitation at all. Recently, in the last 10 years, wadi
flash floods (WFFs) in arid regions have become catastrophic and more frequent
due to climate change impacts. In direct response to intense and usually sudden
rains, WFFs can produce enough runoff such that wadis flow for some distance
within the basin, but the flow often does not reach the coast because of high
transmission losses, as documented by El Bastawesy et al. (2009), who analyzed
pre- and post-flood remotely sensed data. Therefore, water harvesting of flash flood
water can be a significant approach to mitigate some potential wadis.
Floods are natural disasters worldwide; however, their adverse impact is superior
in developing countries (Alcántara-Ayala 2002). It was recently reported by the
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) that Arabian coun-
tries were affected by many disasters (approximately 270) over the last 30 years,
resulting in over 150,000 deaths and influencing approximately 10 million people
(Guha-Sapir et al. 2016). Recently, WFFs have been extreme and frequent in most
of the MENA arid zone, resulting in substantial economic and property losses. For
instance, flash floods struck Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia 39 times from 1900–
2016, causing 1,508 casualties and significant damages exceeding 1.8 billion USD
(De Vries et al. 2018). For instance, October 2016 flash floods left 26 dead people
and tens of millions of USD in damages in Ras Gharib City (Abdel-Fattah et al.
2017). Due to extreme precipitation in Sudan during a 6-h period on 7 August 2013,
the Humanitarian Aid Commission (HAC) estimated that 499,900 people coun-
trywide had been impacted and more than 85,385 houses were destroyed in the
affected states, with Khartoum State experiencing the worst effects (IFRC 2013).
Flash floods in Oman are often caused by more severe phenomena, which include
tropical cyclones that bring massive devastation to infrastructure and the loss of
human life. Oman was also hit by an extreme cyclone in July 2007 that killed 54
people, and property damage was assessed at 3.9 billion USD (Al Khatry and
Helmi 2008; Al Barwani 2015). In October 2018, the increased frequency of
extreme rainfall events associated with various flash floods triggered widespread
destruction in most of the MENA region, including Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, the UAE, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Mauritania, Sudan and Oman.
Because previous experience of such disasters in arid regions is limited, proper
planning and management are now required. Events such as those in Egypt (2010),
Oman (2007), Yemen (2008), Jordan (2012), and Bahrain (2008) ensure that WFFs
remain the leading meteorological disaster causing death and property damage.
These floods destroy the main infrastructure, such as buildings, villages, agricul-
tural lands, roads, power towers, and pipelines, and they injure and kill humans and
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 5

animals (Murata et al. 2015; Abdel-Fattah et al. 2018). In 2018, wadi flooding
trapped tourists and forced 4,000 tourists to evacuate to safe places within 1 h
before the peak flood reached the historic site of Petra, Jordan (Guardian 2018).
Sirens blared minutes before extreme flash flooding after heavy rainfall approached
Petra (historical city, dating back to 9,000 B.C.). The last deadly flash flood hit
Petra in 1963, when 22 French tourists and a local guide were killed by flash floods
(Laure Van Ruymbeke 2018).
Monitoring, modelling and early warning of WFFs are difficult, especially in
ungauged wadis. Furthermore, the lack of a complete data archive of pre- and
post-WFF events across the MENA region obstructs efforts to mitigate the flooding
risk (Viglione and Rogger 2014; Saber and Habib 2015). Most of the published
studies regarding WFFs have focused on the geology, geomorphology, and
hydrogeology of wadi systems (Moneim 2005; Elewa and Qaddah 2011;
Abdelkareem and El-Baz 2015). The other flash-flood-related features of wadi
systems, such as integrated management, hydrological modelling, and risk assess-
ment, have not been sufficiently addressed. Unfortunately, modelling the response
of wadis to rainfall is challenging due to the lack of data and to special charac-
teristics of wadis; consequently, developing powerful hydrological models is dif-
ficult (Wheater et al. 2007). Different rainfall modelling tools and methodologies
have been widely used, but most of them were originally established for humid
environments; nevertheless, arid and semi-arid regions facing severe water
resources scarcity and flash flood threats have received little attention. The lack of
high-quality observations is hindering the development in arid regions (Pilgrim
et al. 1988). Precipitation events are spatiotemporally irregular, highly variable and
localized. Flow measurements are lacking or uncertain. Moreover, some of the
developed hydrological models that were constructed for humid conditions cannot
be easily adapted to arid environmental conditions (Cools et al. 2012). Generally, in
humid environments, during the dry seasons, flow discharge increases downstream
and groundwater contributes to river systems, whereas in arid environments, the
opposite is valid, the surface flow is reduced because the groundwater table is
usually depressed (Sen 2008). For these reasons, the hydrological processes of arid
lands differ from those of humid lands and present particular challenges.
Developing hydrological models and methodologies is urgently needed in arid and
semi-arid regions. According to many previous studies, nonrioting and measuring
of flow is mostly problematic in arid regions for numerous reasons (Rodier and
Roche 1978; Kilpatrick and Cobb 1985; Pilgrim et al. 1988; Lange et al. 1999; Lin
1999; Abushandi and Merkel 2011) and can be summarized as follows: (1) during
flash floods, there is a rapid rising and falling of the water level; (2) it is difficult to
install monitoring devices in the target area; (3) appropriate natural control sectors
are nonexistent, artificial control in wadis is expensive; (4) extreme physical and
climatologic circumstances exist; (5) sediment transport, moving rocks and debris
can damage the installed instruments; (6) access is difficult due to few drivable
roads, especially during the rainy and flooding seasons; (7) the population density
in arid environments is typically low; (8) there is insufficient awareness of the
6 S. A. Kantoush et al.

importance of flooding studies and monitoring; and (9) the devices for flood
measurement are expensive, especially in developing countries.
Not all flash floods are destructive, and the harvest of floodwater and
rainfall-runoff for human and livestock usage and agricultural development should
be considered by management in the construction of underground dams, artificial
lakes, recharge dams and off-stream structures. Structures located unwisely in wadis
are vulnerable to damage, and residents and tourists may be killed or injured, as
vividly illustrated by the November 2009 floods in Jeddah (BBC 2009).
Unfortunately, culverts, dams and other flood mitigation structures that have been
designed and constructed in many wadis put significant numbers of people at risk.
In the MENA region, very few researchers have considered the different alternatives
for flash flood mitigation. Al-Weshah and El-Khoury (1999) compared various
mitigation measures, including terracing, storage dams, construction of check, and
afforestation, as well as different combinations of these measures using hydrological
modelling tools. A master plan was proposed by McLane and Wüst (2000) to
mitigate the flooding impact on the archaeological tombs of the Valley of Kings. An
integrated approach using GIS and remote sensing was proposed for flash flood
mitigation and water resource management in Safaga, Red Sea, Egypt. In this study,
the prone area for flood risk was identified and mapped, the appropriate locations
for dam construction were determined, and highly potential sites for water
recharging were determined. Additionally, various rainfall-runoff analyses and
discharge forecasting were conducted, and the inundation areas were identified. To
date, no comprehensive proper strategies for mitigating and managing water
resources have been developed in wadi basins. Establishing guidelines and inte-
grated methods for the management and mitigation of wadis for potential future
development projects is urgently needed to utilize floodwater as an additional water
resource in arid areas.
The ISFF project is focused on disaster risk reduction (DRR) by discussing
existing mitigation strategies for flash flood protection and consequent proper
floodwater management (water harvesting) in arid countries in Egypt, Oman, Saudi
Arabia, Yemen, Sudan, Jordan, and Morocco. Priorities will be defined for future
research challenges, gaps, and potential projects for flash floods in wadi systems.
ISFF projects have different objectives: (1) to initiate a networking platform for
sharing knowledge, data, and experience among researchers, scientists, and
authorities in the MENA countries, (2) to boost collaboration among researchers in
both fundamental and applied sciences, and (3) to transfer Japanese technologies to
the MENA region for FF protection and water harvesting.
The current chapter aims to present the current status of wadi flash floods in
some parts of the MENA region, provide a state-of-the-art summary of current
management and existing WFF mitigation strategies, present and discuss the
approach of integrated flash flood management, and discuss the main research
challenges to be addressed in future years.
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 7

1.2 ISFF Project

The ISFF project was originally initiated by The Water Resources Research Center
(WRRC) and the Global Alliance of Disaster Research Institutes (GADRI) of the
Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI), Kyoto University, to discuss the
research outcomes of the MENA region and to establish research projects with
several Arabian countries, including Morocco, Tunisia, Jordan, Egypt, Morocco,
Oman, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Sudan, and Jordan. The first ISFF was organized at
Kyoto University from 14 to 15 October 2015. The main purpose was to bring
together researchers, scientists, and experts from governmental and private orga-
nizations in Japan, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Oman, and Europe to
initiate a scientific platform to discuss different topics related to flash floods,
including hydrometeorology, flood disasters, and risk management, and to boost the
foundation of joint research cooperation programmes. The ISFF was established to
fill the current gaps in flash flood knowledge and to confirm a proper integrated
strategy for water resource management in wadi systems. Several related topics
have been addressed from different aspects, including water harvesting, mitigation
measures (structural and non-structural), hydrological modelling, and early warning
systems.
The main outcomes of the first ISFF symposium were drawing a roadmap for the
next five years to support and continue the efforts of organizations and governments
and to implement more scientific research and propose guidelines for assessing,
mitigating and utilizing flash floods. In the symposium, a training course under the
framework agenda of the UNESCO Japanese Fund-In-Trust (JFIT) project was
organized with the title “Urgent Capacity Development for Managing Natural
Disaster Risks of Flash Floods in Egypt, Jordan, Sudan and Yemen”. Many par-
ticipants from developing countries joined the course, which focused on flash flood
management and prediction using the integrated flood analysis system (IFAS) and
the rainfall‐runoff-inundation (RRI) model designed by the International Centre for
Water Hazard and Risk Management (ICHARM), Japan. This training was planned
to foster the participants’ awareness of WFF risk assessment and management.
Based on the road map, the second ISFF was organized and hosted by the TUB,
El Gouna campus, Egypt, with the support of the UNESCO project. The third ISFF
was organized in 2017 at GUTech in Muscat, Oman. It was mainly concentrating
on flood risk mitigation, management, and assessment. The fourth ISFF was
organized in 2018 at Hassan II University, Casablanca, Morocco. From 25 to 28
February 2020, the fifth ISFF was organized and hosted at WRRC, DPRI, Kyoto
University, Japan. The fifth ISFF symposium was focused on wadi flash flood
challenges in arid regions and especially “Disaster Risk Reduction and Assessment
for the Flood Prone Urbanized & Archaeological Wadis in Middle East and North
Africa MENA Region”. During the symposium, a special seminar on flash flood
risk at UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS) was held on 26 February 2020. Due
8 S. A. Kantoush et al.

to COVID-19, the number of participants was limited, with approximately 87 from

12 countries. The sixth ISFF will take place in Amman, Jordan, from 26 to 30
September 2021. The continuity of such ISFF special annual meetings is desper-
ately needed to overcome the water-related challenges in the MENA region.

1.3 Extreme WFF Events and Disasters in Wadi Systems

in the MENA Region

The arid areas in the MENA region are typically hot and dry deserts (Fig. 1.1a) with
rare to intermittent rainfall. However, the climate is variable according to the
topography of each country (compare Fig. 1.1a–c), and extreme rainfall events are a
crucial part of the region’s climate (De Vries et al. 2018). Various examples of
different wadi climates in Egypt, Morocco, and Oman are shown in Fig. 1.1. The
infrequent storms recharge the freshwater storage, supporting agriculture and sus-
tainable development, as shown in Wadi Samail (Fig. 1.1c). However, they can also
be transformed into deadly and economical disasters in a short time. Flash floods in
arid wadis are distinguished from other types of urban and river flooding by the
following characteristics: (1) the dry stream channel is characterized by the absence
of base flow (Fig. 1.1a) (Abdel-Fattah et al. 2018); (2) wadi surface runoff presents
discontinuous flow due to short-duration rainfall events with highly localized
spatial extent (Wheater et al. 1991; Saber 2010; Saber et al. 2010a, b, 2015); (3) the
flow volume from single events is high, starting with low flow before the ascending
hydrograph and increasing to the maximum peak of discharge before flow recession
(Knighton and Nanson 1997; Saber and Habib 2015); (4) the evaporation rate,
permeability of the desert, recharge of ground surfaces, sediment yield and slope are
high; (5) plants and organic material are scarce, and soils are thin and poorly
developed (McIntyre and Al-Qurashi 2009; Camarasa-Belmonte 2016); and
(6) monitoring (rainfall, water level and discharge rates), accurate prediction,
planning and strategies are lacking.
Extreme WFFs in the MENA region are characterized by high spatiotemporal
variability in terms of frequency and intensity (Saber et al. 2017a, b, 2020). In the
wadi systems of Arabian countries, a total of 50 flood events were recorded
between 2000 and 2018, as shown in Fig. 1.2. The regional events in 2010, 2015,
and 2018 affected more than one country. For instance, a single event in November
2018 affected Kuwait, the UAE, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan, and
extreme impacts occurred in most of the region. Figure 1.2 shows the total number
of events in each country in the MENA region. More events occur in Saudi Arabia
and Jordan due to cyclones.
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 9

Fig. 1.1 Arid wadis system in a Wadi Qena (Egypt), b Oued (Wadi) El-Abed (Morocco) and
c Wadi Samail (Oman)
10 S. A. Kantoush et al.

Fig. 1.2 Extreme flash floods events in the Arab region (2000–2018) showing the degree of flood
frequency (upper panel) and the increasing trend in floods within the last two decades (lower
panel)

1.4 Spatial and Temporal Distributions of Wadi Flash

Flood Events

A recent study by De Vries et al. (2018) reported that tropical-extratropical inter-

actions are the main drivers of extreme precipitation events in the MENA region.
Therefore, understanding the variability of extreme rainfall events that mostly form
flash floods is crucial to improving physically based forecasts and DRR. Figure 1.3
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 11

Fig. 1.3 Comparative analysis of 3 selected extreme events identified based on the maximum
rainfall per day

shows the maximum spatial (Algeria, Arabian Peninsula, and Sudan) and temporal
rainfall for three extreme events based on satellite rainfall datasets. The high
variability in spatial coverage and intensity for the daily time series was investi-
gated. Spatially, the first event over the northeastern part of the region produced a
maximum rainfall rate of approximately 86.778 mm/day, the second event affected
the Arabian Peninsula with 151.40 mm/day, and the third event over Sudan
involved approximately 162.4 mm/day. These WFFs were highly variable
depending on the climate and topography of each region.

1.5 Rainstorms and Tropical Cyclones from the Indian

Ocean

MENA countries represent different climatic, hydrological, land use, and obser-
vational characteristics and storm types. WFFs in most of the region are produced
by convective clouds at the end or beginning of winter and summer, when hot air
masses cause heavy rainfall connected with thunderstorms except for the Arabian
Peninsula, which is affected additionally by tropical cyclones. Most of these
cyclone tracks develop over the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea from April to June
12 S. A. Kantoush et al.

Fig. 1.4 Annual average rainfall over the Arabian countries from PERSIANN data

and October through December. For instance, Egypt has a very dry and arid climate
with low annual average rainfall (<50 mm), whereas Oman has semi-arid to arid
climatic conditions and a higher annual average rainfall of 50–350 mm. In Oman,
WFFs are mainly discharged to coastal drainage systems. Figure 1.4 shows the
annual average spanning 35 years over Oman associated with the total rainfall
during cyclones. Records show that severe damage occurred in Oman in 1989,
1997, 2002, 2003, 2007, 2010, 2015 and 2016 (Al Barwani 2015) due to WFFs.
The most extreme rainfall events that occurred in Oman were due to tropical
cyclones Gonu-2007 and Phet-2010 (Al Barwani 2015; MRMWR 2015), which
caused 56 fatalities with 6 billion USD of economic losses. Several wadis (W.
Kabir, W. Aday and W. Samail) in Oman have experienced flash floods with huge
impacts on the human life, infrastructure and property (Al-Rawas and Valeo 2008).
Detailed hydrological research studies are desperately required to assess flash flood
risks and propose effective mitigation measures in the MENA region.

1.6 Impacts of Extreme Event Occurrences

on Management

Flash floods in arid environments can be dangerous because when rain falls on
unabsorbent or clay soils, the amount of runoff increases and exceeds the wadi
channel capacities (Saber 2010). Topographic factors play a significant role in the
evolution of rainfall that causes flash floods. There are different issues that have a
critical impacts on the occurrences of flash floods, including rainfall intensity and
duration, topography, soil conditions and terrain. Topographic features, such as
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 13

steep slopes, highland terrains and narrow valleys, increase the flash flood proba-
bility and accelerate surface runoff. The surface runoff is also affected by shallow
watertight geological and saturated soil layers. Urbanized and affiliated construction
with water-tight materials are supposed to generate runoff several times greater than
that in natural coverage terrains (meadows, fields, and forests). Another flash flood
hazard source is transported sediments and debris during flooding. Debris flow
impacts can be explained as follows (Hungr et al. 1987): (1) hazards of the direct
and indirect influence of high-energy, coarse-grained debris that can adversely
affect structures and (2) hazards of debris deposits associated with the flood waters
leading to the erosion of vulnerable surfaces and consequently flood damage.
The rapid increases in urbanization, population, and touristic and economic
developments have pushed residences to build in vulnerable risk zones, including
wadi flood plains. Figure 1.5 shows the present status of flash floods in different
countries in the MENA region and different times of flood events. Flash flood
management and the determination of flood-prone regions are extremely important
due to residential development on hill slopes and at outlets of wadis as well as the
lack of previous studies addressing flood hazard assessment given the infrequent
occurrence of rainfall and the absence of well-defined watercourses. In general,
most low-lying urban centres are flood-prone areas, which consequently require
assessment and management using advanced techniques. Many cities have been
affected by such flash flood events, such as Taba in Sinai and Wadis Abu-Shieha,

Fig. 1.5 a The affected areas by flash floods in Rafah, Sinai, Egypt, on 20 January 2010 (© Photo
courtesy AF) and b Taba and Nweba flash flood in May 2010 (© El-Masry Elyoum)
14 S. A. Kantoush et al.

Fig. 1.6 The downstream delta of Wadi Abou Sheih along the river Nile, showing the extension
of urbanization and agriculture reclamation (left panel) and the affected mitigation dams (right
panel). Modified from Saber et al. (2017a, b)

Sohag, Aswan and Kom ombo along the River Nile. Wadi AbuShiha, one of the
most important wadis in the Eastern Desert of Egypt, has suffered from many flash
floods. It is characterized by many sub-basins (Fig. 1.6) in the downstream region,
with many urbanized areas and agricultural reclamation projects. The downstream
delta of the wadi is very large and has many new sites of urbanization, agriculture
reclamation started in 2000, and the extension of agricultural lands increased to
cover a much larger area in front of the outlet of the wadi, which is prone to flash
floods, as shown in Fig. 1.6 (Saber et al. 2017a, b). Due to the importance of this
downstream development in the wadi, the government constructed three mitigation
dams (Fig. 1.6). However, after the 2014 flash flood, the first dam was broken at the
abutment. Considering the climate change impacts and increased urbanization and
reviewing the wadi management according to the occurrence of events are
important, as well as enhancing the design codes for integrated management.
In summary, several factors contribute to flash flood risk, including human
intervention and non-human actions. The flash flooding phenomenon is one of the
most difficult natural hazards to predict and manage. As a result, responding
appropriately is challenging for the concerned communities and authorities, and
response plans are also essential (APFM 2007). During a flash flood, the water
levels in streams rise suddenly, and the flow velocity can be very high. The strength
of the water can be strong enough to uproot trees, move boulders, and destroy
buildings and bridges located in its pathway. Water flowing often changes the
morphology and riverbed characteristics and can consequently appear in locations
where it usually does not. Water at a depth of 1 m depth and speed of 1.0 m/s can
pose a destructive threat for an adult person; flash floods often flow at very high
speeds, and a water level of merely a dozen cm can be very hazardous (APFM
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 15

2007). Early warning systems could be the significant element in dropping the risk
to human lives and their properties. Conventional forecasting approaches cannot
provide satisfactory warning, and people have insufficient time to move away from
the floods.

1.7 Hydrological Measurements of Wadi Systems

and Flash Flood Forecasting

Forecasting of WFFs is only the beginning to correctly design flood mitigation

structures and develop efficient warning systems (Abdel-Fattah et al. 2018). Few
wadis in the MENA region are equipped with hydrological monitoring stations for
rainfall, water level and discharge rates (Al-Mamari et al. 2019). Therefore, cali-
brating and validating the computed runoff discharge and inundation depths in wadi
systems are difficult. Such limited data availability in the wadi systems has resulted
in the improper design and selection of mitigation structures, such as embankments,
culverts, dams and drainage systems (Al-Mamari et al. 2019). Thus, the develop-
ment of hydrological monitoring techniques is needed in the MENA region to
improve wadi management and utilize measurements for prediction and evaluation.
Figure 1.7 depicts an integrated list of the potential sensors and techniques to
monitor spatial rainfall variations with rainfall radar and for continuous monitoring

Fig. 1.7 Ad hoc hydrometric network and potential hydrological sensors/techniques

16 S. A. Kantoush et al.

Fig. 1.8 Available wadi monitoring stations in Egypt (left panel) and Oman (right panel). Sources
The National Water Research Center in Egypt and Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water
Resources in Oman

of water levels, soil moisture and infiltration using radar sensors and ultrasonic
devices to measure flow velocities and calculate discharges. Moreover, the available
techniques for the direct measurement of evaporation rates and remote sensing
systems produced spatial datasets for different applications in hydrology (Tomsett
and Leyland 2019). Wadis present various challenges to installing rain gauges and
measuring flow, Therefore, there are a limited number of wadi monitoring stations
in Oman and Egypt except for the rain gauges, water flow, and ground water wells
(Fig. 1.8).

1.8 Image-Based Techniques

Monitoring systems that use recorded videos have the advantage of capturing
real-time floods so that the flow discharge can be computed, which can help in flood
management. The implementation of large-scale particle image velocimetry
(LSPIV), which is an image-based technique, was recently accomplished for the
first time in Oman at Wadi Samail (Al-Mamari et al. 2019). Various fixed cameras
have been installed on the bridges crossing the wadi channel, and they can record
the surface flow movements. LSPIV based on drone images is now common in
many applications among the river engineering community, such as for
time-averaged surface velocities. The rapid development of unmanned aerial sys-
tems (UASs) has allowed us to measure streamflow in real-time with high spatial
and temporal variations (Tauro et al. 2016). To capture valuable information about
the river hydraulic conditions during flash floods in humid environments, a UAS
was successfully utilized by Perks et al. (2016). The potential of UASs during
low-flow conditions was demonstrated by Detert and Weitbrecht (2015).
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 17

A considerable amount of literature on using photogrammetric techniques to

monitor riverbed morphology and riverbanks has been published (Brasington and
Smart 2003; Bird et al. 2010).

1.9 Risk Assessment Methods

El Shamy (1992) developed a method to evaluate the flash flood possibility and
groundwater recharge in several sub-basins, employing various geomorphometric
parameters, such as the drainage density, drainage frequency, and bifurcation ratio.
This model has since been adopted by many studies (Youssef and Hegab 2005;
El-Behiry et al. 2006; Arnous et al. 2011; Abdel-Lattif and Sherief 2012; Abdalla
et al. 2014). Abdel-Fattah et al. (2017) proposed a consistent methodology applied
to assess flash floods in Wadi Qena, where field data are limited. Flash flood
consequences include environmental and economic issues because these floods may
cause impairment to urbanized and agricultural regions as well as lead to the loss of
human lives (Merz et al. 2010). The increasing frequency of destructive flash floods
requires an ongoing enhancement in the identification and mapping of flood hazards
(Kundzewicz and Kaczmarek 2000; Ebert et al. 2009). Al Saud (2010) used
high-resolution satellite images to identify the 2009 flood damage in Jeddah City,
KSA. Omran et al. (2011) used the standardization of morphometric parameters
with the same weight for basin-based flash flood hazard assessment in Wadi Dahab,
Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. The same method was applied in Wadi Al Lith (Bajabaa
et al. 2014) and at Wadi Rabigh, Wadi Yanbu, Wadi Khulais, Wadi Jizanhe, Wadi
Baish, and Wadi El-Qunfza in the KSA (Shi 2014). By integrating geomorphology
and geology along with remote sensing techniques and field observations, geo-
morphological hazard assessments based on GIS have been performed in several
areas in Egypt, including the area between Quseir and Safaga near the Red Sea,
using the El-Shamy model (Youssef et al. 2009), and along the Katherine-Feiran
road in South Sinai (Youssef et al. 2011).
To reduce the flood damage impacts of FF hazards, proposing proper dam sites
have been proposed for several urban areas. The probability of flood hazards has
been estimated for different catchments based on geomorphometric features (El
Shamy 1992). Further, geomorphometric-based studies have been conducted to
assess FF risk levels in many basins. For instance, El-Magd et al. (2010) used
remote sensing data and GIS tools combined with morphometric parameters to
assess FF hazards in the Abu Dabbab wadi basin. Then, all the datasets were
integrated as inputs for a hydrological model to estimate surface runoff and identify
the flood risk levels.
Sen et al. (2013) proposed a procedure for establishing flood inundation maps in
the southwestern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia using surveyed cross-sections of the
flood plain. The main geological hazards, flash flood causes, and main rainfall
events in the KSA were summarized by Youssef and Maerz (2013). An analytical
hierarchical process (AHP) was used by Elkhrachy (2015) to estimate the flood
18 S. A. Kantoush et al.

hazard index in Najran, Saudi Arabia, employing the main controlling parameters
of flash floods, such as the channel discharge, soil type, drainage density, surface
roughness, surface slope, distance from main streams and land use. An AHP was
further used by Youssef et al. (2015) to utilize variant geological, geomorpholog-
ical, and geographical features in an approach to understand the effects of urban
development in Wadi Al-Aska, Jeddah, KSA. Abuzied et al. (2016) used multi-
source geospatial data with remote sensing techniques, GIS analyses, and field
investigations to evaluate flash flood hazards in the Nuweiba area based on basin
morphometric analysis and hydrological modelling indices using the Soil
Conservation Services (SCS) method.

1.10 Wadi Hydrological Modelling and Approaches

The major limitation of furthering our understanding of wadi flood events is that in
most wadis, hydrological measurements do not exist. Most researchers have con-
ducted flash flood analyses using simplified hydrological models. These models
mathematically represent various hydrological processes, such as surface and
groundwater processes, and are essential tools for water resources management
(Abdel-Fattah et al. 2017). Hydrological models are desperately needed due to the
limited measurements and the intricacy of hydrological systems (Beven 2011). The
selection of the hydrological model approach relies on the number of measured
parameters and the required observational data for the input model parameters and
catchment characteristics (Abushandi 2011). Most WFFs in arid regions have been
studied using lumped or semi-distributed models with very few applications based
on distributed models because these models are data-driven. Various challenges
remain to validate and calibrate the developed models in arid regions (Cools et al.
2012; Abdel-Fattah et al. 2018), to improve the reliability of the results, and to
conduct a sensitivity analysis of the model parameters.

1.11 Utilized Hydrological Models in Arid Areas

Few hydrological models have been adopted and developed for flash flood mod-
elling in wadis, such as the applied models in wadis in Oman, including the RRI
model (Abdel-Fattah et al. 2018), the KINEROS2 model (Al-Qurashi et al. 2008),
and the IHACRES model (McIntyre and Al-Qurashi 2009), as well as the soil water
assessment tool (SWAT) in the UAE (Al Mulla 2005; Abushandi and Merkel 2011)
and the HEC-HMS model in Oman, the West Bank-Palestine and the UAE
(Al-Rawas and Valeo 2008; Shadeed and Almasri 2010; Sherif et al. 2010).
In addition to the aforementioned studies, several trials have been conducted,
such as that by Al-Weshah and El-Khoury (1999), who applied and calibrated the
HEC-1 model utilizing the SCS and curve number (CN) methods in the Petra
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 19

region, Jordan, and further used these hydrological modelling tools to determine the
impact of several mitigation scenarios. Abdulla et al. (2002) developed a watershed
model for a simple single event to predict surface runoff in the western part of Iraq.
In Saudi Arabia, a geomorpho-climatic model has been adopted (Al-Turbak 1996),
in which rainfall duration and intensity are estimated in three catchments from the
infiltration parameters. In Palestine, (Lange et al. 2000) focused on the
rainfall-runoff modelling of single flood events. It was stated that the analysis of a
single storm event is highly recommended to understand extreme floods in arid
environments. The HEC-HMS model and the spatial water budget model (SWBM)
were employed in the Zarqa River Basin to manage water resources (Al-Abed et al.
2005; Abushandi and Merkel 2011; Dawod et al. 2011, 2012), and the SCS and CN
methods in GIS have been used to assess flash floods, to determine the impacts of
some basin geomorphometric parameters on the estimated flood characteristics in
the Makkah metropolitan region, and to classify the flood hazard degree on city
roads.
Foody et al. (2004) predicted sites at risk from high peak flows accompanying
flash flooding in wadis intersecting the Idfu-Marsa Alam road (near the Red Sea)
using the HMS model and field observations of the soil texture and infiltration
capacity. This study was further updated using the same model setting by Ghoneim
and Foody (2013) to investigate the impact of flood sites, areal coverage, and
rainfall depth. El Bastawesy et al. (2009) presented an integrated method using
ArcGIS and remote sensing data for modelling flash floods, where Landsat images
can be used to distinguish flooded and non-flooded areas. The physical hydrological
parameters, including rainfall, infiltration, land use and soil types, must be taken
into consideration. Flash flood simulations for some rainfall events at wadis of the
River Nile were conducted by Saber et al. (2010a, b) using Hydro-BEAM inte-
grated with remote sensing and satellite datasets. In the study of Ismail et al. (2010),
GIS, morphometric parameters and rainfall-runoff modelling based on flood routing
processing (FRP) were integrated and employed to simulate the flow discharge at
Wadi Abu Ghusun, the Eastern Desert, Egypt. Kehew et al. (2010) reconstructed
extreme flash floods in Wadi Isla, South Sinai, Egypt, using palaeohydrological
indictors related to flood velocity and discharge, such as the size of boulders
transported within the wadi. Additionally, the calibrated SWAT model was used to
estimate the amount of rainfall required to generate a flood. The flood hazard levels
and ground recharge potentiality have been assessed at W. Abadi (Ibrahim et al.
2011). Based on field measurements of paleo-flood events and the rating curve, the
peak flow of the January 2010 flash flood event was estimated, and this discharge
peak was then used for model calibration. Hydrological modelling conducted in
Wadi Hodin used the HEC-1 model by Soussa (2012) and the SCS method to
calculate the losses. Hadadin et al. (2013) used routing and Snyder synthetic unit
hydrograph methods to estimate the peak flow in 12 main basins in Jeddah City,
KSA. Fathy et al. (2015) developed a lumped model for arid watersheds and
compared the results with those from the watershed modelling system (WMS). This
model was applied to W. Sudr in the Sinai Peninsula. The peak runoff discharge of
six basins in western Saudi Arabia was estimated by Shi (2014) using three
20 S. A. Kantoush et al.

empirical models (Farquharson’s model, Nouh’s model and Al-Subai’s model) and
the Snyder unit hydrograph. Moreover, Abuzied (2016) conducted hydrological
modelling at Wadi Watier using the SCS method.

1.12 Surface Runoff Interaction with Groundwater

Many studies have examined groundwater recharge due to rainfall events and
surface runoff. For instance, Gheith and Sultan (2002) estimated groundwater
recharge in the alluvial aquifers of several wadis in the Eastern Desert of Egypt (W.
El-Arish, W. Asyuti, W. Tarfa, W. Qena, and W. Hammamt). In this study, a
hydrological model that considers the spatiotemporal rainfall distribution, appro-
priate sub-basin unit hydrographs and infiltration parameters were utilized to cal-
culate initial and transmission losses and runoff. The model incorporated geological
and meteorological datasets along with remote sensing and GIS techniques.
Milewski et al. (2009) modelled runoff and groundwater recharge based on remote
sensing datasets by focusing on the heavy rainfall events between 1998 and 2007
for the main wadis of the Sinai Peninsula and Eastern Desert. In the studied
catchments, the annual precipitation, runoff, initial losses, and recharge through
transmission losses were assessed. This approach has also been utilized to calculate
the annual groundwater recharge at the Nubian Sandstone aquifer, South Sinai
(Sultan et al. 2011). A proper example of cost-effective and practical integrated
solutions, including geophysics, geochemistry, and modelling, that utilize global
remote sensing datasets and web-based GIS technologies was proposed by Becker
et al. (2012) for the wadis of the Eastern Desert and Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. The
study implemented approaches to develop a conceptual model for hydrogeological
settings in different aquifers to assess the annual runoff and recharge using a
hydrologic model of the main watersheds.
The potential sites for surface runoff recharge in Sinai have been determined
using an integration of GIS, remote sensing, and watershed modelling to introduce a
multi-criteria decision support system that includes several parameters, such as the
flood volume, average overland flow distance, lineament frequency density, soil
infiltration, and morphometric parameters. The potential areas for rainwater har-
vesting have been determined based on such criteria by conducting weighted spatial
probability modelling. The potential sites for water harvesting have been deter-
mined by applying Finkel-SCS rainfall-runoff approaches (Elewa et al. 2012).
Furthermore, the same approach has been utilized to recommend proper dam
locations for flood management and control at Wadi El-Arish. Technical consid-
erations and design criteria have been introduced for the planned mitigation
structures (Elewa et al. 2013).
To estimate surface runoff and groundwater recharge, the relationship between
runoff and rainfall has been assessed depending on paleo-flood indicators. Two
methods have been tested to evaluate the relationships between rainfall and runoff at
the El-Hawashyia basin and Ghazala sub-basin in the Gulf of Suez, Egypt. Some
1 Integrated Strategies for the Management … 21

morphometric parameters with direct effects on flooding have been analyzed to

evaluate the flood risks, and their relationship with flash floods has been investi-
gated (Masoud 2013).
Al Zayed et al. (2013) assessed the potential of flood water harvesting at Wadi
Watier in South Sinai, Egypt. The study was conducted based on the integrated
guidelines of water resource management (IWRM). Thus, physical and environ-
mental investigations along with social and institutional analyses were conducted.
The flow discharge was calculated using the Hydrologic Engineering Centre
(HEC-1) model; then, the potential sites were determined in ArcGIS by combining
several factors, including slope, geology and land use.
Therefore, a new methodology urgently needs to be proposed to address the
abovementioned challenges, to assess and predict flash flood disasters in arid wadis,
and to evaluate the various flood mitigation strategies.

1.13 Mitigation Measures Against Wadi Flash Floods

Substantial efforts have been undertaken by governments and the private sectors of
the MENA countries to enhance flash flood mitigation structures and early warning
systems, while WFFs continue to be one of nature’s worst killers in this region.
Within the ISFF project, we can conclude that critical infrastructure and houses are
newly allocated by the government and are often located in wadi channels because
the wadi floors are flat and construction material is available. We find that this
infrastructure is constructed in the path of flooding leading to a narrow channel to
convey floodwaters along streams, in addition to the existence of important
infrastructure and houses situated on higher lands. Such settlements are also
affected by floods because the population chooses flood-sensitive economic, cul-
tural and social activities (McBain 2012; Sayers et al. 2013). Understanding the
contribution of structural and non-structural measures on flood risk reduction could
support proper decision making and future planning (Shah 2015). Usually, the main
structural measures in wadis rely on an ‘embankment only’ option that has been
broadened to integrate other options, such as improvements to drainage channels,
diversion dykes, detention and flood storage dams.
Flood risk reduction can be accomplished by controlling the flood magnitude
flood-prone areas (Heidari 2009), where flood mitigation measures can be cate-
gorized into non-structural and structural measures (Hansson et al. 2008; Heidari
2009). Non-structural measures refer to non-engineering actions, such as increasing
preparedness through early warnings, using insurance, land use, restricting devel-
opment, planning and operating flood control reservoirs (Hansson et al. 2008; Shah
et al. 2015). Structural defence strategies can be either conventional measures, such
as dams and levees, or extensive ecosystem-specific measures, such as restoration
of natural conditions (Hansson et al. 2008). Furthermore, structural measures can be
important for managing water and controlling hazardous floods (Ho et al. 2017).
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the actinic rays begin to destroy the tissues of the body, and nerves break
down. The symptoms of neurasthenia are:

(1) Hysteria, expressed in wanton crime.

(2) Dipsomania, expressed in tremendous debauches following long

spells of abstinence.

(3) Suicide.

Every range man will remember how these three forms of nervous
disorder have wrecked the lives of his friends, and how the best men were
taken, not the weaklings. If so much disaster is avoided by wearing colours
which protect the body from actinic burning, it seems a reasonable conduct
to avoid blue clothing, and to copy the hues—such as dun, bay, or brown,
which nature provides to guard the animals.

PROTECTION FROM CHILLS. To absorb sweat, all underwear should

be woollen.

Dress for CONCEALMENT FROM ENEMIES. Man is the only

concealment animal whose figure is upright, cutting the lines of the
landscape, and therefore conspicuous at a great distance. A
single colour is therefore more easily seen than two blobs of colour such as
a khaki shirt and brown trousers, or a bay shirt and dun trousers. As armies
paint their guns in broken splashes of colour, men's uniforms should not be
whole coloured if they are to blend with the landscape.

The hat THE HAT. The Red Indian calls the white men "hat-
wearers," and takes notice of our baldness. Savages who
wear no hats are never bald. Why then should we wear hats? I think that on
the range, if we began early enough, we should do well to let our hair grow
for the protection of the head and the nape of the neck from the sun. On the
old American Frontier the pioneers did grow long hair because a man with
no scalplock was not worth killing, and therefore barred from councils of
the Indians.
 The primitive hat of the range was a disc of bison skin, sodden, and the
middle, thrust into a hole in the ground, was filled with stones. A leather
string laced round the edge kept the brim from flopping. A leather band
fitted the crown to the head.

Later came a Mr. Stetson of Philadelphia, with a copy of this range hat
in beaver-fur felt soaked in shellac, and so felted that the edges did not flop.
A bootlace round the front of the hatband passed through an eyelet above
each ear, and was tied with a hard knot behind the head. This prevented the
hat from blowing away and let in air behind the head to ventilate the crown.
Pinching the crown with four dints for the words North West Mounted
Police, branded the cowboy Stetson as a soldier's hat which was adopted in
South Africa by most of the mounted Irregulars of the British Empire, and
by the Boy Scouts who copied the design in felt of rabbit fur.

The measure of A rival type of slouch hat which flopped down all round
warmth was used by the ancient Greeks. Looped on one side it was
worn by the Cavaliers of the British Civil War, looped on
three sides it became the cocked hat of the eighteenth century, and on two
sides, of the Napoleonic era, surviving in diplomatic uniforms and those of
naval officers and civic functionaries. Looped on one side again it was worn
in the American Civil War, and by British Africanders and Australasians.
Softened and not looped it replaced the stiff-brimmed Stetson on the
American range.

Shirt and SHIRT. It was among the Eskimo that I learned the
breeches philosophy of the shirt. These very practical folk wear a
hooded shirt, close-fitting at the throat, wrists and waist. For
summer the material is cotton or serge, for winter the warmest furs; but in
any case it forms a bag of air warmed by the body. The shirt then consists of
an outer garment of skin or a textile fabric, and an inner garment of heated
air protecting the vital organs. Opened at neck and wrists it is the coolest of
garments, closed it is the warmest for any given weight. In contrast a coat
or jacket is open at the bottom, the front, the neck and the wrists, so that
four times the weight is needed to produce the warmth of a shirt.

Military dress is always a belated copy of the civil costume in each

period.
 It is designed by a contractor whose motive is to obtain the handling of
public money. It is approved by a military official who has never done a
day's labour or a day's fighting with the weapons of the enlisted man. Hence
the persistence of the Roman tunic which excels all known garments in
cost, weight, the cramping of the lungs, and the disabling of the arms and
shoulders whose perfect freedom is needed for wielding weapons and tools.
For working or fighting it has to be removed.

The mounted civilian rides for pleasure in a coat, the mounted soldier
rides for duty in a tunic, the range horseman rides for a living and wears a
shirt. By the exercise of human reason the range man protects his vital
organs at a fourth part of the cost, weight, and encumbrance to which the
fashions have subjected the sportsmen and the soldiers.

BREECHES. The dress of a gentleman has always been that of the

mounted warrior. When plate armour had to be given up because it was no
longer bullet proof its lining survived in the form of leather breeches. These
leathers are usually whitewashed, but they are still worn by the British
Household Cavalry, who are "Gentlemen of the King's guard"; by hunting
men; by the mounted servants who used to be armed retainers and still wear
livery as such; and in the charro dress of Mexico. They belong to the
tradition of aristocracy.

Philosophy of The principle of breeches is a close fit for the inner

trousers surface of the knee and thigh, because with heavy material
such as leather or cloth any wrinkles against the saddle will
tear off one's skin and cause a deal of pain. With bent leg riding, the outer
surface of the thighs had to be loosened, and this loosening has developed
into monstrous puffed sleeves which expose the Englishman to ridicule on
an irreverent stock-range.

Trousers and TROUSERS. During the French Revolution, gentlemen

boots in the town dress of the period, with knee breeches and silk
stockings, had their heads chopped off, and all who valued
their health took to trousers as an expression of liberal opinions. Trousers to
the heels as distinguished from trousers tucked into boots are still worn in
Russia to indicate liberal views. An ultra-royalist is not content with long
boots, but must add rubber overshoes to make his feet look large.
 Away from the influence of English fashions, the horsemen of the world
wear trousers; of cloth in the Russian Empire and South Africa, of moleskin
in Australasia, of duck in North America. Any kind of tight clothing which
cramps the limbs is looked upon as an abomination.

BOOTS. Long boots were recommended by Xenophon to the Greeks,

low shoes are older still. Both save the natural strength and spring of the
ankle which is needed in mounting a horse, useful in riding him.

Towards the middle of the nineteenth century the increase of town life
and improved paving made boot-tops worn under trousers appear
superfluous in weight, cost and discomfort. Thus came the ankle boot as an
economy and a comfort, but coupled with it was a lacing to "support" the
ankle. To lace a man's ankle or a woman's waist is to replace with a merely
stiff material the strong elastic muscles of the natural body, and sap the
necessary health and strength which God has given.

The logic of In all outdoor life long boots ensure dry feet, and the top
boots should reach the knee-cap to be of real use in wet ground, or
when one kneels cooking beside the camp fire. The boot
legs guard one against venomous reptiles and insects, and protect the shin
bone which, for lack of any muscle, is liable to be broken by many kinds of
accident. Lacing either a long or an ankle boot puts an end to free
ventilation of the foot, making the skin to sweat, to soften, and in many
cases to become offensive.

For horsemen the boot leg is a useful protection from the chafing of
stirrup leathers.

In war the soldier who wears laced boots is obliged to sleep in them,
whereas long boots, kept properly greased, are so quickly put on that it is
safe to remove them at night. For infantry, the world's marching record was
made by Colorado miners as volunteers for the New Mexico campaign.
They wore long boots, as do the Russian and Germanic armies whose
marching is said to be better than that of the French and British who have
laced the ankle.

The boot-leg
 The boot leg should not be shaped like a bucket to catch
rain as with the United States Cavalry, or like a stovepipe to cripple a man
afoot as with British horsemen. Without being tight like the puttee for the
production of varicocele, the boot leg should fit close. The ankle should be
supple as a stocking, and "bellowsed" to make sure of suppleness. The
counter should be of the hardest possible leather, thick, but fining upwards
to an edge, and so made that when the man's foot spreads the foot of the
boot, this fine upper edge, closes over the ball of the heel to prevent
chafing. For the horseman the heel should be broad and flat, or high and
tapering to prevent it from getting through the stirrups.

The boot-top of the seventeenth century came well up the thigh, but was
turned down in summer for coolness, showing the brown inside of the
leather. Later on this turned down top was replaced for smartness by a
useless detachable cuff. For smartness also, the English leg was made rigid,
disabling the wearer. Lately I went to a smart London maker for boots to
suit my need of a supple ankle, flat heel, and modelled counter. The sales
gentleman made me feel acutely that I was a cad, the workmen struck, and
the proprietor corrected my design, revenging himself in his bill for the
delay he caused me. It is in details such as this that one feels that the whole
art of horsemanship in England has become a frozen convention, and is
dying.

Spurs SPURS. The spur was a prick or goad, from Roman

times down to the thirteenth century. With plate armour
came a rowel on a long shank. This rowel has shrunk in Europe to a small
sharp weapon which draws blood, but on the American stock range it has
increased in size to an average of three inches. The larger the points are the
more they can be blunted, and the less they hurt a horse. On the old
American range an Englishman removed the rowels from his spurs or
adopted the blunt rowel before he was considered fit for human society.

The rowel should be loose enough to rattle, so that at night one may go
to one's horse in pasture, and, knowing the sound of his master, he will not
run away.

A gentle spur is used to encourage and not to hurt a horse, to bring him
to attention, to aid in fine steering. It may be locked in the girth so that,
holding on by one leg one may lie behind the horse's neck when under fire,
or pick up a rope from the ground.

NECK CLOTH. A kerchief loose round the neck saves the top of the
spine from sunstroke. It should be of any colour not containing blue, of the
lightest silk for use as mosquito bar at night, and twenty-six inches square
for use as a sling, bandage, or tourniquet in case of accident.

Shaps SHAPS (from Chapareras—protection from chapparal

or thorns of acacia). These are leggings reaching from waist
to heel of heavy oiled leather. They differ from trousers in having no seat or
fly, but consist of two trunks each laced or buckled down the outer seam of
the leg, and attached at the waist to a half belt. The two half belts are tied
together in front with one turn of a leather string, ready to break apart if
they get caught on the horn of the saddle in bucking, and fastened again
with buckle and strap behind.

The woolly or hairy fronted snaps made for snowy or wet districts are
more plentiful among tenderfeet, showmen and cinema actors than they
ever were upon the modest stock range. The usual pattern is of plain brown
leather, nearly black with use. It is sometimes fringed, or ornamented with
silver dollars or even twenty dollar golden pieces down the outer seam.

The uses of shaps are to give a grip in the saddle, to shelter the legs
from heat, cold, rain, snow, to serve as armour against kicking, biting,
scraping, backfalls, rolling and other diversions of horses, the horns of
cattle, rocks, thorns, snakes, scorpions, tarantulas, rope abrasions, grass
fires and other little discomforts. Their excellent comfort in the saddle, and
in lieu of blankets at night, would be enough to justify their use, but without
them one would be hurt or even seriously killed in course of the day's work.
As they make walking difficult they are useless for all the purposes of war.

Arms and ARMS. On the great ranges Romance is just as prevalent

morals as sunshine, and Emotion blows as freely as the wind, but in
this study we have to do with Reason. In cold blood we are
trying to study equipment and methods of men whose lives depend upon
sound, practical, unbiassed common sense.
 When a fellow takes to the range what are his motives? If he goes out to
hunt for trouble he will do well to buy a large, well-balanced, accurately-
sighted, blued revolver of a simple pattern not readily clogged or damaged.
He will devote his leisure for many months to practice at all ranges, in all
sorts of weather, in light and darkness, afoot and mounted until he can fire a
double-roll fusillade. If he gets killed at practice, so much the better for the
public. If not he has only to take to the range and make himself a general
nuisance until he meets a better shot than himself. I never met a man with
more than twenty-seven notches on his gun-stock, but have known plenty
who took an honest pleasure in blotting out unnecessary gun-fools.

If a fellow takes to the range, who is not in search of trouble, but merely
intends to earn an honest living and make a decent home, he is better
without a weapon. When I was a younger fool than I am now, and took a
delight in revolvers, and bluffed with a gun, it nearly always got me into
trouble. I found that it was a poor thing to shirk the first obligation of
manhood, which is self-reliance, and sink to mere dependence on a weapon.

Self-reliance Nobody who can possibly run away is fool enough to

encounter single-handed a homicidal maniac on the war
path, a gang of vigilantes or desperadoes in a nasty temper, or a hostile tribe
of savages. Against such odds the use of a weapon in the open is merely
suicide. The first thing needed is an inward prayer which makes one's nerve
quite steady. A serene manner fills the enemy with misgivings that one has
unseen support. To throw one's weapon to the enemy as a gift is to surprise
him into talking. Once he begins, the more vociferous he is, the sooner he
talks himself out. A maniac temper will evaporate in talk in about forty-five
minutes, but savages will sometimes last two hours or more before they are
quite run down. After the first laugh one may walk away in safety. It is not
safe to be seen in the state of collapse which follows the overstrain.

The killing of live creatures or even men has always been abhorrent to
me. I am not sure of having murdered anything bigger than a crow with a
broken leg, who had to be knocked out with a stone as an act of mercy. Not
being a sportsman I may not advise on the use of weapons for sport.

Range WEAPONS. There are three weapons used only by

weapons range horsemen. The lasso, known on the range as The
 Rope, consists of a noose which is spun by a delicate play of
the thumb, thrown to its length, and the strain taken by saddle and horse as
it catches a running beast. We share this practice with the ancient Peruvians,
Sarmatians, Sagartians, and Scythians, and the modern Tartars of the
Asiatic steppe.

The bolas are three egg-shaped weights connected by as many plaited

strings with a rawhide rope, and thrown like the riata to catch wild animals.
This instrument belongs to Patagonia and the Argentine pampas.

The stock- The stock whip. This is an Australian development of

whip the switch. It consists of an 18-inch wooden tapering handle,
a keeper of kangaroo hide, a 10-foot thong of kangaroo hide
in a tapering 12 or 16 plait, an 18-inch tail of green hide, and a plaited
cracker of sewing cotton. At a range of twenty feet one flick knocked a
revolver out of my hand and lashed my wrist to the thigh, making me a
disarmed prisoner, yet causing no more pain than the brush of a fly's wing.
It convinced me as to the usefulness of this weapon.

III. THE WAYS OF RANGE HORSEMEN.

On one occasion it was my privilege to assemble seventy horsemen

whose united experience of the stock-range covered the grass lands of Asia
from Mongolia to Hungary, Eastern and Southern Africa, all states of
Australasia, Patagonia, the Argentine, the Llano, and every state and
province of the open pasture in Mexico, the United States and Canada.
Among us we compiled a brief text defining our ideas of range as
distinguished from civilised horsemanship. The text was printed as a
chapter on "The Horse" in "The Frontiersman's Pocket Book" (John
Murray), which I compiled and edited on behalf of the Legion of
Frontiersmen. The present volume is merely an application of these range
principles to the study of horses and horsemanship.

The pretension of range horsemen as a class is to earn a living by the

use of cheap working horses, riding with a weight-distributing equipment
and pack transport, while we base our mobility upon a herd of remounts.

Pleasure For pleasure horsemanship our feeling is one of

horsemanship admiring envy. No men are better able to appreciate the
incomparable gallantry and elan of the hunting field,
especially in Ireland, the beautiful spectacles afforded by racing, horse
shows, and tournaments, the grand pageantry of state functions in European
capitals. Even such pretty futilities as Portuguese bull-baiting and the Haut
Ecole of France appeal to us as horsemen. As to military horsemanship we
have an unbounded admiration for the fine driving of the Royal Horse
Artillery, and the obstacle riding of the Mexican Regular Cavalry. On the
other hand we are not stricken with awe at the circus tricks of the Cossack,
although we may be surprised to see a luggage strap used for girth. Nor are
we emulous of the horse-killing man-endurance rides which used to be
considered good sport by European cavalry. We can do the little circus
tricks ourselves, and make our endurance rides without killing our horses.

Horsemanship Among ourselves we are more critical. The Mexican

ranchero for example wears a revolver on the belt, a sword
on the saddle, a silver bridle, a suit of leather beautifully laced with gold or
silver, and a most prodigious hat. But do these fine feathers make him a fine
bird? Or is the prancing arch-necked horse made sprightly by pinched shoes
and a spade bitt?

By contrast the Boer is the most slovenly of horsemen, both in his old
slop suit and in his flapping gait, but in scouting and fighting by far the best
instructor we ever met, and either as enemy or friend we love his manhood.
If horsemanship is an expression of manhood, we do not mind the form if
we can get the fact. More manhood goes to the making of one Boer than to
a hundred Mexicans.

Searching for the elements distinctive of range horsemanship, as

contrasted with the pleasure, the military and the working horsemanship of
civilization, a few essential things come clearly into view.

ROUGH RIDING. When a range man is asked if he can ride, as a

matter of course he says "No." But if he really wants to come up against the
champion outlaw horse of the neighbourhood his denial is not emphatic.
Like a professional singer asked for a song, he excuses himself, and pleads
to a certain dryness in the throat, but, when the money inducements are
sufficient, owns up that he thinks he can ride.

The rough riding of the range is incomparable, but as the broncho buster
is usually smashed internally if not killed outright within three years of
practice, this worst possible method of breaking a horse is lacking in
practical value.

Rough-driving ROUGH-DRIVING. Our rough-drivers are perhaps the

greatest horsemen living, and their feats are the more
glorious because there are no spectators to give the stimulus of their
applause. A single example may be permitted here:

Constable Harty, of D Division in the Royal North-West Mounted

Police, was driving a four-horse team with a waggonette, his passengers
being the Earl and Countess of Aberdeen, Viceroy and Vicereine of Canada.
Fording one of the fiendish Alberta rivers the near wheeler lay down and
drowned herself, while the waggonette, half afloat, was being tilted in
danger of capsizal. The teamster swam under and with his knife attempted
to cut the dead mare out of harness. Failing in this he climbed up, stood
astride with bent knees on the waggon seat, and lifted the team up the river
bank to safety while the dead mare dragged under the wheels.

Rough riding So varied are the styles in horsemanship that nobody

pretends to leadership, and every man of real experience
counts himself a student rather than a master. Only the other day an
Instructor in Equitation showed me how to trot a horse straight down a
steep slope of grass, explaining it was so good to supple the animal's
shoulders. Of course I always knew I was a fool, but never before had I
realized the abysmal depths of my own ignorance.

So far then as an old fool may be permitted, I venture to submit some

gossip on the average range practice of a day's march in the wilderness. The
equipment for horse and man is already dealt with, except in regard to
packing, a subject which would need a special volume.
The art of In Mounted Police regiments there is a rule that no
travel constable may travel alone on journeys exceeding a day's
march. It is a good rule, because a chap may get hurt or be
left afoot, and so perish for lack of a helping hand.

It is easy enough to warn a fellow not to travel alone in wilderness, but

quite impossible to take even one's own advice. Most likely nobody else is
going in that direction, or the fellow who offers his company would make a
first-rate stranger. But in any case three horses will travel better than one,
and by changing about one gets a longer march. That is why one generally
travels with ride, pack and spare mounts. As to the pack, the load at which
an average animal can keep pace with the mounted man is one hundred-
and-twenty pounds, and with such a cargo should not be stopped either by
swamps or rivers, bush or mountains. The weight may seem excessive for
one man's supplies, but it is always worth while to carry a ration or two of
grain.

An advantage of the three-horse method is in the encouragement it gives

them on the trail. They are quick to scratch up friendship among
themselves, are never happy except in company, and running together may
take their man into fellowship.

The art of BUYING. So long as the American range was really

buying wild an unsound horse was palmed off on the nearest
townsman, or shot, or turned loose as worthless. To-day the
proposal to buy a horse in any western town brings forth are amazing
collection of relics, cripples, colts, curios, and criminals. The old timers will
not sell except to horsemen, but when they offer a horse one may buy
blindfold. Except in dealing with real frontiersmen one takes a horse on
approval or not at all.

After the main essentials of a pure heart and four legs, I look for large
eyes with no white showing, and a broad forehead. If a horse is nervous
when approached, he cannot be relied upon in emergencies. If he is less
than seven years of age he is not fully matured for work which needs
endurance. I prefer a gelding as being less flighty, less apt to break back
than a mare. I will add dollars to get a glutton, close quickly with the offer
of a horse in really hard condition, refuse a rough-gaited trotter as a gift,
and cannot be paid to ride a beast who bucks. As to the 'points' by which a
civilised horseman judges horseflesh, they are all very nice if one has plenty
of money. The prices have trebled since the turn of the century.

MAKING FRIENDS. There are many little kindnesses which help to

ease the labour of a horse. He has just as much pride as a man in smart
equipment, has vanity enough to relish a glossy coat, to show off in
company, challenge for admiration with gallant carriage of his neck and tail,
and prove himself much swifter than his fellows. Pet him a little and he will
insist upon being fussed with. Give such dainties as sugar, apples or carrots,
and he will ever be nuzzling at your pockets. His low, soft love call for
greeting of a morning is well worth while for any man to earn. This is not
given to the man who thinks of a horse as "it."

Saddling and THE SADDLING. After throwing the saddle on, pass
mounting the hands all over the blanket under the flaps to see there is
no rucking. Lift the blanket into the arch of the saddle to be
sure that no pressure will rest upon the withers. Shift the saddle aft until
quite sure it is free of the shoulder blades. Girth up, and be sure the horse is
not holding his wind. If there is doubt the off knee in his stomach will make
him relax his lungs.

MOUNTING. The weapon, be it spear or rifle, must be wielded with the

right arm, so the rein is held by the left hand. To secure the rein with the left
hand involves mounting on the near side of the horse. There is an
advantage, however, in departing from universal practice and training the
horse to be mounted from either side. One may be hurt and unable to mount
on the near side when there is peril in being left afoot.

THE FIRST MILE. Walking the first mile supples the horse and eases
the harness. A horse who holds his wind can then be butted with the knee in
his stomach while the girth is pulled up to the proper notch for safety.

Punishment PUNISHMENT. If one thinks of a horse as a little child

one cannot be far wrong. One does not flog a child.
Discipline there must be with horses as with children, or both grow
worthless, but punishment is the surest possible sign of the man's
incompetence, for the horse rarely understands the motive, or understanding
becomes mutinous. Nine times out of ten after punishing my horse I have
found out that I had been myself in the wrong by saddling too far forward
and cramping the shoulder-blades, by some defect in putting on the blanket,
knotting the headrope badly, or failing to watch the farrier's work in
shoeing. The seeming misconduct was due perhaps to agonizing pain, as in
one instance from a hidden ulcer. So when my horse forgets his manners,
loses his temper, or goes badly, I examine my conduct to find where I am to
blame.

It is an outrage and disastrous to the horse's morals to strike him in front

of the saddle. The exceptions to that rule are for great experts only.

The pace that PACES. Whether the wild horse trots, is not a subject in
saves which the range horse has given me any guidance. In
handling stock he usually goes on grass and prefers to
canter. In travel he usually goes on a road, and distinctly prefers to trot.
From careful watching I doubt if he likes trotting on grass, as the hoofs are
apt to brush and may stumble against the turf. A canter on road or very hard
ground jars him, and is likely to cause injury to feet and legs.

There are certain artificial gaits most variously named such as the
tripple, rack, pace, and side pace adopted I think under compulsion of lazy
horsemen who find them comfortable. I have known horses using such gaits
to lag miserably until I persuaded them that trotting was permitted, after
which they cheered up and gained in speed.

As a slow walk tires both man and horse much more than the trot or
canter, it is easy, by riding on the rein and using a little persuasion, to train
an average animal in fast walking.

On the whole then a steady alternation of trot and walk, making the
day's gait about five miles an hour, is the best economy for journeys.

On marches exceeding fifty-five miles a day the canter, trot and walk
become alternate gaits, but journeys must then be broken with days for rest.

HILLS. Trotting or running a horse down hill is a matter for high-

powered animals. With ordinary horses the down slopes must be reserved
for walking, the level and upward slopes for trotting. The longer and steeper
hills involve walking, but even in them there are dips and levels which
permit one to vary the pace, nursing the horse through the march in the least
possible number of hours. It is the flagging, not the brisk day's work, which
causes most fatigue.

Seat SEAT. I have seen horses prosper under all the different
and possible methods of decent horsemen, and do not
believe that form makes any difference. From the Red Indians of the plains
I learned to sit skin tight and upright at the trot and canter.

Having no voice to boast of, I test my seat at the various gaits by

singing, and if there is any sign of quivering in the notes, look well to my
grip and balance, lest I jar the horse. His ears express horror, but his kidneys
seem at peace; and I have usually fattened thin horses on my journeys. The
skin-tight seat is that which is practised and recommended by all range
horsemen.

Ease EASE. General Sir Robert Baden-Powell kindly advised

me as follows:—

"Letting men sit side-saddle on a tired horse is the easiest way of giving
it a sore back. At walking gait it is far better for the rider to dismount and
walk. The loup or lobbing canter is the easiest pace for man and horse.
Except a continuous walk, the round trot is the most tiring. Frequent
cantering and walking alternately—the rider then going on foot—is the way
to get over the ground in going a long distance."

The above note is one of high authority as applying to English

equipment; but I found it received with a certain lack of respect by men
using a weight-distributing saddle. We all sit side-saddle when we please, or
more often ride on one thigh or the other. None of us have seen sore back
except with lean or exhausted horses, worn out saddlery, or in cases of gross
neglect.

The range man does not look upon riding as a formal parade, but likes
to practise circus tricks, or lounge at ease while he smokes, reads a book,
sings, or plays some musical instrument. I have seen the cowhand wile
away the time by eating a quart of pickles. For my part, a luncheon from the
wallets is part of the procedure of every pack drive, followed by a
comfortable nap in the saddle. Horses often doze at a walk, even, I suspect,
at the trot, and a nap for man and horse adds a great deal to the endurance
of both.

As to going afoot, it takes a very steep down hill track to enforce such a
thing upon me. Rumour says that we will walk half a mile to get a pony
from pasture in order to ride a hundred yards on an errand. But to be afoot
is for the range horseman the last depth of calamity and degradation.

My last experience of this was a traverse of the Canadian Rockies, when

my partner and I rode along the bed and bars of a river until we were
washed away. After that we took to the bush, a wonderful labyrinth of
deadfall, beaver swamp and snowslides, which we managed to climb
through by following the tracks of some wapiti. We had to work about
twenty hours a day, and the four days reduced our clothes and boots to rags,
but our luck was better than that of another party of four men who tried the
same pass that season and were not heard of afterwards. I will not tempt
young travellers by giving them the name of that pass.

GUIDANCE. While the range man never walks, but makes the saddle
his home, and lives at ease, it would be an error to suppose him
unobservant. In wild countries one's life depends on alertness.

Scouting Few range men trust a compass, which may be lost or

broken, is hard to read at night, difficult to steady at any
time, and apt to point at one's gun. Point the hour hand of your watch at the
sun, and half way to XII is south (for the northern hemisphere). If the sky is
overcast polish a coin or finger nail and hold a match or a pin upon it
vertically. The upright match will cast a shadow made by the unseen sun.

So much for the rule of thumb, but one's real reliance is on the
indications of the landscape: the reading of trees and bushes as shaped by
the prevalent wind; the reading of rocks or tree trunks for any mosses or
lichens which grow on the side (north for northern hemisphere) on which
the sun does not shine; and sundry other signs local to different regions.
 The constant habit of locating north grows to an instinct. In Petrograd,
as a stranger unable to ask questions or read signs in Russian, on level
alluvial land, in a thick winter night, without having seen one inch of the
route before, I was able to walk by the shortest cut three and a half miles
directly to my hotel.

If it is vital to know north, it is equally important to read country; to see

by the slopes of the ground the direction of streams and watersheds, and to
observe the phenomena of crossing or converging routes. One learns in time
to forecast the nature of the country beyond the horizon.

Trail Most important of all is the difficult reading of tracks

appearances and the glints on grass, also the movements of birds and
animals which in an arid country are signs for finding water.

For the rest, it is useful to note the tracks on the trail showing who
passed and when.

It is wise, on meeting a man, to observe his horse brands, equipment,

and all the many clues which show who and what he is as distinguished
from what he says. It is a gross breach of taste to ask him a personal
question; but by knowing all about him one may gauge the value of his trail
directions. There is indeed a need for cautiousness, for not one man in a
hundred gives accurate directions which can be safely followed. In central
Colorado there used to be a lady rancher whose copious trail directions had
endangered so many travellers that, for a radius of two hundred miles,
approaching horsemen were always warned by the neighbours to be deaf to
her siren voice.

GUIDES. Much as I like the savage as a man, I am cautious in engaging

him as guide. On two occasions I arranged that my guide was to be shot if
he showed up at home without my written release. Knowing that detail, my
first guide was a success, but the second left me to die, and went home
without my certificate.

Rather than put one's trust in guides, maps, trail directions, the compass
or any other form of vanity and vexation, it is wiser to rely on common
sense in scouting. And there the indications given by one's horse are always
valuable.

Scent, sight SCENT. It is doubtful if man or horse is ever perfectly

and sound healthy in civilization. Both suffer from chronic catarrh, so
that the smaller animal has to carry and use a handkerchief.
Under range conditions the kerchief is more useful round one's neck, for the
nostrils are dry, and, both in horse and man, the senses are more active. At
half a mile I have smelt a mountain river—like a wet knife. Once, at about
five miles on a windless day my two horses snuffed a fresh pool and bolted
for it at full gallop despite my frantic protests at their apparent madness.
Considering that we were lost in sand-rock desert, all three of us owed our
lives to that small distant smell.

The more vivid perfume of cattle I have caught up easily at four-and-a-

half miles on the wind, but by their conduct I think my horses had that
savour some miles before it reached my duller senses. I think the scenting
powers of a horse are about ten times as strong as mine.

SIGHT. Although short-sighted, I have, with the aid of eyeglasses,

bringing my vision up to normal, seen waggon dust at sixteen miles, a
colliery smoke at twenty-three miles, and detail of a mountain scarp at
seventy miles in the clear prairie air. So far as I could get any direct
evidence, I never knew a horse to see anything at much more than a couple
of hundred yards. It seems to be only in civilization where the smells and
sounds are bewildering, that the horse becomes long-sighted up to perhaps a
mile.

HEARING. The value of a horse's sense of hearing as compared with

that of a man is very difficult to judge. On a still night I have heard men's
calls from behind double windows at one and a half miles; and am not at all
sure that an average horse beats that. And yet, judging by the constant
signalling of a horse's ears which point at every sound, I think his sense of
hearing catches vibrations above the register of human ears, and many notes
at close range too faint to impress our senses.

Whatever a horse may smell, hear or see, he points out with nice
gestures of the ears and nostrils which are of infinite value for a man to read
and understand. They convey to the practised eye all sorts of warnings and
useful little hints. It is the training in peace of the habit of observation
which makes the scout for war.

The fear of THE FEAR OF SHADOWS. Once I took a range horse

shadows into a forest where there were flocks of sheep, herded a
good deal of nights by cougars (Felix concolor) who
prospered on their mutton. These cougars used to come round my camp,
liked it, I think, because there was no gun-smell, and sang most
wonderfully, sitting so near that I could see the gleam of firelight on their
eyes. I liked them, but my horse would stand astride the fire trembling. I
tried to explain to him that this was vanity, because he was really far too
thin to be edible. While the cougars had nice fat sheep for the asking, why
should they care for horse bones! But all the signs he gave of loneliness and
fear I have seen many a time since then when I have taken range horses far
into the woods.

Halts HALTS. If only to give my horses a chance to stale and,

with a gelding, to make sure that the sheath is clean, I make
a short halt after each two hours. At every halt the genuine horseman
throws his rein to the ground so that a horse will be tripped if he attempts to
break away. Range horses are trained to stand to a thrown rein, and if
necessary are given a sack of earth to drag until they learn the wisdom in
obedience. If one has to tie the horse to anything, a supple bush is better
than a rigid tree, lest he pull back with his whole weight for the purpose of
breaking the rein or rope by which he has been fastened.

In my short halts I always hold the rein while the horse gets a bite of
grass or a little water. The reason for this is that he may be suddenly
frightened by a snake or a bustling squirrel, and if he breaks away it might
be awkward to be left afoot: so many men have been left afoot and
perished.

In the greatest heat one may water horses fully if they stand knee deep
in pool or stream; but if they drink their fill they go sluggishly afterwards
and need to drink the more. For a man a sip of cold tea allays thirst better
than a pint of water, and for neither the horse nor the rider is it wise to drink
to repletion until after the day's work.
 In lone travelling with a pack horse I always make the day's work in a
single drive rather than waste time unloading and loading the pack in a day
which may prove too brief for the finding of a camp before dark. The
earliest rising, the most urgent driving are needed to make sure against a dry
camp, or being caught in bad ground by the fall of night.

The night halt THE NIGHT HALT. In country where the grass is eaten
for miles surrounding watering places, or where there is
danger from hostile savages, I always drive on from the evening water until
I can camp in safety on good pasture. Also one needs a margin of time to
walk the last mile or two, bringing the horses in cool at the end of the day's
work.

For horse- Rather than let horses stand shivering in a wet or cold
comfort gale, it is better to march, and keep travelling until shelter
can be found.

In great heat it is better to travel at night, but one should be in camp

from about 12.30 to 3.30 a.m., the usual sleeping hours.

As to horses in camp, one must throw them to pasture beyond the

camping place, so as to hear them passing if they attempt to break back. It
may be necessary to hobble or even picket one of them as a precaution, or if
they lack water to hobble all who cannot be picketed. If any animal is to be
hobbled or tied up, the mare comes first.

In forest, where horses are ill at ease, especially if pasture is scanty, I

hang a bell to the neck of every horse, and camp at some spot where the
back trail can be fenced, then sleep against the gate. On some occasions I
have watched all night.

Where flies are bad, it is kindly to bank a fire with damp herbage which
makes a smoke in which the horses can shelter. It is in forest and fly
country that one has greatest need of a few feeds of oats in the pack, or even
slung to the saddles.

If a horse is sweating and exhausted, I rub him down with whiskey or

any other form of alcohol, because its rapid evaporation cools and refreshes
him. A little alcohol rubbed on the part heated by the saddle enables one to
feed grain even in short halts.

For cold and exhaustion I give sugar, if possible in the water. The
carbon is fuel which enters the blood, and so becomes exposed to oxygen in
the lungs, where its burning produces the heat which warms the body.

In hot weather, oatmeal and sugar in water make a refreshing drink

useful to horses as to working humans.

If a horse is leg-weary and stiff, a rub down or massage with liniment

slacks the strung tendons.

Sores SORES. I never unsaddle without making a careful

search for water blisters or any sign of chafing. These found
in time can be marked with axle grease, which registers a black spot on the
sweat pad or the blanket. The blanket can then be folded in such a way as to
relieve the pressure, or a bit of sacking shaped into a ring to enclose the
threatened spot beneath or between the foldings of the blanket. The same
kind of padding can be made under the girth for the relief of girth galls.

Despite the utmost care, horses in soft condition or when underfed, or

wearing harness which has hardened or warped after long spells of wet, are
liable to sores. I have cured most terrible cases by a daily practice of riding
the patient to sweating heat, then suddenly unsaddling, and lashing on cold
salt water. The various copper ointments known as gall cures are worth their
weight in gold so long as one works the horse, but have the defect of
forming a hard scab which breaks away before the wound is ready. One
abscess caused by a warped saddle tree defeated me altogether and put the
animal out of action for four months. As to sores in the starvation of the
northern forest, the story would be too terrible to tell.

Cracked heels CRACKED HEELS. In cold weather, if we do not dry

our hands before a fire after we have washed them, we are
liable to chapped skin. Wet followed by cold, especially from muddy
ground, causes cracked heels. The prevention by thorough drying after
every wetting may be impossible and this form of lameness is difficult to