Section III - Philosophical Perspectives in

Education Part 2
Four General or World Philosophies

The term metaphysics literally means "beyond the physical." This area
of philosophy focuses on the nature of reality. Metaphysics attempts to
find unity across the domains of experience and thought. At the
metaphysical level, there are four* broad philosophical schools of thought that apply
to education today. They are idealism, realism, pragmatism (sometimes called
experientialism), and existentialism. Each will be explained shortly. These four
general frameworks provide the root or base from which the various educational
philosophies are derived.
* A fifth metaphysical school of thought, called Scholasticism, is largely applied in Roman Catholic schools in the
educational philosophy called "Thomism." It combines idealist and realist philosophies in a framework that
harmonized the ideas of Aristotle, the realist, with idealist notions of truth. Thomas Aquinas, 1255-127, was the
theologian who wrote "Summa Theologica," formalizing church doctrine. The Scholasticism movement encouraged
the logical and philosophical study of the beliefs of the church, legitimizing scientific inquiry within a religious
framework.

Two of these general or world philosophies, idealism and realism, are derived from
the ancient Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle. Two are more
contemporary, pragmatism and existentialism. However, educators who share one of
these distinct sets of beliefs about the nature of reality presently apply each of these
world philosophies in successful classrooms. Let us explore each of these
metaphysical schools of thought.

Idealism
Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are the only
true reality, the only thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice
that is enduring and everlasting, the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind.
Plato, father of Idealism, espoused this view about 400 years BC, in his famous
book, The Republic. Plato believed that there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual
or mental world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There is
also the world of appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste,
and sound, that is changing, imperfect, and disorderly. This division is often referred
to as the duality of mind and body. Reacting against what he perceived as too much of
a focus on the immediacy of the physical and sensory world, Plato described a utopian
society in which "education to body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which
they are capable" as an ideal. In his allegory of the cave, the shadows of the sensory
world must be overcome with the light of reason or universal truth. To understand
truth, one must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute Mind. Plato also
believed that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one with the
Universal Being. The birth process checks this perfection, so education requires
bringing latent ideas (fully formed concepts) to consciousness.

In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities
and full moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is
subject matter of mind: literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods
focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method
of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover and clarify knowledge).
Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to bring to
consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is
developed through imitating examples and heroes.

Realism
Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate
reality is the world of physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is
objective-what can be observed. Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his
mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father of both Realism and the scientific
method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand objective reality through
"the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data." Aristotle believed that to
understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does not change.
For example, a rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in
the mind without being physically present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties
with all other roses and flowers (its form), although one rose may be red and another
peach colored. Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order
to be able to reason about physical events and aspects. The exercise of rational
thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind. The Realist curriculum
emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world, particularly science and
mathematics. The teacher organizes and presents content systematically within a
discipline, demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus
on mastery of facts and basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students
must also demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically, using
observation and experimentation. Curriculum should be scientifically approached,
standardized, and distinct-discipline based. Character is developed through training in
the rules of conduct.

Pragmatism (Experientialism)
For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this
late 19th century American philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience.
Unlike the Realists and Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly
changing and that we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to
problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of
the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what works.
Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who
believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to
indecisiveness.

John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive

approaches. He believed that learners must adapt to each other and to their
environment. Schools should emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All
learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and circumstance. Different
cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively and contribute to a democratic
society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order. Character
development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences.

For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving,

experimenting, and projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should
bring the disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary
way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new learners,
Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their knowledge to real situations
through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living, and
future careers.

Existentialism
The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual.
The physical world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual
choice and individual standards rather than external standards are central. Existence
comes before any definition of what we are. We define ourselves in relationship to
that existence by the choices we make. We should not accept anyone else's
predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take responsibility for deciding
who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we
make meaning of our lives.

There are several different orientations within the existentialist philosophy. Soren
Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a Danish minister and philosopher, is considered to be the
founder of existentialism. His was a Christian orientation. Another group of
existentialists, largely European, believes that we must recognize the finiteness of our
lives on this small and fragile planet, rather than believing in salvation through God.
Our existence is not guaranteed in an after life, so there is tension about life and the
certainty of death, of hope or despair. Unlike the more austere European approaches
where the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with the certainty of the end of
existence, American existentialists have focused more on human potential and the
quest for personal meaning. Values clarification is an outgrowth of this movement.
Following the bleak period of World War II, the French philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre,
suggested that for youth, the existential moment arises when young persons realize for
the first time that choice is theirs, that they are responsible for themselves. Their
question becomes "Who am I and what should I do?

Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter

of personal choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social context in
which the learner must confront others' views to clarify his or her own. Character
development emphasizes individual responsibility for decisions. Real answers come
from within the individual, not from outside authority. Examining life through
authentic thinking involves students in genuine learning experiences. Existentialists
are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be measured, tracked, or
standardized. Such educators want the educational experience to focus on creating
opportunities for self-direction and self actualization. They start with the student,
rather than on curriculum content.

Think about It:

1. Which general or world view philosophy best fits with your own views of
reality? Why?

2. What have you learned from the history of education that is related to these
metaphysical philosophies?

3. It is said that an image is worth a thousand words. What might be your image
metaphor for each of these world or metaphysical philosophies?

Continue to Part 3
© 1999 LeoNora M. Cohen, OSU - School of Education