Pronouns

Pronoun: is a word that replaces a noun.

Possessive pronouns: are those designating possession/show ownership.

Personal Pronoun: is a pronoun that is associated primarily with a particular person, in the grammatical
sense. Personal pronouns provide us with the following information:
 The person- who is speaking
 The number- is the pronoun plural or singular?
 The gender- is the pronoun feminine, masculine, or neuter
E.g. He often reads until late at night
Notice that in the example above, the underlined word “He” is the third personal pronoun singular
masculine and, the bolded word “reads” is the third form of the verb to read in present simple singular.

Reflexive pronouns: are those that indicate that the person who is realizing the action of the verb is
also the recipient of the action.
E.g. I was in a hurry, so I washed the car myself
You’re going to have to drive yourself to school today

Look at the table of the pronouns

Reflexive Person Subject personal Objectpersonal Possessive Possessive

pronouns pronoun pronouns pronouns adjectives
Myself 1st singular I Me Mine My
nd
Yourself 2 singular You You Yours Your
rd
Himself 3 singular(male) He Him His His
Herself 3rd singular(female
She Her Hers Her
rd
Itself 3 singular(thing)It It Its Its
Ourselves 1st plural We Us Ours Our
nd
Yourselves 2 plural You You Yours Your
rd
Themselves 3 plural They Them Theirs Their

Drilling. Take some minutes just practicing your previous learning.

Fill the gaps in the sentences below, by replacing the personal pronoun by possessive pronouns:
1. This book is (you)__________
2. The ball is (I)______________
3. The blue car is (we)_________
4. The ring is (she)____________
5. We met Paul and Jane last night. This house is (they)__________
6. The luggage is (he)_________
7. The pictures are (she)_________
8. In our garden is a bird, the nest is (it)___________
9. This cat is (we)__________
10. This was not my fault. It was (you)___________
 Adjectives
Are words that describe or clarify a noun. Describe nouns by giving some information about an object’s:
size- it’s a big house
Shape- it’s a round table
Origin- it’s an English dish
Material- it’s a wooden table
Observation- it’s a broken glass
Opinion- it’s a lovely place
Purpose- it’s a coffee table

Adverbs of manner
Tell us how someone does something or something happens. They usually come after the main verb:
He drank quickly (after the verb)
He drank the water quickly. (after the object)
He drank quickly the water. (not between the verb and object) wrong sentence.

Adverbs of manner are often made with the suffix –ly. In this way, we can change an adjective into an
adverb by adding the suffix –ly. See the following changes in the table below.
Adjective Suffix Adverb
Awkward ly Awkwardly
Desperate ly Desperately
Miserable ly Miserably
Friend ly Friendly
Perfect ly Perfectly

Verb Tenses
Verb: is a word that indicates an action
Verb to have
Present simple: subj+verb(present Past Simple: subj+verb(past Present Continuous subj+aux
form) form) be(present simple)+main verb (ing
I- have I -had form)
You- have You- had I -am having
He/she/it –has He/she/it-had You -are having
We/you/they-have We/you/they-had He/she/it-is having
We/you/they-are having
Present Perfect: Future Simple: Future Perfect: subj+will+aux(have)
subj+has/have+verb(past participle) subj+will+verb(infinitive) +past participle(main verb)

I - have had I – will have had

You - have had I- will have You – will have had
He/she/it - has had You- will have He/she/it – will have had
We/you/they- have had He/she/it - will have We/you/they – will have had
We/you/they - will have
Past Continuous: subj+aux be (past Past Perfect: subj+aux have(past Future Continuous: subj+will
simple)+main verb(ing form) simple)+main verb(past participle) be+main verb(ing form)

I - was having I – had had

You - were having You – had had I – will be having
He/she/it – was having He/she/it – had had You – will be having
We/you/they – were having We/you/they – had had He/she/it – will be having
r We/you/they – will be having
Present Perfect Continuous: Past Perfect Continuous: Future Perfect Continuous:
subj+aux have(pres simple) subj+aux.have(past simple) Subj+will have+been+main
+been+main verb(ing form) +been+main verb(ing verb(ing form)
form)
I – have been having I – will have been having
You – have been having I – had been having You – will have been having
He/she/it – has been having You – had been having He/she/it – will have been having
We/you/they – have been having He/she/it – had been having We/you/they – will have been
We/you they – had been having having

Drilling.

1. Complete the following sentences with the past perfect forms of the verbs in brackets:
a) He said he………………(look) everywhere for the book
b) Helen………………(leave) by the time we arrived.
c) The police reported that they finally………………...(capture) the thief.
d) I met them before I………………..(go) a hundred yards.
e) I saw that we…………………..(take) the wrong road.
f)He knew that he………………….(make) s serious mistake.
g) I felt that I………………….(meet) the man somewhere before
h) He asked me why I…………………….(leave) the party so early
i) He wanted to know what……………………(happen) to his briefcase.
j) Previously he……………………(be) a very good student.

2. Now, provide the correct answers to the following exercises:

2.1. I had had an unforgettable lesson in my life.
a) Identify the tense of the verb form that is present in the above sentence
b) Rewrite the sentence, put the verb form in future perfect.
2.2. Write the sentences that follow in their opposite voice.
a) The students are singing a wonderful song.
b) He has finished his work
c) A letter is not being written by me
d) The assignment had not been completed by them.

3. I am attending an English course in Europe.

3.1. Rewrite the sentence in 3, put it in:
a) Negative form
b) Interrogative form
 4. Choose the correct word that best fill in the sentences:
a) See these two girls, the taller (one/ones)……..is my girlfriend.
b) Look at the cars over there! The two blue (one/ones)…………(belong/belongs)……………to my
father.

5. Task-tenses: Conjugate the verb “to speak” in the following tenses:

Present simple; present continuous; present perfect; present perfect continuous
Past simple; past continuous; past perfect; past perfect continuous
Future simple; future continuous ; future perfect; future perfect continuous.
Note: include in your project, the following elements: a cover, table of contents, an introduction,
conclusion and bibliography.

You can also use going to to express future. We use it to express predictions based on observing the
present situation: it’s going to rain, look at the clouds!

Progressive forms: are used to emphasize that an action is taking place in the moment of speaking
Perfect gerund and infinitive forms: are used to emphasize completion in both the past and the future.
Passive forms: are used to emphasize that the subject of the sentence is being acted upon

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Study the Sentences that Follow:
a) Maria ate an apple
b) Our cat died
What is the difference between the two verbs in the above sentences? How do the verbs differ
grammatically?
Notice that the 1st sentence has two words following the verb ate.
The 2nd sentence doesn’t have words after the verb died.
These two different situations take us to a discussion on Transitive and Intransitive verbs.

Transitive Verbs: are action verbs that have an object to receive that action. In the 1 st sentence “Maria ate
an apple”, the direct object “apple” received the action of the verb “ate”.

John switched off the light

E.g. I wrote a letter
Tony kicked a dog
In the above sentences, all the verbs are transitive because there’s an object receiving the action of the
verb.

Intransitive Verbs: are action verbs these verbs do not have an object receiving the action. Notice that in
the sentence “our cat died”, there are no words after the verb form “died”.

The baby cried

E.g. Ana was laughing
 Dad slept

What about this sentence?

“I slept here” will the verb form “slept” be considered transitive or intransitive? If you are not sure go
back to the general rules. Since “slept” has words coming after it, shall we consider it as transitive? No,
the word “here” is an adverb. There is no object receiving the action of the verb form “slept”. In this
reason, the verb is intransitive.

Active and Passive voices

1. Active voice: is that in which the subject performs the action of the verb and the direct object is the goal
or the recipient.
We use the active voice when a subject does an action to an object.
E.g. someone has stolen my money
Subject verb object
1.1 Active voice stands for a sentence in which the subject performs an action indicated by the verb passive voice: stands to a
sentence in which the verb acts upon a noun or subject, which receives instead of initiating the action

Let us have a look at the following sentences:

a) I called Teresa last night
b) Sarah read the book
c) Manuel fished a fish in the river.

2. Passive voice: is that, in which the object or goal of the action functions as the sentence subject and the
main verb phrase includes the verb to be and past participle.
E.g. my money was stolen by someone
Object verb form subject

a) Teresa was called by me

b) The book was read by Sarah
c) A fish was fished by Manuel in the river
We use passive voice when we want to emphasize the action (the verb) and the object of a sentence rather
than subject. This means the subject is either less important than the action itself or that we don’t know
who or what the subject is.

Now moving onto the second sentence, we can see that “the money” is the subject of the sentence and
“someone” is now the object that receives the actions of the verb “was stolen”

As it was said previously, the object in the active sentences becomes a subject in the passive sentence.
The verb is changed to auxiliary (be) + the main verb in past participle.

E.g. Sam wrote a letter to John - active voice

A letter was written to John by Sam – passive voice
 The government built a new bridge – active voice
A new bridge was built by the government – passive voice

Conditionals
What is a conditional?
A conditional is a sentence or part of a sentence that expresses a condition. It usually begins with the
words “when”, “if” and “unless”.
A condition is what must happen before something else can happen. They are used to express an action in
the main clause can only happen if something is done in if-clause.

E.g. I will come if I have enough time. (I am not sure that I’ll come. It depends on something else.)
She would tell me if she knew. (She doesn’t know.)
Unless she agrees to pay us we will not take the job. (She must agree to pay before we take the job.)

In general, there are four basic conditionals in English, or, in other words, there are four ways to express
that something is dependent on something else. They are: first conditional, second conditional, third
conditional and zero conditional. See this in the following table.
Conditional/use Tense (if-clause/condition) Tense (main clause/result)
Zero Conditional- used for present, (if+present tense) (Present tense)
real/factual situations, (high probability) If I drink coffee at night I don’t sleep well.
st
1 Conditional- used for future, real/factual (if+present tense) (future)
situations, (high probability) If I drink coffee tonight, I won’t sleep well
nd
2 Conditional- used for present or future (if+past simple) (would/could/might+base
unreal, imaginary situations (law probability) If I drank coffee tonight, form of the verb)
I wouldn’t sleep well
3rd Conditional- used for past unreal, (if+past perfect) (would have/could
imaginary situations. (no probability) If I had drunk coffee last have/might have+past
night, participle)
I wouldn’t have slept well

Zero Conditional
We use the zero conditional when talking about things which are always true, or generally true.
Structure: if+simple present+simple present or simple present+if+simple present.
We can also use “when” instead of “if”
E.g. when I see Karen I always feel better.
 She lies in bed when she feels sick
 If you work hard you can greatly succeed the exam.

First (1st) Conditional

We use first conditional when talking about possible future events.
Structure: if+simple present+will or will+if+simple present
E.g. Lisa will be very happy if she gets a new job.
 If it rains, then we will stay at home.
 If you fail, you always try again.
 If you finish everything on time, you may go home earlier.
 We shall meet on Sunday, if it’s alright with you.

Second (2nd) Conditional

We use the second conditional when talking about future events that are not likely to happen.
Structure: if+simple past+would+base form(infinitive), or, would+base form(infinitive)+if+simple past.
 E.g. if I won a lot of money, I would travel around the world. (There’s a small possibility that I would
actually win.)
 If I met him again, I would tell him the truth. (there’s a small possibility that I would actually meet him
again.)
 She would quit school if her parents agreed. (It is unlikely that her parents agree.)
 I would be surprised if I saw pigs in the sky.
We also use the second conditional when talking about things which are contrary to the present facts.

Third (3rd) Conditional

We use the third conditional when talking about things which are contrary to the past facts. In other
words, events that did not happen in the past.
Structure: if+past perfect+would have+past participle.
E.g. if I had woken up on time, I would have taken the bus. (what really happened was that I didn’t wake
up on time, and so I didn’t take the bus.)
 Tom would have helped us if he had known we were there. (What really happened was that he didn’t
know we were there, and so he didn’t help us.)
 If I had told Sarah the truth, I would have felt much better.
 If it hadn’t rained yesterday, we would have enjoyed a nice picnic.

Question Tags
A question tag or tag question is a small/short question at the end of a statement. Question tags are used
when asking for agreement or confirmation.

A positive statement + a negative question tag

+ _
You are a student, aren’t you? Aren’t you?

A negative statement + a positive question tag

_ +
Mary isn’t a teacher, is she?

How to form question tags?

1. If the main clause of the sentence has an auxiliary verb (can/would/have/be), we use the auxiliary verb
in the question tag.
 E.g. Mary can speak English very well, cant she?

2. If the main clause does not have an auxiliary verb, we use do/did.
E.g. they speak both English and Spanish, don’t they?

3. If the main clause is positive, the tag is negative

E.g. we must pay attention, mustn’t we?

4. If the main clause is negative, the tag is positive

E.g. you didn’t study for the test, did you?

Connectors
 Connectors-are words that are used to join other words or sentences.

Eg: a boy and a girl; a toy or a book; the music was loud nevertheless it was enjoyable.

 Connectors- are used to link large groups of words, phrases and sentences. They can also be used to
connect paragraphs in order to give them coherence.
Sentences connectors are usually placed at the beginning of a sentence and may be categorized as the
following:

1. To contrast
1.1. However: this restaurant has the best kitchen in town. However, their staff are quite rude.
1.2. Nevertheless: I was in so much pain I didn’t want to get up in the morning. Nevertheless, I went to
football practice as usual.
1.3. Nonetheless: I don’t think he has serious behavioral problems. Nonetheless, I’ll talk to him first thing in
the morning.
1.4. Yet: I had told you not to come here again. Yet, you keep coming.
1.5. On the other: England has the best language school. On the other hand, it has the worst word.

2. Result.
2.1. As a result: I did a pranic healing course. As a result, I was able to cure my neighbor’s sick cat.
2.2. As a consequence: jenny doesn’t go to school very often. As a consequence, he’s failed his Franch test.
2.3. Therefore: we’ll receive new teachers next week. Therefore, the timetable will change.
2.4. Thus: you didn’t tell me you wanted to come. Thus, we won’t be taking you with us.

3. Sequencing
3.1. First, firstly, first of all, in the first place,
3.2. To begin with: to begin with, pet pigs are cleaner than dogs.
3.3. For one thing: for one thing, they are completely loyal to their owners
3.4. Second, secondly, in the second place: secondly, I will tell you…
3.5. For another thing
3.6. Third, thirdly, in the third place
3.7. Also:
3.8. Besides:
3.9. In addition:
3.10. Furthermore
3.11. Moreover
3.12. Finally
3.13. Last; lastly; last of all

Exercises:
1. Decide whether the sentences below are in zero, first (1st ), second (2nd) or third (3rd) conditional
a) If I passed the exam this year, I’d go to study in Maputo
b) If I go home now, I’ll meet my parents
c) If I had gone to school, I’d have felt happy
d) If it rains, I feel happy

2. Say in which voice the sentences that follow are:

a) Maria likes matapa

b) Catarina is eating biscuit
c) Marnela has bought a sack of peanut
3. change the above sentences into opposite voice
a)
b)
c)

4. answer the following question tags.

a) We can sing, can’t we?
b) She would say a word, wouldn’t she?
c) We can not swim, can we?
d) Maputo is not the capital of Mozambique, is it?

One and Ones

We use one instead of a singular noun (a small bottle-a small one)

We use ones instead of a plural noun (the big bottles-the big ones.)

We use One (singular) and Ones (plural), to avoid Unnecessary repetition.

Do you see those two girls? Helen is the tall one and Jane is the short one.
Which is your car, the red one or the blue one
My trousers are old enough. I have to buy some new ones
See the two girls. Helen is one on the left
Let’s look at the photographs. The ones you took in France.
You can borrow a book. Which one do you want?
There are lots of books here. Which ones are yours?
 Exercises

Fill in the gaps with one or ones

1. How old are your children? The younger ______is four and the older ______is seven.
2. The new mobiles are much lighter than the old______
3. I don’t mind what kind of car it is, I just want______that gets me there.
4. Which do you prefer, this______or that _______
5. I need some new glasses. The_______ I have at the moment are broken.
6. I hope this holiday will be_______to remember.

If I were you
Why if I were you and not if I was you?

At school or in grammar books we are taught the following rules: I/he/she/it-was; we/you/they-were. This
is correct when we are talking about past tense. But, there’s another situation.

“if I were you” is used to give advice. You imagine yourself in the position or situation of the other
person.

Eg. If I were you, I’d study hard;

I’d stop doing that if I were you;
I wouldn’t play with those wires if I were you;
If I were you, I’d go to the doctor

This is a condition which is contrary to fact or reality. (the fact is, I am NOT you.)
If he were late, he’d be accepted in the exam; he’d be still correcting my grammar if he were still alive.

For/Since
Knowing when to use FOR and when to use SINCE is extremely important.

SINCE gives the starting point of actions, events or states. It refers to when things began. With SINCE,
we use the present perfect or past perfect tense.
SINCE+a point in time (in the past), until now.
Eg1. I have been waiting SINCE 10 o’clock in the morning.
I have known Susie SINCE my school time.
Eg2. I have been here SINCE my childhood and I am getting tired now.
I had been working SINCE morning and I was getting tired.
SINCE can also be used in the structure: it has been+ period of time+SINCE
Eg. It has been three years SINCE I last saw my dear brother.

On the other hand, FOR tells us about duration of time. FOR+period of time (for 2 years).
We use FOR when we measure the duration of something or how long it lasts. It has a starting point and
an end point. FOR can be used in different tenses:
 Eg. I studied English in England FOR three years.
I will be at school FOR around two hours.
We have been married FOR ten years.

However, we don’t use FOR with expressions such as all day or all the time
I was there FOR all day ×(wrong )
I was there all day √ (right)

It should be remembered that both FOR and SINCE have other meaning in English that are not associated
with time.

Eg. This is FOR you SINCE you asked, I’ll say yes.
Is this meal FOR our lunch? SINCE he didn’t study hard, he didn’t succeed good marks.

Drilling

Fill in the following sentences with FOR or SINCE.

1. I’ve had my computer____more than five years

2. She has spoken three languages____she was a child
3. It’s ok. I’ve only been waiting____a few minutes.
4. I haven’t played tennis____I came to Vilankulo.
5. Our family has lived in Inhambane____just after the independence.
6. Why are you so late? I’ve been standing here____seven o’clock.
7. I’ve been looking for my keys_____the last ten minutes. Can you help me?
8. Where’s Hermen? – didn’t you know? He’s been in hospital_____yesterday morning
9. It has been raining_____over three ours. When will it over stop?
10. Our cat has been missing_____last night. We think it has been in an accident.
11. Have you been sitting here_____long?
12. The house opposite us has been empty_____last eight months.
13. ______ when have been wearing contact lenses?
14. I haven’t seen her_____ages.
15. He hasn’t used his car______he had the accident.
16. The last time I ate out was on my birthday. I haven’t been to a restaurant_____then.
17. She hasn’t been sleeping well______she flew back from Japan.
18. I’d been working in the garden______breakfast and was getting very tired.
19. By my sixty five years I’ll have been working here_____fourty years!
20. ______when did you have permission to use my phone without asking?

Polite Language
Politeness: is the art of choosing among your thoughts. The English Language is full of these formalities
which can definitely determine whether you’re going to make a good first impression on someone or not.
Using please and thank you is necessary in most situations.

Making Requests/Asking for something

Can I/could I……; can you/could you…./would you….

Eg. Can I go out please? Could you lend me 50 dollars please?
May I (used in more polite situations). May I meet you tonight please?

Asking for permission

Do you mind if… I listen music loudly?
Would it be a problem if I listened my gospel music here?
I was wondering if I could listen my gospel music loudly.

Not Understanding
Sorry? It’s polite and they will repeat.

Pardon (me) – a more polite way of saying sorry.

Excuse me? This is asking the person to repeat. Depending on the toe of your voice, it could express shock
at what a person said, or may be that you didn’t like the context of what they said.

Sorry, I beg your pardon.

Going to as a future form

We often use “going to” to talk about plans and decisions in the future. Study the following examples:
I am going to open a bank account soon.
When are you going to apply for a student loan?
She’s not going to go to the bank today.

We also use going to, to talk about: an action in the near future that has already been planned or prepared.
Eg. I am going to study harder next year to do well in my exams.
A conclusion regarding the immediate future. Eg. The sky is absolutely dark. It is going to rain.

Form of going to future

Subject/pronoun positive negative question

I I am going to speak I am not going to speak Am I going to speak?
He/she/it He is going to speak He is not going to speak Is he going to speak?
You/we/they You are going to speak You are not going to speak Are you going to speak?

Exercises
A. Write positive sentences in going to future.
1. What does she need the telephone for? (she/call/her boy friend)

Eg. She’s going to call her boy friend.

2. Why do you need a map? (we/walk/in the mountains)

3. Why is daddy not coming with us? (he/repair/the car)
4. What do you need the cloth and the bucket for? (we/wash/the car)

B. Write negative sentences in going to future.

1. (I/sell/my car) = I am not going to sell my car
2. (he/help/us) =
3. (they/study/harder)=
4. (we/cook/dinner tonight)=

C. Write questions in going to future

1. (you/carry/that heavy box) = are you going to carry that heavy box?
2. (he/cook dinner/tonight) =
3. (we/eat/fish/tonight) =
4. (you/sing/a song/ for us) =

Everyone, Everybody and All.

“everyone” and “everybody” have the same meaning.

Eg. Everyone/everybody enjoyed the film; everyone/everybody belongs to a trade union.

Every/everyone/everybody/everything are singular words, we use them with a singular verb form.

Eg. Everybody has arrived (correct sentence); everybody have arrived (wrong sentence).

Don’t use a noun or a pronoun with everyone/everybody.

Use a noun or a pronoun with all.

Eg. All the people at the factory belong to the trade union.

Don’t say: “all at the factory belong to a trade union.

All I’ve eaten today is a sandwich/ I’ll do all I can to help you.

Figurative Language.
 Is a language that uses words or expressions with a meaning that is different from the literal interpretation.
When a writer uses literal language, s/he is simply stating the facts as they are.

Literal language: mean exactly what it says, while figurative language uses similes, metaphors,
hyperbole, personification to describe something often through comparison with something different.

1. Simile- a simile is a comparison of two things that are not necessarily alike, using a connecting word to
link the comparison. The connecting words are likely to be: “like” or “as”. Similes are usually used to
make a description more vivid or to establish a certain characteristic of the thing being described.

Eg. He was courageous as a lion; Her beauty is like a rose.

2. Metaphor- is a figure of speech used to compare two unlike things by claiming that one is another. Unlike
a simile, a metaphor does not use a connecting word such as “like” or “as”. It asserts that the two things
being compared are equal to one another.

Eg. You are everything to me; -Love is a battlefield; -Time is a thief.

3. Alliteration- is the repetition of similar sounds within a sentence or phrase. It is sometimes more
specifically defined as the repetition of sounds at the beginning of words, its main purpose is usually to
call attention to that particular set of words, or to contribute to the overall rhythm and flow of the writing.

Eg. She sells seashells by the seashore; -Hopefully, Howard’s house has heat;
-Bridget bought a blue bouquet.

4. Hyperbole- is the use of extreme exaggeration or extravagant statements, meant to create a strong
impression, as well as to evoke or indicate strong feelings.
Eg. The kids were starving to death by the time they went to lunch;
She felt like she had slept for years.

5. Personification- is a method of assigning human characteristics to any non-human object or entity. It is

often used to emphasize a certain characteristic of a non-human creature or object.
Eg. - Opportunity will soon be knocking at your door.
- The stars danced around the night sky.

6. Onomatopoeia- is defined as words whose spelling and pronunciation imitate natural sounds. Is used to
intensify a description of sound, and makes it more effective with a word that represents and resembles
that sound.
Eg. – The injured man moaned in pain; - The bus zipped quickly by
-The bees are buzzing in the garden; - The party guests murmured softly throughout the room.

Now that you are familiar with some figurative language devices, you can put them to use in your own
speech or writing, and become better at identifying them when you read or hear them. A basic
understanding of figurative language, including those devices on this list and many more, and how it is
used will improve the way you write, the way you speak and the way you interpret written and spoken
language.

Figurative Language – Exercises

What types of figurative language are used in the following sentences?
1. I was so hungry that I even ate the plate. A. personification; B. metaphor; C. hyperbole; D. simile
2. My father was the sun and the moon to me. A. personification; B. metaphor; C. hyperbole; D. simile
3. He was a library of information about baseball A. personification; B. metaphor; C. hyperbole; D. simile
4. The baby was like an octopus, grabbling for everything in sight A. personification; B. metaphor; C.
hyperbole; D. simile.

Electoral system: is voting system that consists of the set of rules which must be followed for a
vote to be considered valid, and how votes are counted and aggregated to yield a final result. It is a
method by which voters make a choice between candidates, often in an election or on a policy
referendum.

Good governace: is “the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are
implemented (or not implemented.”)

Conflict: a clash or disagreement, often violent, between two opposing groups or individuals.

Common causes of conflict among groups:

Personal relationship- a work environment can be a stressful place, and it can be made worse when
personal relationships can be particularly harmful

Incompetent management-it can create conflict in the work place. A manager who does not
understand the job tasks of his subordinates or is uninformed about the job duties that each
employee is supposed to perform.

Task 1. Satisfy the following questions:

a) What do you understand by electoral system?

b) How often does electoral system take place in your country?
c) What is good governance?

Task 2. With your partner reflect on the following exercises:

d) The meaning of conflicts

e) Write down some types of conflicts that you are likely to have heard about in your life.
f)Point out some causes of conflicts in the world, mainly in your (country/community)
g) Why is it important to resolve conflicts?

Used to +infinitive
We use this expression to talk about habits or repeated actions in the past, which we don’t do in
the present.

Eg. My father used to run twice a day (but now he doesn’t)

She used to smoke several times a day (but now he doesn’t)

We also use it to talk about states in the past, which are no longer true.

Eg. My sister used to get fat (but she is no longer fat now)

It used to rain heavily by this season (but it doesn’t now a days)

Don’t use verb “be” with “used to”

Eg. My father is used to run twice a day × (wrong)

With the negative: she didn’t use to like chocolate, but she does now.

With question: did you use to play football?

Exercise

1. Make an affirmative sentence, negative sentence or question, using “used to” + infinitive
a) I/live in a flat when I was a child
b) We/go to the beach every summer?
c) She/love eating chocolate, but now she hates it
d) He/not/smoke
e) I/play tennis when I was at school.

Recognize an infinitive even when it is missing the to

“Used to” with gerund.

A gerund is a noun made from a verb by adding “-ing form”. The gerund form of the verb
“speak” is “speaking”

Structure: subject+to be+used to+gerund

Eg. Dad is used to playing football. He even knows how to play volleyball.

“Used to” with infinitive.

 Structure: subject+used to+infinitive An infinitive will almost always begin with to. Exceptions
do occur, however. An infinitive will lose its “to” when it follows certain verbs.

Infinitive is the basic form of a verb, without an inflection binding it to a particular subject or
tense.

Eg. Dad used to play football. But he doesn’t play anymore.

Time clauses { are those that have an expressionthat tell us about time . } time clauses can come
either before or after the main clause.

We use words like when, before, after, during and since, to create time clauses. These tell us
about how events happened.

Before and after, tell us about the sequence of events. Something happened first, and then
something else happened.

Eg. a)India was a British colony, before it became a democratic state.

(1st event) (2nd event)

b) India became a democratic state, after being a British colony

(2nd event) (1st event)

c)Before it became a democratic state, India was a British colony

(2nd event) (1st event)

d)After being a British colony, India became a democratic state

(1st event) (2nd event)

During and Since describe events that took place over a period of time in the past.

During the British rule, India was not a democratic.

During: means “at the time of”. (Use the past tense because it refers to a period of time that is
now finished.)

Since 1960, most countries have been democratic.

Since: means “from a certain time”. Use the present perfect tense with since, because it refers to
something that began in the past and is still happening.

Direct and Indirect Speech

You can answer the question “what did he say” ? in two ways:
1 By repeating the words spoken (direct speech.)
e.g. what time will you be at home? Ana asked
 2 By reporting the words spoken (indirect or reported speech.)
E.g. Ana asked me what time I would be at home

Direct Speech
Direct speech repeats, or quotes the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we place
the words spoken between quotation marks (“…”) and there’s no change in these words. We may be
reporting something that’s being said now (for example, a telephone conversation), or telling someone
later about a previous conversation.
Direct Speech: is when we report what someone says by repeating the exact words. In writing, we use
inverted commas:
David: I have to talk to you about something. (Original statement)
“I have to talk to you about something”, said David. (Direct speech)
Manuela: I’ll call them tomorrow. (Original statement)
Manuela said, “I’ll call them tomorrow”. (Direct speech)

Indirect speech/Reported speech

Indirect or reported speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the
words spoken. We use reporting verbs like “say”, “tell”, “ask”, and we may use the “that”, to introduce the
reported words. Inverted commas are not used in this speech…
E.g. she said, “I saw him”. (Direct speech)↔she said that she had seen him. (Indirect speech)
“That” can be omitted:
E.g. she told him that she was happy = she told him she was happy.
Indirect/reported speech: is when we give the same meaning of what someone says without repeating the
exact words. In this case, we do not use inverted commas and certain changes may be necessary:
David: I have to talk to you about something. (Original statement)
David said he had to talk to me about something (indirect speech)
Manuela: I’ll call them tomorrow. (Original statement)
Manuela promised she would call them the next/following day. (Indirect speech)

We can change direct speech to reported/indirect speech, for example:

Direct: “we need to teach people to respect each other”, said Sarah
Indirect: Sarah said that they needed to teach people to respect each other.

In reported or indirect speech, we need to make some changes to the speech:

 Remove the inverted commas

 Use a connecting word ,like “that”
 Change the pronouns: Change these words:

I → he/she this → that

My → her/his today → that day
Me → her/him tomorrow → the next day
We→ they yesterday → the day before
Our →their
 Change the tense of the main verb.
However, if something is always true, we do not change the tense of the verb.
e.g. The earth is round”, he said. He said that the earth is round.

More Changes when using Reported Speech:

Phrase in Direct Speech Equivalent in Reported Speech
Simple present Simple past
“I always drink coffee,” she said She said that she always drank coffee
Present continuous Past continuous
“I am reading a book,” he explained. He explained that he was reading a book
Simple past Past perfect
“Bill arrived on Saturday”, he said. He said that Bill had arrived on Saturday
Present perfect Past perfect
“I have been to Spain”, he told me. He told me that he had been to Spain
Past perfect Past perfect
“I had just turned out the light”, he explained. He explained that he had just turned out the light
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
They complained, “we have been waiting for hours They complained that they had been waiting for hours
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
“We were living in Paris”, they told me. They told me that they had been living in Paris
Future simple Present conditional
“I will be in Geneva on Monday”, he said. He said that he would be in Geneva on Monday
Future continuous Conditional continuous
She said, “I will be using the car next Friday” She said that she would be using the car next Friday

We do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present, or if the original
statement was about something is still true.
E.g. He says he has missed the train but he will catch the next one.
We explained that it is very difficult to find our house

These modal verbs do not change in reported speech: might, could, would, should, ought to:
E.g.: we explained, “it could be difficult to find our house”. = we explained that it could be difficult to
find our house.
She said, “I might bring a friend to the party”. = she said that she might bring a friend to the party.

Politics and Elections

Work in small groups of at least four students and solve the questions that follow:

1. Conceptualize the following:

a) Politics
b) Elections
2. What does SADC stand for?
3. When did Mozambique achieve its independence?
4. What do the followind stand for:
a) FRELIMO :
b) RENAMO:
5. Define conflicts
6. Mention at least two common causes of conflicts among groups
7. What is the importance of resolving conflicts?
8. Define mass media
9. Elaborate on the role of mass media in elections

Recipe
Is a set of instruction that describes how to prepare or make something, principally a culinary dish.

It is also used in medicine or information technology. A doctor will usually begin a prescription
with recipe.

The main parts of a recipe:

1. The Ingredients List

 List all ingredients in order of use, as described in step-by-step instructions
 List the most important ingredients first if it can be consistent with order of use;
 Spell out everything: tables spoons, ounces, etc
 When several ingredients are used at the same time, list them in descending order or
according to volume;
 If an ingredient is used more than once in a recipe, list the total amount at the place in the
ingredient list where it is first used.
2. The preparation method
 With instruction for the stove-top, indicate level of heat;
 State exact or approximate cooking times with descriptive hints for doneness;
 Separate each step into a different paragraph;
 Finish with serving instructions including how to plate, what temperature to serve

A final note.

You must test your recipes to make sure they work, the amount and serving sizes are correct, and
that they taste as great as you intend.

Giving reasons and describing contrasts.

Giving reasons, using: since, because, because of, as, for.

Because: we use because to give the reason of something that is important for the listeners

Eg1. Because we started our lesson late, we won’t go for the long break

Eg2. Dad will shout at you because you didn’t go to school.

 As and Since: like because, we use as and since to give reason but with as and since, the reason
should already be known by the listener.

Eg. As we didn’t go for our break, the lesson will be over soon.

Eg2. Since he doesn’t come to school very often, he’ll have to fail

For: introduces a new reason to the listener as because does.

For clause can not be used in the beginning.

Eg.1. I had to work hard on my home work for the next class was nearing;

Eg.2. I am going to Maputo for my holiday are still long.

Because of: is a two-word preposition meaning “as a result of”

Because of your delay, we won’t arrive on time

There were so many students at school because of the exams.

Describing Contrasts, using: but, although.

But: is an oppositional word. There are two clauses in which they oppose one another.

Eg. My father bought me a manual car but I prefer an automatic .

Although/though: can be used to contrast ideas. These are subordinating conjunctions used to
connect a subordinate clause to a main clause:

Eg1: Everyone enjoyed the school year, though some of us failed.

Main clause subordinate clause

Eg2: I will go to Maputo on my holiday, though I don’t have enough money

Main clause subordinate clause

Joining two sentences using a relative pronoun

Relative pronoun: is a type of pronoun that often introduces dependent (or relative) clauses in
sentences. They also can stand alone as the subject or object of a sentence. They are words like:
who, whose, which, where, whom, that.
Who: is a relative pronoun used for people.
That: can be used for both people and things or objects. It is less formal.
Which: is used for things that we can identify
Where: is used to describe places.
A relative pronoun serves two purposes. It acts as the subject or the object of the verb in its clause.
It also serves as a conjunction connecting the two clauses.

Study the following examples given below:

I have a friend. She lives in new York.
I have a friend who lives in new York.
In the example given above, the relative pronoun “who” is the subject of the clause “who lives in
new York.” It also connects the two clauses.
This is the house “that” Jack built some years ago.
That is the road “which” leads to Inhassoro.
Here is the house “where” I slept when I was visiting this village.
This is the man “whom” the president suggested prime minister.

Whom can be used instead of who. Whom is more formal than who. Whom is not often used in
spoken English.

Original statement: I spoke to a person yesterday

The person “to who” I spoke yesterday-formal.

Whose: refers to ownership. Whose can be used to refer to: people, countries, animals, things.
Eg. Whose cell phone is this?
There is the girl whose car was stolen yesterday.

Quantifiers with countable and Uncountable nouns.

Quantifier: a word or number (such as “many”, “two”, “few”), that is used with a noun to show
the amount of something.
Eg. There are five men standing over at the door. In the given sentence, “five” is a quantifier.
Lots of students arrived to school on time today. In this sentence, “lots of” can be taken as a
quantifier because it tells us about the amount of students that arrived to school on time.
A lot of: formal, meaning a large amount or number of people or things.
Lots of: informal, meaning the same as the above.

Countable nouns: are used for things we can count using numbers. They have a singular and a plural form.
The singular form can be the determiner “a” or “an”. If you want to ask about the quantity of a countable
noun, you perform as the following: “How many….do you have/are there?
Eg. A dog or one dog, that is, we can count: 1, 2, 3, 4…dogs.
One idea, that is, we can say: two ideas, three ideas, and so forth.

Uncountable nouns: are used for things that we can not count with numbers. They may be the names of
abstract ideas or qualities or of physical objects that are too small to be counted (liquids, powders, gases, etc).
Uncountable nouns are used with a singular verb. They usually do not have a plural form.
Eg. Tear, sugar, water, air, rice, knowledge, beauty, fear, love, money, research, safety, evidence wiseness,
etc.
We can not use a/an with these nouns. To express a quantity of an uncountable noun, use a word or
expression like: some, a lot of, much, a bit of, a great deal of, or else an exact measurement, like: a cup of, a
bag of, 1kg of.
If you want to ask about the quantity of an uncountable noun, you are recommended to use “how much”

Exercise 1. Select the correct word a/an or some, for the appropriate noun. Mind countable and uncountable
nouns.
1.1 I have …..good idea 1.6. he always likes…peace of chocolate
1.2 That’s….interesting job! 1.7. I have… home work to do
1.3 They have found…gold in that old mine. 1.8. there’s…nice girl in the red car
1.4 Do the Smiths have…yellow van? 1.9. would you like…milk with bread?
1.5 Look! He’s having…sandwiches. 1.10. how about…cold drink?

2. Present simple. Yes/no questions. Make present simple question.

2.1. (you/like/cake)? Do you like cake?
2.2. (she/live in Londan)?
2.3. (they hate studying)?
2.4. (you/drink tea every morning)?
2.5. (do you smoke)?
2.6. (he/play tennis on Saturday)?
2.7. (you/go shopping at the weekend)?
2.8. (you/drink alcohol)?
2.9. (she/work in an office)?
2.10. (they/study French)?
2.11. (you/read/a lot)?
2.12. (John/come from new Zealand)?
2.13. (they/like pizza)?
2.14. (I/work as a teacher)?
2.15. (she/your/girlfriend)?

Adjectives formation