Literature

The definition of Literature

It is a collection of written works, more restrictively literature refers to an art form of

writing. It has an artistic and intellectual value and uses language in a way different from an

ordinary usage of language

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Literature can be divided into 3 main divisions

1_Poetry is a form of literary art in which language is used

beauteously it has regularity of meter and rhyme. It can be
divided into:

a-Epic poetry

b-sonnets

c-lyrics

d- Ballads

2_fiction: It refers to literature created from the imagination, mysteries, scientific

fiction, romance, fantasy, chick lit, crime thrillers. The representation of such
literature is the following:

a-Novel

b-short story

c-drama which can be divided in to:

tragedy and comedy.

3 - Non-fiction it refers to literature based on facts; it is the broadest category of literature it

contains

biography, business, cooking, language, health, and fitness.

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Prose literature )‫(األدب النثري‬

Lecture no. 1

What is Short Story

The Short Story is a prose narrative that is usually ranges between a thousand and twelve thousand
words. It presents some human experience and conveys a vision.

The vision is the meaning conveyed in the story, the author's underlying idea (theme).

The plot is the arrangement of incidents and details in a story involving character.

The style is the use of the right words in the right order to express the author's sense of truth in a
particular work.
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The Essential Features of the Short Story

1 - Concentration on few characters, often one Sigle character.

2 - Lack of complicated plot and extensive description2

3 - Quick denouement(solution)

4 - Short, dense writing, usually organized so as to focus on the exposition on one a single incident

Point of View

The point of view from which the story will be told:

1 - The first person "I" may be the main character in the story or an observer watching and reporting
.action

2 - Third person narrator could be the point of view of one particular character, but more often it
takes the omniscience (knowing everything) point of view

Setting: Time and place of the short story.

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The old man at the bridge it is an anti-war story *

War doesn't threaten the lives of soldiers at the Battlefield but, all living being who happened to be
in this path, I mean the path of war, it has collateral damage on an ordinary people.

The main themes of this play are the following* :

1 - man's love for his animals

2 - man's love for his native land

3 - The catastrophic consequences of war on the common people

4 - The alienation theme. The old man who is living alone by himself and his only concern is welfare
of his animals.

“The Old Man at the Bridge"

by Ernest Hemingway an old man with steel rimmed spectacles and very dusty clothes sat by the
side of the road. There was a pontoon bridge across the river and carts, trucks, and men, women and
children were crossing it. The mule- drawn carts staggered up the steep bank from the bridge with
soldiers helping push against the spokes of the wheels. The trucks ground up and away heading out
of it all and the peasants plodded along in the ankle-deep dust. But the old man sat there without
moving. He was too tired to go any farther. It was my business to cross the bridge, explore the
bridgehead beyond and find out to what point the enemy had advanced. I did this and returned over
the bridge. There were not so many carts now and very few people on foot, but the old man was still
there. "Where do you come from?" I asked him. "From San Carlos," he said, and smiled. That was his
native town and so it gave him pleasure to mention it and he smiled. "I was taking care of animals,"
he explained. "Oh," I said, not quite understanding. "Yes," he said, "I stayed, you see, taking care of
animals. I was the last one to leave the town of San Carlos." He did not look like a shepherd nor a
herdsman and I looked at his black dusty clothes and his gray dusty face and his steel rimmed
spectacles and said, "What animals were they?" "Various animals," he said, and shook his head. "I
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had to leave them." I was watching the bridge and the African looking country of the Ebro Delta and
wondering how long now it would be before we would see the enemy, and listening all the while for
the first noises that would signal that ever mysterious event called contact, and the old man still sat
there. "What animals were they?" I asked. "There were three animals altogether," he explained.
"There were two goats and a cat and then there were four pairs of pigeons." And you had to leave
them?" I asked. "Yes. Because of the artillery. The captain told me to go because of the artillery."
"And you have no family?" I asked, watching the far end of the bridge where a few last carts were
hurrying down the slope of the bank. "No," he said, "only the animals I stated. The cat, of course, will
be all right. A cat can look out for itself, but I cannot think what will become of the others." "What
politics have you?" I asked. "I am without politics," he said. "I am seventy-six years old. I have come
twelve kilometers now and I think now I can go no further." "This is not a good place to stop," I said.
"If you can make it, there are trucks up the road where it forks for Tortosa." "I will wait a while," he
said, " and then I will go. Where do the trucks go?" "Towards Barcelona," I told him. "I know no one
in that direction," he said, "but thank you very much. Thank you again very much." He looked at me
very blankly and tiredly, and then said, having to share his worry with someone, "The cat will be all
right, I am sure. There is no need to be unquiet about the cat. But the others. Now what do you think
about the others?" "Why they'll probably come through it all right." "You think so?" "Why not," I
said, watching the far bank where now there were no carts. "But what will they do under the
artillery when I was told to leave because of the artillery?" "Did you leave the dove cage unlocked?" I
asked. "Yes." "Then they'll fly." "Yes, certainly they'll fly. But the others. It's better not to think about
the others," he said. "If you are rested, I would go," I urged. "Get up and try to walk now." "Thank
you," he said and got to his feet, swayed from side to side and then sat down backwards in the dust.
"I was taking care of animals," he said dully, but no longer to me. "I was only taking care of animals."
There was nothing to do about him. It was Easter Sunday and the Fascists were advancing toward
the Ebro. It was a gray overcast day with a low ceiling so their planes were not up. That and the fact
that cats know how to look after themselves was all the good luck that old man would ever have.

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1 - What was the old man doing in his native town?

a. taking care of animals b. begging on the streets

c. helping the soldiers d. talking care of children

2 - What is special about the day the narrator encounters the old man?

a. It is Easter Sunday. b. It is the last day of the war

c. It is Thanksgiving. d. It is Christmas Day

3 - Why does the old man leave the animals?

a. because the children are taking care of them b. because he loses interest

c. because they all die d. because of the artillery

4 - Which animal is the old man least concerned about?

a. the goats b. the pigeons c. the cat d. the dog

5 - The trucks are crossing the bridge and going where?

a. Vera Cruz b. Barcelona c. San Carlos d. Tortosa

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6 - What is the old man's native town?

a. Vera Cruz b. Ebro Delta c. Barcelona d. San Carlos

7 - What is the narrator's job?

a. He questions people before they cross the bridge. b. He protects the people who cross the bridge

c. He scouts ahead for the enemy's location. d. He stops people from crossing the bridge

8 - Why does the old man stop and not go across the bridge?

a. He is asked not to cross the bridge. b. He doesn't need to cross the bridge

c. He is too tired to cross the bridge. d. He isn't interested in crossing the bridge

9 - The old man is a symbol of what?

a. the causes of war b. the patience of the soldiers

c. the civilian victims of war d. the apathy of the civilians

10 - How old is the old man?

a. ninety-four b. sixty-six c. eighty-four d. seventy-six

11 - Explain why the narrator takes so much time to converse with the old man. Use details from the
story to support your answer.

- The narrator in the story takes a lot of time to converse with the old man because he slowly tries to
convince the old man to cross the bridge so the man won't die. He gets to know the man so he can
slowly persuade him inside the conversation.

12 - What statements from the story suggest that the old man is about to give up on life? Quote
specific statements to back your answer.

- Some statements from the story that suggest that the old man is about to give up on life are that
his animals might get killed from war, also he is sad and tired and cannot go any farther.

- I was the last one to leave the town San Carlos.

- I have come twelve kilometers now and I think now I can go no further.

- got to his feet, swayed from side to side and then sat down backwards in the dust

13 - How is the narrator portrayed in the story? How does he treat the old man? Give examples from
the story to back your answer.

-The narrator in the story is portrayed as a kind and curious man. Although his conversation with the
old man is to get him across, he gives the man some hope and finds out where he came from. In the
end, he realizes the old man is going to give up on life and tries to convince him one more time and
leaves.

14 - How does Hemmingway show that war is disrupting the lives of the peasants? Is this portrayal
realistic? Why or why not?

- Hemingway uses symbolism to show that war is disrupting to the lives of the peasants. The
narrator asks what the old man's animals are and they are a cat, some pigeons, and two goats. He
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chose the animals because only the cats, which are the survivors, and the pigeons, which represent
the people who believe in peace but flee anyway, while the goats, which are like the innocent
peasants that die due to war.

16 - What is the setting of the story? Give details from the story to support your answer.

- The setting of the story is daytime near a pontoon bridge close to the village of San Carlos in Spain.
Proof of this is shown when the narrator asks the old man where he is from and the old man says,
San Carlos. The old man also said he has traveled 12 kilometers to get to the bridge. It is during the
Spanish Civil War in probably 1938.

17 - What kind of life has the old man been leading? What keeps him going? Use details from the
story to support your answer.

- The old man has been leading a very simple life caring for his animals

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Drama: Literary Terms: Definition

Drama:

The word drama is originally a Greek word that means 'action"; something performed or done. The
action is the essence of drama that indicates the events and changes that develop through the play.

One Act Play: A short play that consists of one act only.

Elements of Drama:

a. Plot

b. Theme

c. Setting

d. Characters

e. Structure

-Structure in drama is mainly based on dividing the work into acts and scenes.

-The act indicates the part of the development of the plot

-The Scene refers to the changes in the time and place of action.

Structure is divided into:

The Exposition: It introduces the basic information about the action to the audience. It gives an idea
about the atmosphere of the

play, the motives of the action, the characters and their relation.
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The Rising Action: it is the complication of events and relations

that results from the motives introduced in the exposition. In this part, there is usually a great sense
of disorder and confusion.

The Climax: The highest point of tension and suspense in the play and in the hero's fortunes.

The Falling Action: In this part the characters start to come to terms with their dilemma, and
problems, when the plot unfurls to pave the way for the conclusion.

The Conclusion: This is the final, positive or negative, resolution of the complications that the
characters are subjected to. The conclusion can give a suggestive clue to the understanding of the
message of the play.

Kinds of Drama:

Tragedy: it is a play that presents a great man falling towards a sorrowful ending which is usually
death.

Tragic hero: An admirable character who brings destruction to himself because of a personal flaw he
suffers and a mistake he consequently commits.

Comedy: The essential function of a comedy is to amuse the audience and hence make them think.
Comedy consists of laughing at people caught in difficult situations and to explore human follies.

Modern Tragedy: A type of tragedy that handles a narrower sense of disorder in a family or an
individual which is taken as a miniature for the universal disorder.

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Riders to the Sea John Millington Synge

Summary
The setting of the play is a small island off the West of Ireland; the

curtain rises on a cottage kitchen. Cathleen, a twenty-year-old girl, kneads cake. Nora, a younger girl,
.looks in from the door and asks where their mother is. Cathleen replies that she is lying down

Nora enters with a bundle that the young priest had brought: clothes from a dead man washed up in
Donegal. The sisters plan to see if they belong to their brother, Michael. The young priest on the
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island said that if the clothes are Michael's, then it would mean that he received a clean burial. Nora
.adds that they should not tell their mother about this

Cathleen asks Nora whether she asked the priest if he thought it would be okay if their brother
Bartley took the horses to the Galway fair; Nora replies that he said God would not leave her mother
.without any son

The girls wonder if they ought to look at the bundle. Cathleen decides to hide it up in the turf-loft
.(peat used for fires) for the time being

Maurya, the girls' mother, enters. She asks why Cathleen needs more turf and Cathleen explains
about the cake, saying that Bartley might need it. Maurya replies that he will not be leaving today
because the priest will stop him. Nora retorts that he will not, and that Bartley is already down
.seeing about the boat

Bartley arrives at the cottage and asks for the rope he bought at Connemara. Maurya tells him he
ought to leave it there because if Michael washes up tomorrow morning, they will need it for the
deep grave. Bartley does not agree: he says he has to use it for a halter today, because there will not
.be another boat for two weeks or more and he has to sell the horses

Maurya is piqued and says there has to be a coffin for Michael, especially since she just bought new
white boards with which to build it. Bartley asks why the body would wash up now since they’ve
been checking for nine days, and also how she could think his own boat would be harmed. Maurya
refers to the star rising in the night against the moon, saying that the horses are not worth losing her
son. In response Bartley turns to Cathleen and talks to her about gathering weeds and selling the pig.
Maurya is undeterred, saying that if she were left with no sons, then she and the girls could not
.survive

Bartley asks Nora if the ship is coming to the pier; she says it is letting its sails down. Bartley
prepares to leave, telling his family he will be back in two days. Her back to him, Maurya calls him
cruel for not listening to an old woman. Bartley takes the halter and hesitates for a moment at the
door. He says he must go, and falteringly tells her “the blessing of God on you” (64). He leaves.
Cathleen asks her mother why she did not bless him, especially as there is already so much sorrow in
.the house even without him being unlucky. Her mother simply pokes at the fire

Nora and Cathleen realize they forgot to give Bartley the cake-bread. They are distressed and blame
their senseless mother for causing chaos in the house. Cathleen gives her the bread and tells her she
must go give it to her son so that “the dark word will be broken” (65). Maurya is reluctant to leave
.the cottage, but Cathleen tells Nora to give her mother the walking stick so she can get down there

Maurya grumbles but departs. The daughters watch her leave and then grab the bundle. Nora tells
her sister that the young priest said two men were rowing a boat and one’s oar struck a body.
Cathleen opens the bundle while they discuss how long it would have taken for the body to get to
.Donegal

Nora is dismayed to see that the sock in the bundle is just like one she knit for her brother. She
becomes more upset and wonders aloud that a man who was once a great rower and fisher is now
.represented merely by a shirt and sock
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Suddenly, the sisters they hear their mother returning. They hide the clothes and try to conceal their
tears. Maurya comes in slowly and sits by the fire. The bread is untouched. Maurya begins to wail
.and refuses to answer Cathleen’s queries. Finally, Maurya replies weakly that her heart is broken

Cathleen looks outside and sees Bartley on the mare with the gray pony behind him and rebukes her
mother. Maurya is still acting oddly, saying that she saw the most fearful thing. The girls ask her to
tell them. She explains she went down to the spring and saw Bartley riding with the pony. As she
talks, she becomes distressed, and admits she saw Michael. Cathleen says that this can't be true, but
Maurya explains: as Bartley was riding toward her, she tried to bless him, but the words stuck in her
.throat and she could say nothing; she then looked up and saw Michael, dressed nicely

Cathleen starts to wail that they are destroyed. Nora wonders about the young priest saying God
would never leave Maurya without a son. Maurya scoffs and says that her husband, her husband’s
.father, and six sons have all died

The women hear something outside coming from the northeast. Maurya continues to narrate how
all of her sons died. She ends by talking about Patch, who was brought in dripping wet even though
it was a dry day. She then stretches her hand toward the door and women begin to come in, just as
.they did in the story about Patch’s death

Cathleen asks her mother again about how she could have seen Michael, handing her the clothes.
Nora looks outside and sees men carrying something with water dripping off of it. Cathleen whispers
.to the women, asking if the men are carrying Bartley. The women say that they are

The men enter and put Bartley on the table. A woman explains that his pony knocked him into the
sea and he was washed out to the white rocks. The women wail and Maurya kneels at the head of
the table. She raises her head and says that, finally, there is nothing else the sea can do to her; she
need never pray or cry again when the wind blows and she will not care even when another women
.wail

Maurya drops Michael’s clothes on Bartley’s feet. She speaks to him, saying it is not that she has not
.prayed for him but now she will be able to rest. She kneels and crosses herself

Cathleen asks an old man to make a coffin with the fine white boards. He wonders how Maurya
.forgot to buy nails. Cathleen sighs that she is old and broken

Maurya spreads Michael’s clothes beside the body and sprinkles holy water on them. Nora whispers
to Cathleen that their mother must have loved Michael more than Bartley because she wailed
.insanely when he died. Cathleen attributes it to her mother being tired of crying

Maurya asks God for mercy on the souls of Michael and Bartley and all her deceased sons. She adds
that Michael had a clean burial in the north and Bartley will get a fine white coffin; what more is
there to desire, especially in such a short life

Themes

Paganism

The pervading theme of this work is the subtle paganism Synge observed in the people of rural
Ireland. Following his dismissal of Christianity, Synge found that the predominantly Roman Catholic
Ireland still retained many of the folktales and superstitions born out of the old Celtic paganism. This
play is an examination of that idea as he has a set of deeply religious characters find themselves at
odds with an unbeatable force of nature (this being the sea). While the family is clearly Catholic,
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they still find themselves wary of the supernatural characteristics of natural elements, an idea very
.present in Celtic paganism

Tradition vs. modernity

Another main theme of the play is the tension between the traditional and modern worlds in Ireland
at the time. While Maurya, representative of the older Irish generation, is immovably tied to the
traditional world and inward-looking, Nora, representative of the younger generation is willing to
change with the outside world and therefore outward-looking. Cathleen, the eldest daughter
]2[.struggles to bridge these two worlds and hold both in balance

Fatalism

The characters of the play are at all times in contact with and accepting of the reality of death, the
sea and drowning especially being a constant threat. They are caught between the dual realities of
the sea as a source of livelihood and a fatal threat.[3] The objects and culture of death in the form of
coffins, keening, and mourning are prevalent in the play and are closely based on Synge's
]1[.observations of the culture of the Aran Islands

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The major symbol of the play is the sea, the source of life and at the same time the

destroyer of the life. The people of the Island depend upon the sea for their survival by fishing. They
collect sea weeds as a source of fuel. They have to cross the sea for the purchase of the goods and
also for the selling of their productions. To make coffins also they have to go across the sea. The sea
stands for the main source and the life for the Islanders, but meanwhile the same generous sea
turns out to be destroyer and life taking agent. The sea is the natural force which can be violent and
fierce at times. It has taken many lives of the islanders, including all the male members of Maurya’s
family. She is left with her two daughters without any strong support for the financial provision. The
sea is out of the prediction of the priest and even out of the control of the God. The Islanders believe
.that the sea tides refer to the birth and the declining sea tides refer to the death

The Riders are another symbol of this play. The male members of the Island are all riders. They ride
to the sea for the fishing and to support the family in their livelihood. They make adventures to the
sea just to face death. Their defeat with the sea is the defeat of human being by the undefeated
.nature

The use of the number nine is another powerful mythological symbol in the play. The number nine is
used as a sign of bad luck in the play. There is no news of Michael for nine days, Maurya keeps
weeping for her dead son for nine days and when Bartley died in the sea some nine unknown
.women come to Maurya

The red mare of Bartley and the grey pony of Michael both stand for the death. Bartley sets off to
the sea riding on the red mare and never comes back again. The bread Maurya made for Bartley is a
symbol of life, but she cannot deliver it to him as he rides away fast and she cannot make equal pace
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for him. The result is Bartley is deprived of life and has to face death. The turning of the empty cup
mouth downwards by Maurya is another important symbol in the play. This action suggests a failure
of Christian comfort at the time of the demise of all the male members and shows the theme of
infinite suffering and renunciation. This symbol also reinforces the theme of tragedy of old Maurya

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Poetic literature ) ‫(األدب الشعري‬

Poetry
The Difference between Poetry and Prose

1-Poetry is more concrete and specific than prose.

2-Poetry is more compressed and intense.

3-In poetry, the poet may omit many details which would be necessary in prose

4-Poetry is expressed in a regularly recurring rhythm.

5-Poetry is composed to be sung, and written to be read aloud.

6-Poetry, more than prose is the language of passion.

7-The appeal of prose is more to reason, of poetry to the emotions and imaginations.

8-Poetry is written in lines, prose in sentences.

Poetry and Verse

Verse is a general term for all kind of poetry or for a single line of a poem. The difference lies not in
the external form but in the content, in the literary quality. Poetry is a higher, more elevated form
than verse.

The Essentials of Poetry

1-Language: Poems are written in words. The selection of words is called diction, or language.

The language of a poem depends on the connotative meaning of the word and not on the denotative
meaning.

The connotative meaning is the hidden meaning of the word, implying attitudes and values. The
word rose in a poem could express love.

The denotative meaning is the meaning of the word in the dictionary. The word rose is a kind of a
flower.

2-The use of symbols. A symbol is a kind of metaphor, a comparison which represents or sums up a
much larger sphere of activity or interest.

3-Imagery. An image is any concrete representation of a sense impression or idea. That is an image
enables the reader to feel, taste, or smell whatever the poet is trying to convey.

4- Figures of Speech or Figurative Language. It is to relate something to something else.

a. Simile: is an obvious comparison using "like' or "as" between different kinds of things.
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b. Metaphor: It is an implied or stated comparison between two unconnected subjects, without the
use of "like" or "as."

c. Personification: It means to describe inanimate objects in terms of people and animals, as if the
inanimate objects had minds or feelings.

Sound Devices

a. Rhyme Scheme: The identical sounds of the final words in lines of a poem. The usual practice in
marking rhyme schemes is to use letters of the alphabet.

b. Alliteration: It is the repetition of initial letters or consonant sounds in a line of poetry or in closely
adjacent lines. It creates music and emphasizes rhythm, but it can also enrich meaning.

c. consonance: It is the repetition of consonant sounds in a line of poetry.

d. Onomatopoeia: It is the use of words in which the sound suggests the meaning as in buzz,
murmur, hiss…etc.

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Types of Poetry:

Lyric: A poem that is characterized by or expressing spontaneous, direct feeling.

"Dreams" By

Langston Hughes, 1902 – 1967

Hold fast to dreams

For if dreams die

Life is a broken-winged bird

That cannot fly.

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Hold fast to dreams

For when dreams go

Life is a barren field

Frozen with snow.

The word ‘dream’ may have a negative, fantasy-land, implication. In the poem, having a dream
means to have a goal or plan which is motivational or inspirational, and is at least remotely possible.
The dream is important because it can help us stay focused and energized in order to achieve our
goals.

-Theme of the poem: dreams are important in a successful life.

-In the first stanza, Hughes states that a life without dreams is like a bird with an (injury), a broken
wing, that prevents flight. The single biggest distinction of birds is their ability to fly.

Similarly, the ability to dream is the single biggest distinction of humans. Without our dreams, we
are as lost as a bird who has lost the gift of flight. And that is a very sad thought indeed.

-In the second stanza, the poet, Langston Hughes states that one must keep one's dreams and work
hard to fulfill them, because if these dreams are lost, one's life becomes a sterile or infertile land
that is covered with snow. He wants to emphasize the fact that the person without dreams becomes
dead like that dead land covered with snow. Thus, life without dreams becomes meaningless and
without purpose.

Figures of speech:

1-Personification: the poet gives dreams a living quality. He says "if dreams die" as if dreams are
human being or living creatures who might die. So, dreams which are inanimate are given an
animate characteristic or quality.

2-(a) Metaphor: "Life is a broken-winged bird. "The poet compares life to a bird with a broken wing.
He states that a person's life without dreams is just like a bird that cannot fly. Eventually, this bird is
going to die and so as the life of this person is going to be meaningless and without purpose.

3-(b) Metaphor: "For when dreams go/Life is a barren field/ Covered with snow." Here, the poet
compares life to an infertile land which is covered with snow. This land is cold and without life, just
like the life of a person without dreams. This person is dead-in-life. His/her life is gloomy and sad
because this person is without motivation or inspiration that drives him/her to go forward, to
succeed.

The examples of metaphor:

She is _drowning_ in a _sea_ of _grief_ .
_you_ _are_ my _sunshine_.
_Time_ is _money_.

Examples of simile:
Her face is _like_ a sun
Busy _as_ a bee.
Brave _as_ A lion.
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Examples of Personification:
The sea lashed out in *_~anger~_* of the ships
The Sun _greeted_ me this morning
The sky was full of _dancing_ the stars.

Examples of symbolism:
Flag = patriotism
Rose=love
Chalk or pen=education
Black color= evil
Bird =freedom

Example of alliteration
_We_ are up _wide_ eye _wondering_ _while_ _we_ _wait_ for others to _waken_.

Example of consonance
I will _creep_ and _beep_ while you _sleep_.
I _think_ I _like_ the _pink_

Refrain: lines of a song or poem which are repeated.

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The Popular Ballad

1-The English popular ballad is a narrative poem that is anonymous (i.e., The poet is unknown). It
passed orally from generation to generation. It is simple in theme and form, condensed (short
detailed) in narrative, dealing with elementary emotions such as love, hate, jealousy, fear, and so on.

2-Themes: English popular ballad deals with domestic themes, love tragedies, folklore, and
superstition.

3-Technically, it makes frequent use of rhyme, repetition and refrain (is a repeated part of a poem,
particularly when it comes either at the end of a stanza or between two stanzas to create a high
musical effect.

" The Three Ravens" (the poet is anonymous)

Theme of the poem: the contrast between the loyalty of animals and the cruelty of human beings.

There were three Ravens sat on a tree,

Downe a downe, hey downe, hey downe.(refrain)

They were as blacke as they might be (visual image)

With a downe derrie, derrie, derrie, downe, downe(refrain)

Then one of them said to his mate,

Where shall we our breakfast take?
With a downe derrie, derry, derry, downe, downe.
(refrain)
Downe in yonder greene field,(visual image)
Downe a downe, hey downe, hey downe.(refrain)
There lies a Knight slain under his shield—with a downe.
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-----The poem tells the story of a murdered knight told through three ravens(crows). The crows are
used as symbol of death. The black color also suggests death.

One of the ravens asked where they could have their breakfast, and the second answered that they
could have their breakfast in the green field. A knight is slain(murdered), so that they could feed on
his dead body.

His hounds they lie downe at his feete

So well do they their Master keepe
With a downe derrie, derry, derry, downe, downe.(refrain)

There is one problem why they cannot have their breakfast: the knight had hounds (hunting dogs)
that keep his body safe of any intrusion. They lie at the feet of the knight. Some animals like the
crows could feed on dead bodies, so the hounds can protect the body of their master. This expresses
the loyalty of the dogs to their master even after his death.

His Hawkes they flie so eagerly,

Downe a downe, hey downe, hey downe.(refrain)
There's no fowle that dare him come nie—m with a downe.

Not only the dogs show their loyalty to the dead knight, there are his hawks which fly above the
body to prevent any fowl (any kind of birds) to come and feed on the body. Again, this shows the
loyalty of these birds to their master.

Downe there comes a fallow Doe,

As great with yong as she might go
With a downe derrie, derry, derry, downe, downe.(refrain)

She lifted up his bloody head,

Downe a downe, hey downe, hey downe.(refrain)
And kiss'd his wounds that were so red—with a downe.(red color is visual image)
She got him up upon her backe
And carried him to earthen lake.
With a downe derrie , derry, derry, downe, downe.(refrain)

The last one to protect the dead body of the knight is the fallow doe (a female deer that might be
fairy one like mermaids. She is described in the poem as a leman (a secret lover or mistress). She lifts
up the bloody head of the knight and kisses his wounds which were red. The red color suggests
passion of love which is described by the kiss itself . Then she carries it on her back to bury him dig
or a hole she makes for this purpose.

The last line in the poem stresses the fact that the knight is ennobled by God because God sends and
makes these animals and birds to protect the body of the knight while human beings themselves
have left the body unburied. This shows the selfishness and cruelty of people who should be
merciful and kind. At the same time, it shows the kindness and loyalty of animals which should be
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unthinking creatures unlike human beings who have minds and should use them for whatever is
good and useful.

Imagery:

The Ballad " The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" by T. S. Coleridge

It is an ancient mariner
And he stoppeth one of three.
– "By thy long grey beard and glittering eye,
Now wherefore stoppest thou me?

He holds him with his glittering eye –

The wedding-guest stood still,
And listens like a three-years' child:
The mariner hath his will.

The wedding-guest sat on a stone:

He cannot choose but hear;
And thus spake on that ancient man,
The bright-eyed mariner.

"The ship was cheered, the harbour cleared,

Merrily did we drop
Below the kirk, below the hill,
Below the lighthouse top.

The sun came up upon the left,

Out of the sea came he!
And he shone bright, and on the right
Went down into the sea.

"And now the storm-blast came, and he

Was tyrannous and strong;
He struck with his o'ertaking wings,
And chased us south along.

The ice was here, the ice was there,

The ice was all around:
It cracked and growled, and roared and howled,
Like noises in a swound!

At length did cross an albatross,

Thorough the fog it came;
As if it had been a Christian soul,
We hailed it in God's name.

It ate the food it ne'er had eat,

And round and round it flew.
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The ice did split with a thunder-fit;
The helmsman steered us through!

And a good south wind sprung up behind;

The albatross did follow,
And every day, for food or play,
Came to the mariners hollo!

"God save thee, ancient mariner!

From the fiends, that plague thee thus! –
Why lookst thou so?" – "With my crossbow
I shot the albatross.

Day after day, day after day,

We stuck, nor breath nor motion;
As idle as a painted ship
Upon a painted ocean.

Water, water, everywhere,

And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water, everywhere,
Nor any drop to drink

Ah! wel-a-day! what evil looks

Had I from old and young!
Instead of the cross, the albatross
About my neck was hung.

The many men, so beautiful!

And they all dead did lie:
And a thousand thousand slimy things
Lived on; and so, did I.

I looked upon the rotting sea,

And drew my eyes away;
I looked upon the rotting deck,
And there the dead men lay.

The selfsame moment I could pray;

And from my neck so free
The albatross fell off, and sank
Like lead into the sea.

Theme: The poem expresses feelings of guilt, suffering, and repentance

‘The Ancient Mariner’ is the story of someone who does something terrible for reasons unknown
and pays for it: we never learn why the Mariner shot the sea bird (the Albatross), a symbol of good
luck to the sailors, but his prolonged suffering is described in painful detail. Some kind of spiritual
improvement seems to come only when the Mariner has changed his attitude towards the creatures
of the sea: the sea-snakes which seemed, in the aftermath of his crime, ‘slimy things’ (l. 121) become
transformed at the poem’s turning-point into ‘happy living things’ (l. 274). only by realizing that the
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monsters around him are beautiful in God’s eyes and that he should love them as he should have
loved the Albatross. Recognizing a joy implicit within natural appearances appears to mark a saving
change from ‘spectral persecution’ to a

progressive repentance.

Naomi Shihab Nye

b. 1952

Naomi Shihab Nye (born March 12, 1952) is a poet, songwriter, and novelist. She was born to a
Palestinian father and an American mother. Although she calls herself a "wandering poet", she refers
to San Antonio as her home. She says a visit to her grandmother in the West Bank village of Sinjil was
a life-changing experience. Nye was the recipient of the 2014 NSK Neustadt Prize for Children's
Literature.

Supple Cord

My brother, in his small white bed,

held one end.

I tugged the other

to signal I was still awake.

We could have spoken,

could have sung to one another,

we were in the same room

for five years,

but the soft cord

with its little frayed ends

connected us in the dark,

gave comfort even if

we had been bickering all day.

When he fell asleep first

and his end of the cord

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dropped to the floor,

I missed him terribly,

though I could hear his even breath

and we had such long and separate lives ahead.

Theme: Nye captures a lovely moment in her childhood. She emphasizes the importance of family
relationships, here, the relation between sister and brother.

Symbol: She makes use of the supple cord (flexible and thin thread or rope) as a symbol to suggest

Analysis of the Poem

My brother, in his small white bed,

held one end.

I tugged the other

to signal I was still awake.

The poet describes a situation taken from her childhood. She remembered a

mutual experience between two siblings (a sister and a brother). They use

to sleep together as children for five years. To get rid of their fears of darkness, they use a supple
cord (flexible thin rope) to connect them. Each will handle one end of the thin rope. She tugs her end
(pulls strongly in her direction) to ensure her brother that she is awake, that she is always there
standing for him. The brothers' bed is described as white (visual image) to suggest innocent and
purity of the child.

We could have spoken,

could have sung

to one another,
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we were in the same room

for five years,

In this part, Nye gives other options replacing the use of the cord. They could speak with each other
or could have sung to each other (singing is an auditory image). They slept together in the same
room for five years.

but the soft cord

with its little frayed ends

connected us

in the dark,

gave comfort

even if we had been bickering

all day.

The cord is described as soft (image of touch). The poet emphasizes the importance of the cord itself
by using the phrase "connected us" to suggest the strong bond between them. Although the ends of
the rope become loose or broken (another auditory image) suggesting the passing of time and a lot
of usage, it makes them feel comfortable and save though they were arguing about unimportant
things all day.

When he fell asleep first

and his end of the cord

dropped to the floor,

I missed him terribly,

though I could hear his even breath

and we had such long and separate lives

ahead.

This part portrays the brother sleeping as his end becomes loose (dropped to the floor), but the
sister is awake watching him sleep.
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Once he sleeps, she says that she misses him a lot. She hears his regular breath suggesting deep
sleep results from a feeling of safety (an auditory image). At this moment, she begins to imagine
their future separate life.

The poem ends with a sad note that these siblings might be separated from each other. This is the
way of life, but despite this fact they will be connected by a strong familial bond. The last line
suggests that the poem is not written by a child but by an adult because she reflects on the supple
cord as a symbol of their connection while in the present, they have their own separate lives.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

A sonnet is a type of fourteen-line poem. ... The two most common sonnet variations are the
Italian sonnet (also called a Petrarchan sonnet), and the English sonnet (also called a
Shakespearean sonnet). The main difference between the Italian and English sonnet is in the rhyme
schemes they use.

The Italian sonnet has two parts, the octet which consists of lines describing a problem and the sestet
which consists of lines proposing solutions to the problem while the English sonnet has three
quatrains and a couplet. ... All sonnets have fourteen lines. Typically, the Petrarchan sonnet is divided
into two sections, with the first 8 lines (octave) following the rhyme scheme A -B-B-A-A-B-B-A and the
next six lines (sextet) following either of the rhyme scheme C-D-C-D-C-D, C-D-E-E-D-E, or a close
variant.
Shakespeare's sonnets are composed of 14 lines, each written in iambic pentameter and most with
the traditional rhyme scheme of the English sonnet: abab cdcd efef gg. (Three quatrains and couplet)

"How Do I Love Thee?" by Elizabeth Barrett Browning

Elizabeth Barrett Browning | Source

Elizabeth Barrett Browning and How Do I Love Thee?

How Do I Love Thee? is sonnet number 43 taken from Sonnets from the Portuguese, a book first
published in 1850.

Elizabeth Barrett Browning chose this title to give the impression that she had translated the work
from the Portuguese and would therefore avoid any controversy. It was dedicated to her husband,
poet Robert Browning.

The inspiration behind the work was Elizabeth's love for the man who had, for all intents and
purposes, rescued her from a quietly desperate, reclusive lifestyle she led in London.
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Dominated by her possessive father, Elizabeth spent most of her time alone in an upstairs room. She
was a frail, sick woman who needed opium and laudanum in an effort to cure her pain.

Her only consolation was poetry and at this she was very successful. When Robert Browning read
her work, he was so impressed he wrote asking to meet her. The two eventually fell in love and
decided to secretly elope to Italy in 1846, despite the father's resistance and anger. He ended up
disinheriting his daughter.

Elizabeth was close to 40 years of age when she broke free from the control of her father. You can
imagine her pent-up strength of feeling and sense of relief. She went on to give birth to a son and
was happily married for sixteen years, until her death in 1861.

How Do I Love Thee? is her most well-known sonnet. It has a female narrator which was highly
unusual for the time.

How Do I Love Thee? (Sonnet 43)

Analysis

This Petrarchan sonnet has fourteen lines, the first eight being the octet and the final six the sestet.
At the end of the octet comes what is known as the turn, more or less a subtle change in the
relationship between the two parts.

In this sonnet the octet is basically a list set in the present that reflects a very deep love; the sestet
looks back in time and then forward to a transcendent love, which helps put the whole work into
perspective.

How do I love thee? Let me count the ways. (A)

I love thee to the depth and breadth and height (B)

My soul can reach, when feeling out of sight (B)

For the ends of being and ideal grace. (A)

I love thee to the level of every day’s (A)

Most quiet need, by sun and candle-light. (B)

I love thee freely, as men strive for right. (B)

I love thee purely, as they turn from praise. (A)

I love thee with the passion put to use (C)

In my old griefs, and with my childhood’s faith. (D)

I love thee with a love I seemed to lose (C)

With my lost saints. I love thee with the breath, (D)

Smiles, tears, of all my life; and, if God choose, (C)

I shall but love thee better after death. (D)

Analysis
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This Petrarchan sonnet has fourteen lines, the first eight being the octave and the final six the sestet.
At the end of the octave comes what is known as the turn, more or less a subtle change in the
relationship between the two parts.

In this sonnet the octave is basically a list set in the present that reflects a very deep love; the sestet
looks back in time and then forward to a (inspiring) love, which helps put the whole work into
perspective.

Line by Line Analysis

Lines 1-4

The major theme in the sonnet is love, from a woman's perspective. The emphasis is on the
repetition and reinforcement of the speaker's love for someone; there is no mention of a specific
name or gender, giving the sonnet a universal appeal.

The first line is unusual because it is a question asked in an almost conversational manner - the poet
has challenged herself to compile reasons for her love, to define her intense feelings, the ways in
which her love can be expressed. She wants to emphasize the fact her love is not ordinary love that
can be changed with the passing of time, rather it is unlimited because it goes deep in the heart as
well as in the mind.

2-4 Lines

suggest that her love is all encompassing, stretching to the limits, even when she feels that her
existence - Being - and God's divine help - Grace - might end, it's the love she has for her husband
Robert that will sustain or remain forever.

Note the contrast between the attempt to measure her love with rational language or through
material(concrete) expressions(ideas) - depth, breadth, height - and the use of the words Soul, Being
and Grace, which imply something intangible and spiritual(abstract).

Her love goes beyond natural life and man-made theology. These are weighty concepts - the reader
is made aware that this is no ordinary love early on in the sonnet. The clause, lines 2-4, contains
enjambment, a continuation of theme from one line to the next.

Lines 5-8

I love thee to the level of every day’s

Most quiet need, by sun and candle-light.

The speaker, the poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning continues with her passionate need to
differentiate the many ways of her love for her husband. In lines five &six she clearly tells the reader
that she loves her husband as people need the light of the sun at day time or their need for candle
light at night time. So, she wants to say that her love is essential to her life like the light of the sun or
candle light because no one can live without them. Her love is necessary for her in the same way
light is necessary for people.
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Lines 7-8

I love thee freely, as men strive for right.

I love thee purely, as they turn from praise.

She is free in her love like the free men who fight to get their rights. The poet wants to emphasize
her right to love and be loved, the thing she was denied by her eccentric father. As she compares
herself to free men who fight for justice, the poet wants to say that her love is far from being a
simple relationship, rather it is a fight against unjust conventions and traditions that try to limit a
woman's freedom. As men's love for justice is unconditional, her love is unconditional too.

Like those free men who are not affected by praise and who do not ask for thanks, her love is pure
and innocent. It is a force for good that it does not need for praise. It is a humble kind of love,
untainted by selfishness.

Lines 9-14

The sestet starts at line nine. The speaker now looks to the past and compares her new found
passions with those of the old griefs. Elizabeth Barrett Browning had plenty of negativity in her adult
life - she was mostly ill and lived like a recluse(hermit), seeing only old family friends and family.

Her father in particular oppressed her and wouldn't allow her to marry. There were no romantic
relationships in her life by all accounts. She must have been driven to the point of willing herself
dead. Little wonder that when Robert Browning came along, she was given a new lease of life.

In contrast her childhood had been a happy one and it's this she refers to in the second half of line
ten. A child's faith is pure and innocent and sees fresh opportunity in everything.

Turning to religious feelings in line eleven, the speaker refers to a lost love she once had for the
saints - perhaps those of the Christian church, of conventional religion. Or perhaps she is looking
back at the saintly people in her life, those she held in great regard and love?

She suggests that this love has now returned and will be given to her husband. She goes on to say in
line twelve, with just a dash to separate - this returned love is her very breath. Not only that, but the
good and the bad times she's had, is having, will have - this is what the love she has is like. It is all
enveloping.

And, in the final line, if God grants it, she'll carry on loving her husband even more after she dies.

So, her love will go on and on, beyond the grave, gaining strength, and becoming transcendent

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William Shakespeare

Not Marble nor the Gilded Monuments Explanation, Literary devices,

meanings
William Shakespeare was an English Poet, playwright, and actor, widely
regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's
greatest dramatist. He is considered as the father of English Literature.
Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in
London as an actor, writer, and part -owner of a playing company called the
Lord Chamberlain’s Men, later known as the King Men. He appears to have
retired to Stratford around 1613, at the age of 49, where he died after three
years. He is often called England's national poet. Shakespeare produced
most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were
primarily comedies and histories. Some of his famous tragic plays include
Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear and Othello.
Sonnet - A sonnet is a poetic form which originated in Italy. The
term sonnet is derived from the Italian word ‘sonetto’ which means little
poem. By the thirteenth century it signified a poem of fourteen lines that
follows a strict rhyme scheme and specific structure.
Poem and Explanation

Quatrain 1
Not marble, nor the gilded monuments
Of princes, shall outlive this powerful rhyme;
But you shall shine more bright in these contents
Than unswept stone, besmear'd with sluttish time
gilded: covered with gold; gold-plated
these contents: refers to this poetry
unswept stone: a stone monument left uncared for
besmear'd: tarnished
sluttish: of unclean habits and behavior
The poet says that this piece of poetry will remain alive longer than the
stone statues and gold – plated monuments built by royal men. ( The roymen build statues and
monuments so that they become immortal and are
remembered by the future generations). The poet’s beloved soldier
referred to as ‘you’ shall be remembered through this powerful poetry. In
comparison to the statues which will be neglected and wear out with the
passage of time, the poetry will remain shining and fresh as ever. Through
the poetry, the poet’s beloved will also shine for all times to come.

Quatrain 2
When wasteful war shall statues overturn,
And broils root out the work of masonry,
Nor Mars his sword nor war's quick fire shall burn
The living record of your memory
broils: tumult, fighting, disturbances, esp. in war
work of masonry: refers to monuments built by masons
Mars: the god of war
Sword: a weapon with a long metal blade
quick: lively, fast moving, searching out
living record: this written memory of your life which continues after you are
dead
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The poet says that wars are wasteful as they destroy the statues built by
the royal men. Such fights are destructive as they destroy the great
monuments and turn them into ruins. This poetry that has been written in
the memory of the brave man cannot be destroyed even by the greatest
warrior Mars. It will survive through all the wars.

Quatrain 3
'Gainst death and all oblivious enmity
Shall you pace forth; your praise shall still find room,
Even in the eyes of all posterity
That wear this world out to the ending doom
Gainst: against
oblivious enmity: enmity which is forgetful of everything and so seeks to
destroy everything
pace forth: stride forwards
posterity: future generations
doom: doomsday; the day on which the Last Judgment will occurred

Sonnet 55: Not marble nor the gilded monuments

BY WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

Not marble nor the gilded monuments (A)

Of princes shall outlive this powerful rhyme, (B)

But you shall shine more bright in these contents (A)

Than unswept stone besmeared with sluttish time. (B)

When wasteful war shall statues overturn, (C)

And broils root out the work of masonry, (D)

Nor mars his sword nor war’s quick fire shall burn (C)

The living record of your memory. (D)

’Gainst death and all-oblivious enmity (E)

Shall you pace forth; your praise shall still find room, (F)

Even in the eyes of all posterity (E)

That wear this world out to the ending doom. (F)

So, till the Judgement that yourself arise, (G)

You live in this, and dwell in lovers’ eyes. (G)