PSC150S: Physics

Lecture 4: Simple Harmonic Motion

Monday 11th March, 2024

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Simple Harmonic Motion
In this lecture, we consider systems which have a motion which repeats itself in time, that is, it is
periodic. We define periodic motion to be any motion that repeats itself at regular time inter-
vals. For example, periodic motions is exhibited by the guitar string or by a child swinging on a swing.

Many objects vibrate or oscillate – an object on the end of a spring, a tuning fork, the balance
wheel of a watch, a pendulum, the strings of a guitar or a piano. When we speak of a vibration or
oscillation, we mean the motion of an object that repeats itself, back and forth, over the same path.

In the absence of friction, the time to complete one oscillation remains constant and is called the
period (T).

The word ‘period’ refers to the time for some event whether repetitive or not, but in this lecture, we
shall deal primarily in periodic motion, which is by definition repetitive.

A concept closely related to period is the frequency of an event. Frequency (f) is defined to
be the number of events per unit time. For periodic motion, frequency is the number of oscillations
per unit time. The relationship between frequency and period is
1
f= (1)
T
The SI unit for frequency is the hertz (Hz) and is defined as one cycle per second:
1 cycle 1
1 Hz = or 1 Hz = = s−1 (2)
s s
A cycle is one complete oscillation.

A very common type of periodic motion is called simple harmonic motion (SHM). A system
that oscillates with SHM is called a simple harmonic oscillator.

A useful design for examining SHM is an object attached to the end of a spring and laid on a surface.
The surface supports the object so its weight (the force of gravity) doesn’t get involved in the forces.
The spring is considered to be weightless. The position shown in the illustration is the equilibrium

Figure 1: Spring-mass system

position. This position is the middle, where the spring is not exerting any force either to the left or
to the right.

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If the object is pulled to the right, the spring will be stretched and exert a restoring force to re-
turn to the weight to the equilibrium position.

Similarly, if the object is pushed to the left, the spring will be compressed and will exert a restoring
force to return the object to its original position. The magnitude of the restoring force, F , in either
case must be directly proportional to the distance, x , the spring has been stretched or compressed.
(A spring must be chosen that obeys this requirement.)
F = −kx (3)
In the equation above, the constant of proportionality is called the spring constant. The spring con-
stant is represented by k and its units are N/m. This equation is accurate as long as the spring is not
compressed to the point that the coils touch nor stretched beyond elasticity.

Suppose the spring is compressed a distance , and then released. The spring exerts a force on the
mass pushing it toward the equilibrium position.
ˆ The spring exerts a force on the mass pushing it toward the equilibrium position.
ˆ When the mass is at the maximum displacement position, velocity is zero because the mass is
changing direction.
ˆ At the position of maximum displacement, the restoring force is at its greatest - the acceleration
of the mass will be greatest.
ˆ As the mass moves toward the equilibrium position, the displacement decreases, so the restoring
force decreases and the acceleration decreases.
ˆ When the mass reaches the equilibrium position, there is no restoring force.
ˆ The acceleration, therefore, is zero, but the mass is moving at its highest velocity.
ˆ Because of its inertia, the mass will continue past the equilibrium position, and stretch the
string.
ˆ As the spring is stretched further, the displacement increases, the restoring force increases, the
acceleration toward the equilibrium position increases, and the velocity decreases.
ˆ Eventually, when the mass reaches its maximum displacement on this side of the equilibrium
position, the velocity has returned to zero and the restoring force and acceleration have returned
to the maximum.
ˆ In a frictionless system, the mass would oscillate forever, but in a real system, friction gradually
reduces the motion until the mass returns to the equilibrium position and motion stops.

Example
1. When a 500. kg crate of cargo is placed in the bed of a pickup truck, the truck’s springs compress
4.00 cm. Assume the springs act as a single spring.
(a) What is the spring constant for the truck springs?
(b) How far will the springs compress if 800. kg of cargo is placed in the truck bed?
1. (a)
F 500 × 9.8
k= = = 1.23 × 105 N/m (4)
x 4 × 10−2
(b)
F 800 × 9.8
x= = = 0.064 m (5)
K 1.23 × 105

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Equations of SHM
Consider a block attached to a spring on a frictionless table (Figure 2). The equilibrium position (the
position where the spring is neither stretched nor compressed) is marked as x = 0. At the equilibrium
position, the net force is zero. Work is done on the block to pull it out to a position of x = +A,

Figure 2: A block is attached to a spring and placed on a frictionless table. The equilibrium position,
where the spring is neither extended nor compressed, is marked as x = 0.

and it is then released from rest. The maximum x-position (A) is called the amplitude of the motion.
The block begins to oscillate in SHM between x = +A and x = −A, where A is the amplitude of the
motion and T is the period of the oscillation. The period is the time for one oscillation.

Position of SHO
An object moving along the x-axis is said to exhibit simple harmonic motion if its position as a
function of time varies as
x(t) = x0 + A cos(ωt + φ). (6)
The object oscillates about the equilibrium position x0 . If we choose the origin of our coordinate
system such that x0 = 0, then the displacement x from the equilibrium position as a function of time
is given by
x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ). (7)
A is the amplitude of the oscillation, i.e. the maximum displacement of the object from equilibrium,
either in the positive or negative x-direction. Simple harmonic motion is repetitive. The period T
is the time it takes the object to complete one oscillation and return to the starting position. The
angular frequency ω is given by ω = 2π/T. The angular frequency is measured in radians per second.
The inverse of the period is the frequency f = 1/T . The frequency f = 1/T = ω/2π of the motion
gives the number of complete oscillations per unit time. It is measured in units of Hertz, (1 Hz =
1/s).

Velocity and acceleration of SHO

The velocity of the mass on a spring, oscillating in SHM, can be found by taking the derivative of the
position equation:
dx(t)
v(t) = = −Aω sin(ωt + φ). (8)
dt
The maximum velocity is the amplitude times the angular frequency, vmax = Aω. The maximum
velocity occurs at the equilibrium position (x = 0) when the mass is moving toward x = +A. The
maximum velocity in the negative direction is attained at the equilibrium position (x = 0) when the
mass is moving toward x = −A and is equal to −vmax .

The acceleration of the mass on the spring can be found by taking the time derivative of the ve-
locity:
dv(t)
a(t) = = −Aω 2 cos(ωt + φ). (9)
dt

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The maximum acceleration is amax = Aω 2 . The maximum acceleration occurs at the position
(x = −A), and the acceleration at the position (x = −A) and is equal to −amax .

The quantity φ is called the phase constant. It is determined by the initial conditions of the mo-
tion. If at t = 0 the object has its maximum displacement in the positive x-direction, then φ = 0,
if it has its maximum displacement in the negative x-direction, then φ = π. If at t = 0 the particle
is moving through its equilibrium position with maximum velocity in the negative x-direction then
φ = π/2. The quantity ωt + φ is called the phase.

The Period and Frequency of a Mass on a Spring

Consider the block on a spring on a frictionless surface. There are three forces on the mass: the weight,
the normal force, and the force due to the spring. The only two forces that act perpendicular to the
surface are the weight and the normal force, which have equal magnitudes and opposite directions,
and thus sum to zero. The only force that acts parallel to the surface is the force due to the spring,
so the net force must be equal to the force of the spring:

Fx = −kx (10)
ma = −kx (11)
d2 x
m 2 = −kx
dt
d2 x k
= − x (12)
dt2 m
(13)

Substituting the equations of motion for x and a gives us

k
−Aω 2 cos(ωt + φ) = − A cos(ωt + φ) (14)
m
Cancelling out like terms and solving for the angular frequency yields
k
ω2 = (15)
m
r
k
ω = (16)
m
The angular frequency depends only on the force constant and the mass, and not the amplitude. The
2π
angular frequency is defined as ω = , which yields an equation for the period of the motion:
T
r
k
T = 2π (17)
m
The period also depends only on the mass and the force constant. The greater the mass, the longer
the period. The stiffer the spring, the shorter the period. The frequency is
r
1 1 m
f= = (18)
T 2π k

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Example
1. A particle oscillates with simple harmonic motion, so that its displacement varies according to
the expression x = (5cm) cos(2t + π/6) where x is in centimetres and t is in seconds. At t = 0
find
(a) the displacement of the particle,
(b) its velocity, and
(c) its acceleration.
(d) Find the period and amplitude of the motion.
2. A 20 g particle moves in simple harmonic motion with a frequency of 3 oscillations per second
and an amplitude of 5 cm.
(a) Through what total distance does the particle move during one cycle of its motion?
(b) What is its maximum speed? Where does that occur?
(c) Find the maximum acceleration of the particle. Where in the motion does the maximum
acceleration occur?

Solution
1. (a) The displacement as a function of time is x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ). Here ω = 2 rad/s, φ = π/6,
and A = 5 cm. The displacement at t = 0 is x(0) = (5cm) cos(π/6) = 4.33 cm.
(b) The velocity at t = 0 is v(0) = −ω(5 cm) sin(π/6) = −5 cm/s.
(c) The acceleration at t = 0 is a(0) = −ω 2 (5cm) cos(π/6) = −17.3 cm/s2 .
(d) The period of the motion is T = 2π/ω = π s, and the amplitude is 5 cm.
2. (a) The total distance d the particle moves during one cycle is from x = −A to x = +A and
back to x = −A, so d = 4A = 20 cm.
(b) The maximum speed of the particle is vmax = ωA = 2πf = 2π/15 cm/s = 0.94 m/s. The
particle has maximum speed when it passes through the equilibrium position.
(c) The maximum acceleration of the particle is amax = ω 2 A = (2πf )2 A = 17.8 m/s2 . The
particle has maximum acceleration at the turning points, where it has maximum displace-
ment.

Exercise
1. A 0.35-kg mass attached to a spring with spring constant 130 N/m is free to move on a frictionless
horizontal surface. If the mass is released from rest at x=0.10 m, find the force on it and its
acceleration at (a) x=0.10 m, (b) x=0.050 m, (c) x=0 m, and (d) x= -0.050 m
2. A man wants to know the height of a building which has a pendulum hanging from its ceiling.
He notices that in one minute the pendulum oscillates 8 times.
(a) What is the height of the building?
(b) If the length were cut in half, what would the new frequency be?

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Energy in Simple Harmonic Oscillator
For the mass–spring system, the kinetic energy is given by
1 1
K= mv 2 = mA2 ω 2 sin2 (ωt + φ) (19)
2 2
and the potential energy is
1 2 1
U= kx = kA2 ω 2 cos2 (ωt + φ) (20)
2 2
Using the identity ω 2 = k/m in 16 we then find that the total energy is
1
E =K +U = mv 2 = mA2 ω 2 sin2 (ωt + φ) + kA2 ω 2 cos2 (ωt + φ) (21)
2
1 2
kA cos2 (ωt + φ) + sin2 (ωt + φ)


= (22)
2
and the trig identity cos2 (ωt + φ) + sin2 (ωt + φ) = 1 gives
1 2
E =K +U = kA (23)
2
Note that the equation for the energy associated with SHM can be solved to find the magnitude of
the velocity at any position:
1 1 1
E =K +U = mv 2 + kx2 = kA2 (24)
2
r 2 2
k
|v| = (A2 + x2 ) (25)
m
The energy in a simple harmonic oscillator is proportional to the square of the amplitude. When
considering many forms of oscillations, you will find the energy proportional to the amplitude squared.

Showing that the energy of the simple harmonic oscillator (as typified by a mass on a spring) is
constant and is equal to the potential energy of the spring when it is maximally extended (at which
time the mass is motionless).

It is useful to use the principle of energy conservation to derive some general relations for 1–di-
mensional harmonic motion. (We will not use the particular parameters for the mass-spring system,
just the quantities contained in Eq. 6, which describes the motion of a mass m along the x axis. From
Eq. 19 we have the kinetic energy as a function of time
1 1
K= mv 2 = mA2 ω 2 sin2 (ωt + φ) (26)
2 2
Now the maximum value of the kinetic energy is 21 mω 2 A2 , which occurs when x = 0. Since we are
free to fix the “zero–point” of the potential energy, we can agree that U (x) = 0 at x = 0. Then the
total energy of the system must be equal to the maximum (i.e. x = 0 value of the kinetic energy):
1
E= mω 2 A2 (27)
2

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Then using these expressions, the potential energy of the system is

U (x) = E−K (28)

1
= mω 2 A2 − mA2 ω 2 sin2 (ωt + φ) (29)
2
1
= mω 2 A2 (1 − sin2 (ωt + φ)) (30)
2
1
= mω 2 A2 (cos2 (ωt + φ)) (31)
2
1
= mω 2 A2 x2 (32)
2
1
Of course, for the mass–spring system U is given by kx2 , which gives the relation mω 2 = k, or
q 2
k
ω= m , which we’ve already found. If we use the relation vmax = ωA then the potential energy
can be written as
1 1
U (x) = mω 2 A2 x2 = mvmax 2
x2 (33)
2 2

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Problem
1. A particle that hangs from a spring oscillates with an angular frequency of 2 rad/s. The spring
is suspended from the ceiling of an elevator car and hangs motionless (relative to the car) as the
car descends at a constant speed of 1.5 m/s. The car then suddenly stops. Neglect the mass of
the spring. With what amplitude does the particle oscillate?
2. A mass-spring system oscillates with an amplitude of 3.5 cm. If the force constant of the spring
of 250 N/m and the mass is 0.5 kg, determine

(a) the mechanical energy of the system,

(b) the maximum speed of the mass, and
(c) the maximum acceleration.

Solution
1. Since vmax = ωA and ω = 2 rad/s−1 , the amplitude of the amplitude of the oscillations is
A = 0.75 m.
2. (a) We have m = 0.5 kg, A = 0.035 m, k = 250 N/m, ω = 22.36 rad/s. The mechanical
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energy of the system is E = kA2 = 0.153 J.
2
(b) The maximum speed of the mass is vmax = ωA = 0.78 m/s.
(c) The maximum acceleration is amax = ω 2 A = 17.5 m/s2 .

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SHM AND SIMPLE PENDULUMS
A simple pendulum is defined to have a point mass, also known as the pendulum bob, which is
suspended from a string of length L with negligible mass (See Figure 3 below). In our daily life,
pendulums have many uses, such as in clocks, on a swing set, and on a sinker on a fishing line.

Figure 3: A simple pendulum has a small-diameter bob and a string that has a very small mass but
is strong enough not to stretch appreciably. The linear displacement from equilibrium is s, the length
of the arc. Also shown are the forces on the bob, which result in a net force of −mg sin θ toward the
equilibrium position—that is, a restoring force.

A simple pendulum acts like a harmonic oscillator if the displacement is small. We can see this
from looking at the forces on a pendulum. We begin by defining the displacement to be the arc length
s. We see from Figure 3 that the net force on the bob is tangent to the arc and equals −mg sin θ.
(The weight mg has components mg cos θ along the string and mg sin θ tangent to the arc.) Tension
in the string exactly cancels the component mg cos θ parallel to the string. This leaves a net restoring
force back toward the equilibrium position at θ = 0.

Now, if we can show that the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement, then we
have a simple harmonic oscillator. In trying to determine if we have a simple harmonic oscillator, we
should note that for small angles (less than about 15◦ ), sin θ ≈ θ (sin θ and θ differ by about 1% or
less at smaller angles). Thus, for angles less than about 15◦ , the restoring force F is

F = −mg sin θ ≈ −mgθ (34)

The displacement s is directly proportional to θ. When θ is expressed in radians, the arc length in a
circle is related to its radius (L in this instance) by s = Lθ, so that
s
θ= (35)
L
For small angles, then, the expression for the restoring force is:
mgs
F ≈ (36)
L
mg
This expression is of the form: F = −kx, where the spring constant is given by k = and the
◦
L
displacement is given by x = s. For angles less than about 15 , the restoring force is directly propor-
tional to the displacement, and thus the simple pendulum is a simple harmonic oscillator.

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Using this equation, we can find the period of a pendulum for amplitudes less than about 15◦ . For
the simple pendulum:

r
m
T = 2π (37)
k
r
m
= 2π (38)
mg/L
s
L
= 2π (39)
g

The only things that affect the period of a simple pendulum are its length and the acceleration due
to gravity. The period is completely independent of other factors, such as mass. As with simple
harmonic oscillators, the period T for a pendulum is nearly independent of amplitude, especially if θ
is less than about 15◦ . Even simple pendulum clocks can be finely adjusted and accurate.

Example
What is the acceleration due to gravity in a region where a simple pendulum having a length 75.000
cm has a period of 1.7357 s?

Solution r
L
We are asked to find g given the period T and the length L of a pendulum. We can solve T = 2π
g

L
g = 4π 2
T
 
0.75
= 4π
1.73572
= 9.8281 m/s2 .

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