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1. Introduction
The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), adopted by all United Nations Member States
in 2015, involve an enormous, complex, diverse, dynamic, and interrelated research system.
The effective measurement and monitoring of each goal is the most effective approach to
achieving the SDGs. SDG research is interdisciplinary, involving resource management, the
environment, biology, ecology, society, the economy, humanities, and many other domains.
Moreover, the scope of research is typically global, and achieving the SDGs increasingly relies
on systematic and reliable primary global data (Guo, 2017, 2020; Jia, 2020; Merritt, Bi, Davis,
Windmill, & Xue, 2018; Wang & Yan, 2020).
Oceans cover 71% of the Earth’s surface and absorb over 90% of global heat from solar
radiation. The ocean global circulation system is a crucial regulator of the weather system and
CONTACT Xiaofeng Li [email protected] Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071,
China
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Taylor & Francis Group and Science Press on behalf of the International Society for Digital Earth,
supported by the CASEarth Strategic Priority Research Programme.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.
2 B. ZHANG ET AL.
an essential part of the Earth (IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), 2013; Leng
& Xu, 2021; Rhein, Rintoul, & Aoki et al., 2013; Schuckmann et al., 2016; Trenberth, Fasullo, &
Balmaseda, 2014). Therefore, the ocean contribution to global climate change regulation is
attracting greater attention. They also play a key role in guaranteeing life on the planet.
Changes in the marine environment and restoring the marine ecosystem balance are critical
for human survival and sustainable development. To further strengthen the implementation
of the SDGs, in December 2017, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed a Decade of
Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030) (hereafter referred to as “Ocean
Decade”) (UNESCO, 2020) with seven goals, including establishing a clean, healthy, predict
able, safe, and accessible ocean. It is vital to describe the past and current ocean conditions
and predict future ones using historical, contemporary, and modeling data to realize the goals
of the Ocean Decade.
With the rapidly advancing marine observation and simulation techniques, marine data are
growing exponentially. Comprehensive, continuous, multi-source, and three-dimensional
observation enables the currant marine data to reach the exabyte level and the daily increase
to the terabyte level. Marine science has ushered in the era of big data (Liu, Chen, Liu & Tian.,
2020; Qian & Chen, 2018), providing a large amount of data to support SDG research.
However, many problems remain in marine big data organization, management, mining,
and utilization, leading to SDG research difficulties. The issues are summarized as follows.
1) Data resource creations are insufficient, and data opening and sharing degrees
are low. Data sharing and opening can ensure that all research group types can obtain
data, data products, and services. However, because countries and institutions exhibit
different data opening policies and data integration and sharing abilities, data and
information exchange levels vary significantly across regions. In Europe and North
America, over 90% of data centers contain data and information exchange activities. In
the United States, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and its Earth
Observing System (EOS) have established the EOS Data and Information System. The
National Center for Environmental Information integrates global atmospheric, oceanic,
coastal, and geophysical data, and it contains the largest open World Ocean Database
(WOD) worldwide. The British Oceanographic Data Centre, French National Centre for
Space Studies, German Aerospace Center, Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, and
Canadian Space Agency have also shared various marine data products on a unified
platform. The European Union has established a marine data management framework
composed of SeaDataNet, EMODnet and Copernicus CMEMS. What’s better is the
SeaDataNet adopt the common communication standards and adapted technology to
ensure the platforms interoperability, effectively promoting global marine science
research and development. EMODNET portal uses semi-automatic way to identify and
contact potential marine data providers actively, and acquire new data and key data sets
(Han, Liang, & Zheng et al., 2020). However, Latin America and the Caribbean have less
than 50% sharing of their open data. In some other least developed regions, the propor
tion is even lower. Their data acquisition and processing capacities are far behind devel
oped regions, such as Europe and the United States (IOC-UNESCO, 2020). The lack of
a unified data processing and sharing platform limits open data usage.
2) Many marine data quality problems exist in the absence of an internationally
recognized optimal scheme. There are many sources of international marine data, and
different countries and organizations have various data acquisition and quality control
BIG EARTH DATA 3
(QC) methods. A large proportion of abnormal observational data exist due to human
error, instrument error, varying observation environments, and other reasons, resulting in
uneven data quality. Many countries and agencies have released ocean observing data
bases, such as the WOD, Global Temperature and Salinity Profile Programme (GTSPP),
Argo Float Database, and etc. (Argo, 2020; Boyer, Baranova, & Coleman et al., 2018; Good,
Martin, & Rayner, 2013; Gouretski, 2018; UNESCO-IOC, 2010). These databases were
released after QC using different techniques and have been widely used in physical
oceanography, climate change, and other studies. The international consensus is that
severe quality problems are present in these widely used international ocean databases.
The International Quality Controlled Ocean Database (IQuOD) was used to perform
a comprehensive evaluation of commonly used data QC methods worldwide by compar
ing the true-positive rate (TPR) and false-positive rate (FPR). The results demonstrate that
the current mainstream QC techniques do not consider the optimal state of QC with
a high TPR and low FPR (Simon, 2019). Thus, current data QC techniques fail to meet the
high-quality data needs of modern marine science.
3) The current multi-source data analysis and application competencies are insuffi
cient, and the application of artificial intelligence (AI) and big data in the marine field is
still in its infancy. The research objects of modern marine science are broader and deeper
in time and space. Developing multi-scale marine information mining techniques and
efficient, quick, and intelligent applications are the bottleneck problems in marine
science. AI is an essential driving force for a new round of scientific and technological
revolution and industrial transformation. It is also widely used in various fields such as
science and technology, economy, etc. However, marine AI and big data applications in
marine sciences are in the initial stage of development. The National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the United States released its AI strategy in 2021
(NOAA, 2021), aiming to leverage AI in demand-driven prioritized tasks. NOAA strives to
reduce marine data processing costs through this AI strategy and provide high-quality
and timely scientific products and services for society. Google, IBM, and other interna
tional companies have applied AI techniques to weather forecasting, precipitation fore
casting, and etc. The integration of AI and marine big data analysis and mining
technologies has become a new growth point for the practical application of marine
big data (Li et al., 2020).
The Center for Ocean Mega-Science, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), constructed
a marine big data management and application service system. This study first introduces the
overall framework of the marine big data management and application service system. Then,
we focus on the demonstrated applications of this system in data aggregation and manage
ment, marine data QC, and ocean disaster prevention to address several challenges in current
marine data management and application.
Figure 1. Overall framework of marine big data management and application service system. The
green numbers (1, 2, and 3) represent the three platforms of the system. The contents of the orange
numbers will be described in Sections 3.1 and 3.2.
Figure 2. Marine data retrieval and download service interface (msdc.qdio.ac.cn/search-field). The left
side includes the query conditions and the right side shows the query results.
government agencies, and social groups through a unified data service platform (Figure 2).
Further, the findings of different researchers, such as mathematical models and AI algorithms,
can be transformed into a visualized decision support system for governments, enterprises,
etc., offering services for marine health assessment, disaster prevention, and mitigation.
source and multi-type marine environment historical data. The data are simultaneously
sorted and marked according to the data source, subject, data usage, and etc.
The primary data types are as follows:
● Public data. This data type refers to data released by different data centers or agencies
with fixed data sources and regular updates. The data has been standardized in a fixed
format. The platform cooperates with data publishing agencies to automatically obtain
the latest daily public data. The obtained data are reorganized according to the system
format. At the same time, the data source is marked in the data service system. We
require users to quote in accordance with the requirements of data owners.
● Ocean dark data. Dark data is data that has not been sufficiently explored or under
stood. In marine scientific research, dark data refers to the scattered data generated
by researchers that cannot be effectively archived or saved. The ocean dark data
management platform was developed (Easy Data-Management (EasyDM), see
Section 3.1 for details) to handle this data type. Data owners can independently
integrate and manage the data and authorize the data-use scope.
These data management methods can effectively expand data source channels and
standardize and unify data from different sources. They also shorten the data collection
and compilation times. In order to ensure the data security, all the data collected by the data
center are protected by the unit firewall and the data center firewall. On the other hand,
when using EasyDM system for personal data aggregation, all operations are carried out in
the internal network of the unit and included in the data resource pool after being checked
by the data center. At the same time, we manage the data resources at different levels,
including public sharing, protocol sharing, and classified data. The public sharing data
allows users to directly access. For protocol sharing data, users can access the metadata,
but they cannot directly access the data resources. These data need to be distributed to
users by managers after authorization. The classified data is stored in the confidential
computer alone and cannot be accessed on the Internet.
● Marine hydrology (Temperature and Salinity) data exhibits regional variations and
periodic seasonal characteristics. Therefore, we developed a new data QC module
including different data characteristics: range, peak, equivalence, gradient, maxi
mum depth, regional meteorology, and regional gradient meteorology checks.
● Marine geology (Water Depth) data is predominately fixed and unchanged. Our
proposed platform incorporates satellite altimetry data to determine the initial
6 B. ZHANG ET AL.
data fields. It uses the Expert–Machine combination method to perform QC and form
a data QC module, including an extreme value check, eigenvalue distribution check,
track map diagnosis, and adjacent voyage comparison check.
● Marine Chemistry (Oxygen, Nitrate and Nitrite, Silicate, pH, Chlorophyll and
Phosphate) data exhibits regional and seasonal variations, particularly in coastal
areas, which are greatly affected by human activities and land-based materials.
Therefore, the platform checks the data completeness, data scope, regional
meteorology, geographical correlation, time scale correlation, and parameter
correlation of this data type.
● The data resource service platform offers external data management services and
conducts the online operation processes (msdc.qdio.ac.cn) such as data collection,
browsing, application, and audit. In addition, this platform provides a high-quality
global ocean observing database (Section 2.2) with download service, map research
and diversified data retrieval. Users can locate target data through multiple para
meters such as classification label, attribute, space-time range, and survey platform,
and they can download the results online. This platform also provides an online data
Digital Object Identifier (DOI)/ China Science and Technology Resource (CSTR)
registration service. All the data submitted to this platform will be registered with
DOI/CSTR to identify the data source. When users use data, we ask them to identify
the data source and reference the data. In this way, we hope that as far as possible to
strengthen data intellectual property protection and protect the rights and interests
of data owners.
● Data visualization platform. Based on the Cesium data visualization system
(https://cesium.com/platform/cesiumjs/), we present a component-based inter
active visualization structure for multidimensional and spatiotemporal ocean
data based on Cesium 3D Platform. It is free and has rich data visualization
plug-ins. Based on this structure, users can customize the system to visualize
other scientific data in a rapid manner. On the one hand, it can display all
marine environmental monitoring data types in real-time. On the other hand, it
can integrate warning models and forecast marine disasters such as offshore
marine ecological disasters and dynamic disasters (http://casearthocean.qdio.ac.
cn/oceanVisual). Thus, this platform can intuitively display the early warning
information for marine disaster prevention and mitigation.
BIG EARTH DATA 7
● The resource layer is the foundation of the whole service architecture. Its main
function is to provide computing, storage and data service resources for the platform
layer. The resource layer is further divided into physical layer, data layer and virtual
layer. The physical layer includes computing server, physical storage, high-speed
network and computing model. The data layer integrates the existing data resources,
stores data in the storage system based on the unified data storage model. Through
virtualization technology, the virtual layer integrates different nodes and heteroge
neous physical resources to form a large resource pool for the platform layer.
● The platform layer is the middle layer connecting the resource layer and the
application layer. The platform layer includes three parts: cloud service, cloud plat
form and resource registration and monitoring. Cloud services mainly provide data
services, data loading services, data query services, computing services and model
services. The platform contains a distributed data storage structure, which stores the
data on each node in a distributed way. The data are readed and processed directly
from each node during data access. In the master-slave database, the master is
responsible for the load of the write operation, while the read operation is com
pleted by the slave to ensure the security of the data.
● The application layer is the top layer of the whole framework. The application layer
provides an interactive interface for users through the user interface. At the same time, it
provides a management interface for administrators through the management interface
to manage the permissions of users and all resources in the management system. Users
can query data resources to meet their own needs in various forms. The system also
provides online model calling function to realize complex service functions such as
online data processing, calculation simulation and analysis.
Each developed coastal country has established a national data center to aggre
gate and integrate its marine data effectively. However, much data remains scat
tered throughout various research institutions. Researchers own some data. These
data can be categorized as ocean dark data, which cannot be aggregated to a data
center for unified management. Data owners often lack the workforce and technol
ogy to manage data effectively, leading to wasted data resources. This problem is
more prominent in less developed countries.
Therefore, an intuitive ocean dark data management platform Easy Data-Management
(EasyDM), was designed and developed to standardize data management and sharing. The
platform system adopts C/S(Client/Server) architecture design and development. The primary
server is in the data center; thus, the researchers do not need to purchase new equipment for
data storage.
Figure 3. The architecture of the marine big data management and application service system.
BIG EARTH DATA 9
The proposed system was jointly constructed and managed by the data owners and
centers. In addition, the system was embedded with common marine survey data keywords
and data record formats (e.g. longitude and latitude record format, measurement unit, record
length, and etc.). Users can dynamically customize a data storage sheet by selecting the
embedded keywords according to the topic data. After converting the original data to the
selected data format, users upload the data independently by hitting a button. The system
then automatically establishes the database for data storage.
The system contains built-in data and a user management system (Figure 4). The
Figure 4. Workflow of ocean dark data management by different users using EasyDM system.
data and users are classified and set using different labels. Each user can customize
his/her data usage (e.g. public sharing, protocol sharing, personal use, etc.) and
scope. The public sharing data is incorporated into the unified management plat
form owned by the data center, and the data service platform offers external
services. Regarding the data sharing protocol, the metadata information is released
through the data service platform. When other users apply for data usage, the data
center provides data sharing services with the data owner’s consent. Concerning
data for personal use, only the data owner can browse and use the data.
This system solves the problem of data resource loss caused by a lack of data management
technology. Additionally, the proposed system organizes massive historical data resources,
which helps users manage data and significantly increases user initiatives for data sharing,
thus expanding the data resource pool.
At present, the system has been applied to the marine chemistry data manage
ment of the Institute of Oceanology, CAS. After integrating the self-owned data with
the international shared data, a marine chemistry database containing over
19 million data points was established to support global ocean acidification research
(Figure 5) (Zhong et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2021). Marine researchers in different
countries can further optimize this system to promote the management and sharing
of marine data and support the Ocean Decade.
10 B. ZHANG ET AL.
Figure 5. The pCO2 data products based on this platform (Wang et al., 2021). a) Mean Sea surface CO2
fluxes (Pg C) in 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015 in the Southern Ocean. b) Trends in CO2 flux of the Southern
Ocean during 2000–2015.
BIG EARTH DATA 11
Researchers from the Institute of Atmospheric Physics, CAS, and the Institute of
Oceanography, CAS, constructed an automatic data product development system
(Figure 6) that provides monthly ocean temperature and salinity grid data products.
Researchers called the temperature and salinity observational data through the
data service platform. After data QC and deviation correction, the researchers
employed the ensemble optimal interpolation method with a dynamic ensemble
(EnOI-DE; Cheng & Zhu, 2016) to build the global ocean temperature (Figure 7) and
salinity 1°- and 0.5°-resolution data products (Cheng et al., 2017). We automated these
data products from data acquisition, processing, grid, and the final product release
service, which successfully improves the data product development efficiency and
provides faster and more accurate data support for global climate change research
(Cheng et al., 2021).
● Data resources: In addition to the international shared data that is commonly used
in marine scientific research, such as WOD, ARGO, and GTSPP, data resources include
the special Chinese offshore survey voyage data to the Western Pacific Ocean and
the Eastern Indian Ocean, Chinese offshore observational buoy data, and deep-sea
buoy data from Western Pacific scientific observing network. These data were
obtained from the CAS, Ministry of Natural Resources, Ministry of Education, and
12 B. ZHANG ET AL.
Figure 7. Global ocean temperature gridded data (Spatial resolution: 1°×1°; Temporal resolution:
monthly mean; Vertical resolution: 0–2000 m, 41 layers). For example, water depth: a = 0 m; b = 50 m;
c = 100 m; d = 300 m; time: July 2020.
other institutions in China, and they were collected and compiled using the data
platform.
● Data preprocessing: Chinese original and independent observational data under
went integrity verification, preprocessing, metadata information association, dupli
cation removal, format standardization, etc., before being integrated with the
international shared data. Thus, a unified ocean temperature and salinity database
was constructed with data from over 15 million stations.
● Data quality control: We optimized the data quality control methods commonly
used in the world, especially the local climate state check module, which is consid
ered to be one of the most effective means to identify temperature and salt data
errors. We divide the whole ocean into 1°×1° sub regions, and use the statistical
distribution characteristics of historical observation data in each sub region to define
the threshold range (Figure 8 and Figure 9). If an observation data exceeds the set
threshold, it will be marked as suspicious data. For the statistical characteristic data
of normal distribution, the threshold (upper and lower bounds of climate state) is
determined by using the PauTa Criterion (extreme value test). For skewed distribu
tion data, Quantile Method is used to determine the threshold.
We use the WOD data to test the accuracy of data quality control. The test data is
download from NOAA/NCEI (https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/world-ocean-
database). Data location is from 73.5°E to 74.5°E, 37.5°N to 38.5°N, and time spans from
1940 to present. Figure 9a demonstrates all the profiles of the original temperature
observation data. Figure 9b shows the correct data after NCEI quality control. Figure 9c
shows our quality control results. Through comparative analysis, we can see that our
quality control system has identified more abnormal data.
BIG EARTH DATA 13
Figure 8. Data quality control by climate state check. The red dot is the data marked as an error.
Figure 9. Comparison of quality control results for ocean temperature data: a) the original tempera
ture observation data; b) data after NCEI data quality control; c) data after data quality control.
● Data deviation correction: Regarding the ocean observational data deviation, the
system adopted the expendable bathythermograph (XBT) and mechanical bathyther
mograph (MBT) data deviation correction schemes proposed by the Institute of
Atmospheric Physics, CAS, to correct the historical data deviation. The XBT bias correc
tion scheme is recommended by the international XBT research group (Cheng et al.,
2016). The scheme can correct XBT systematic bias and ensure the accuracy of historical
ocean subsurface observing data. At present, the IQuOD only uses the XBT scheme.
● Gridded data technology: A new spatial interpolation scheme was adopted that uses the
EnOI-DE method and fifth phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project multi-
mode historical simulation to provide dynamic ensemble samples. The aim was to provide
an improved initial field (as a prior estimate) and background error covariance (defining
how information is transferred from the observed area to the non-observed area). Thus, we
14 B. ZHANG ET AL.
Figure 10. Global ocean gridded product and the visualization system: a) 0–2000 m mean ocean
temperature anomaly related to 1981–2010 baseline; b) 0–2000 m mean ocean salinity anomaly
related to 1981–2010 baseline.
can identify the anisotropic correlations between different grid data points more accu
rately and reconstruct the temperature/salinity field in the non-observed area.
● Data products publishing and sharing: Data products are published and shared
through the marine data resource service platform (http://msdc.qdio.ac.cn/). The
ocean data visualization platform presents these data products for scientific
advancement (Figure 10).
The proposed system provides comprehensive process services from data acquisition to
data product development and sharing. For example, the global ocean heat content changes
grid data products have been used in over 90 countries and widely cited in the literature.
4. Conclusions
The ocean is the primary driving force and regulator of global climate and environ
mental changes and a critical part of the Earth system. Therefore, it can provide
solutions to climate change mitigation and sustainable marine economic develop
ment (including the future of food and energy). However, due to human activities on
land and the interactions between the ocean, atmosphere, and cryosphere, the
oceans face many issues, such as frequent marine ecological disasters, severe marine
pollution, and ecosystem degradation, which pose an enormous threat to human
health and the economy.
Ocean data are critical for ocean cognition and governance. Therefore, marine
data management and application service system processes have been established
BIG EARTH DATA 15
to effectively aggregate and standardize data from different sources and subjects in
real-time. Additionally, high-quality and multidisciplinary data QC techniques have
been developed to provide high-quality scientific data for other users and support
SDG research effectively.
The proposed system exhibits three superior characteristics compared to those of the
traditional data management system:
Acknowledgments
The work was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy
of Sciences (Grant Nos. XDA19060101 and XDA19060104), the National Key R&D Program of
China (Grant No. 2017YFA0603201), the Marine Science Data Center CAS and the Youth
Innovation Promotion Association CAS. The authors acknowledge NOAA/NCEI for decades of
efforts in collecting and quality controlling the historical subsurface data, which was the
important data source used in our study.
16 B. ZHANG ET AL.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
This work was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of
Sciences [XDA19060101, XDA19060104, XDB42040401]; the National Key R & D Program of China
[2017YFA0603201]; Youth Innovation Promotion Association of the Chinese Academy of Sciences;
the Key R & D project of Shandong Province (2019JZZY010102), the Key deployment project of
Center for Ocean Mega-Science, CAS (COMS2019R02), the Chinese Academy of Sciences
(Y9KY04101L), National Natural Science Foundation of China [grant number U2006211].
Notes on contributors
Bin Zhang received the B.S. degree in Marine Technology (ocean
remote sensing and data processing) from Tianjin University of
Science and Technology, Tianjin, China, in 2009, and the
Ph.D. degrees in Marine Geology from the Ocean University of China,
Qingdao, China, in 2015.
From 2015 to 2017, he was a postdoctoral researcher at Institute of
Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Qingdao, China,
where he was an engineer from 2017 to 2019, and has been a senior
engineer since 2019. His current research interests include ocean data
quality control, big data analysis and mining, and artificial intelligence
applications.
Dr. Li is an Associate Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing and the
International Journal of Remote Sensing. He is an Editorial Board Member of the International Journal
of Digital Earth, Big Earth Data, and the Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. He is also the Executive
Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Remote Sensing (a Science Partner Journal).
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