VEDIC AGE

Vedic Age

Introduction
• Between 1500 BC and 600 BC in India.
• Period during which Vedas were composed
• Associated culture - Vedic civilization.
• Centered in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.
• Beginning of the historic period in India as it can be studied through literary
records i.e., the Vedas.
• Vedas are thought to have been composed by the Aryans.

Advent of Aryans
• ‘Aryan’ - a linguistic group speaking Indo-European languages.
• Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek etc. Emerged from these languages.
• Vedic people belonged to the Nordic race.
Advent of Aryans
Original Homes
• Based on the philological and archaeological evidence, Aryans may have lived
somewhere in the Steppes stretching from southern Russia to Central Asia and
migrated to northwest India and came to be called Indo-Aryans or just Aryans. .
• They migrated in several waves spanning several hundred years, the earliest
wave of migration seems to have been around 1500 BCE.

5 Important Theories for Original Home of the Aryans

• Advocated German orientalist Max Mueller through a comparative
study of “Avesta” and “Vedas” concluded that original homeland of
Central Asian the Aryans must be the region adjacent to India and Iran.
Theory • The vegetation and animals which are mentioned in "Vedas" and
"Avesta" are similar to those found in Central Asia making their
original homeland Central Asia.
Advent of Aryans

5 Important Theories for Original Home of the Aryans

• Forwarded by Sir W. Jones in 1786, based on comparative linguistics,
European that the continent of Europe was the homeland of Aryans.
Theory • Greek, Latin, Gothic, English and Sanskrit language have almost
similar words for mother and father, pointing at common ancestors.
• Dr. Sampurnanand and A. C. Das declared that "Sapta Sindhu” region
was the homeland of the Aryans.
Indian • According to Ganganath Jha "Brahmarishi Desh" was the land of the
Theory Aryans.
• L. D. Kala propagated for Kashmir.
• R. B. Pandey believed Madhya Pradesh to be the locale of Aryans.
Advent of Aryans

5 Important Theories for Original Home of the Aryans

• Swami Dayanand Saraswati gave the theory that Tibet was the
Tibetan
original home of the Aryans and also tried to give the facts by
Theory
referring to Vedas and other books.
• This theory was put forward by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
• His theory was based on the comparative study of 'Avesta' and
'Vedas'.
Arctic Region
• Vedas speak about 6 months long day and long nights.
Theory
• He believed that Northern Arctic region was suitable for dwelling.
Aryans initially lived there but with the climatic and geographical
changes, Aryans had to move out.
Advent of Aryans

Archaeology about Aryan Migration

• “Archaeology knows of no Aryans, only literature knows of Aryans.”
• The archaeological excavations at various sites suggest that :
• Decline of the Harappan civilization was not caused by a largescale alien
invasion.
• Attempts to identify the makers of Painted Grey Ware were unsuccessful.
• Recent excavations at Bhagwanpura, Dadheri (Haryana), and Manda (Jammu)
have shown that the Late Harappan and Painted Grey Wares could be found
together.
• Conclusion
• No substantial proof in archaeology of large-scale migration around 1500 BCE.
• No proof that the Aryans destroyed the Harappan civilization.
Advent of Aryans

Geographical Expansion of Aryans in

India
• Aryans first appeared around 1500
BC in the Sapta Sindhu region
(Land of the Seven Rivers) around
which the Harappan culture once
flourished.
• From 1000 BC onwards, with the
introduction of iron technology,
Aryans had started deserting ‘Sapta
Sindhu' region and expanding
further eastwards, finally settled in
Gangetic plains (1000-600 BC).
Phases of Vedic Period
Vedic texts reflect two stages of development in terms of literature as well as social
and cultural evolution.
The Rigveda which is the oldest Vedic text reflects one stage of social and cultural
development whereas the other three Vedas reflect another stage.
The first stage is known as the Rigvedic period or Early Vedic period and the later
stage is known as the Later Vedic period.

Phases of Vedic period

Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)
(1500-1000 BC)
Rig Vedic period refers to the Later Vedic period was the period in which three
period in which Rig Veda was Vedas along with their respective Brahmanas,
compiled. Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
Geographical Location
• Early Vedic Aryans lived in Sapta Sindhu region - Northwestern South Asia up to
Yamuna.
• Zend Avesta
• Ancient Iranian text shares similarities with Rig Veda.
• Mentions rivers like Kubha, Indus and its tributaries and Saraswati river.

Rig Vedic Rivers

• More than 25 rivers were mentioned in RigVeda.
• Most referred rivers are Sindhu (73 times), Saraswati (19 times), Ganga (twice),
Yamuna (thrice) and Sarayu (twice).
• Saraswati was the most pious river and is referred as Matetama, Devitama and
Naditama.
• River Narmada is not and the references of 'Samudra' in Rig Veda is attributed to
the confluence of rivers, not sea.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)

River RigVedic Region River RigVedic Region

Name Name
Indus Sindhu Punjab Kurram Krumu Afghanistan
Ravi Parushini, Punjab Kabul Khubha Afghanistan
Iravati
Jhelum Vitasta Punjab Swath Suvastu Afghanistan
Chenab Asikni Punjab Ghaggar Drishadvati Rajasthan
Beas Vipas Punjab Saraswati Sarsuti Rajasthan
Sutlej Sutudri Punjab Ganga Ganga Uttar Pradesh
Gomati Gumal Afghanistan Sarayu Guljaram Uttarakhand
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
Economy
• Society was pastoral.
• Hymns of the Rigveda yield evidence of the importance of cattle –
• They domesticated animals like cows (176 mentions in RigVeda), oxen, horses
(215 times), camels, goats, sheep etc.
• Elephants rarely domesticated; wild animal lion was referred but not tiger.

Agriculture
• Agriculture was their secondary economic activity for subsistence as -
• The region received low rainfall.
• All the rivers mentioned chose to change their courses frequently.
• Lack of iron tools restricted taking up of large-scale cultivation.
• Crops
• Only mentioned crops were yava (modern jau or barley) or cereals.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)

Agriculture
• Agricultural Technology
• Early Vedic people had no knowledge of iron technology.
• Only metal referred is 'Aya' (copper either pure or alloyed).
• Tools mentioned - langala or sira (the plough), the wooden phala
(ploughshare), Khanitra (hoe), the datra (sickle) and the parasue (axe).
• Fire used to burn down the forest cover for shifting agriculture.

Trade and commerce

• Pastoral and self-sufficient agrarian economy with no record of trade and
commerce.
• Limited scale transactions the barter system was practiced.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)

Society

Structure of Society Nature of Society

• Basic social unit - the Kula, or the • Society was a tribal and largely an
family, and the Kulapa. egalitarian society.
• Family was part of a larger grouping • Social relations were based on
called vis or clan. kinship ties.
• The clans settled in villages or • There was no caste division.
grama. • Occupation was not based on birth.
• One or more clans made jana or • Economically stratified.
tribe, also the largest social unit.
• Chief of the tribe was the raja or
the gopati.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
Society

Nature of Society Occupation

• Gradually, society was divided into • Various occupational groups

warriors, priests and the ordinary mentioned such as those of
people. weavers, smiths, carpenters, leather
• Sudra category came into workers, chariot-makers, priests etc.
existence only towards the end. • Chariot-makers occupied special
• Varna or colour was the basis of social status and Bronze-smiths and
initial differentiation between the carpenters were frequently
Vedic and non-Vedic people. mentioned.
• Rigveda mentions arya varna and • Takshan refers to the carpenter and
dasa varna. rathakara refers to the chariot
maker.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
Society

Occupation Trade

• The weaver was called as 'Vaya' • On the levels of exchanges and

whereas the Charakha was called as involved only “barter system”.
'Tasar’. • The people involved in trade was
• The goldsmith was called as called as 'Pani’.
'Hiranyakar' who used to make • Cows were the most favoured
Jewellery of gold, both for human medium of exchange.
and horses. • Society was patriarchal.
• There are no references to beggars, • The birth of a son was the common
wage-earners or wages in the desire of the people.
Rigveda. • The importance given to the male
• There are multiple references of members is reflected in the Rigvedic
slaves. hymns.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
Society

Position of Women
• Women in Early Vedic society enjoyed a respectable position.
• Both polygamy and polyandry were present.
• Though Sati was mentioned, it was never practiced in a strict sense and was only
symbolic.
• There were no references of child marriage.
• There are few references to widow remarriage.
• Niyoga (levirate) marrying the husband's younger brother after the death of
one's husband was allowed.
• Women were educated and had access to the tribal assemblies, and even those
who composed hymns.
• Learned women of Vedic studies were called 'brahmavadinis’.
• Lopamudra, Gosha and Apala had contributed to the hymns of RigVeda.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
Polity
• The polity of the early vedic period was a tribal one where democratic principles
were generally predominant.
• The chief social unit of the Aryans was known as jana and the chief of jana was
the political leader called rajan.
• The main function of the rajan was to protect the jana and cattle from the
enemies.
• He was helped in his task by the tribal assemblies called sabha, samiti,
vidatha, gana and parishad.
• Out of these sabha and samiti were the most important assemblies.
• Women were also allowed to participate in the deliberations of the Sabha and
Vidatha.
• Rajan enjoyed no authoritative powers and was always checked by these
tribal assemblies.
• The tribal assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
Polity: Tribal Assemblies of Early Vedic Period
• It was the council of elders of the clan referred as 'Narista'-meaning its
Sabha resolutions cannot be denied.
• Women had special representation in this assembly.
• It was the General assembly of the entire clan.
Samiti
• Its most important function was the election of Rajan.
• Rigveda refers to this assembly 122 times- probably it might be the most
important one.
• This assembly was a kind of dispute resolutionary body, but was not
Vidhata directly involved in administrative functions.
• It took up the task of distribution and re-distribution of wealth among the
clan.
• Women had special representation in this assembly.
• No much information is available regarding this assembly.
Gana • It also participated in distribution of wealth of the clan.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)

Polity: Functionaries
• In the day to day administration, the king was assisted by the following
functionaries -
• Purohita - He was the most important functionary. His role was to offer prayers
and perform rituals. Two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig
Veda are Vasishtha and Visvamitra.
• Senapati - He was the next important functionary. He assisted Rajan in waging
wars.
• Vrajapati - He was the officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture lands.
He led the heads of the families called kulapas or the heads of the fighting
hordes/units called gramanis to battle.
• Gramani - He was the head of village or fighting hordes/units, He was referred
as 'Rajakarte' (king-maker) in RigVeda.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
Polity

Army Tribal Conflicts

• The sena or army was not a • Possession of cattle and the

permanent fighting group. pastoral lands led to occasional
• In times of war, Rajan mustered a intertribal fights and conflicts.
militia whose military functions • When gramas clashed with one
were performed by different tribal another, it caused Sangrama
groups called vrata, gana, grama, (war).
sardha. • The most decisive intra-tribal
• The warrior category was the conflict (Gavisti) referred in
‘rajanya’. RigVeda is Dasarajna( Battle of
Ten Kings). Dasarajna( Battle of
Ten Kings).
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
Dasarajna ( The Battle of Ten Kings)
• This battle was fought on the banks of river Parushini (Ravi).
• The battle was fought between the Bharata tribe and a confederation of 5 Aryan
and 5 non-Aryan tribes led by the Puru tribe.
• 5 Aryan Tribes - Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu and Druhyu.
• 5 Non-Aryan Tribes - Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas, Shiva and Vishanin.
• This battle is also known as “Priests' conflict”, since Sudasa of Bharata tribe was
supported by Vasista while Purukutsa was supported by Viswamitra.
• Reason
• Dispute among tribes in matters of cattle issue, river water sharing and control
over pastures of Sapta Sindhu region.
• Outcome
• Bharata tribe won the battle and this battle had established the supremacy of
Bharata tribe.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
Religion
• The religious ideas are reflected in the hymns of the Rigveda.
• It is materialistic in nature - Prayers for physical protection and for material gains
were the main concerns.
• It was sacrificial in nature i.e., sacrifices or yajnas were performed – for boons, or
victory in battles, or acquisition of cattle, birth of sons, etc.
• RigVedic Gods
• Worshipped the natural forces like wind, water, rain, thunder, fire etc.
• Gods reflect the tribal and patriarchal nature of the society - no goddess
mentioned.
• Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Dyaus, Pushana, Yama, Soma, etc. are all male
gods.
• In comparison, only a few goddesses such as Ushas, Sarasvati, Prithvi, etc
occupying secondary positions in the pantheon.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)

Religion

• Indra was mentioned most frequently as Rigvedic people were engaged in wars
with each other. He carried the thunderbolt and was also respected as a weather
god who brought rains.
○ Maruts the god of storm aided Indra in the wars.
○ Agni, the fire god was the god of the home and considered an intermediary
between gods and men.
○ Soma was associated with plants and herbs. Soma was also a plant from which
an intoxicating juice was extracted and drunk at sacrifices.
○ Varuna was the keeper of the cosmic order known as rita - an important aspect
of tribal set-up.
○ Pushan was the god of the roads, herdsmen and cattle.
• Other gods were similarly associated with other aspects of nature and life.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)

RigVedic Gods
• Most important God - the god of strength and the god of thunder.
Indra
• RigVeda devoted 250 hymns to him.
• Water god and the upholder of Rta (cosmic and moral order).
Varuna • Punishes immoral people with Pasha and worshipped for forgiveness.
• RigVeda devoted 20 hymns to him.

• Agni is Fire god and priest of gods (intermediary b/w men and god).
Agni
• RigVeda devoted 200 hymns to him.
• Soma is god of plants and King of gods.
Soma
• RigVeda devoted 120 hymns to him.
Vayu(Wind god), Marutha(God of storms), Yama(God of death), Aswins
Other Gods
(Healers of diseases), Pushan(Protector of cattle), Dyaus(God of Heaven).
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)

RigVedic Gods
RigVedic Aditi(Earth goddess); Ushas(Goddess of dawn), Aranyasi(Godess of
Godesses forests); Savitri(Godess of light); Ila(Mother of cattle herds).
• Soma is god of plants.
• King of gods.
Soma
• RigVeda devoted 120 hymns to him.
Other • Vayu(Wind god); Marutha( God of storms); Yama(God of death);
prominent Aswins(Healers of diseases), pushan(Protector of cattle), Dyaus (God
Gods of Heaven).
RigVedic • Aditi(Earth goddess); Ushas(Goddess of dawn), Aranyasi(Godess of
Godesses forests); Savitri(Godess of light); Ila(Mother of cattle herds).
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)
About
• Period that followed Rig Vedic period is known as the Later Vedic period.
• Also marked as Iron- PGW Age because of the use of iron in agriculture and
painted grey ware (PGW).
• Based mainly on the Vedic texts completed after the age of the Rig Veda.
Geographical Expansion
• The literature of this period mentions the Arabian sea, the Vindhya range and the
Northern plains of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
• During this period, the Aryans moved into Eastward and southward regions.
• In the East, Aryans inhabited the Awadh region and after that they entered
into Bihar.
• A proof of the Eastward march was given in the Satapatha Brahmana
through the story of Agni and Videha.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)
Geographical Expansion
• The Later Vedas give three broad divisions of India:
• Aryavarta (Northern India)
• Madhyadesa (Central India)
• Dakshina Patha (Southern India)

Panchal (Bareilly, Badayun & Farrukhabad in U.P.)

Kushinagar (Eastern region of Uttar Pradesh)
Major Kashi (Modem Varanasi)
Kingdoms Koshal (Faizabad in Uttar Pradesh)
of the
Southern Madra (Near Amritsar)
Later
Vedic Uttara Madra (Kashmir)
Period Eastern Madra (Near Kangra)
Kekaya (On the bank of Beas River east of Gandhar kingdom)
Gandhar (Rawalpindi & Peshawar)
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)
Economy
• The pastoral economy was replaced by a sedentary agrarian economy.
• Agriculture
• Agriculture was the mainstay of the Later Vedic people due to -
• Settlements in the fertile Ganga-Yamuna doab and mid-Gangetic valley
which are suitable for high agricultural productivity.
• The use of iron tools and agricultural implements in land reclamation.
• Major crops - Rice, barley, beans, sesame and wheat.
• Use of Iron
• The main factor in the expansion of the Aryan culture at this time was the
beginning of the use of iron around 1000 BC.
• The iron metal is called Syama or Krishna ayas in the later Vedic texts.
• Iron implements buried with dead bodies have been discovered.
• Archaeological evidence at Baluchistan , Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan
has shown that iron began to be used around 1000 BC.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)
Economy
• Crafts
• This period saw the rise of diverse arts and crafts mentioned in the Later Vedic
texts include - Vyaya (Weaver), Kulala (Potter), Tashta (Carpenter), Karmara
(Black-smith), Hiranyakara (Gold-smith), and Rathakara (Chariot-maker).
• Pottery - Black and red ware, Black slipped ware, Painted Grey Ware and Red
Ware.
• Trade and Commerce
• There was growth of trade and commerce effecting the rise of urban centers in
Indo-Gangetic basin viz., Hastinapur, Kausambi, Ahichchatra, etc.
• There was no mention of coined money and the Barter system continued.
• Nishka, Satamana (100 silver units) and Krishala (copper object having fixed
value) were used as means of exchange.
• Money-lending activity had become an important profession.
• Kusidin (usurer) is referred for the first time in Satapatha Brahmana.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)

Society
• Patriarchal Family System - Eldest of male members of the family perceived as
the head of family, called as 'grihapati'.
• Varna System
• The 10th Mandala in Purushsukta of Rigveda mentions a clear-cut division of
the society.
• Duties assigned to each varna:
• Brahman - Teaching, learning, performance and hosting of sacrifice
• Kshatriya - Learning, hosting sacrifice and protection of people and land
• Vaishya - Trade and agriculture; the agriculturists, traders and artisans
belonged to this varna, and
• Shudra - Submission of service to upper three classes; this was the lowest of
the varna-ladder and had no powers or rights in the society.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)
Society
• Varna System
• The three Varnas (Brahmans, Kshatriya, Vaishya) in combination were
perceived as men of higher Varnas, i.e. traivarnikas.
• Traivarnikas were entitled to upanayana (investiture) with the sacred thread
according to the Vedic mantras.
• Sudras and women were not entitled to upanayana.
• Chatur-Varnashrama System
• In this system, a person's life is divided into four parts and he was assigned
some duties with respect to his age -
• Brahmacharya ashrama-Studentship
• Grihastha ashrama-Householder
• Van-prastha ashram-Partial retirement from household life
• Sanayas ashrama -Complete retirement from social life
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)
Society
• Concept of Purushartha
• Every man was expected to follow four main duties in his life - Artha
(economic values), Kama (pleasure), Dharma (righteousness), and Moksha
(liberation).
• System of Marriage
• 'Inter-Varna' marriages were disliked, whereas 'same gotra/ family’ marriages
were forbidden.
• There were two types of legalized structures of marriages:
• Anuloma marriage was used to perform between bridegroom from higher
Varna and bride from lower Varna.
• Pratiloma marriage was used to perform between bridegroom from lower
varna and bride from higher varna.
• Asta-vivaha -This refers to the eight types of marriages prevalent during the
period.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)
Astavivaha
Type of
S.No. Description
Marriage
1 Brahma Most idealistic marriage; duly dowried, and marriage in same
Varna with the consent of parents
2 Daiva Giving daughter to a priest in lieu of dakshina
3 Arsa Marriage with a token bride-price of a cow and a bull
4 Prajaprathya Marriage without dowry or bride-price
5 Gandharva Clandestine marriage with the consent of the both parties;
meant for kshatriyas
6 Asura Marriage by purchase which was meant for Vysyas
7 Rakshasa Marriage by capture which was also meant for Kshatriyas
8 Paisacha Marriage by seducing girl with intoxicants, meant for Shudras
Note: First four marriages were permissible to Brahmans.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)

Position of Women

• This period onwards status of women had started deteriorating.

• Husband received the status as a Patiparmeshwar (God).
• According to the Satapatha Brahmana, a wife was supposed to eat only after the
husband had finished eating.
• Manusmriti laid down various restrictions regarding the traditional rights for
women in his book Manusmriti
• Hindu Dharmashastras denied offering prayers and sacrifices, practices of
penances and undertake religious pilgrimages for women.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)

Polity
• The small tribal states (Janas) of Rig Vedic period were replaced by large
territorial states (Janapada).
• Puru and Bharata tribes of RigVedic period were merged to form Kuru rajya.
• Srijanya, Krivi, Turuvasa, Somaka, Keshin tribes were merged into Panchala
kingdom.
• Monarchy - Tribal polity was now replaced by a monarchical system of
governance.
• To assert his authority over subjects, the king began to perform public rituals
to get religious sanctity and to secure titles like Samrat, Virat, and Bhoja.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)

Polity
• Popular assemblies lost their importance as there is absolute power in the hands
of the king.
• A rudimentary army too emerged as an important element.
• There were five types of State System that include-
• Rajya(Central kingdom) - Ruled by the Raja
• Bhojya (Southern kingdom)- Ruled by the Bhoja
• Swarajya (Western kingdom)- Ruled by Svarat
• Vairajya (Northern kingdom)- Ruled by the Virat
• Samrajya (Eastern kingdom)- Ruled by the Samrat.
• Tax system-The king levied taxes like ‘Bali’, ‘sulka’ and ‘Bhaga’.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)
• Officers/ministers - ‘Ratnins’ - assisted the king.
Bureaucracy • Note: Satapata Brahmana calls Suta and Gramani as
'Arajano Rajakarte'.
Ratnins Position Ratnins Position
Purohita Chief Priest, also called the Senani Supreme Commander
Rastra Gopa of the Army
Vrajapati Officer Incharge of the Pasture Jivagribha Police Officer
land
Spasas/Dutas Spies, who sometimes worked Gramani Leader of the village
as messengers
Madhya Masi Mediator of disputes Kulapati Family head
Bhagadugha Tax Collector Sangrahitri Treasurer
Mahishi Chief Queen Suta Charioteer
Govikartana King's campanian in games Akshavapa Accountant
Sthapati Chief Judge Gramyavadin Village Judge
Rathakara Chariot maker Adhikrita Village officer
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)

Religion
• The religion became very complex in the Later Vedic period.
• Speculative philosophies like transmigration of soul, salvation, karma etc began
to dominate Vedic religion.
• Trinity Worship (worship of three supreme Gods) - Prajapati, Vishnu, Rudra were
predominant.
• Rigvedic Gods like Indra, Varuna and Surya became unpopular.
• All the Natural forces were made subordinate to the Trinity were reduced to
the position of Astadikpalas.
• Pushan became the God of the shudra, who was the protector of cattle in the
early Vedic period.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)

Religion
• Sacrifices became far more important in rituals.
• Sacrifices varied and codified with various types of rules and regulations i.e.
karmakanda.
• The right of performance of sacrifices became the monopoly of the priestly class.
• Public Sacrifices performed in the Later Vedic Period include -
• Asvamedha - Horse sacrifice to establish kings supremacy over other kings
• Rajasuya - Consecration ceremony conferring supreme power to the kings
• Vajapeya - Chariot race to re-establish a king’s supremacy over his people.
• Private rituals -Shodasakarmas (16 rituals) were expected to be performed by an
individual to get salvation during his lifetime from conception to cremation
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)

Shodasakarmas (16 rituals)

Ritual Description
Garbhadana A ceremony to promote conception in women
Pumsavana A ceremony to procure a male child
Simantonyaya A ceremony to ensure the safety of child in womb
Jatakarma A birth ceremony before cutting umbilical chord
Namakarna A ceremony of naming child
Nishkramana Child is taken outside house to get exposed to the sun
Annaprasana A ceremony to introduce solid food to a child
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)

Shodasakarmas (16 rituals)

Ritual Description
Chudakarma Tonsure ceremony
Karnabheda A piercing ceremony
Vidyarambha A ceremony to introduce formal learning to a child
Initiation ceremony to confer dvija status to boys of three higher
Upanayana
Varnas
Vedarambha A ceremony to start Vedic education
Keshanta Shaving of head at gurukul
Samavartana Home-coming ceremony from student-hood
Vivaha Marriage ceremony
Antyesti Funeral rites by son
Vedic Literature
Classified into two sets of literature.
• Shruti Literature
• The term ‘Shruti’ literally means “what was heard
• It is thought to be eternal and thought to be revealed by gods to rishis.
• They are orally transmitted for many centuries and later compiled into written
texts. Includes – Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.
• These are believed to be during 1500 BC-500 BC.
• Smriti Literature
• The term ‘Smriti’ literally means “that which was remembered”.
• These texts are usually attributed to an author, traditionally written down but
constantly revised.
• These are believed to be written after Vedas i.e. post 1000 BC.
• Includes - Vedangas, Shutras, Puranas, Epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata),
Dharshana and Upavedas.
Shruti Literature: Vedas

About
• Four vedas are collectively known as 'Vedatrayi’.
• Many scholars consider Bharatamuni's “Natyasastra” or sometimes,
Mahabharata as Panchama Veda (5th Veda).
1. Rig Veda
• Earliest of entire Vedic literature.
• Consists of hymns(mantras) for nature gods like Varuna (rain), Vayu (wind), Indira
(thunder), Surya(sun), and Usha (dawn).
• It is in verse form and contains 1028 hymns divided into 10 Mandalas/Books.
• Each Mandala is ascribed to a particular family of seers, e.g. III Mandala is
associated with Viswamitra and VI Mandala is to Vasista.
• Famous Gayatri mantra in III Mandala is dedicated to Goddess Savitri.
Shruti Literature: Vedas

1. Rig Veda
• Dasarajna (Battle of Ten Kings) is described in VII Mandala.
• Purusha Sukta gives the first reference of Varna system is in X Mandala - four
Varnas came from the mouth, arms, belly and legs of the Creator respectively.

2. Yajur Veda
• Has hymns for rituals and sacrifices, and prescribes the procedures to be
adopted at the time of performing different sacrifices.
• Consists of two parts namely - Krishna Yajurveda (in prose form) and Shukla
Yajurveda (in verse form).
Shruti Literature: Vedas

3. Sama Veda
• It is the Rig Veda set in musical form.
• Has 1063 hymns from Rigveda arranged to keep requirements of melody.

4. Atharvan Veda
• It is believed to be composed by non-Aryans.
• Contains 711 hymns divided into 20 Khandas.
• Most of these hymns are used to ward off evil spirits.
• It describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of humble folk due to
non-Aryan influence.
Shruti Literature

Brahmanas
• Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas.
• Written in prose and they elaborately describe the various sacrifices and rituals,
along with their mystic meanings.
• A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant - RigVeda (2), Sama Veda (10), Yajurveda (6)
and Atharvan Veda (1).
• Important Brahmanas - Aithareya Brahmana (RigVeda), Taittariya Brahmana
(Krishna Yajurveda), Satapata Brahmana (Shukla Yajurveda), Tandyamana
Brahmana (Samaveda), Gopatha Brahmana (Atharvan Veda)

Aranyakas
• Aranyakas are the appendices (concluding portions) of the Brahmanas.
Shruti Literature

Aranyakas
• They deal with philosophical doctrines and mysticism to answer the various
complex questions related to human life.
• The word Aranyaka means 'the forest' and these are called 'forest books' written
mainly for the hermits and students living in the jungles.
Upanishads
• Literally means 'sitting at the foot of' guru to get knowledge and the concluding
portions of Vedas - referred as “Vedantas”.
• They are in prose as well as verse form and contain highly philosophical and
metaphysical writings about the soul (atman) and Brahman.
Shruti Literature

Upanishads
• There are 108 Upanishads classified according to the Vedas - 10 out of them are
considered as 'Dasa or Mukhya Upanishads’ - Aithareya (Rigveda), Kena and
Chandogya (Samaveda), Isa and Brihadaranyaka (Shukla Yajurveda), Katha and
Taittariya (Krishna Yajurveda), Prasna, Mundaka and Mandukya (Atharvan
Veda).
• Note
• Our national motto ‘Satyameva Jayate’ is a part of a mantra from Mundaka
Upanishad.
• Brihadaranyaka Upanishad contains discussion between Yagnavalka and his
two wives, Gargi and Maitreyi.
• The first reference of Ahimsa is in Chandogya Upanishad.
Shruti Literature
Upanishads Vs Vedas

• The Upanishads contain the essence of the Vedas. They are the concluding
portions of the Vedas and are the source of the Vedanta philosophy.
• The Vedas start out as mythical and ritual texts. Whereas Upanishads have been
telling man what he should or should not do, what path leads to good, etc.
• The thoughtful way of Upanishad is deemed to be a bit more advanced than the
outward-looking nature of Vedas. Each Upanishad represents any of the four
Vedas, thereby explaining the profound truths hidden in that Veda.
• Upanishads laid the foundation for various philosophical systems that developed in
India. The three most famous Vedanta systems still prevalent in India are Advaita,
Dvaita and Vishishtaadvaita.
• Upanishads are key texts that helped to develop and grow Samkya, Yoga,
Mimamsa, Buddhism, and Jainism.
Smriti Literature
Vedangas
• They are the supplements/limbs of Vedas and help in understanding the Vedas.
• There are 6 such Vedangas-
• Shiksha - It deals with the study of sounds and pronunciation(Phonetics) of
Vedic hymns.
• Kalpa - It deals with the practical, ceremonial, sacrificial and ritual aspect of
the Vedas.
• Vyakarana - It deals with Sanskrit grammar used in Vedic hymns.
• Nirukta - It deals with etymology (study of origin of words) of the words used
in Vedas.
• Chhanda - It deals with metrics( pattern in which one must recite any mantra).
• Jyotisa - It deals with the astronomical and astrological aspects of fixing
auspicious date and time to perfom vedic rites and rituals, etc.
Smriti Literature

Sutras

• Kalpasutra is based on Vedic literature and has four sub divisions -

• Srauta Sutras - They deal with major rituals such as the asvamedha and the
rajasuya.
• Griha Sutras - They lay down the norms for domestic rituals including rites of
passage.
• Dharma Sutras - They lay down social norms and conduct.
• Sulba Sutras - They lay down principles of geometry that were used for
constructing the sacrificial altar.
Smriti Literature
Puranas
• They are mythological works that propagate religious and spiritual messages
through parables and fables.
• They contain important geographical information/ histories and deal with the
mysteries of creation, re-creation and dynastic genealogies (dynastic history).
• There are 18 Puranas and some of the well-known Puranas are - the Markandeya,
Vayu, Brahmanda, Vishnu, Matsya, Bhagvata, Kurma, Vamana, Linga, Varaha,
Padma, Narada, Agni, Garuda, Brahma, Skanda, Brahmavaivarta and the Bhavisya
Purana.
• Puranas as Scripture of Masses
• The Puranas were recited in popular gatherings.
• Puranas are of special value as they present Vedic truths in a simple manner.
Smriti Literature
Puranas
• Puranas as Scripture of Masses
• The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the teachings
of the Vedas and to generate in them devotion to God.
• The Puranic literature is encyclopedic, and it includes diverse topics such as
cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, etc.
• The Puranas not only educated the masses and infused them with noble ideals,
they also tactfully solved social and economic problems that arose due to
social upheavals and foreign invasions.
Epics
• Two Mahakavyas (Epics) compiled by 400 AD reflecting social, economic and
political conditions from the 10th century BC to the 4th century AD.
• Ramayana
• Considered as the Adikavya and believed to be composed by Valmiki.
Smriti Literature
Epics
• Ramayana
• Considered as the Adikavya and believed to be composed by Valmiki.
• Originally consisted of 6000 verses than 12,000 verses and was finally
expanded to 24,000 verses in 7 Kandas (sections).
• Mahabharata
• It is believed to be composed by Ved Vyasa.
• It originally consisted of 8800 verses and was called Jaya gita (a song dealing
with victory) and later got expanded to 24,000 verses, known as Bharata, for
containing the stories of the descendents of one of the earliest Vedic tribes
called Bharata.
• A further expanded version of 1,00,000 verses was named Mahabharata in 18
Parvas(books) plus Harivamsa supplement.
• Note: Bhagavad Gita is part of Bhishmaparva of Mahabharata.
Smriti Literature

Dharshana
• There are six schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshana.
• They all propagate the virtues of life.
• Nyaya by Gautama
• It is a school of logic and realism.
• It held that liberation is gained through right knowledge i.e. by negating both
illusion and unhappiness using logic.
• Vaishesika by Kanada
• It postulated that all the objects in the physical universe are reducible to
‘paramanu’ (atom).
• It held that knowledge and liberation was achievable by fully recognizing the
atomic nature of the Universe and its difference from the soul.
• This atomic theory marked the beginning of Physics in India.
Smriti Literature

Dharshana
• Purvamimansa by Jaimini
• It regards Vedas as eternal and rituals are of primary importance to attain
salvation (ritualism).
• Sankhya by Kapila
• It has no faith in existence of God.
• It held that world was created and evolved by Nature/Prakriti.
• It further asserts that soul can attain liberation only through real knowledge
that is to be acquired through observation and inference.
Smriti Literature

Dharshana
• Yoga by Patanjali
• It believes in salvation through meditation and physical application.
• It had influenced the development of physiology and anatomy in ancient times.
• Uttaramimansa by Bhadarayana
• It is the summary of the teachings of the Upanishads.
• It dealt with metaphysical concepts like aatma-brahma, karma doctrine,
meditation, devotional Hinduism etc.
• It held that brahma is reality and everything else is myth.
Smriti Literature

Upavedas

Dhanurveda Gandharvaveda Silpaveda Ayurveda

Deals with the Deals with the Deals with are Deals with
art of warfare. music. and architecture. medicine.

It is upaveda to It is part of It is part of It is part of

Rigveda. Yajurveda. Samaveda. Atharvana Veda.
Smriti Literature
Dharmasastras Manusmriti
• Source of religious law for • The earliest Hindu Law book,
Hindus. dated 2nd -3rd century AD, and
• There are eighteen main translated into English by
Smritis or Dharma Sastras. William Jones in 1794.
• The most important are those • While 58 verses are attributed
of Manu, Yajnavalkya and to Manu, the remaining 2000+
Parasara. to his disciple Bhrigu.
• The other fifteen are those of • It is mainly targeted to
Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Brahmans (1034 verses) and
Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Kshatriyas (971 verses).
Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, • Important commentaries on
Gautama, Devala, Manusmriti were by Bharuchi
Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri (7th -11th c) and Medhatithi
and Saunaka. (9th -11th c).
Smriti Literature
Dharmasastras

Narada Smriti
• Dated 100-400 AD, it is known as judicial text par excellence.
• It exclusively deals with procedural and substantive law.

Yagnavalka Smriti
• It is dated between 3rd and 5th century AD (Guptan period).
• It divides dharma into three categories - Achara, Vyavahara, and Prayaschitta.
• It is more advanced and unconventional Law book so that it allows widows to
inherit property.
UPSC Previous Years
Mains Questions
Prelims

1. Which one of the following four Vedas contains an account of magical charms and
spells?
a) Rig-veda
b) Yajur-Veda
c) Atharva-Veda
d) Sama-veda
Ans: (C)
Prelims
2. With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and
Indus Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the
people of Indus Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
2. Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people
knew only copper and iron.
3. Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of
Indus Valley people having been aware of this animal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: (C)
Mains
1. Describe the social life of the later vedic people. How was it different from the Rig
vedic life.

2. Examine the view that sacrifice was a ritual and a form of social exchange in vedic
India.

3. Evaluate the conceptual basis of the vedic deities.

4. Evaluate the contributions of the Puranas in disseminating secular knowledge

among the masses in ancient India.

5. “The Upanishadic principles embody the epitome of vedic thought.” Discuss.

6. “Archaeology knows of no Aryans, only literature knows of Aryans.” Critically

examine.
Thank you
 DeclineofIL

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1
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o
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migrated here

Transmission

cult of Pashupati and mother goddess

cult of sacred places river and tree worship

Evidence of fire worship and sacrifice

Techniques of making potter's wheels

other aspects of domestic life

Iortant IVI
 VEDIC AGE

17701 India Warren Hasting Governor Genl

G william Jones
orientalist

understand local
people
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Vest interest To rule India

t

Aryans from Central Asia similarity between

Central Asia 4 India
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bethatin
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Advent ofAryans Theories

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o Advanted by Max Muller
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o
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Gmat
Horses
particular

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0
By Sir W Jones
Greek Latin Gothic English and Sanskrit
languages are almost similar
t
words mother and father

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o
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 I
o
Sapta Sindhu region Homeland of

Aryans

a Tibetantheon

0
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Aryans come from Tibet

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Articregiontheory
0
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o
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Aryl
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People
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W
All above theories formulated according
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particular time period
No proof Aryan destroyed Ivc
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 tofvedicperiod
Earn age teredage
1500 1000 Be 1000 600 B C

Parameters Location
Society
Polity
Economy
Environment
 T 1500
tyvedicorkigvedicperiod 100013

Geographicallocation

Sapta sindhu region

1
North western region
Rivers mentioned
Y
Kubha
Indus
Saraswati

Rigveda mandals Ind to VIth

 Rigvediesoiety

Egalitarian 2 3 generations live together

Head of family called Kelapa

eldest member

o
Tribal clan Gotra f comes from Gows
1
from same
family
o
pastoralism main occupation cow 4 milk
G Gaveshnaf Gavesthi war
Duhitri daughter
Gomat rich
person

Barter system

Eionomy

Pastoral society domestication of cows

Elephants rarely domesticated

4 mention of lion but not tiger
 Agriculture secondary Ocupation
changing river course
low rainfall
crop Yara barley

1 Samhita
2 Brahaman
Veda 3
Aryanaka
4 upnishada Arter early vedic

ShatpathBrahmet

look Langala or sira Plough

Aya copper
Khanitra hoe
Hatra sickle
Parasue axe
Fire used to char forest shifting cultivation

Ideandcommert
0
Pastoral and self sufficient economy with
no record of trade
Barter system
society
Basic social unit Kula Headed by Kelapa

o Qi QI
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Egalitarian and stratified society

economy
occupation not
based on birth

dasan I dasyus slaves

Social division warriors

priests
ordinary people

Barter system People involved in trade

called Pani
Cow most favoured exchange
 Takshan carpenters
Vaya weaver
Tasar charkha
Goldsmith
Hiranyakar

Kitionofwoman

Birth of both Male and female celebrated

o
woman allowed in sabhas and samiti

Practiced both Polygamy and Polyandry

o No reference to child marriage

Reference of widow
remarriage
e.g Niyoga marrying brother of
younger
dead husband

Learned womans Lopamudra

Gosha

Apala
Polity
Tribal polity on demoiratic principles

o
political leader called Rajan
elected

ETI
Samiti
Tribalambie
Gang
parishada

Sabha and Samiti most important

Assembly of elders

selected elder brahmins

vidatha relocate war booty

Gana distribution of wealth

Functionaries

o
Purohita Head priest
 o wars
Senapati waging

uvajapati Authority over pasture land

Gramini Head of
village

Tribalqffor cows

Dasarajna I Battle of ten king

G 10th Mandal Later vedic

Aspirations Pastoral Imperialist

on the banks of river Parashini Ravi

o
Fight between Bharata tribe and 5 Aryan
5 non
aryan tribes

Rieasons cattle issue river water sharing and

control over pastures

Outcome Bharata won the battle

Religion
o Materialistic Personification of natural forces
f
God
Every giving something
o
Cathenothistic and Henothistic Gods
4 Multiple Gods
4 different god for different work

o sacrifices and rituals performed

Ashamed vitory Horse

yagy
I Rajsurya
through
Increase power
vajpeya drinking of power

ritual

Eningt
 Varna related to occupation

Early vedic

10th Mandal
Katyn
G later vedic
Varna by Birth

More useful
f

Higher f
than
Indra
 IvedicPariod I 1000 100 Be

Introduction

After Rigvedic Period

o
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grey
wave Paw

Argavarta Northern India

Madhyadesa t central India
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0
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economy

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Iron weapons

Settlement fertile Ganga Yamuna doab

f

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o
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weaver
Vyaya
Kulak Potter
Karmara Blacksmith
 Increase in trade and commerce

development of new cities

e.g Hastinapur Kausambi ele

No mention of coined Barter system

money
continued

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o
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