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Archives in The Digital Age
Digital Tools and Uses Set
coordinated by
Imad Saleh
Volume 8
Abderrazak Mkadmi
First published 2021 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:
www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Preface
to show the extent to which the arrival of Big Data has changed the work of
archivists. The challenge is to process more data, at a lower cost and in a
shorter timeframe. In this context, blockchain as a decentralized and
distributed registry is presented as a complementary solution to digital
archiving. Finally, special attention will be given to the legal and technical
dimensions of archive processing through the right to be forgotten.
January 2021
Introduction
1 Theory developed by the French archivist and historian Yves Pérotin in 1961. This model
gained legal recognition in France with the adoption of the law of January 3, 1979 on
archives.
Introduction xiii
1.1.1. Archives
It has now been more than 70 years since the International Council on
Archives (ICA), representing archival professionals from around the world,
was founded, and efforts are being made to develop and implement both a
body of global archival legislation and archival training and research
programs. Among the first formal definitions, we cite that of ICA:
Today, the majority of countries have legal texts defining and organizing
archives as “[…] documents, whatever their date, form and material support,
Archives can therefore be public, coming from the activities of the State,
public institutions (industrial and commercial [EPIC] or administrative
[EPA]) and any other legal entity under public law or legal persons under
private law managing a public service (financed by a public fund for a
general interest).
They can also be private, coming from natural persons or persons with a
private status such as families, unions, political parties and associations.
Records management today is the basis for all actions related to good
governance, respect for the law and the collective memory of humanity,
the rights of citizens to access information and administrative transparency
[ICA 16].
1 The French Heritage Code (art. L. 211-4); Tunisian Law No. 88-95 of August 2, 1988 on
archives (art. 1).
Digital Archives: Elements of Definition 3
or required by law, with its final fate at the end of this period (disposal or
transfer to historical archives). These retention periods are managed by so-called
“retention rules” (see Figure 1.2). These are used to determine the minimum
retention period for any document, even if nothing prevents the institution from
archiving them longer, unless the document contains personal data.
vertical version, the light and the sensors are placed at the top in a support
bar under which the bound document can be placed open and facing upward.
This type of scanner is very convenient for objects with some relief and for
fragile objects, such as bound books.
– Scanner with feeder: uses the same technology as flatbed scanners, but
with a feeder instead of a glass pane (see Figure 1.5). This type of scanner is
well suited for scanning separate pages of the same size and is strong enough
to withstand the handling of the feeders.
– Drum scanner: this allows the best scanning among all types of
scanners, with the highest resolution (see Figure 1.6). They are suitable for
fragile documents and a certain skill is required in handling them. This type
of scanner generally costs more than other types and is not suitable for all
types of documents; they must be able to wrap around the cylinder and must
be no thicker than 1 mm.
12 Archives in The Digital Age
All scanners work in almost the same way and in accordance with three
principles: lighting, reflection and capture:
– the scanner uses a lamp to illuminate the page to be scanned;
– the mirror system leads the rays reflected on the page to a sensor bar
called a CCD (Coupled Charged Devices) bar;
– the received light is transformed by the sensors into an electrical signal
and is then processed by the electronic part of the scanner.
6 Metadata are the set of identification and description elements of electronic resources.
These elements are increasingly modelled and standardized to unify and generalize their use.
Digital Archives: Elements of Definition 17
There are several storage media that can be classified into generations:
– First generation media are considered to be analog media and have not
been used since the late 1990s. This refers to the perforated card and
perforated tape system, which originated in the 18th century. Their storage
capacity is very small and is measured in a few tens of bytes.
– Second generation media are magnetic media and have a digital
recording mode, except for magnetic tape, which has both analog and digital
recording modes. They include magnetic tape, cassette, hard disks, cartridges
and diskettes. These media have, however, been able to withstand
technological developments over a long period of time [FLE 17].
– Third generation storage media are considered to be recordable digital
optical media. We are talking about CDs (Compact Disk), DVDs (Digital
Video Disk) and Blu-ray disks, also known as BDs7. In today’s market, we
are talking about several new optical media such as glass discs, M-Disc (the
main characteristic being that the burning layer is made of synthetic
diamond) and nanoform (a disk that has a very high resistance to damage).
– Fourth generation storage media are considered removable storage
media (flash memory). This refers to USB (Universal Serial Bus), SD
(Secure Digital), microSD, SSD (Solid-State Drive) and so on. The
advantages of this type of media lie in its high speed access and storage
capacities, which are close to those of a “classic” hard disk, the case of
SSDs.
– Storage media under development are revolutionary storage media that
should offer high storage capacity and high access speed, such as DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid), which is the hereditary genetic material of all living
species on the Earth. According to the researchers, we estimate that the
information stored on this support could be preserved over hundreds of
thousands of years [CHU 12, COL 14]. Another equally revolutionary
medium is quartz, which has proven its solid thermal resistance.
7 This is a digital disk format patented and marketed since 2006 by Sony (Japanese
industrialist) allowing videograms to be stored and remastered in high definition.
18 Archives in The Digital Age
The concept of records management has its origins in the late 1940s in
the United States based on the theory of archiving for the benefit of
producers (Schellenberg in the United States and Pérotin in France). In the
mid-1990s, an Australian RM standard was very successful and later became
ISO 15489 in 2001, being revised in 2016. This standard defines RM as “a field
of organization and management concerned with the effective and systematic
control of the creation, receipt, retention, use and ultimate disposition of
records, including methods of securing and preserving evidence and
information related to the form of records”.
9 This second part has not been revised and has already been annulled (according to its status
on the ISO website).
Digital Archives: Elements of Definition 21
Integrity, on the other hand, is about protecting the document from any
possible modification or alteration without documented authorization. In
order to do this, a system must be in place to identify and keep a record of
every action that affects the document, including consultation, modification
and deletion.
6) System design: the sixth step represents the first operation in the
development of the records management system, the design of the archiving
system adapted to the company and the drafting of specifications. A
specification is a document that formalizes the descriptive elements,
processes and features selected for the system in question. It is the result of
an internal reflection within an organization between different experts,
document managers, computer scientists and others, after having made an
analysis of the existing system, a study of needs, an opportunity study and a
risk study.
As noted, ISO 15489 is perhaps the most influential standard for records
management. It proposes that an organization use a RMS (Records
Management System) to implement various management processes ranging
from identifying the information that needs to be managed as records to
documenting the process of managing those records, including creating,
recording, classifying, storing, processing, controlling access, tracking
records and disposing of records. It defines such a system as “an information
system that captures, manages and provides access to records over time”
(ISO 15489-1:2001, section 3.17). MoReq (Model Requirements for the
Management of Electronic Records) is a practical specification for defining a
records system expressed as a modular set of requirements. First published
in 2001, MoReq has been continuously developed by the DLM Forum10 and
the European Commission to create a series of specifications: MoReq1 in
2001, MoReq2 in 2008 and MoReq10 in 2011.
10 The DLM Forum is a European community of members of public archives and parties
interested in the management of archives, documents and information throughout the
European Union.
26 Archives in The Digital Age
Figure 1.9. MoReq2010 service-based architecture [DLM 10]. For a color version
of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mkadmi/archives.zip
11 We will return to these processes and elements of a record management system according
to MoReq in section 2.4 of Chapter 2.
Digital Archives: Elements of Definition 27
§ 4. Of Cipollaccio.
Some sorts of marble are found in Greece and in all parts of the
East, which are white and yellowish, and very transparent. These
were used by the ancients for baths and hot-air chambers and for all
those places which need protection against wind, and in our own
days there are still to be seen in the tribune of San Miniato a Monte,
the abode of the monks of Monte Oliveto, above the gates of
Florence, some windows of this marble, which admit light but not
air.[51] By means of this invention people gave light to their dwellings
and kept out the cold.
§ 9. Of Statuary Marbles.
From the same quarries[52] were taken other marbles free from
veins, but of the same colour, out of which were carved the noblest
statues. These marbles were of a very fine grain and consistency, and
they were continually being made use of by all who carved capitals
and other architectural ornaments. The blocks available for sculpture
were of great size as appears in the Colossi of Montecavallo at Rome,
[53]
in the Nile[54] of the Belvedere and in all the most famous and
noble statues. Apart from the question of the marble, one can
recognize these to be Greek from the fashion of the head, the
arrangement of the hair, and from the nose, which from its juncture
with the eyebrows down to the nostril is somewhat square.[55] This
marble is worked with ordinary tools and with drills, and is polished
with pumice stone, with chalk from Tripoli, and with leather and
wisps of straw.
In the mountains of Carrara in the Carfagnana,[56] near to the
heights of Luni, there are many varieties of marble, some black,[57]
some verging towards grey, some mingled with red and others again
with grey veins.[58] These form an outer crust over the white marbles,
and they take those colours, because they are not refined, but rather
are smitten by time, water and the soil. Again, there are other sorts of
marble, called ‘cipollini,’[59] ‘saligni,’ ‘campanini’ and ‘mischiati.’[60]
The most abundant kind is pure white and milky in tone; it is easy to
work and quite perfect for carving into figures. Enormous blocks lie
there ready to be quarried, and in our own days, pieces measuring
nine braccia have been hewn out for colossal statues. Two of these
colossi have recently been sculptured, each from a single block. The
one is Michelagnolo’s ‘David,’ which is at the entrance of the Ducal
Palace in Florence;[61] the other is the ‘Hercules and Cacus’ from the
hand of Bandinello standing at the other side of the same entrance.
Another block of nine braccia in length was taken out of the quarry a
few years ago, in order that the same Baccio Bandinello should carve
a figure of Neptune for the fountain which the Duke is having erected
on the piazza. But, Bandinello being dead, it has since been given to
Ammannato, an excellent sculptor, for him likewise to carve a
Neptune out of it.[62] But of all these marbles, that of the quarry
named Polvaccio,[63] in the place of that name, has the fewest
blemishes and veins and is free from those knots and nuts which very
often occur in an extended surface of marble—occasioning no little
difficulty to the worker, and spoiling the statues even when they are
finished. From the quarries of Seravezza, near to Pietrasanta, there
have been taken out a set of columns, all of the same height, destined
for the façade of San Lorenzo at Florence, which is now sketched out
in front of the door of that church;[64] one of these columns is to be
seen there, the rest remain, some in the quarry, some at the
seashore.
E, Subbia, a point.
F, Calcagnuolo, a toothed chisel.
G, Gradina, a broader toothed chisel.
H, Scarpello, a chisel.
J, Trapano, a drill.
But returning to the quarries of Pietrasanta,[65] I say that they were
the quarries in which all the ancients worked, and no other marbles
but these were used for their statues by those masters, who were so
excellent. While the masses were being hewn out, they were always at
work, blocking out figures in the rough on the stones while they were
still in the quarry. The remains of many of these can be seen even yet
in that place.[66] This same marble, then, the moderns of to-day use
for their statues, not only in Italy, but in France, England, Spain and
Portugal, as can be seen to-day in the tomb executed in Naples by
Giovanni da Nola, the excellent sculptor, for Don Pietro di Toledo,
viceroy of that kingdom, to whom all the marbles were presented,
and sent to Naples by Duke Cosimo de’ Medici.[67] This kind of
marble has in itself larger available pieces and is more yielding and
softer to work and receives a finer polish than any other marble. It is
true that occasionally the workman meets with flaws called by the
sculptors ‘smerigli’ (emery veins) which usually cause the tools to
break. The blocks are first roughed into shape, by a tool called
‘subbia’ (point)[68] which is pointed like a stake in facets, and is
heavier or lighter as the case may be. At the next stage are used
chisels, named ‘calcagnuoli’ (toothed chisels), which have a notch in
the middle of the edge of the blade; after that finer and finer tools
with more teeth are used to score the marble, after which it is
smoothed with another chisel called ‘gradina,’ (broader toothed
chisel) used to reduce and refine the figures. The tooth marks left in
the marble are removed with iron rasps straight and curved, and
thus at last, by polishing gradually with pumice stone the surface
aimed at is attained. In order not to fracture the marble, all the drill-
holes are made with drills of different sizes weighing from twelve
pounds each even to twenty, according to the size of the hole needed,
[69]
and they serve to finish every sort of work and to bring it to
perfection.
Of certain white marbles, streaked with grey,[70] sculptors and
architects make ornaments for doors and columns for houses and the
same are used also for pavements and for facings of large buildings,
and for all sorts of things. All the marbles called ‘mischiati’[71] are
used for the same purposes.
§ 10. Of Cipollino Marble.[72]
§ 13. Of Slates.
§ 14. Of Peperino.[91]
There only remains now the pietra serena and the grey stone called
‘macigno’[95] and the pietra forte which is much used in the
mountainous parts of Italy, especially in Tuscany, and most of all in
Florence and her territory. The stone that they call pietra serena[96]
draws towards blue or rather towards a greyish tint. There are
quarries of it in many places near Arezzo, at Cortona, at Volterra, and
throughout the Apennines. The finest is in the hills of Fiesole, and it
is obtained there in blocks of very great size, as we see in all the
edifices constructed in Florence by Filippo di Ser Brunellesco, who
had all the stones needed for the churches of San Lorenzo and of
Santo Spirito quarried there, and also an unlimited quantity which
are in every building throughout the city. It is a very beautiful stone
to look at, but it wastes away and exfoliates where it is subjected to
damp, rain, or frost. Under cover however it will last for ever. Much
more durable than this and of finer colour is a sort of bluish stone, in
our day called ‘pietra del fossato.’[97] When quarried, the first layer is
gravelly and coarse, the second is never free from knots and fissures,
the third is admirable being much finer in grain. Michelagnolo used
this, because of its yielding grain, in building the Library and Sacristy
of San Lorenzo for Pope Clement, and he has had the mouldings,
columns, and every part of the work executed with such great care
that even if it were of silver it would not look so well.[98] The stone
takes on a very fine polish, so much so that nothing better in this
kind of material could be wished for. On this account it was
forbidden by law that the stone be used in Florence for other than
public buildings, unless permission had been obtained from the
governing authorities.[99] The Duke Cosimo has had a great quantity
of this stone put into use, as for example, in the columns and
ornaments of the loggia of the Mercato Nuovo, and for the work
begun by Bandinello in the great audience chamber of the palace and
also in the other hall which is opposite to it; but the greatest amount,
more than ever used elsewhere, has been taken by his Excellency for
the Strada de’ Magistrati,[100] now in construction, after the design
and under the direction of Giorgio Vasari of Arezzo. This stone
demands as much time for working it as marble. It is so hard that
water does not affect it and it withstands all other attacks of time.
Besides this there is another sort called pietra serena, found all
over the hill, which is coarser, harder, and not so much coloured, and
contains certain knots in the stone. It resists the influence of water
and frost, and is useful for figures and carved ornaments. Of this is
carved La Dovizia (Abundance), a figure from the hand of Donatello
on the column of the Mercato Vecchio in Florence;[101] and it serves
also for many other statues executed by excellent sculptors, not only
in this city, but throughout the territory.
The work called Rustic[108] is more stunted, and more massive than
that of any other Order, it being the beginning and foundation of all.
The profiles of the mouldings are simpler and in consequence more
beautiful, as are the capitals and bases as well as every other
member. The Rustic socles or pedestals, as we call them, on which
rest the columns, are square in proportion, with a solid moulding at
the foot and another above which binds it like a cornice. The height
of the column measures six heads,[109] in imitation of people who are
dwarfed and adapted to sustain weights. Of this Order there are to be
seen in Tuscany many colonnades both plain and rusticated, with
and also without bosses and niches between the columns: and many
porticoes which the ancients were accustomed to construct in their
villas; and in the country one still sees many tombs of the kind as at
Tivoli and at Pozzuolo. This Order served the ancients for doors,
windows, bridges, aqueducts, treasuries, castles, towers, and
strongholds for storing ammunition and artillery; also for harbours,
prisons and fortresses; in these the stones project in an effective
manner in points like a diamond, or with many facets. The
projections are treated in various ways, either in bosses, flattened, so
as not to act as a ladder on the walls—for it would be easy to climb up
if the bosses jutted out too much—or in other ways, as one sees in
many places, and above all in Florence, in the principal façade of the
chief citadel, built by Alexander, first duke of Florence.[110] This
façade, out of respect to the Medici emblems, is made with
ornaments of diamond points and flattened pellets, but both in low
relief. The wall composed of pellets and diamonds side by side is very
rich and varied and most beautiful to look at. There is abundance of
this work at the villas of the Florentines, the gates and entrances, and
at the houses and palaces where they pass the summer, which not
only beautify and adorn that neighbourhood, but are also of the
greatest use and convenience to the citizens. But much more is the
city itself enriched with magnificent buildings, decorated with
rusticated masonry, as for example the Casa Medici, the façade of the
Pitti Palace, the palace of the Strozzi family and innumerable others.
When well designed, the more solid and simple the building, the
more skill and beauty do we perceive in it, and this kind of work is
necessarily more lasting and durable than all others, seeing that the
pieces of stone are bigger and the assemblage much better, all the
building being in bond, one stone with another. Moreover, because
the members are smooth and massive, the chances of fortune and of
weather cannot injure them so severely as the stones that are carved
and undercut, or, as we say here, ‘suspended in the air’ by the
cleverness of the sculptors.
The Doric Order was the most massive known to the Greeks, more
robust both as to strength and mass, and much less open than their
other Orders. And not only the Greeks but the Romans also
dedicated this sort of building to those who were warriors, such as
generals of armies, consuls, praetors—and much more often to their
gods, as Jove, Mars, Hercules and others. According to the rank and
character of these the buildings were carefully distinguished—made
plain or carved, simple or rich—so that all could recognize the grade
and the position of the different dignitaries to whom they were
dedicated,[111] or of him who ordered them to be built. Consequently
one sees that the ancients applied much art in the composition of
their buildings, that the profiles of the Doric mouldings are very
graceful, and the features harmonious and of a high degree of
beauty; and also that the proportion of the shafts of the columns is
very well understood, as they are neither too thick nor too thin. The
form of the columns, as is commonly said, resembles that of
Hercules; it shows a certain solidity capable of sustaining the weight
of the architraves, friezes, cornices and the rest of the upper parts of
the building. Because this Order, as more secure and stable than the
others, has always much pleased Duke Cosimo, he desires that the
building, which he has charged me to construct for thirteen civil
magistrates of his city and dominion, should be of the Doric Order.
This building is to have splendid decoration in stone, and is to be
placed between his own palace and the river Arno.[112] Therefore, in
order to bring back into use the true mode of construction, which
requires the architraves to lie level over the columns, and avoid the
falsity of turning the arches of the arcades above the capital, I have
followed in the principal façade the actual method of the ancients, as
can be seen in the edifice. This fashion of building has been avoided
by architects of the recent past, because stone architraves of every
sort both ancient and modern are all, or the greater part of them,
seen to be broken in the middle, notwithstanding that above the solid
of the columns and of the architraves, frieze, and cornice, there are
flat arches of brick that are not in contact with and do not load the
work below. Now, after much consideration on the whole question, I
have finally found an excellent way of putting into use the true mode
of proceeding so as to give security to the said architraves, by which
they are prevented from suffering in any part and everything remains
as sound and safe as can be desired, as the result has proved. This
then, is the method, that is stated here below for the benefit of the
world at large and of the artificers.
Fig. 5.—Construction of the portico of the Uffizi at Florence, from Vasari’s
description.
Having set up the columns, and above the capitals the architraves,
which are brought into contact the one with the other above the
middle axis of the column, the builder proceeds to make a square
block or die (D, D, Fig. 5). For example, if the column be a braccio
thick and the architraves the same in width[114] and height, let the die
in the frieze be made equal to them; but in front let there remain an
eighth in the face for the vertical joint, and let another eighth or
more have a sinking into the die on each side, bevelled to an angle of
45°, Fig. 5 (1). Then since the frieze in each intercolumniation is in
three pieces (B, A, B), let the two at the sides (B, B) have bevelled
projections in the opposite sense to the sinkings, increasing from
within outwards, Fig. 5 (2), so that each may be mortised in the die
and be keyed after the manner of an arch, and in the front the
amount of the eighth must bond vertically; while the part on the
other side must do the same to the other die. And so above the
column[115] one must arrange that the piece in the middle of the said
frieze closes within and is recessed in quarter-round form up to the