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Caribbean Mothers and The Empty Nest: A Qualitative Study
Caribbean Mothers and The Empty Nest: A Qualitative Study
by
Tamara Agimudie
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
December 2020
© Tamara Agimudie, 2020
Abstract
The objective of this dissertation was to add to the current research literature on the empty nest
phenomenon from the perspective of single mothers with Caribbean ancestry. The researcher
employed a generic qualitative inquiry research design to answer the research question, “How do
single mothers of Caribbean descent experience the empty nest phenomenon?” The sample
consisted of nine single mothers who lived alone and experienced an empty nest for at least one
year. Data collection occurred through one-on-one interviews based on guiding questions
designed to elicit a detailed description of the empty nest experience. Interviews were audio-
recorded and transcribed. Through thematic analysis with constant comparison, four themes
emerged from the data supported by 13 patterns. The results of the study indicated that mothers
experienced an emotional response to change which included loneliness, worry, and inner
conflict. They also experienced a period of adjustment where they adapted to diminished
interactions with their children and living alone. Participants indicated that supportive
relationships, such as those with their children, family members, and friends, were a source of
finding renewed purpose in life, and spirituality. These findings confirmed previous research on
the topic of the empty nest. It is recommended that future research include analyses of
This dissertation is dedicated to my family. Your support and inspiration shaped every
step of this process. Words cannot express my appreciation for being a part of your lives. Mom,
iii
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge Gabriela Mihalache, PhD, whose guidance was integral to
the completion of this dissertation. Your patience throughout the process is much appreciated. I
would also like to acknowledge the input and feedback from my committee members Sara Jarvis,
PhD, and Mark McCaslin, PhD. Lastly, I would like to thank and acknowledge Kimberly Boyd
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgments.................................................................................................. iv
Definition of Terms..................................................................................................9
Research Design.....................................................................................................10
Assumptions .................................................................................................111
Limitations ......................................................................................................13
Summary ................................................................................................................45
v
Research Question .................................................................................................47
Research Design.....................................................................................................48
Population .......................................................................................................54
Sample ............................................................................................................55
Procedures ..............................................................................................................55
Instruments .............................................................................................................60
Summary ................................................................................................................65
Summary ................................................................................................................80
vi
Discussion of the Results .......................................................................................84
Limitations .............................................................................................................96
Conclusion .............................................................................................................98
References ........................................................................................................................100
vii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
The dissertation investigated the empty nest phenomenon as experienced by single mothers
of Caribbean descent. In this chapter, an introduction to the current research concerned with an
empty nest will be explored and the need for this study will be identified. An illustration of the
relevance of this study to the field of general psychology will be included, as well as an
introduction to the research design, including assumptions and limitations of the study.
“Empty nest” refers to the stage of family development when adult children leave the
parental home. The empty nest syndrome is a term intended to describe negative aspects of this
stage, such as the emergence of depressive symptoms, loneliness, and a marked decline in mental
and physical health (Gong et al., 2018). Understandably, the topic of empty nest prompted much
research in the field of psychology (Bouchard, 2014; Gao et al., 2017; Mount & Moas, 2015).
The literature on the nature of this phenomenon indicated that married couples experience
various issues with social interactions and role identity when they enter the empty nest stage of
life (Kins et al., 2013; Papa & Lancaster, 2016; Seiffge-Krenke, 2006; Wu et al., 2010).
Supportive research suggested that single parents experience a profound emotional effect when
their adult children leave home (Bouchard, 2014; Hilton & Anderson, 2009; Schwarts & Ayalon,
2015). Parents also associate social isolation, identity crisis, and feelings of guilt and shame with
an empty nest (Kins et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2010). A shortcoming of current research was the
limited information about single parents and specifically about mothers of Caribbean descent
Sumargi et al. (2018) described parenting in terms of several factors, including parent-
child relationships, social interactions, and cultural role identity. Several studies focused on
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social isolation as experienced by empty nesters (Bouchard, 2014; Chang et al., 2016; Gao et al.,
2017; Wu et al., 2010). Bouchard (2014) studied the influence of an empty nest on parents’
marital quality and psychological well-being. She determined that parents experienced a
significant increase in loneliness and decreased social interactions (Bouchard, 2014). Gao et al.
(2017) found that empty nesters suffered more negative health effects and cognitive deterioration
than non-empty nesters. Their results coincided with a study by Chang et al. (2016), which
showed that most empty nest elders reported high levels of loneliness, which translated into poor
self-care and a higher risk of social isolation. These results were confirmed in a study by Wu et
al. (2010), which supported that Chinese empty nest elderly experienced significant loneliness
and social isolation when their children left home. An analysis of the research literature showed
that social isolation was a shared experience common to empty nesters. A shortcoming of this
research relevant to the current study was that research samples for these studies did not include
Sugimura et al. (2016) investigated the empty nest stage of life in terms of identity
changes, adjustment, cultural norms, beliefs, values, marriage, and parenting. They identified
cultural role identity as a factor of well-being and psychological adjustment to life changes, such
as when children leave home (Sugimura et al., 2016). Much research indicated that cultural role
identification affects how parents experience an empty nest (Bouchard, 2014; Mackey &
O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister, 2015; Pillay, 1988). Mackey and O’Brien (1998) determined
that African American participants reported less marital conflict because they identified with
nontraditional roles in their relationship, such as the equal distribution of nurturing children and
providing for the family. Hispanic and White participants had vague role identities, which
translated to higher marital conflict (Mackey & O’Brien, 1998). Pillay (1988) wrote that
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“unemployed” mothers with an empty nest experienced depression related to unfilled cultural
expectations of living in an extended family system. Mitchell and Wister (2015) also found that
cultural identification influenced expectations associated with the empty nest phenomenon. For
example, some participants anticipated that they would never have an empty nest because the
eldest son would never leave home. An important finding of these studies relevant to the current
study as well was that cultural expectations affect how parents experience cultural role identity
comprised of individuals of Caribbean descent (Ogunwole et al., 2017). Research about this
population is in its infancy, and there is limited literature about the experiences of this specific
the literature. Consequently, there is a need for researchers to learn more about this growing
populace and how they experience various phenomena, including the empty nest stage of life.
Several theoretical frameworks have been applied to research focused on the empty nest
phenomenon; however, family development theory was prominent in the literature (Bouchard &
McNair, 2016; Da Silva et al., 2016; Lippert, 1997; Mitchell & Wister, 2015). The research topic
will focus on the family life cycle, specifically on the empty nest stage, as described in family
development theory. During this stage, parents face transitioning parental roles, unique personal
Black psychology reinforces that culture affects perceptions of reality and how a
phenomenon is experienced (Cokley & Garba, 2018). The tenets of Black psychology include a
holistic view of the individual, in which several parts unify to represent a human being. The
essential principle is that every single person shares the common experience of being human, and
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that culture, including values and beliefs, shape how someone experiences a phenomenon
(Association of Black Psychologists, 2019). Black psychology holds that cultural identity is an
integral part of any experience. This perspective will be incorporated in the study.
Family development theory and Black psychology may be applied to this study because
the research topic is concerned with a cultural minority group and the experience of a common
phenomenon. Family development theory and Black psychology share the assumption that the
human perspective is experienced through a cultural lens (Borland, 1982; Cokley & Garba,
2018). Both approaches consider familial, socioeconomic, and societal factors. This study will
integrate concepts from family development theory and Black psychology to provide a
theoretical framework for describing how single mothers of Caribbean descent experience the
interactions (Chang et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2017; Iman & Aghamiri, 2011; Wu et al., 2010) and
cultural role identification (Bouchard, 2014; Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister, 2015;
Pillay, 1988) during the empty nest stage of life. However, there is an inadequate representation
of single parents in particular who experience an empty nest (Bouchard & McNair, 2016; Kins et
al., 2013). Investigators of this phenomenon proposed that future research include cultural
minorities which were not represented in their studies (Bouchard, 2014; Da Silva et al., 2016;
Kins et al., 2013). This research could add to the existing literature by offering insight into how
single mothers of Caribbean descent experience the empty nest stage of life.
There is significant research to support that married couples experience various issues
with social interactions and role identity when adult children leave home (Kins et al., 2013; Papa
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& Lancaster, 2016; Seiffge-Krenke, 2006; Wu et al., 2010). The research found that an intense
emotional effect was experienced by single parents when children left home (Bouchard, 2014;
Hilton & Anderson, 2009; Schwarts & Ayalon, 2015). However, there is limited research into
how single mothers of Caribbean descent experience social interactions and role identity changes
during this transitional period of life. This study attempted to bridge the gap in the literature
The purpose of the study was to explore Caribbean mothers’ personal experiences with
the empty nest phenomenon. The research focused on social interactions and cultural role
identity associated with this life stage. Several researchers explored social interactions that focus
on loneliness and social isolation as part of elderly adults’ experiences of an empty nest
(Bouchard, 2014; Chang et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2010). Researchers found that
empty nest elders in China had a higher occurrence of isolation and health deterioration than
elders whose children lived with them (Chang et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2010).
Their results confirmed that a lack of support from others and a decline in social interactions
resulted in increased depression in empty nest elders (Chang et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2017; Wu et
al., 2010). A change in cultural role identity has also been identified as a transitional part of an
empty nest (Bouchard, 2014; Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister, 2015; Pillay, 1988).
Bouchard (2014) and Mitchell and Wister (2015) recognized that expectations concerning role
identity were based on cultural traditions and values, and greatly influenced the empty nest
experience. The literature showed that social interaction and cultural role identity were salient
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The study will strive to discover emergent themes observed in how single mothers of
Caribbean descent experience an empty nest. This research has the potential to provide useful
information about the empty nest phenomenon from a single mother’s perspective as well as
from the perspective of a cultural minority. The research can enhance the body of knowledge
about the empty nest phenomenon, post parental transitions, and Caribbean mothers’ personal
experiences.
This research could be beneficial for mental health professionals who work with an
elderly population. Thapa et al. (2018) found that an increasing number of parents whose
children have left home experience higher levels of loneliness and depression. There is an
increasing demand for professionals who provide services for this population. Therefore,
professional health care providers may be able to integrate information from the study into
programs designed for this population. This study sought to discover new information related to
the empty nest phenomenon, single parenting, and cultural perspectives that will add to the
scientific community.
abnormal, educational, and organizational psychology (APA Division One, 2018). APA
Division One (2018), also known as the Society for General Psychology, is focused on
promoting the integration of research, theory, and practice from multiple perspectives to develop
programs and projects beneficial to the field of general psychology. APA Division One supports
many research topics such as race, women and men, and parenting, which are broadly covered in
the field of general psychology. The current study addressed several areas of research, such as
multicultural, women, and post parenting issues. A study with the topic of an empty nest from
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the perspective of single mothers of Caribbean descent is significant to the field of general
psychology because it addresses parenting and race as critical topics for research.
General psychology includes various topics ranging in both qualitative and quantitative
studies. Many theories fall under general psychology, including social learning, cognitive
development, and moral foundations theories. This study will add to the existing literature on
psychology. For example, attachment theory (Kins et al., 2013), evolutionary psychology
(Mitchell & Lovegreen, 2009), and family development theory (Lippert, 1997) have been applied
in previous research into the topic of empty nest. Concepts from these perspectives may also be
integrated in this study to provide a detailed description of how single mothers experience the
empty nest phenomenon. This study has the potential to advance the scientific knowledge base
Since its conception, family development theory has been augmented, revised, and
adapted to reflect changing societal norms, cultural influences, and relationship roles in the
family life cycle (Duvall, 1988; Erickson, 1998; Kumar, 2017). Family development theory lends
itself to the adaptation of cultural and societal features. This research intends to expand family
development theory in terms of social interactions and cultural role identity from the perspective
differently from other cultures and focuses on the effect of historical experiences and current
Black psychology employ a holistic view of the person to include individual, social, political,
religious, and cultural factors (Jamison, 2018). This study intends to further Black psychology as
it pertains to information about factors that influence the empty nest experience of single mothers
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of Caribbean descent, such as relationships with the child/children’s biological father, family
values associated with parenting, and stigma associated with being a minority and a single
Family development theory falls under the umbrella of general psychology. This theory
focuses on the developmental stages experienced by families (Duvall, 1988). Additionally, the
tenets of Black psychology can be included in general psychology because this perspective
integrates cultural, social, and other aspects into human experiences. This research can be
applied to general psychology because it will explore the personal and cultural perspectives of
Ko et al. (2016) described midlife as the time of transitions that adults face between 40
and 60. These transitions include changes in marital status, caretaking for elderly parents, career
advancement, and parenting (Ko et al., 2016). Lachman (2001) defined midlife as a subjective
phase of life that begins with an empty nest. Statistical data showed that the average American is
39 years old (Statista, 2017), which means that they are fast approaching midlife and related
concerns, such as empty nest. Therefore, research about aging, family development, parenting
and empty nest must be encouraged. This study will be vital to the scientific community because
it will add to knowledge about aging, family development, and parenting. An influx of
information about these topics can help communities with elderly empty nest parents by
Chang et al. (2016), Gao et al. (2017), and Wu et al. (2010) suggested that their research
be used to inform government programs designed to address issues of loneliness and health
deterioration experienced by elderly Chinese parents in the empty nest stage of life. Their
suggestion implied that more resources could be applied to address this issue. Similarly, Thapa et
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al. (2018) determined that an increasing number of empty nest adults experience mental health
issues such as loneliness and depression. This indicated a demand for professional service
providers who can help to address this emerging issue (Thapa et al., 2018). Evidence suggested
that information from the study may be practically implemented to inform practice and provide
Research Question
The study was designed to answer the research question, “How do single mothers of
Definition of Terms
There are several key terms used throughout the study. Definitions of pertinent terms are
included to ensure a clear understanding of how these terms were interpreted and applied to the
study.
Caribbean descent. Caribbean descent was defined as people with ancestral origins from
the Caribbean islands (Agyemang et al., 2005). In other words, their ancestors migrated to the
United States via the Caribbean isles. This population was defined as having ancestors no more
than three generations removed from any native English-speaking Caribbean island.
Empty nest. Empty nest was defined as the time when all adult children have left home
and parenting was no longer the parents’ dominant role (Lachman, 2001; Mitchell & Lovegreen,
Single. The United States Census Bureau (2017) referred to anyone who has never been
married, divorced, or widowed as single. The definition of single also included the absence of a
significant other.
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Research Design
Qualitative research is used to study and understand subjective experiences (Creswell &
Poth, 2018). It is concerned with specific behavior and perceptions related to a particular topic
(Creswell & Poth, 2018). Qualitative research can be used to understand complex issues, develop
a theory, and address gaps in current research. Generic qualitative methodology is utilized when
research questions do not precisely fit another qualitative methodology, such as phenomenology
or case study (Kahlke, 2014). A generic qualitative methodology was employed to answer the
Merriam (1998) wrote that generic qualitative research is designed to discover and
understand the personal perspective of participants. Caelli et al. (2003) wrote that there are four
fundamental areas in generic qualitative research: “The theoretical positioning of the researcher,
the congruence between methodology and methods, the strategies to establish rigor, and the
analytic lens through which the data are examined” (p. 5).
Theoretical positioning refers to the foundation, history, and experiences that influence a
researcher’s purpose for a study (Caelli et al., 2003). The researcher of this study identified as a
single mother and an individual with Caribbean ancestry. The researcher’s theoretical positioning
was based on her history, personal experiences, values, beliefs, and perceptions. Methodology
and methods refer to the guiding underlying beliefs and assumptions that power a study (Caelli et
al., 2003). There is no clearly defined methodology in generic qualitative research; however,
participant observation, knowledge development, and data saturation are appropriate for
Rigor refers to the theoretically informed approach or the theoretical stance taken by
researchers and the standpoint from which the research will be conducted (Caelli et al., 2003).
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The theoretical stance in this study was a combination of family development theory and Black
psychology. The analytical lens refers to the underlying assumptions that guide the interpretation
of the data (Caelli et al., 2003). The assumptions associated with social constructivism were used
in the interpretation of the collected data. A generic qualitative methodology can be applied to
this research because this study aimed to discover the personal perspective of single mothers of
Assumptions
implementation, analysis, and evaluation of the data. These assumptions also impact the chosen
methodology of the research study. Holdaway (2000) wrote about a connection between research
methods and theory which is based on philosophical anthropology, or the human perspective.
This philosophical anthropology encompasses “the active or passive nature of human beings …
and the relationship between mind and action” (Holdaway, 2000, p. 157). Positivism and social
constructivism are two philosophical paradigms that influence research. Positivism is associated
with quantitative methodologies. Social constructivism follows the various ways humans
applied to the way that knowledge is acquired (Höijer, 2008). Ontological assumptions refer to
“implicit and unproven assumptions about reality” (Höijer, 2008, p. 276). Methodological
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assumptions are concerned with the role of the researcher and the focus of research (Höijer,
knowledge is based on social and cultural experiences (Cottone, 2017). Knowledge is described
as a social experience that results in learning (Cottone, 2017). Humans gain knowledge through
learning, which occurs in the context of interactions with others. It is the epistemological
assumption that the researcher will gain knowledge about the participants’ social and cultural
The ontological assumptions of social constructivism are that human action creates
reality (Cottone, 2017) and that the meaning associated with reality is “specific, situation-bound,
changeable, and unstable” (Höijer, 2008, p. 277). Reality is constantly changing. It is also
assumed that reality is a unique experience for each individual based on their knowledge and
experiences (Holdaway, 2000). For this study, it was assumed that each participant’s reality was
The methodological assumption of social constructivism holds that the research is, in
fact, capable of investigating a subjective experience (Cottone, 2017). This is possible through
the use of data collection methods such as interviews, surveys, and questionnaires (Caelli et al.,
2003; Merriam, 1998; Percy et al., 2015). It is assumed that researchers are able to accurately
assumed that an in-depth interview will be sufficient to collect data and that thematic analysis
The axiological assumption associated with social constructivism identifies the role of a
researcher’s subjective values in the interpretation of data (Cottone, 2017). Social constructivists
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assume that a researcher’s thoughts, opinions, and biases influence how they perceive the data
and therefore influences the interpretation of a study’s results. It is assumed that the researcher’s
experience as a single mother of Caribbean descent will influence how the data is interpreted.
The researcher will follow empirically supported guidelines to limit this effect in interpreting
data. This study focused on the subjective experience of a phenomenon and therefore aligns with
The generic qualitative inquiry design is used to understand the subjective experience of
a phenomenon from the participants’ perspectives (Percy et al., 2015). The study intended to
describe the personal experience of the empty nest phenomenon from the participants’
perspectives. Data collection methods utilized in generic qualitative inquiry include structured
notes, journals, and other pertinent documents (Caelli et al., 2003; Merriam, 1998; Percy et al.,
2015). It is assumed that the subjective experiences of participants can be investigated through
the use of these data collection methods. For this study, a semistructured interview was used to
gather information about the personal experiences of each participant. Researchers utilizing the
generic qualitative inquiry approach use thematic analysis to attach meaning to the collected data
(Percy et al., 2015). This is the process of identifying emerging themes and patterns that are
common in the responses from participants. The patterns and themes are then synthesized to
Limitations
Mothers of Caribbean descent from non-native English islands, such as the Dominican
Republic or Cuba, were intentionally excluded from the study. Demuro and Gurney (2018)
determined that there are implications for cultural developments based on the nature of how
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language is learned and communicated. Chan (2017) found that linguistic predisposition affects
learning and communication in Hong Kong students. The evidence suggested that language plays
role identity experienced by non-native English speakers was beyond the scope of this study. To
minimize miscommunication, the researcher chose to include only participants whose native
language is English. This exclusion may be a limitation of the study since non-native English
speakers with ancestry in the Caribbean are a part of the growing minority in the United States
(Ogunwole et al., 2017). A limitation of this study is that the sample did not comprehensively
1991). A limitation of using generic qualitative inquiry is the influence of the researcher’s
subjective interpretation of the data. It is assumed that the researcher’s values and beliefs will
affect the interpretation of the data (Hays & Singh, 2011). In other words, the results of a study
are the product of scientific facts interpreted from the researcher’s perspective. For example, the
researcher had personal experience of being a single mother of Caribbean descent, and her
experiences may influence how the data is interpreted. Hays and Singh (2011) determined that
the role of the researcher is to be the voice of the participants. The concern is that a researcher’s
subjective experience may not accurately represent the participants’ messages. To address this,
Hays and Singh (2011) proposed that qualitative researchers practice self-reflection and
awareness of subjective biases throughout the research process. The onus is on the researcher to
provide a rationale for how data was analyzed and to show that the highest scientific standards of
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Organization of the Remainder of the Study
This chapter presented a brief introduction to the research about an empty nest, and the
research design of the current study. Chapter 2 will address the literature review and provide an
in-depth summary of what has been researched on the empty nest phenomenon in order to justify
the need for the current study. Additionally, Chapter 2 will further expound on the theoretical
frameworks mentioned in this chapter. A detailed presentation of family development theory and
Black psychology and their relevance to the study will be examined. Chapter 3 will describe the
methodology utilized for the study and the data analysis process that was applied. Chapter 4 will
describe the results of the study and chapter five will summarize the results of the study and
identify the implications of the findings. Recommendations for future research will also be
included in Chapter 5.
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CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review is integral to every research project. It reviews previous theories and
research about a specific topic and references scholarly articles. The literature review offers
readers a groundwork comprised of past and current research on the topic. This chapter will
address the theoretical frameworks used for the study and a review of the research literature. The
findings outlined in the review will be synthesized. Lastly, a critique of the research literature
Methods of Searching
At the core of this study, the research question was, “How do single mothers of
Caribbean descent experience the empty nest phenomenon?” Various searches over a period of
nine months were conducted on multiple databases including PsycINFO, PsychARTICLES, and
Psychology Database, to answer this question. Several combinations of the keywords empty nest,
single mothers, midlife transition, single parent, Caribbean, and post-parenting were used. The
search parameters included peer reviewed journals and articles from the last seven years. The
exceptions to these parameters were primary resources with an older publication date related to
In PsychARTICLES, there were three results generated that responded with single
mothers whose children left home. In Psychology Database, there were 2,256 results with the
key words empty nest. In PsychINFO there were 235 results for midlife transitions and four
results for single parent and post parenting. No results were found which pertained to the topic of
One issue that arose with the database search was that many results were found based on
broad keyword searches. Some of these searches resulted in articles about birds, communication
16
through dance, and honeybees. Boolean searches were performed, which combined keywords
with modifiers such as and, not, and or, to narrow results. This method yielded relevant articles
that could be applied to the topic of empty nest, single parenthood, midlife, and post parenting.
In PsychINFO, this resulted in 10 articles related to empty nest and single parents. In Psychology
Database, this method generated nine articles that focused on empty nest or midlife transitions.
There was a plethora of literature related to empty nest, single parents, post parenting,
and midlife transitions. The researcher examined the works cited and references in these articles
and found more articles that explored the topic of empty nest in non-White cultural groups such
as Indian, African, Chinese, African American, and Hispanic populations (Cao & Lu, 2018;
Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mansoor & Hasan, 2019; Pillay, 1988). However, zero studies
addressed the specific population of single mothers with Caribbean ancestry. This lack of
research pertaining to the Caribbean population was the motivation for pursuing the current
study. There is clearly a gap in the literature for single mothers of Caribbean ancestry and their
The research topic focused on the empty nest stage of the family life cycle from two
theoretical frameworks: family development theory and Black psychology. During this stage,
parents experience changes in role identification and social interactions (Borland, 1982). This
study may expand family development theory by applying concepts of the family life cycle from
a cultural perspective. The analysis of the empty nest experience from a single mother’s
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Black psychology emphasizes that perception is affected by cultural influences (Cokley
& Garba, 2018). The research topic will expand Black psychology by applying the concepts of
culture to an empty nest as experienced by single mothers of Caribbean descent (Cokley &
Garba, 2018). In addition, this research has the potential to inform Black psychology theories on
family development and parenting by adding the perspective of single Caribbean mothers with
an empty nest. The assumption that human behavior is experienced from a cultural perspective
Family development theory is rooted in the works of Evelyn Duval and Reuben Hill, who
examined familial relationships based on internal reactions among family members as well as the
social context of interaction with their community and society (Duvall et al., 1953). Their work
originated as a textbook for newly married couples struggling with changing demands of their
new identity as a young family (Duvall et al., 1953). This framework has since been used as a
model in the creation of several theories of family development, such as systematic family
development (Burgess, 1954), family systems theory (Bowen, 1961), and family life cycle theory
(Carter & McGoldrick, 1988). A crucial aspect of family development theory, which is a
common theme found in other theories of family development, is that family development occurs
in the context of individual, social, and historical experiences (Bowen, 1961; Burgess, 1954;
The concepts of family development theory initially proposed by Duvall et al. (1953)
was utilized as a theoretical framework for this study. Duvall et al. (1953) explored several
developmental patterns, such as critical periods in physical, personal, cognitive, and moral
18
development. Physical development included predictable physical changes that individuals
experience from birth through adolescence to adulthood, influenced by gender, race, and culture
(Duvall, 1988). Personal development, influenced by cultural and social expectations, focused on
an individual’s personality, which develops throughout the lifespan (Duvall, 1988). Cognitive
conform to societal norms in order to avoid punishment and is influenced by culture and
The family life cycle follows the family unit as it transitions through a series of stages,
including becoming newlyweds, having children, and the empty nest. (Duvall, 1988; Duvall et
al., 1953). Demographic factors contributed to the experience and length of each stage of the
family life cycle (Duvall, 1988). For example, the retirement age for someone in a high-income
bracket may be younger than the retirement age for someone with a lower-paying career with
little benefits, or cultural and societal expectations for adult children may postpone the empty
nest stage. Since its conception, many changes were made to the family life cycle to incorporate
individual, societal, and cultural norms such as divorce, retirement, rearing grandchildren, and
Family development theory posits that families develop through the life cycle when
change and growth are experienced. Each stage of the life cycle is characterized by specific goals
and basic tasks that families must accomplish (Duvall, 1988). When these goals and basic tasks
are unmet, there is a disruption in the family unit, described as chaos, and progress to the next
stage is hindered (Duvall et al., 1953). Individuals transition to the next life stage when there are
19
changes in their current role. This change, which is fueled by growth or resistance, influences
their ability to accomplish the developmental tasks of the next stage (Duvall et al., 1953).
family responsibilities, and interactions that result from critical events (Duvall, 1988; Duvall et
al., 1953). According to family development theory, basic family tasks are completed during
each stage of the family life cycle (Duvall, 1988). These basic tasks are: (a) providing physical
care, (b) allocating resources, (c) determining responsibilities, (d) socializing, (e) establishing
interactions patterns, (f) adding or losing family members, (g) interacting with society, and (h)
keeping each other motivated (Duvall, 1988). Transitional periods are delineated by a change in
the role filled by a family member (Duvall, 1988). An example can be seen when children are
born and married partners become parents and their role alters from that of a spouse to include
parenting. This role shift changes the inner dynamics of the family unit as well as how the new
parents interact with the environment outside of the home, such as with pediatricians and other
parents.
The family unit is based on interdependence (Duvall et al., 1953). Each family member is
dependent on the others and each member can instigate change in the family unit. Each family
member is an individual with their thoughts, opinions, emotions, values, and beliefs and has the
power to influence the thoughts, opinions, emotions, values, and beliefs of other family
members, translating into interactions with society (Duvall, 1988). Changes within any one
member of the family unit have a ripple effect on other members of the family unit, the family
unit as a whole, and how the unit and individual family members interact with their environment,
20
The first stage of family development occurs with the choice to become partners (Duvall
et al., 1953). Two individuals choose to leave their family of origin and establish their own
independent family unit and take on the expectations that society places on a new family unit,
such as financial independence and the possibility of becoming parents. The second stage occurs
when children are added to the unit (Duvall, 1988). Partners will integrate their spouse and
parental roles to make emotional, financial, biological, and psychological adjustments during this
stage.
A study by Chaulk et al. (2003) found that newly married couples and those with children
had lower financial risk tolerance compared to their counterparts. This difference aligns with
family development theory and the concept that family members make emotional and financial
There are several stages in the family life cycle based on children’s age (Duvall, 1988).
During these stages, children adapt to their roles both inside and outside the family unit and
navigate changing biological and psychosocial needs (Duvall, 1988). During these stages,
parents may pursue professional career goals and integrate new parenting skills into their family
Davies and Gentile (2012) applied the concepts of family development to their study,
which highlighted changing parenting skills that adapted to the needs of children from infancy
through adolescence. They found that parents monitored their younger children’s media
consumption significantly more than parents with adolescents (Davies & Gentile, 2012). This
study portrayed a change in parenting skills to support the needs of their children. More media
monitoring occurred for younger, easily influenceable children compared to less monitoring of
21
The last stages of the family life cycle begin with an empty nest and are concerned with
parental adjustment to children leaving home, retirement, and death (Duvall, 1988). During these
stages, children gain independence from their family of origin, and parents consider mortality
and seek to fulfill lifelong goals (Duvall, 1988). During this stage parents’ roles change to
accommodate their children leaving home and new societal demands based on their age and
Hiedemann et al. (1998) studied factors that influence divorce. They determined that the
length of time married, wives’ economic independence, and economic status as a couple
influence marital disruption in the empty nest stage of the life cycle (Hiedemann et al., 1998).
That is to say, women who were married for a shorter period and who were economically
independent were more likely to divorce than their counterparts. This study is an example of
changing parental roles, specifically those of women, experienced in the empty nest stage of
family development.
Critics of family development theory state that human development is not linear or
cyclical, that transitions from one stage to another is not dependent on successfully navigating
the previous stage, and that family development theory does not support changing definitions of
the family unit to include nonnormative roles (O’Brien, 2005). Duvall (1988) wrote that culture
“sets the norm for the family” (p. 130); therefore, the family life cycle may adapt and change
depending on the cultural identity and dynamics of the family unit. Duvall (1988) identified
several factors that affect the family life cycle, including physical, psychosocial, moral,
cognitive, and personal development. Family development theory has adapted to reflect changing
societal norms, cultural influences, and relationship roles (Duvall, 1988; Erickson, 1998; Kumar,
2017).
22
In his analysis of family development theory, Martin (2018) examined Duvall’s work on
family development and its transformation throughout the years. He determined that the initial
theory has been adapted into modern perspectives, which build on original concepts and reflect
changing social and cultural demands of the family unit (Martin, 2018). Family development
theory has been applied to work and social programs and influenced the scientific literature on
work-family balance, use of the technology with the family, and diverse, blended families
(Martin, 2018; Watt & White, 1999; White, 1999). The current study will benefit from the
adaptability of this theory to changing cultural and societal norms prominent in ethnic minority
populations.
Black Psychology
Black psychology integrates historic experiences as well as current events into the
experience of psychological phenomena (Cokley et al., 2019). The author’s target population
was single mothers of Caribbean descent. This population was defined as having ancestors no
more than three generations removed from any native English-speaking Caribbean island. The
population for this study included every race found in the Caribbean such as Afro Caribbean,
Asian Caribbean, European Caribbean, and Native Indian Caribbean descendants. Based on the
assumptions of Black psychology, the author presumed that historical and current events shaped
Additionally, Black psychology holds a holistic view of the person, which integrates
individual, social, political, religious, and cultural factors (Jamison, 2018). The concept of the
person as an interdependent part of a collective community was applied to the study. The author
was interested in the social and cultural implications of the experience of an empty nest from the
23
Cokley et al. (2019) wrote that the development of the Black identity was rooted in
racism and oppression. Black psychology gained momentum to address social issues in the Black
community, and this movement strove to overcome the negative assumptions associated with the
Black community (Jamison, 2018). Black psychologists strive to identify and address social
problems rampant in the Black community and positively impact the mental health of this
population (Association of Black Psychologists, 2019). Black psychologists believe that self-
determination and knowledge are tools that can be used to heal people and communities in need
Black psychology builds on the social looking-glass theory, which posits that self-
concept is determined by how others perceive an individual (Cokley & Garba, 2018). Black
psychologists assume that human behavior is experienced through one’s culture (Jamison, 2018).
Nobles (2015) wrote that “all human communities, especially African prior to invasion and
colonization, used their own … cultural appreciations, and apperceptions about reality to inform
their knowing framework and intellectual mindset” (p. 402). The reality for any community, is
based on that community’s cultural beliefs and assumptions, which are then used to interpret
every experience.
psychology as a framework to address personal and social issues in the Black community and to
commonality of all human behaviors, Black psychologists take a holistic view of the individual
24
Black psychology is based on cosmology, ontology, epistemology, and axiology
(Jamison, 2018). Cosmology describes the interdependence each individual has with nature and
other inhabitants of the world. Subscribers of Black psychology promote the cosmology that
each individual is a collective part of the universe (Jamison, 2018). Ontology refers to
assumptions about existence and being (Höijer, 2008). The ontology of Black psychology
assumes that humans are a physical manifestation of the Spirit (Jamison, 2018). As such, Black
to the way that knowledge is acquired (Kim, 2001). In Black psychology, symbolism and
thought are the cornerstones for knowledge (Jamison, 2018). Symbolic meaning is associated
with language, expressions, and objects, and cognition is based on understanding the meaning
behind the symbolism. Lastly, the axiological value system of Black psychology is rooted in
The principles of Black psychology are focused on developing Black identity, family, and
psychologists, such as Janet Helms, adapted the initial racial identity theory to include
socialization, and racism into identity development (Cokley et al., 2019). Black psychologists
perpetuate the idea that identity is rooted in both spiritual and collective interdependence with
others.
Black families are integral to forming identity and maintaining cultural systems (Cokley
& Garba, 2018). The definition of the Black family, which includes immediate family members,
also incorporates friends, neighbors, and community members that interact and shape a person’s
experience of acculturation, socialization, and life (Cokley & Garba, 2018). In Black
25
psychology, the family is viewed positively in terms of support for cultural values and beliefs
to combat the stereotype that African Americans have a lower capacity for intelligence,
language, and learning compared to other ethnicities (Nobles, 2015). One purpose of the
disseminate knowledge to the Black community through schools, outreach programs, and higher
education workshops that incorporate African ideals such as self-determination, unity, faith,
Black psychology has been associated with theories of acculturation and identity
(Jamison, 2018). The theoretical foundation created by Black psychologists allows for a better
understanding of Black identity development, including integral cultural factors such as family,
religion, education, and respect. Black psychology has informed research and educational and
social programs specifically designed to integrate Black tenets into its curriculum (Association of
Black Psychologists, 2019). These tenets include respect, spirituality, and responsibility (Cokley
The dissertation topic, which will focus on the personal experience of the empty nest
phenomenon experienced by single mothers of Caribbean descent, can be interpreted from the
frameworks of family development theory and Black psychology. During the empty nest stage,
parents experience transitional parental roles, unique personal development, and changing social
interactions (Borland, 1982). The researcher is interested in how single mothers of Caribbean
descent accomplish the basic tasks delineated by family development theory, focusing on social
interactions and cultural role identity. Both family development theory and Black psychology
26
identify the family as a significant component of an individual’s life (Jamison, 2018; Martin,
2018).
Family development theory follows members through each phase of the family life cycle
(Martin, 2018). Black psychology is rooted in the belief that family is an integral part of building
the Black identity (Jamison, 2018). Additionally, both approaches view the individual as part of
a collective community within both the family unit, community, and the larger society (Chaulk et
al., 2003; Cokley et al., 2019; Fair et al., 2018). Black psychology and family development
theory consider many factors that affect the individual’s development such as family, religion,
and education (Chaulk et al., 2003; Cokley et al., 2019; Fair et al., 2018). Both perspectives can
be integrated into the dissertation topic because their basic tenets are compatible. Additionally,
the theoretical implications and practical applications of both perspectives can be adapted and
The topic under investigation was the experience of an empty nest from the perspective
of single mothers of Caribbean descent, with a focus on social interactions and cultural role
identity. The literature review will present emerging themes according to the methodologies and
concepts identified in current research. There will be an analysis of the empty nest phenomenon
in terms of predicting factors, anxiety, and well-being. The following literature illuminated the
constructs of social interactions and cultural role identity in relation to an empty nest. The
literature review intended to elaborate on the empty nest phenomenon and the effect of cultural
27
Research on the Empty Nest Phenomenon
The empty nest stage of life is described as the time when parenting is no longer a
primary objective because adult children live outside the family home (Bouchard, 2014; Kins et
al., 2013; Lachman, 2001; Lippert, 1997; Mitchell & Wister, 2015; Mount & Moas, 2015).
Research of the empty nest phenomenon has been applied to quantitative and qualitative studies
in general psychology (Bouchard & McNair, 2016; Gao et al., 2017). The topic of this study
encompassed themes of parent-child relationships, empty nest, post parenting, and race which
are key topics researched in the general psychology specialization (APA Division One, 2018).
The shift to midlife, which begins with an empty nest, marks transitions in marital status, career
The empty nest phenomenon has been studied within various frameworks such as
attachment theory (Kins et al., 2013), evolutionary psychology (Mitchell & Lovegreen, 2009),
and family development (Afiatin et al., 2016; Lippert, 1997). When children leave home, married
couples experience decreased social interactions and role identity issues (Kins et al., 2013; Papa
& Lancaster, 2016; Wu et al., 2010). Additionally, single parents exhibit a more significant
emotional response when children leave home (Bouchard, 2014; Hilton & Anderson, 2009;
Schwarts & Ayalon, 2015). There is a gap in the literature concerning empty nest and single
Kins et al. (2013) studied separation anxiety in the family unit when emerging adults left
home. They hypothesized that the psychosocial development of both parents and children were
affected during this transitional period (Kins, et al., 2013). The sample consisted of 119 two-
parent Belgian families, of which 61% had their adult children still living at home, while in 31%
28
pertaining to six relationship dyads was administered to collect data on separation anxiety in the
family unit. Kins et al. (2013) reported a Cronbach’s alpha (α) ranging from 0.83 to 0.89 for their
questionnaire. They determined that separation anxiety can be found throughout the lifespan
during important transitional phases, such as when children leave home (Kins et al., 2013). They
found that maternal separation anxiety was expressed as worry, sadness, and guilt associated
with mother-child separation. They also discovered that separation anxiety was associated with
negative self-representations. A limitation of this study was that Kins et al. (2013) utilized a
sample that did not represent a nonnormative family because the researchers intentionally sought
two-parent families for the study. This limitation supported the need for a study with a focus on
single parents.
women in various parenting stages, ranging from infancy to empty nest. They utilized an online
survey (Cronbach α > 0.78) to collect data from 2,247 women. Luthar and Ciciolla (2016)
dependent variables by comparing the means of several quantitative outcome variables between
two or more groups (George & Mallery, 2016). In this study, the dependent variables were
maternal adjustment, parenting experiences, and perceptions of child. These were compared
between each stage of the family development life cycle. They hypothesized that women would
experience the least stress during the empty nest stage (Luthar & Ciciolla, 2016). They examined
both positive and negative aspects of adjustment, including anxiety, depression, and satisfaction
with life. Their results indicated that empty nest was indeed associated with the least role
overload, stress, and negative perceptions of children. A limitation of this study was that the
sample consisted of upper-middle-class mothers who had access to the online survey. Therefore,
29
mothers from lower socioeconomic standing may not have been fairly represented in their
sample.
There was an emerging theme that socioeconomic status, spousal relationships, and
education influence how empty nest is perceived and experienced. Chui (2018) sampled 339
Chinese elders with a low family income and a junior-secondary education. He administered the
Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale, the Lubben Social Network Scale, the
Meaning of Life Questionnaire, and the Older People’s Quality of Life Questionnaire. These
instruments reported Cronbach’s α ranging from .793 to .921, indicating high reliability (Chui,
2018). His study aimed to determine if quality of life is influenced by social networks, functional
disability, and meaning in life. An analysis of variance, or ANOVA, was used to identify an
association between demographic background and quality of life. He found that functional
disability was negatively associated with social networks. Participants with fewer friends and
family support showed more physical and mental decline. Chui (2018) identified an association
between functional disability and lower education and income levels. He also determined that
higher income and education were associated with a more extensive social network and higher
quality of life scores (Chui, 2018). A limitation of this study was the use of a nonprobability
sampling method, which may have biased the data collected. This study focused on three
dimensions of quality of life. Future studies could include other factors for a comprehensive
Wawrzyniak (2015) performed a series of in-depth surveys and statistical analyses with a
longitudinal sample, which started with 3,240 participants in 1969 and ended with 1,301
participants in 2010. The study was used to identify factors that predict the age of onset of the
post parental stage for married couples. The research showed that most married parents start this
30
stage in their sixties and that several factors affect when the post parental stage begins. These
factors included age that parents left their home, age of the birth of the first child, number of
children, and the gender and education of children. This article was useful in providing a
timeline for when parents can expect to experience an empty nest. A limitation of this study was
that participants were chosen from traditional families, and nontraditional families were
excluded.
satisfaction among biological and step parents. The dependent variable of life satisfaction was
measured using the Satisfaction of Life Scale (α > 0.86), which consisted of three items rated on
a Likert scale. Multiple linear regression analysis was performed to determine the association
between life satisfaction and demographic data, trust in partners, and closeness of relationship
with children. It was determined that parents with complicated parenting roles, such as that of
step-parents, reported lower life satisfaction scores than their counterparts with biological
children. This lower life satisfaction score was more pronounced for fathers than for mothers.
Katya (2020) found a positive association with life satisfaction, no reported mental health issues,
and higher education. Both biological and step-parents reported higher levels of life satisfaction
associated with the closeness of relationships with children. Katya (2020) determined that
differences in life satisfaction for step-parents and biological parents could be attributed to the
complex parenting role assumed by step parents. However, the results of the study were not
statistically significant. This indicated that there is no significant difference in the experience of
life satisfaction from step-parents’ perspective compared to biological parents. This study was
well designed. Future research may include variables that measure interpersonal skills. This topic
31
may also benefit from a longitudinal design that follows participants throughout the family life
cycle.
Factors that affect parenting include parent-child relationships, social interactions, and
cultural role identity (Sumargi et al., 2018). The dissertation topic focused on the experiences of
social interactions and cultural role identity associated with empty nest from the perspective of
The topic of social isolation experienced by parents who have an empty nest has been the
focus of much research (Boz, 2018; Chen et al., 2012; Gao et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2010). Boz
Three of the participants were widows and all other participants were married. The purpose of
the study was to explore social networks and social communication methods utilized by the
elderly. Boz (2018) identified the home as a place of comfort, and several participants
recognized that they built close relationships with their neighbors and friends who lived within
the vicinity. They determined that as friends and family moved away, their social support
dwindled, and they did not embrace the changing environment (Boz, 2018). Female participants
assumed traditional roles for women in terms of social acceptance, marital status, and age which
limited their activities outside of the home. Boz (2018) examined the role of social networks and
found that participants identified family members, such as children and grandchildren, relatives,
and neighbors as integral to their social circle. Due to aging, migration, or relationship conflict,
social interactions decreased over time. Boz (2018) identified loneliness as a shared experience
among participants, especially those who felt isolated and did not keep in close communication
with their social circle. A limitation of this study was that the sample of 10 participants was
32
taken from a city in Turkey and may not effectively represent other older adults worldwide. This
study determined that loneliness and relationship conflict are part of an empty nest.
Several studies on the elderly living in rural China found an increase in loneliness
experienced by empty-nesters compared to elders who still lived with their children (Chen et al.,
2012; Wu et al., 2010). Researchers Chen et al. (2012) designed a quasiexperimental study to
determine what factors influence living conditions and life satisfaction for older adults with an
empty nest. They measured several dependent variables, including quality of life, living
conditions, and the ability to participate in social activities (Chen et al., 2012). Independent
variables for this study included relationship with children, support from family and friends,
social activities, and how participants viewed themselves (Chen et al., 2012). To measure these
variables, the authors created the Living Condition and Life Satisfaction of Elder People survey,
which used a six-point Likert scale format and comprised of three sections focused on living
conditions of older adults, living satisfactions of older adults, and demographic information
(Chen et al., 2012). They recruited 70 adults from a local government-funded senior center and
from a university center where they worked. They reported α > .90 for the first two parts of their
questionnaire and reported reliability for their study. The inclusion of this information added
validity and reliability to their study. They found that empty nesters who were socially active
reported higher levels of happiness and quality of life. They recommended that future research
utilize random sampling and use a larger sample to study other factors that influence living
Wang et al. (2017) utilized a multistage randomized cluster sampling method to sample
814 elderly adults from eight rural communities in Liuyang, China. They utilized several
33
interviews. They reported test-retest correlation coefficients of 0.722 and 0.702, this indicated
acceptable reliability for these measures (Warner, 2013). They performed a multiple linear
regression analysis to explore the association between empty nest and living situations,
loneliness, and depressive symptoms. Their results were significant, which indicated that
loneliness and depressive symptoms were associated with an empty nest. Their study met the
requirements for ethical and scientific merit through approval from Central South University. A
limitation of this study was that participants were chosen from rural communities in China. The
Cao and Lu (2018) collected data from 1,424 empty nest elders in China to explore the
correlation between social support and life satisfaction. They identified 16 rural villages in
Western China, where they invited participants to be part of the study through random sampling.
Cao and Lu (2018) utilized several questionnaires to measure the variables of social support,
satisfaction with life, and loneliness. They also included the covariates of gender, marital status,
age, education level, and income. Social support was measured using the Multidimensional Scale
of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), a 12-item scale that measured perceived social support
from three sources: family, friends, and significant others. The researchers reported a Cronbach α
of 0.94 for this scale. Satisfaction with life was measured with the Satisfaction with Life Scale
(SWLS). The SWLS consisted of 5 items and had α > 0.89. Loneliness was measured using the
UCLA Loneliness Scale, which reported α > 0.94. Several statistical analyses were performed,
variance (ANOVA) showed a significant difference in life satisfaction among empty nest elders
based on gender, education level, and income. Pearson’s correlation coefficient indicated a
significant positive correlation with social support and life satisfaction and a negative correlation
34
between loneliness and social support. The hierarchical multiple regression showed that
loneliness was a moderating factor in the relationship between social support and life
satisfaction. Cao and Lu (2018) highlighted that loneliness was experienced by many empty
nesters. The researchers determined that higher levels of perceived social support led to higher
life satisfaction scores. They also determined that loneliness was an indicator of poor life
satisfaction. A strength of this study was that all measures reported high Cronbach α coefficients,
which indicated high internal consistency in the measures. A limitation of this study was that this
was a cross-sectional study. A longitudinal design would provide more data about social support
These studies explored the effect of social isolation on an empty nest. A common theme
was that the parental experience of empty nest was linked to loneliness, which resulted in a
significant decline in mental and physical health. These studies show that social isolation is a
factor of the empty nest phenomenon (Bouchard, 2014; Cao & Lu, 2018; Chen et al., 2012;
Researchers determined that there was an association between actively maintaining social
interactions, avoiding social isolation, and high levels of marital satisfaction and self-esteem
(Bouchard & McNair, 2016; Iman & Aghamiri, 2011; Tanis et al., 2017). Bouchard and McNair
(2016) explored the dyadic marital relationship with an empty nest. They recruited 102 Canadian
couples in the empty nest stage using word of mouth, sports, and cultural activities. The
Bouchard and McNair (2016) defined six predictor variables, which were wives’ marital
adjustment, husbands’ marital adjustment, wives’ frequency of contact with children, husbands’
frequency of contact with children, wives’ frequency of contact with grandchildren, and
35
husbands’ frequency of contact with grandchildren. The outcome variable was life satisfaction
for husbands and wives. They hypothesized that marital adjustment, contact with children, and
having grandchildren were predictors of life satisfaction. They also hypothesized that interaction
with grandchildren influenced life satisfaction. Their results showed a positive statistically
significant relationship between frequency of contact with children and grandchildren, marital
adjustment and life satisfaction scores. This study highlighted social interaction with spouses,
hobbies, and social activities associated with parents who had an empty nest. Their sample
consisted of 241 families living in Sari City, Iran, who responded to questionnaires. They
integrated seasons of change theory in their research to investigate the psychological well-being
of mothers whose children left home (Iman & Aghamiri, 2011). Their research focused on
autonomy, positive relations with others, and personal growth during this time. There was a
positive correlation between psychological well-being and participation in hobbies and social
interactions (Iman & Aghamiri, 2011). Mothers who participated in extracurricular activities
reported higher levels of psychological well-being. Their research described the positive aspects
of an empty nest. A limitation of this study was that the Cronbach’s α reported for the
questionnaire ranged from 0.68 to 0.85, which translated as weak to moderate reliability.
Tanis et al. (2017) examined the social networking site use of parents and their adult
children and determined that parents increased their use of social networking technology to
communicate with their children after leaving home. This study focused on the changes in
interaction style in the parent-child relationship. Tanis et al. (2017) administered an online
survey to 748 parents living in the United States, and the data showed an upsurge in social
36
networking site use up to two years after children left home. They found a significant negative
association between the use of social network technology and symptoms of an empty nest, such
as loneliness, feelings of loss, emotional instability, and depression (Tanis et al., 2017). Their
findings showed that as social network technology use increased, there was a decrease in the
negative symptoms of empty nest (Tanis et al., 2017). Information on reliability or validity was
Researchers found that empty nest can be a positive experience for parents who maintain
social interactions, have high levels of psychological well-being, and believe their children are
successful (Bouchard & McNair, 2016; Iman & Aghamiri, 2011). These researchers sought to
individuals adjust to new experiences. Experiences with cultural norms, beliefs, and values
learned throughout the lifespan impact the development of an individual’s identity (Sugimura et
al., 2016). Additionally, life events such as marriage, migration, and parenting affect the
cultural role identity and psychosocial adjustment and well-being. Supporting this finding,
several researchers determined that cultural role identification influences how parents experience
the empty nest phenomenon (Bouchard, 2014; Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister,
Bouchard (2014) found that parents who did not have alternative roles as part of their
identity experienced a decrease in psychological well-being when their children left home.
37
when children left home. Additionally, parents’ marital quality and psychological well-being
were also affected by launching children from home (Bouchard, 2014). Other factors associated
with empty nest included the age that children leave home, the gender of the children, and role
identity. Her analysis supported that an increase in maternal loneliness was fueled by a decrease
in interactions with others (Bouchard, 2014). Additional life changes, such as retirement and
grandmotherhood, was associated with increased stress for mothers. Bouchard (2014) compared
studies from America, Thailand, and China and found that Chinese data supported a negative
experience of an empty nest. Bouchard (2014) determined that in the studies from China, low
The migration of children from rural areas to cities as a means to provide financially for
themselves attributed to poor family relationships, and added to feelings of loneliness and
depression experienced by Chinese empty nesters. On the other hand, Bouchard (2014)
determined that social status and pride in their children swayed Thai parents to have lower levels
Mackey and O’Brien (1998) studied alternative role identities in the context of cultural
identification. They investigated how 60 couples adapted to developmental stages in their lives,
including the empty nest stage. They sought to gain insight into marriage as it evolved and
adapted to life changes such as child-rearing and post-parenting transitions. Their sample
consisted of a diverse group of 60 couples that represented White, African American, and
Hispanic ethnicities. Data were collected through a semistructured open-ended interview. Two
raters coded and analyzed the data to increase interrater reliability. They reported a Cohen’s
kappa between .79 and .94, indicating there was reliability in the coding system. Mackey and
O’Brien (1998) determined that African American spouses held nontraditional cultural
38
expectations about marital roles and parenting. They found that Hispanics reported more
physical contact than other ethnic groups, even when sexual relations declined for all groups
during the empty nest years. They found a positive shift in conflict management, sexual
intimacy, and marital satisfaction during the empty nest years, noticeable with African
Americans. A limitation of this study was that participants may have had impaired and unreliable
memories of particular instances. However, the study highlighted the role of cultural differences
In a study on Indian mothers in South Africa, Pillay (1988) determined that mothers who
expected their children to stay at home longer than usual, experienced an identity crisis when
their children left home. With a sample of 56 women, he found that more than 50% of the
home. He noted that the Indian community lived in an extended family system where adult
children live in the parental home even after marriage. An increasing number of children leaving
their parental homes constituted a change in cultural norms resulting in Indian mothers
exhibiting a depressive reaction to empty nest. The article shared insight into the cultural aspects
of empty nest and how cultural norms affected mothers’ adjustment to their children leaving
home. A limitation of this study was that participants were hospitalized and depression may be
Liang and Luo (2017) applied a grounded theory approach to develop a theoretical
framework for understanding the meaning of everyday life for 20 individuals over the age of 50
in rural China. They determined that individuals experience changing social roles throughout
their lifetime and emphasized historical and social contexts. Participants in this study
experienced life under the rule of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which limited freedoms
39
in adherence to communism. This included limitations on religion, leisure, and family planning,
such as the one-child policy. During this the Cultural Revolution occurred where intellectuals
were forced into manual work as part of their re-education training. Liang and Luo (2017)
identified that historical, social, cultural, and political changes affect a person’s perception,
decisions, and experiences. They employed purposeful sampling and collected data through in-
depth, semistructured interviews. Their results showed three emerging themes, which were
reminiscing, agency, and pathways in retirement. Participants reminisced about past experiences
such as living through the Korean War, the China-Soviet split, and the Cultural Revolution, and
this reminiscence allowed participants to allocate meaning to their lives. Agency included
adaptations to changing times such as being proactive, embracing changing family structures,
integrating technology into their skill set, and actively pursuing hobbies and leisure activities.
The authors discovered seven pathways in retirement: passivity, active pursuit, versatility,
productivity, lifelong learning, spirituality, and generosity (Liang & Luo, 2017). These pathways
demonstrated how individuals experience their later years. The study by Liang and Luo (2017)
presented important information on the effect of historical and cultural factors on the Chinese
elderly. Participants in this study were over 50 years old but were not empty nesters. Future
studies could explore how empty nesters attribute meaning to their daily lives in historical,
Mitchell and Wister (2015) found that cultural beliefs and values associated with role
identity affected the transition to an empty nest. They demonstrated that parental negative or
positive impressions of their children leaving home greatly influenced the social aspect of the
parent-child relationship (Mitchell & Wister, 2015). Their study explored the effect an
40
(Mitchell & Wister, 2015). Their research supported that cultural role identity plays a big part in
the positive or negative outcome experienced by parents with an empty nest. White (1999) found
that the onset of an empty nest was postponed in African American and Hispanic families who
were more likely to live in extended family homes than their White counterparts (White, 1999).
She also found aspects such as age, class, culture, and economic status influence when children
leave home and how parents respond to this life event (White, 1999).
Gao et al. (2017) found that adverse health effects and cognitive deterioration were
experienced by Chinese elderly when their children left home. They determined that the
traditional Chinese family permitted elders to live with their children when they could no longer
function independently. However, parents and children lived separately because rural children
move to cities for financial success. Gao et al. (2017) studied the effect of an empty nest on
physical and psychological health and cognitive ability. A random sample of 7,823 participants
was included in the study, which represented both urban and rural elders. The independent
variable was having an empty nest and the dependent variables included physical, cognitive, and
psychological health. The researchers used the Hausman Test to evaluate a regression model for
the independent and dependent variables (Gao et al., 2017). Their results were statistically
significant. They determined that variables such as living resources, availability of medical
treatment, and social activities were potential moderators of health. They also determined that
empty nest elders experienced a decline in cognitive ability compared to non-empty nesters.
They found that single female empty-nesters had significantly lower scores than their
counterparts. This study was well-designed and indicated that women, especially single mothers,
experienced negative aspects of empty nest such as physical, cognitive, and psychological health
decline.
41
These studies highlighted the importance of alternative role identities as well as cultural
influences that affect the empty nest experience. Parents who were confident in alternative roles
besides that of ‘parent’ had positive well-being and higher satisfaction (Bouchard, 2014; Gao et
al., 2017; Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister, 2015; Pillay, 1988). There is a
proliferation of research on the topic of empty nest. However, the demographic data showed that
most participants were married White mothers (Bouchard & McNair, 2016; Kins et al., 2013).
There are limited studies on this stage of life from the perspective of single parents, and there are
minimal studies that focus on cultural minorities (Bouchard, 2014; Hilton & Anderson, 2009;
Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister, 2015; Pillay, 1988; Schwarts & Ayalon, 2015).
The dissertation topic will address a gap in the literature pertaining to single mothers of
The literature review supported that there are both negative and positive aspects of
having an empty nest. Bouchard and McNair (2016) found that parents had high marital
satisfaction and self-esteem during the empty nest stage when they maintained social
interactions. When parents were confident in their children’s independence and maintained
quality relationships, their experience was positive, as evidenced by higher life satisfaction
health issues such as loneliness and depression when their children leave home (Thapa et al.,
2018). There was a strong correlation to negative symptoms such as depression and mental
health decline when parents were isolated and separated from their family, friends, and society
(Chang et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2010). Chang et al. (2016), Gao et al. (2017), and
42
Wu et al. (2010) suggested that their research be used to inform government programs designed
There was evidence to support that post parenting can be a negative experience for
parents (Chang et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2010) or a positive one (Bouchard & McNair, 2016; Iman
& Aghamiri, 2011). The literature showed that empty nesters are at higher risk of social isolation
related to depression and mental decline. Parents who actively maintained a social life and roles
outside of parenting had higher marital and life satisfaction scores. A review of the literature
showed that research on “empty nest” focused on emerging adults leaving the family home
(Hilton & Anderson, 2009; Kins et al., 2013) as well as how parents adjust to an empty nest
(Bouchard, 2014; Mitchell & Lovegreen, 2009). Several factors affect the transition to the post
parental phase which included age parents left their home, age of the first child, the number of
A similarity in these studies was the topic of empty nest and factors which affected the
experience. Kins et al. (2013) identified separation anxiety as a factor experienced by mothers
and its role in adjusting to an empty nest. Luthar and Ciciolla (2016) explored several factors that
influence adjustment to various stages of family development and found that the empty nest
experience was affected by how parents view their children. Chui (2018) explored
socioeconomic factors that affect the empty nest experience and found that mental decline was
associated with parents with lower socioeconomic standing. Wawrzyniak (2015) determined
several factors that predicted the onset of empty nest, which included the age at which the empty
nesters had children, how many children they had, and their children’s education. Katya (2020)
studied parenting from the perspective of step-parents and found that life stressors and
complicated parenting roles affect the experience of an empty nest. These studies indicated that
43
several factors affect the empty nest experience. These studies identified a gap in the literature
Scientific merit is synonymous with the quality of research and helps determine if the
research contributes valuable, meaningful, and valid information to the field. Researchers
included information about the reliability and validity of their studies to allow readers the
opportunity to identify the scientific merit of their works (Chen et al., 2012; Kins et al., 2013;
Wu et al., 2010). There was a plethora of designs and methodologies in the research about empty
groups is not randomized, instead rigor and tightly controlled settings are utilized throughout the
study (Leedy & Ormrod, 2016). Chen et al. (2012) utilized a quasiexperimental study to
determine what factors influence living conditions and life satisfaction for older adults with an
empty nest. They found that empty nesters who were socially active reported higher levels of
happiness and quality of life (Chen et al., 2012). The drawback to quasiexperimental designs is
that cause and effect relationships are difficult to prove without random assignment to groups.
Nonexperimental designs seek to explore associations rather than determine cause and
seek to determine correlations between variables (Trochim, 2006). In a study by Allen and
relationship between gender, age, and work-family conflict during family life stages. They found
that family life stage does affect work interference with family and family interference with
work; specifically, there was a negative correlation between empty nest and work interference
44
with family (Allen & Finkelstein, 2014). Nonexperimental designs may lack construct validity
and reliability, which may compromise the scientific merit of the research.
grounded, ethnographic, and case study. Narrative research focuses on the story of individual
experiences, phenomenological research permits study into the subjective experience of a lived
phenomenon, grounded theory allows for the development of theories based on collected data,
ethnographic research can be applied to shared experiences of a specified group, and case study
research focuses on a comprehensive exploration of a case or cases (Creswell & Poth, 2018). The
purpose of employing a qualitative approach to the topic of empty nest is to better describe the
(Creswell & Poth, 2018). A downside to qualitative methodologies is that interpretation of the
research may be biased, and the themes or patterns discerned from the data are dependent on the
researcher’s ability to accurately portray participants’ subjective experiences (Creswell & Poth,
2018).
This study strove to describe an experience with the use of the generic qualitative inquiry
design. This was accomplished by maintaining rigor and high ethical standards throughout the
study to ensure that the data adequately reflected participants’ experiences. This study met the
hallmarks of good research with scientific merit because the research question is aligned with an
Summary
The study utilized the theoretical frameworks outlined by family development theory and
Black psychology. Both perspectives offer a holistic view of the individual in terms of the family
and society. Family development theory and Black psychology highlight the importance of social
45
interactions and cultural identity as integral to the individual. There is much research about the
post parental phase of life, loneliness, and social isolation (Bouchard, 2014; Chang et al., 2016;
Gao et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2010). Many research studies have also identified cultural role
identity as a significant influencer on the psychological and physical transitions during the post-
parenting stage of life (Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister, 2015; Pillay, 1988).
There is much research about post parenting; however, there is limited research about
single parents or parents from cultural minority groups in the United States. The current study
can fill the gap in the literature about parent-child relationships, post parental transitions, and
personal experiences of mothers of Caribbean descent. Chapter 3 will explore the methodology
46
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
Research methodology refers to the design, data collection, analysis, and conclusion of a
study and is associated with validity and reliability. This chapter aimed to describe the data
collection, analysis, and ethical considerations of the study. There are eight sections in this
chapter: the purpose of the study, the research question, research design, target population and
presentation of the procedures used for participant selection, protection of participants, data
collection, and data analysis. Included in this chapter, is also a discussion on the role of the
researcher.
The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of the personal experience of
single mothers of Caribbean descent who have an empty nest. The research design was focused
on collecting, analyzing, and synthesizing data about this unique and personal experience from
each participant’s point of view. Much research has focused on the topic of empty nest and the
factors that influence how parents experience this phenomenon (Bouchard, 2014; Chang et al.,
2016; Gao et al., 2017; Mitchell & Wister, 2015). The theoretical framework and data collection
and analysis methods were chosen to obtain significant insight into the empty nest experience
Research Question
The research question for this study was, “How do single mothers of Caribbean descent
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Research Design
The generic qualitative inquiry design is used to explore people’s experiences through
their subjective opinions (Percy et al., 2015). Researchers utilizing the generic qualitative
research approach use thematic analysis to describe and interpret the meaning of collected data
According to Cooper and Endacott (2007), generic qualitative research should employ
reflexivity and establish rigor. Reflexivity allows the researcher to evaluate underlying
motivations for pursuing the topic under investigation (Cooper & Endacott, 2007). This self-
evaluation should also consider the theoretical framework used for the study. The researcher
included reflexivity in every step of the study and evaluated the motivations and preconceived
Methodology includes the sampling, data collection, and analysis procedures used in the
study (Cooper & Endacott, 2007). There are various types of sampling strategies for qualitative
inquiry, including purposeful sampling and snowball sampling. Both sampling strategies
provided a sample in this study that adequately explored the phenomenon being researched. The
data collection methods utilized in this generic qualitative inquiry included interviews and
observations (Cooper & Endacott, 2007). Snowball sampling was utilized and data was collected
through a semistructured interview. Rigor can be established through triangulation, or the use of
multiple sources of data, and respondent feedback, where participants are encouraged to share
feedback on the findings (Cooper & Endacott, 2007). Establishing rigor can add to the validity
and reliability of the study. The researcher established rigor through the use of respondent
feedback and member checking. This approach enabled collaboration between participants and
the researcher and allowed for accurate and meticulous interpretation of the data.
48
Kahlke (2014) delineated the positives and the pitfalls of a generic qualitative inquiry.
The strength of the generic qualitative inquiry is that the methodology is not clearly defined like
phenomenology (Kahlke, 2014). This lack of definition means that the generic qualitative
approach is appropriate for studies that do not fit the criteria for other methodologies (Kahlke,
2014). The generic qualitative approach is not without rigor and rigid procedures; instead,
researchers may choose to apply various frameworks to the study (Kahlke, 2014). The weakness
with the generic qualitative inquiry research design is that there is a lack of rigor and rigid
procedures for how data is interpreted, coded, or analyzed (Kahlke, 2014). Additionally,
researchers who utilize this approach may fall prey to mixing various aspects of different
axiological assumptions which guide the research process (Kahlke, 2014). It was determined that
for this study, the positive factors of utilizing a generic qualitative inquiry methodology
Newton et al. (2012) employed a generic qualitative approach to study emotional distress
experienced by women with scleroderma (N = 16). They collected data through a semistructured
qualitative interview designed to explore the research topic. They employed content-thematic
analysis and derived meaning from the data (Newton et al., 2012). Several concepts were
identified and coded throughout the analysis process. This study showed that generic qualitative
Lyons et al. (2012) focused their study on the appropriateness of employing a generic
qualitative inquiry approach when working with a population of African descent. Lyons et al.
(2012) explored the cosmology, axiology, ontology, and epistemology associated with the
49
worldview of individuals of African descent. The cosmology emphasized interdependence with
nature and collectivism. This was reflected in research that utilized a holistic approach to the
individual, open to discovering and understanding the many and varied factors that affect people
of African descent. Lyons et al. (2012) identified the axiology of person-to-person interaction
illustrated through the data collection method of in person interviews and observations. This
quality was also noted in the cultural competence demonstrated throughout the research process.
Inductive thematic analysis allowed for the flexibility of discerning new themes or meanings
associated with a phenomenon. This approach fitted with the ontology and epistemology of
people of African descent. Lyons et al. (2012) identified qualitative data analysis as a way to
appropriately gain knowledge and insight into the population that identified as having African
descent. This post hoc approach allowed for the identification of new themes and patterns in the
Both articles pointed to the application of generic qualitative inquiry in research. Newton
et al. (2012) was an example of the generic qualitative approach in action. Their study explored a
phenomenon and utilized the data collection method and analysis procedures utilized in this
study. Lyons et al. (2012) also illuminated the appropriateness of this methodology when
working with people of African descent. There was a parallel connection between this article and
Tracy (2010) described eight criteria of quality in qualitative research: a worthy topic,
rich rigor, sincerity, credibility, resonance, significant contribution, ethics, and meaningful
coherence. According to Tracy (2010), a worthy topic is relevant and interesting. The empty nest
phenomenon is experienced worldwide and has garnered much research. However, there were no
50
studies that address this topic in relation to single mothers in the United States with Caribbean
ancestry. The gap in the literature showed the need for research on the empty nest as experienced
Tracy (2010) stated that rich rigor is met when a study employs appropriate and sufficient
theoretical constructs and data collection and analysis processes. Rigor is evaluated in terms of
the appropriateness of methodology employed throughout the study. Complying with strict
methodologies and procedures allowed for the assumption of rigor to be met. One way to define
rigor is in terms of transferability and transparency. Transferability refers to the extent to which
results of a study reflect the sample or population (Creswell & Poth, 2018). For qualitative
research, this means that another study with a similar sample will have similar results. This is
achieved through comprehensive records that clearly describe all the procedures and methods
utilized in the study. This detailed record also provides transparency which adds to the rigor of
the study.
concerning the researcher’s personal attachment to the study’s topic, biases, and limitations.
analyses, and conclusions made throughout the research process. The researcher performed
critical self-examinations and audited personal biases, which added to the sincerity of the study.
descriptions, triangulation, and multivocality (Tracy, 2010). Thick description refers to the detail
with which information is presented to the audience so that readers can make their conclusions
from the data. Thick description allows for readers to consume information critically and to
51
examine the researcher’s analysis and conclusions. Crystallization and triangulation enable
researchers to present their findings confidently because results are based on the convergence of
evidence from several sources of data, theories, and analysis, which add credibility to research
findings. Multivocality is portrayed when results are shared with participants to determine if the
participants’ input was included in the analysis of the data. Qualitative validity can also be
described in terms of credibility and dependability, which can be achieved by strict adherence to
credible method for qualitative research, and Percy et al. (2015) clearly delineated a step-by-step
process for data analysis. Dependability is established through confirmability. Actual exemplar
derived from the data. These quotes supported analysis and conclusions derived from the data.
This presentation of evidence, in the form of actual quotes, fostered dependability in the study.
(Tracy, 2010). Aesthetic merit is the presentation of data which can evoke a reaction based on
resonate with others who have similar experiences. Transferability and generalization share the
concept of aesthetic merit in that both encompass the audience’s ability to relate the participants’
perspective and point of view. Thus, readers can apply a participant’s experience to their frame
The significance of the contribution a study purports can be seen in how it is theoretically
significant, heuristically significant, and practically significant. This study purports to advance
the theoretical framework of family development theory and Black psychology. Family
52
development theory considers influential factors that contribute to the family life cycle, such as
societal and cultural adaptations. This study incorporated social interactions and cultural role
identity to advance the paradigms of family development theory. Black psychology utilizes a
holistic view to describe a person. This approach considers several spheres of influence that
affect a person, such as social network and cultural factors. This study interpreted and analyzed
the data through the paradigms of Black psychology which emphasize social interactions and
cultural role identity as it pertains to single mothers of Caribbean descent and their experience of
an empty nest.
replicate, confirm, and expand this study. Future researchers may use this study as the basis for
research. The study’s practical significance was that it may inform practice concerning empty
nesters. This research sought to discover new information related to an empty nest, single
parenting, and cultural implications that can be beneficial to the scientific community. There is
an increase in empty nesters who exhibit mental health issues such as loneliness and depression
(Thapa et al., 2018). There is a higher demand for mental health professions with expertise in
this area. Information from this study may be included in programs designed specifically for
empty nesters.
The ethical validity of a study is communicated throughout the entire process of the
study. The onus of ethical research rests squarely on the shoulders of the researcher. The
researcher’s responsibility is to ensure that the chosen methodology, data collection procedures,
analytical process, and communication of results follow a clearly identified ethical standard
expected in the scientific community. This study received full approval from the Institutional
Review Board (IRB) of Capella University prior to its onset. The IRB approval delineated
53
procedures to ensure that participants were not harmed during the study as well as measures that
addressed any discomfort experienced from participation. The guidelines expressed in the IRB
approved document follow the highest ethical standards required for a study of this caliber, and
The last criterion for qualitative research is concerned with meaningful coherence (Tracy,
2010). This involves evaluating the theories, literature, methodologies, and analysis procedures
to ensure that the study followed a logical sequence of events. The study aimed to explore the
personal experience of an empty nest from the perspective of single mothers of Caribbean
descent. The researcher assessed if this purpose was accomplished using a generic qualitative
inquiry methodology. The researcher also evaluated how well family development theory and
Black psychology act as the theoretical framework for the study. Lastly, an assessment of the
literature review and its relation to the study, methodology, and findings was used to ensure
Population
In this study, the population referred to individuals who shared the common experience of
an empty nest and who claimed Caribbean ancestry. The sample is the representative group taken
from a population and consists of a few participants who embody and illustrate specific
characteristics of the larger population (Warner, 2013). The researcher included nine participants
Mitchell and Wister (2015) found that societal and ethnic group norms affect parents’
views of empty nest as either negative or positive. This study focused on mothers, which allowed
for greater insight into how mothers transition to an empty nest. The target population allowed
54
the researcher to determine how single parents experience empty nest and explore cultural
Sample
The sample consisted of nine single mothers, defined as divorced, widowed, or never been
married (United States Census Bureau, 2017). Participants were no more than three generations
removed from the Caribbean islands. Additionally, all participants had an empty nest for at least
one year.
Procedures
This section included a step-by-step description of how the research was conducted and
detailed the steps taken at major junctions of the study. These junctions included the sampling
method used for selecting participants. Additionally, steps that protect participants throughout
the study were included. Clear instructions on how data collection and analysis was performed
Participant Selection
There are various types of sampling strategies for qualitative inquiry, including maximum
variation, critical case, intensity, criterion, opportunistic, and convenience (Creswell & Poth,
2018). Purposeful sampling is defined as purposefully selecting participants that can provide rich
information about a phenomenon (Creswell & Poth, 2018). The researcher utilized a purposeful
participants shared information about the study with others who might fit the inclusion criteria
(Creswell & Poth, 2018). This method of sampling is recommended when it is challenging to
contact members of a specific population. Snowball sampling steps included identifying potential
55
participants and then encouraging those participants to share information about the study with
others who are encouraged to participate in the study. It is important to note that partaking in
snowball sampling and sharing information about the study was solely voluntary.
This researcher recruited participants from open Caribbean American social media
groups. These were public social media groups that did not require the moderator’s permission
before posting in the group. The recruitment post included the purpose of the study, the research
question, the requirements for participation, and a way to contact the researcher.
The researcher also recruited participants at a counseling center and a local library. The
sites did not require any specific permissions and did not have an IRB. Participants were
recruited through flyers placed at integral spaces at the counseling center and library. Written
permission to post flyers at these establishments were obtained prior to recruitment. The flyer
included the purpose of the study, the research question, the requirements for participation, and a
way to contact the researcher. Potential participants were screened to determine if they met the
inclusion criteria for the study. These criteria included self-identification as a parent, defined as
anyone who has birthed, adopted, fostered, or step-parented children. Single was defined as
living alone, without a partner or roommate. Caribbean descent referred to having ancestors from
the Caribbean. The criteria for empty nest was met if all children left the home within the last
year. Participants who met these requirements were invited to join the study. Volunteers who did
not meet these requirements were thanked for their time and interest in the study.
Protection of Participants
According to the Belmont Report, respect for persons is a fundamental ethical principle of
research (The National Commission, 1979). Researchers display respect for persons when they
value the rights, autonomy, and freedoms of participants. Researchers are also responsible for
56
protecting participants with diminished autonomy. Informed consent, debriefing procedures, and
Informed consent is a legal document that discloses each participant’s risks, benefits, and
rights (Hardicre, 2014). This document is used to inform participants that they are not obligated
to complete a study and they have the right to end participation at any time. Informed consent
also addresses how identifying data will be collected, stored, and destroyed (Hardicre, 2014).
Participants acknowledged and signed an informed consent document before data collection. The
informed consent document for this study included the purpose of the study, information about
the researcher, and information pertinent to the rights and risks of voluntarily participating in the
study.
confidentiality, participants were referred to as P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, P8, and P9, so that
identifying data was not shared during the course of the study. Collected data will be stored in a
locked place for seven years before it will be destroyed using the best commercial means
The population for this study was single mothers of Caribbean descent. Individuals who
especially if research focused on discrimination. The target population was not considered
vulnerable because of the topic and methodology that was utilized. Sensitive topics are likely to
cause stress, social stigma, risk to employability, or legal consequences to participants. The topic
of empty nest did not expressly qualify as a sensitive topic. This study did not pose more than
57
minimal risk to participants. However, participants were given information for national and local
Data Collection
Data collection is an essential part of every study. Percy et al. (2015) identified three
ways data can be collected for a generic qualitative inquiry: the semi or fully structured
interview, questionnaire, or survey. For the purposes of this study, data was collected from one-
Caribbean descent with an empty nest. This data collection method was appropriate for the
research question because these interviews allowed the researcher to gather subjective data for
analysis.
Interviews were conducted through the use of a HIPPA compliant website. The
researcher invited participants to visit the website at the time of their interviews. These protocols
were set in place to ensure the safety of both the participants and the researcher during a
worldwide pandemic. Interested volunteers were screened to ensure they met the inclusion
criteria. During this phone call, an appointment was scheduled for the interview. Once the
appointment was scheduled, the informed consent document was electronically sent to
participants. Two participants requested paper copies of the informed consent document which
were mailed to them using the standard postal service. Participants had two weeks to review the
informed consent document and contact the researcher with questions, comments, or concerns
about the study or data collection methods. Interviews proceeded only after documentation of the
informed consent was received. Each interview began with the same scripted information
followed by demographic questions. Interviews were audio recorded on two devices. The
58
researcher completed fieldnotes after each interview. Each interview was then transcribed, stored
Data Analysis
Data was collected through semistructured interviews to give insight into the empty nest
experience from the perspective of single Caribbean mothers. Based on the qualitative nature of
the data, thematic analysis was appropriate. Thematic analysis involves analyzing data to
discover meaningful patterns (Attride-Stirling, 2001; Braun & Clarke, 2006). Proponents of
generic qualitative inquiry employ one of three approaches to thematic analysis. The three
approaches of thematic analysis used in generic qualitative inquiry are inductive analysis,
theoretical analysis, and thematic analysis with constant comparison (Percy et al., 2015).
Inductive analysis is used to identify, analyze, and report patterns observed in the data
(Braun & Clarke, 2006). Percy et al. (2015) wrote a 12-step description for inductive analysis,
which included reviewing data from each participant to identify meaningful sentences, phrases,
or paragraphs. Data is then sorted based on its relation to the research question. Data is then
coded and grouped to produce basic themes. The researcher then creates a written description for
each basic theme. The researcher then identifies descriptive words that recur throughout the data
that represent connections and patterns. A matrix is then created to arrange patterns into themes
(Percy et al., 2015). Lastly, a detailed abstract is written, which analyzes themes.
Researchers use theoretical analysis when predetermined themes apply to the data (Percy
et al., 2015). The 13-step analysis outlined by Percy et al. (2015) included identifying
meaningful sentences and phrases with predefined categories in mind. Data that is not related to
the research question is removed from the analysis process and saved for future reference. After
data is described and clustered based on patterns or connections, the researcher then categorizes
59
the clusters according to the predetermined themes (Attride-Stirling, 2001). The data is then
revisited to identify new categories or patterns related to the research topic (Percy et al., 2015).
Thematic analysis with constant comparison utilizes both inductive and theoretical
analysis (Percy et al., 2015). In this process, as data is collected, it is compared to previously
analyzed data. The steps for thematic analysis with constant comparison include clustering data
sets into patterns and then comparing newly collected data to these patterns (Attride-Stirling,
2001). Throughout this analysis process, the researcher is continuously searching for patterns to
support emerging themes (Percy et al., 2015). When themes have been identified and described,
The researcher prepared the data for analysis by transcribing audio recordings into
electronic word documents. One master copy of each interview was kept, and one working copy
was maintained throughout the analysis process. The working copy, which was created and
edited using the Microsoft word processor, Word 2019, was shared with a mentor to meet
standards for rigor and transparency throughout the study. Thematic analysis with constant
Instruments
There are many types of data collection methods utilized in generic qualitative inquiry.
experiences could be investigated through the use of data collection methods such as interviews,
surveys, and questionnaires (Merriam, 1998). The researcher was also considered an integral
60
The Role of the Researcher
This researcher volunteered in an observation team that coded couples’ facial expressions
in therapy. She was trained to observe and note changes in facial expressions and body language
and to confer meaning on those changes. Throughout her masters’ and doctorate programs, she
practiced interviewing with structured and unstructured interviews and open-ended qualitative
surveys and questionnaires. This author is a licensed professional counselor and has used
motivational interviewing to collect data from clients during counseling sessions for the last
three years. She has limited experience with these data collection methods in any setting outside
of courses or counseling intake sessions. To increase her knowledge and skills in data collection,
she performed exhaustive research and attended webinars about the research process, including
and report patterns or themes within data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). In a graduate psychology
course, this researcher successfully performed an online qualitative interview and applied
Hays and Singh (2011) wrote that the role of the researcher included reflexivity,
subjectivity, and being the voice of participants. They listed several strategies to address each
aspect of the researcher’s role, which included self-reflection, awareness of subjective biases,
and having participant checks to ensure that the research analysis is congruent with what the
participants experienced (Hays & Singh, 2011). The researcher implemented these strategies
Generic qualitative researchers assume that the researcher’s subjective values and beliefs
will influence the interpretation of the data and that results are a product of scientific facts
61
interpreted through the lens of the researcher (Kukla, 2000). This researcher maintained regular
communication with her mentor, journaled throughout the study to reduce the effects of
subjective values interfering with interpretation of the data, and attended several workshops and
allowed the researcher to probe for more information on emerging topics throughout the
interview. Interviews lasted between 45 minutes to an hour. There were 15 guiding questions.
1. I know that your children have left home now but before they left, tell me your thoughts
about how your life would be without them living with you.
6. Can you tell me something about the feelings that you associate with the experience?
a. Can you tell me something more about how these feelings developed over time?
7. Do you feel that you understand yourself, life, and the world in general, perhaps
differently?
62
a. How did your daily routine change?
10. Please tell me about any changes in your relationship with your child/children.
11. Did you have any social support from family, friends, work, community?
12. Did you observe any changes in the ways you behave or relate to others?
14. What does it mean to be a mother now that your children are out of the house?
15. Are there any things you would like to share that would help me to understand your
experience better?
Ethical Considerations
Basic ethical principles of research were included in the Belmont Report (The National
Commission, 1979). These principles were respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Respect
for persons include informed consent and using a scientifically supported research methodology.
Beneficence refers to minimizing possible harm to participants and maximizing possible benefits
experiences resulting from participation in a study and require that researchers have the
participants’ best interest at the forefront to minimize possible harm and protect their rights. This
study posed minimal harm to participants. Justice refers to the utilization of a clearly identified
and scientifically supported sampling procedure that ensures that each participant has an equal
probability of selection for participation in a study. This means that researchers tailor the
63
research design to apply unbiased scientific sampling methods to select participants. The
According to Bellamy et al. (2017), the researcher’s background and personal interest
influences how data is interpreted, analyzed, and presented. Therefore, researchers must reflect
on their affiliation and interest in the research question and address their assumptions about the
topic. Blair (2016) determined that it is challenging for researchers to detach themselves from
qualitative data analysis. Researchers can address this issue by sharing assumptions, having
transparency throughout the research process, and allowing readers to assess the credibility of the
research.
According to Cosgrove et al. (2008), a conflict of interest refers to any external biases
that may prejudice the results of a research study. This may include monetary compensation, an
imbalance in a relationship, or even the conference of some esteem. According to the American
Psychological Association (APA, 2018) code of ethics, informed consent should include the
purpose of the research, participants’ right to withdraw from the research, potential risks,
benefits, and limits of confidentiality. It also addressed offering incentives for research
encouragements and that if something is offered, that participants are clear on the purpose, risk,
obligations, and limitations of accepting any compensation. This research was performed
following the ethical standards put forth in the scientific community for research and the APA
code of ethics.
It is essential to include any conflicts of interest during the informed consent process
when recruiting participants. There was no inducement for research participation. The first nine
participants who met the criteria for participation were included in the study. This addressed any
64
bias in the sampling procedure. Sections six and eight of the APA (2018) code of ethics stated
that researchers make every effort to maintain confidentiality and protect participants’ privacy. It
also addressed documentation and records of scientific work to protect the identity of
The APA (2018) code of ethics stated that researchers must receive institutional approval
prior to conducting research. This study received approval from Capella University’s
Institutional Review Board (IRB). The standards for ethical conduct were met and the study
posed minimal risks to participants. This is part of the federal regulations and university policy
protocols that safeguard the rights and risks to research involving human participants. For IRB
approval, all aspects of the study where human interactions are necessary were considered, and
detailed procedures were included for recruitment, informed consent, sampling, and data
collection and protection. This study received full approval and met the delineated standards for
Summary
appropriate for qualitative research. For this study, the data collection method was
how participants experienced an empty nest. There was a detailed explanation of thematic
analysis with constant comparison, which was the method of analysis applied in this study. The
researcher was considered a tool in the qualitative research process, and an assessment on the
researcher’s role was considered. There was an investigation into the researcher’s knowledge,
experience, and skills using the generic qualitative inquiry method. The researcher’s training and
education thus far have prepared her to use this methodology. A reflection of the ethical
65
considerations for this study was included. These encompassed the ethical principles for
research, conflicts of interest, and IRB approval. In summation, this chapter explained the
research design implemented and the instruments and ethical standards considered to maintain
66
CHAPTER 4. PRESENTATION OF THE DATA
Chapter 4 will describe the data collection, analysis, and results of the study. It is
organized into five sections: an introduction to the study and researcher, a description of the
sample, the research methodology applied to data analysis, a presentation of the data and results,
and a summary of the findings. Chapter 4 fits into the overall dissertation by detailing the
sampling procedures, data collection methods, analysis approach employed, and presenting the
results. The generic qualitative inquiry approach was used to answer the research question, “How
The researcher is a single mother who sought to learn more about the empty nest in
preparation for her personal experience of this phenomenon. The researcher is also a first-
generation immigrant with Caribbean ancestry. From previous interactions with friends and
family members, as well as her observations, the researcher developed presumptions about the
empty nest experience. However, the scientist within the researcher sought to further explore this
phenomenon. Her curiosity on the topic motivated the researcher to investigate the empty nest
The researcher’s cultural background strengthened her vision of the study and also served
to bias her expectations. This background allowed the researcher to communicate with
participants on a deeper level as they identified with her Caribbean heritage. It also enabled the
researcher’s cultural identity also brought with it prejudice about the experience of an empty
nest. The researcher struggled with this bias throughout the study in order to maintain
objectivity.
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As a graduate learner, the researcher analyzed previous studies that utilized the generic
qualitative methodological approach. She also prepared for the study with extensive research and
data collection and analysis throughout her tertiary education. The researcher understood that her
personal experiences influenced every aspect of the study and kept this in mind as she strove to
Nine participants were recruited for the study. All participants were female between 43 to
70 years old. The average age for participants was 57.8 years (M = 57.77, SD = 8.89). Each
participant was a first-generation immigrant from the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Tobago.
All participants were single mothers with at least one adult child. Participants experienced an
empty nest for at least one year, with some having an empty nest for ten years. Three participants
identified themselves as homemakers. Five of the participants were gainfully employed, and one
was retired.
Participant profiles
P1. P1 was a 49-year-old mother who has one child in college. Her mother was also a
single mother.
P2. P2 was a 70-year-old widow of five children. She was also a grandmother.
P5. P5 was a 50-year-old divorced mother of two children. She was also a grandmother.
P6. P6 was a 57-year-old widow with four children. She was also a grandmother.
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P8. P8 was a 59-year-old divorcee who has two children. She was also a grandmother.
P9. P9 was a 66-year-old divorced mother of one child. She had a grandchild.
The generic qualitative inquiry research methodology was applied to the data. Virtual
interviews were conducted using a HIPPA compliant web site. Interviews lasted between 45
minutes and 75 minutes. After completing each interview, the researcher wrote field notes, which
included both descriptive and reflective data. The researcher included observations about the
participants’ physical settings and interruptions during the interview in her field notes. The
researcher’s field notes included reflective information, such as when participants hesitated
before answering a question and her impressions during the interview. The researcher transcribed
each interview and replaced identifying data, such as names, with a letter and number (P1, P2,
P3…P9).
After transcription, the researcher applied thematic analysis with constant comparison.
Each interview was reviewed for meaning units that pertained to the research question. Any
unrelated data was removed and saved for future consideration. The meaning units were entered
into a matrix and clustered according to shared meanings. These clusters were described using a
code. Codes were grouped into patterns and patterns into themes. This process was done for each
interview with new meaning units added to the matrix and then clustered into codes and then into
According to Caretta and Pérez (2019), validity in qualitative research can be achieved
through member checking and triangulation. This can be attained through the inclusion of
participants in the data analysis process. Member checking occurs when researchers maintain a
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dialogue with and include participants in analyzing participatory research (Caretta & Pérez,
2019). The researcher contacted participants and discussed emerging codes, patterns, and themes
throughout data analysis. They determined the accuracy with which the themes described their
experiences and specific details they wanted to communicate to the scientific community. Leedy
and Ormrod (2016) wrote that triangulation is the use of multiple methods, sources, theories, and
researchers to evaluate data and build confidence in the results. The researcher shared her initial
analysis with each participant who then provided invaluable feedback. She then included their
feedback and shared the analysis again. This iterative process of triangulation allowed the
researcher to comprehensively describe the empty nest experience from the perspective of single
Caribbean mothers.
Four themes emerged from the data analysis. These themes were (a) emotional response
to change, (b) adjustment to an empty nest, (c) supportive relationships, and (d) identity and self-
discovery.
The first theme apparent from the data was an emotional response to change. Emotions are
empty nest, which included loneliness, worry, and conflict. Of note is one specific emotional
response labeled as “hard.” Every participant used this word at least once in their interview.
Through member checking, it was determined that the connotation of “hard” was a substantial
While participants maintained that they were proud and happy for their children to be out
of the home, they also felt heartbroken. They balanced wanting their children to become
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independent with a desire for their children to remain at home. Participants also enjoyed the
freedom of no longer being responsible for their children. Additionally, participants missed their
children and felt alone without their company. Participants described their emotional response to
change in terms of three patterns, which were (a) loneliness, (b) worry, and (c) inner conflict.
• “I mean in my heart I wanted her to stay. But in my heart also I wanted her to be able to
pursue her dreams.” (P4)
• “That was still really hard to see them go out because they left.” (P6)
• “I’m happy to say that where my children are concerned, life could not have been better. I
am, what’s the word, I am so fulfilled when I look at them.” (P8)
empty nest. The knowledge that participants now lived alone enhanced their feelings of
loneliness. The comfort and reassurance of knowing others lived with them was replaced with
the realization that they were alone. Furthermore, participants substituted the cultural definition
• “It was hard. It was hard. I wouldn’t lie for that. It was hard.” (P5)
• “But then it got lonely. Being alone started to get lonely.” (P9)
Pattern 1.2. Worry. Another pattern in the data showed that several participants
experienced worry in response to an empty nest. Participants were naturally concerned about
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their children’s well-being and could not visually reassure themselves that their children were
healthy and happy. With this absence, participants worried about the welfare of their children.
• “As a parent, you worry about them, but you get used to it after a while.” (P2)
• “I was worried. I was a bit worried when they were leaving.” (P5)
which conflicted with others. For example, participants experienced bittersweet emotions, which
translated to both a happy and an unhappy experience. Inner conflict also emerged when
participants expressed freedom and feelings of missing their children. These warring emotions
represented inner conflict which highlighted the positive and negative aspects of an empty nest.
• “I had to balance the fact that I wanted her to grow to pursue education with the fact that I
would miss her emotionally.” (P4)
• “It was happy slash sad. Happy in the sense that she’s happy. Sad in the sense that she has
to leave to be happy.” (P5)
• “You miss them. But believe me, you enjoy the freedom too.” (P6)
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Theme 2: Adjustment to an Empty Nest
Participants described a daily struggle to accept their empty nest. Several participants
experienced a change in the parameters of the relationships with their children. New boundaries
were established, and participants acclimated to a less active role in their children’s lives. They
also acknowledged that intimate and habitual communications were no longer a part of their
daily routine. Some participants went months without any interactions with their children.
Participants noted that children no longer made demands on their time which resulted in an
Participants described adapting and transitioning to an empty nest, part of this transition
comprised of a changing view of their children. They were now independent persons capable of
taking care of themselves who no longer needed or wanted their mothers’ constant attention.
Participants found themselves able to make decisions without considering their children, a
foreign concept. They also experienced a change in the demands on their time. Three patterns
supported this theme of adjusting to an empty nest: (a) letting go, (b) change in communication,
Pattern 2.1. Letting go. Several participants shared the experience of “letting go.” This
involved acknowledging that their children were independent adults responsible for their
decisions. Participants expressed trouble adjusting to the concept that they were no longer
• “I need to let him go and find that instead of trying to coop him up.” (P1)
• “I was happy to allow them to go. I didn’t want to hold them back.” (P5)
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• “I learn to let go because they have to live their lives.” (P6)
• “You learn also that whatever situation come up, you have to keep your distance and
observe and let them learn to handle whatever situation because they have to grow now.”
(P6)
• “I know that for them to be successful, they would have to live their own life.” (P8)
experienced a drastic change in communication. Children were no longer easily accessible, and
this translated into less communication. Participants adapted to not being able to see their
children daily. They also found that it was difficult to seek them out for intimate conversations.
Other participants reveled in the mature nature of the conversations they had with their children.
• “But to really have a heart to heart, it’s very rare that she would call me to confide in me
because I believe now she has other people that she’s confiding in.” (P4)
• “Sometimes they will talk to you, and they don’t expect advice. But they just want you to
listen and thing. So that is basically what I have become. I am a listening ear.” (P6)
• “And as such, we have adult conversations. We would relate to each other on a very
mature level now. And that’s pretty much the biggest change.” (P7)
Pattern 2.3. Keeping occupied. Five of the participants described keeping occupied as
part of adjusting to an empty nest. Participants had an excess of time throughout the day because
their schedule was not focused on their children’s needs. With nothing specific to do, participants
found time to contemplate their thoughts and emotions about an empty nest. They found that
keeping occupied made the time go by faster and allowed them to corral their otherwise turbulent
emotions.
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• “I just had to fill that void myself.” (P4)
• My strength is learning to adapt. Finding other things to do to occupy yourself. I’ll tell
you what it comes down to, occupying your day so you wouldn’t, so your day wouldn’t
drag out. If your day drag out and you have too much time to just sit down, you find your
thoughts straying. (P6)
• “I just started doing things and take it off my mind. Just look for things to occupy myself.
Yeah. Occupy myself with doing things and just take it off my mind.” (P9)
Humans are social beings, and social interactions are integrated into daily experiences.
All participants indicated they had a close bond with their children. This bond provided strength
throughout the empty nest experience. Supportive relationships proved to be a common theme
Participants also indicated that support from family was a cultural expectation.
Participants stated they had close relationships with their children, as well as with family
members and friends. They referred to their cultural heritage as an explanation for those close
relationships. Two patterns supported this theme: (a) close bond with children, and (b) support
Pattern 3.1. Close bond with children. All participants indicated that they had a close
bond with their children. The relationships between parent and child were amicable, going
beyond the bounds of minimum parent-child interactions. Participants were confident and
described their children as great sources of support. They explained that throughout the transition
to an empty nest and in the face of adversity, they maintained those close relationships with their
children.
• “I believe that we already had that bond, that close bond.” (P1)
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• “My children have been very, very supportive in everything.” (P2)
• “We were close, I could not imagine her not being around.” (P4)
• “I think there’s no better relationship than the one between a parent and a child. Maybe
the one between a mother and a daughter is even more special.” (P4)
• “Is we… Nothing is too much for each of us to do for each other.” (P7)
• “We always had a very good relationship. Mother-daughter and she always tells me that
I’m her best friend.” (P7)
• “We were a very tight knit group family so that was important to us. Keep that link. To
keep that bond.” (P8)
• “Another of the strengths of this whole things is, even though I felt alone, I have a good
relationship with my kids.” (P8)
Pattern 3.2. Support from family and friends. Friends and family members provided
social support. Participants had a “hard” time working through feeling alone and worrying about
their children which was mitigated by the support they received from family and friends.
Participants attributed support from family as part of their Caribbean culture. Some participants
maintained that they were private people who did not share negative aspects of their experience
with others but believed they could have received family assistance if they had asked. Family
members and friends maintained social interactions and provided support throughout the
• “My family back home are all very supportive of me. And that’s how it is with us
Caribbean people.” (P2)
• “Most important person, my sister. She’s in Trinidad and she was right there
encouraging me every single day.” (P3)
• “When my children left, my sisters would come over on and off. My brothers would
come over on and off. Yes. I had some support from them. I knew they passed through
the same thing.” (P5)
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• “Family is one thing you could depend on in any kind of circumstance. In
circumstances, it’s your family. You could count on your family at any point in time
for anything.” (P6)
• “A day cannot pass and we haven’t spoken to each other. If we don’t see each other,
we must talk to each other. Every day God sends we will call each other.” (P6)
• “So, in so far as support, I had a lot of help from my brothers and sisters back on the
island. My sister was here. It helped.” (P8)
• “I have two friends. They come spend the weekend by me and then leave. We will go
for a little spin. Walk around. Go in the stores . . . We’ll sit down in the mall. Go to
movies.” (P9)
Participants defined the empty nest as a time for identity development and self-discovery.
During this period, participants shifted their focus from their children to themselves. Some found
this difficult and struggled with putting themselves first. They also described feeling lost when
their children left, which fueled their feelings of depression and aloneness. Participants spent
considerable time contemplating their purpose, wants, and goals. Interwoven throughout their
experience was the strong identification of being a mother. Even though their children no longer
lived with them, all participants maintained that they still met their definitions of a mother, and
focused on themselves and occupied their time with things they thought important. Through
focusing on themselves, they experienced deeper self-understanding and further cemented their
identity as a mother. Of great importance to every participant was spirituality. Participants stated
that spirituality provided purpose during their empty nest experience. Many said they gained
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strength from their faith and spirituality. The patterns for this theme included (a) focus on self,
(b) purpose, (c) self-understanding, (d) role of mother, and (e) spirituality.
Pattern 4.1. Focus on self. Participants described having more free time on their hands
to pursue activities they had sacrificed or postponed before having an empty nest. They were
able to spend time focusing on hobbies such as dancing, cooking, and gardening. Some
participants found it challenging to focus on themselves after years of prioritizing their children’s
needs. Participants found that focusing on themselves was a positive aspect of an empty nest.
• “I think I felt like it was time for me to focus on myself. ’Cause I did the kid for so many
years now. And now he’s doing his own things and I had to concentrate on myself.” (P1)
• “I guess with him not being there now, the focus is just on me.” (P1)
• “I didn’t have to get up and rush to do things anymore. I took time for myself.” (P2)
• “Being that I was a stay-at-home mom, most, all my focus was on my kids mostly… and
my focus changed.” (P3)
• “Because you are so busy. You’re going grocery, you’re cleaning, you’re washing, you’re
cooking. So now I have all this time, I could literally just take care of myself. And focus
more on me.” (P4)
• I’m still learning. I’m trying to focus on me now. But it’s difficult. Even that is a difficult
thing to do…I’ve never been one to put me first. I’ve always put the children first, family
first. (P7)
Pattern 4.2. Purpose. Purpose was synonymous with direction, meaning, and a clear
idea of goals and expectations. Participants stated that they lost purpose when their children left
and they struggled with this loss. Having a purpose encouraged participants to actively
participate in their own lives. Realizing their purpose was a pivotal moment in their experience
of an empty nest.
• “I couldn’t continue to exist in that time of living that kind of aimless life where I didn’t
know what my purpose was. I didn’t have a goal. Because I think it was affecting me
mentally.” (P4)
• “What happens when the grand [child] comes along? Oh, life has meaning. Purpose.” (P8)
Pattern 4.3. Self-understanding. Each person has intimate knowledge of who they are
and a concrete understanding of themselves. The experience of an empty nest enhanced self-
understanding for some participants. They adapted to and learned more about themselves and
their reaction to adverse experiences. They pondered their existence and their role in the universe
• “You have a better understanding of yourself and where you come from so you don’t feel
lost.” (P1)
• “It has changed the way I look at things. It has made me think of getting older and my
eventual death.” (P4)
• “I am the same, same old person that I was when my children were here. And I’m the
same person when they left. That would not change.” (P5)
• “Certain aspects of my personality I’ve grown to accept now, which was not so evident
before.” (P7)
• “I had to live through it, my girls leaving for me to appreciate myself, my life.” (P8)
Pattern 4.4. Role of a mother. Building on the pattern of self-understanding was that
each participant firmly identified with the role of a mother. The role of a mother was all-
encompassing and included providing support for their children, showing them love, protecting
them, and ensuring that their basic needs were met. Above all else, participants agreed that a
• “A mom will always be a mom, no matter how old your kids are.” (P2)
• “You provide for your children. You make sure they are fed. They get an education, that
they are clean. Teach them to take responsibility for themselves and their actions.” (P4)
• “You still want to protect your child. And a mummy will always feel nobody could treat
your child like you would treat your child.” (P6)
• “That role has not changed at all. And it never will. As a matter of fact, it’s been
magnified now that I have grandbabies.” (P7)
experience. They equated spirituality with purpose and found meaning through their religious
and spiritual beliefs. Spirituality was introduced to them from a young age and practiced
throughout their lives. It was also something they encouraged in their children.
• “We grow up going to church and believing in God for everything.” (P2)
• “So now that they have gone, it’s just my place to pray, to cover them with prayer.” (P3)
• “Having some level of faith in, religious faith, did help me throughout this process.” (P4)
• “You have to have God in your life. You must have God in your life.” (P6)
• “Your spirituality, you’ve got to keep at optimum. Because even that never stops
growing.” (P7)
• “Put God first and you can achieve anything you want.” (P8)
Summary
The data analysis revealed four themes supported by 13 patterns. The first two themes,
emotional reaction to change and adjustment to an empty nest, described feelings of depression
and worry and the transition to an empty nest, which ranged from learning to let go to changing
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communication styles. Participants also experienced inner conflict where emotions such as pride
and freedom clashed with feeling bittersweet and heartbroken. Another theme that emerged was
supportive relationships. The close relationship between mother and child and the social
interactions among family members and friends supported the development of this theme. The
last theme was identity and self-discovery supported by patterns of focus on self, purpose, self-
strength, and they saw their beliefs as a defining aspect of their experience.
The next chapter will include a summary of the results, a discussion, and conclusion of the
results. There will also be a comparison of the findings to previous literature and an
interpretation of the findings. Limitations and implications of the study will be identified, and
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CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
Chapter 5 will address the efficacy with which the study answered the research question.
Chapter 5 was divided into nine sections. First, a summary of the results will be presented
followed by conclusions based on results. Findings from the study will be compared to the
identified theoretical frameworks and previous literature on the subject. An interpretation of the
findings and the limitations of the study will be included. Implications of the study,
There has been significant research on the empty nest phenomenon. The literature
indicated that married couples experienced a decline in social interactions and a change in role
identity when children leave home (Kins et al., 2013; Papa & Lancaster, 2016; Seiffge-Krenke,
2006; Wu et al., 2010). The literature also showed that single parents experienced an intense
emotional response to having an empty nest (Bouchard, 2014; Hilton & Anderson, 2009;
Schwarts & Ayalon, 2015). However, there was a noticeable lack of research concerning the
experience of an empty nest from the perspective of single mothers of Caribbean descent. The
health and empty nesters. They found that empty nest parents experienced mental health issues
such as depression, loneliness, lower life satisfaction, and cognitive deterioration (Thapa et al.,
2018). In a study by Mansoor and Hasan (2019), participants completed the Empty Nest
Syndrome questionnaire and Psychological Well-being scale to explore the relationship between
empty nest syndrome and psychological well-being. They determined that parents with lower
education were more likely to experience empty nest syndrome than parents who had a higher
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level of education. Jia and Yuan (2020) conducted a study with 1,658 elders in Shandong
Province, China, and found that elders with an empty nest reported much higher levels of
loneliness and poor sleep than their counterparts. The topic of empty nest has been well studied.
The present study aimed to increase current knowledge on the experience of Caribbean people
living in the United States. The study supplemented literature about the cultural aspects of the
answer the research question, “How do single mothers of Caribbean descent experience the
empty nest phenomenon?” The study resulted in four themes and 13 patterns:
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Pattern 4.3 – Self-understanding
The nature of parents is to experience change and adapt to new situations. Empty nest is a
phase of life that begins when parenting becomes a passive role after children leave home
(Mount & Moas, 2015). This study explored the experience of an empty nest from the
perspective of single mothers of Caribbean descent. Bouchard (2014) identified a gap in the
literature of single parents who experience an empty nest. Kins et al. (2013) determined that
Humans are sentient beings defined by the ability to feel or experience emotions. Some
emotions are positive, such as hope and happiness, others are negative such as depression and
anger. Emotions are integrated into all aspects of the human experience. Every participant
experienced a wide range of emotions in response to having an empty nest. The first theme that
emerged from the study was an emotional response to change, which included loneliness, worry,
Participants felt alone, which exacerbated their worry and fears; being alone translated to
participants’ experiences of loneliness. This loneliness was fueled by isolation since there were
no children to interact with daily. Participants felt vulnerable being alone, and concerns about
their physical safety arose. The sample consisted of nine mothers who were single and living
alone. Without their children present, participants were the only persons living in the home.
When their children left, they took the only company with which participants shared intimate
space. Some participants noted that silence filled their homes, which intensified their loneliness.
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To break the harshness of that silence, some participants got a pet. Participants who isolated
themselves from friends and family found that loneliness was a constant companion that
Worry or excessive thoughts about their children’s well-being was an overriding pattern
that emerged from the data. Participants described sleepless nights where they ruminated about
their children’s safety, health, and overall welfare. Participants compared parenting experiences
from when they lived with their children to when their children left home. When their children
lived with them, they had visual reassurance of their children’s health and happiness and could
physically comfort them at a moments’ notice. When their children moved out, mothers
depended on infrequent communications from their children to check on their welfare. The stark
difference in the experiences resulted in the emotional response of worry. As stated, participants
found themselves with excess time. Some chose to spend this time worrying and dwelling on
Participants experienced inner conflict. They were heartbroken that their children were
out of the house, yet happy that their children found fulfillment in life. They experienced pride in
their children’s accomplishments, while at the same time, they felt sad and wanted to keep their
children at home. Some participants were ecstatic that they now had the freedom to enjoy their
lives without concern for their children, but they struggled with this freedom and missed having
the responsibility of taking care of their children. Humans continuously change emotional states
triggered by anything, from a smell to a sound to a taste. Participants struggled with both the
positive and negative emotions associated with an empty nest. The worry, loneliness, heartbreak,
and sadness they felt competed with their feelings of pride, freedom, and happiness. Their
conflicting emotional states manifested as two sides of the same experience. They identified both
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moments of happiness and sadness, they missed their children and cherished their newfound
freedom. This inner conflict was interlaced throughout their experience of an empty nest.
The second theme was adjustment to an empty nest. The term adjustment can vary
according to the context in which it is used. Luthar and Ciciolla (2016) defined adjustment in
terms of changes in personal well-being and changes in parenting. The results of this study
indicated that participants experienced adjustment in terms of parenting as well as personal well-
being. The theme of adjustment was supported by three patterns, which were (a) letting go, (b)
communication. Participants struggled with the concept of letting go. Their parental role thus far
had been to protect, care, and provide for their children. Now that their children could protect,
care, and provide for themselves, participants transitioned from an active parenting role to a
passive one. Participants described adjusting to becoming a spectator who supported from the
sidelines. They adjusted their expectations of themselves as passive parents as they came to
terms with the concept that their children were now capable adults.
There was no longer an overabundance of conversations filled with trivial information about
day-to-day happenings. Daily communication was a former norm replaced by intermittent and
sometimes superficial conversations. Participants found that their children no longer sought
advice or shared intimate details of their lives. Therefore, conversations became concise,
specific, and limited in nature. Additionally, participants identified their children as confidants
and friends with whom they would share their daily adventures. Without them around for
consistent communication, participants had no one to talk to, which affected their well-being.
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In terms of changes in personal well-being, participants found themselves with an excess
of time. They found that if they ruminated on their current situation, they worried or felt
depressed; therefore, participants chose to fill their time with things that kept them busy. This
step towards self-preservation meant that they focused on tasks as opposed to thoughts or
feelings. They adjusted their daily schedules to include tasks that kept their minds occupied, such
The third theme was supportive relationships. Humans are social creatures who crave
social interactions with others. Although some participants isolated themselves at first,
eventually they found strength in the relationships and interactions they had with others. For
example, some friends and family members previously experienced an empty nest and
understood what participants were going through. They were able to identify behavioral and
emotional changes in participants and support and comfort them. This theme was supported by
two patterns, which were (a) close bonds with children, and (b) support from family and friends.
Participants proudly declared they maintained close relationships with their children.
They saw this bond as a strength and found comfort in knowing that they could depend on their
children in times of need. Participants stated that their children supported them throughout the
empty nest transition and would regularly visit or communicate, which reinforced their close
bond. They described this close bond as a cultural aspect of parenting, stating that, in the
Caribbean, it was a cultural expectation that parents and children have a close relationship. As
single parents, participants and their children developed profound bonds that surpassed the
Participants also described social interactions with their family and friends as integral to
their empty nest experience. Siblings and friends encouraged participants to socialize. They
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brought them out of isolation by inviting them to “lime,” which is a cultural slang for hanging
out and spending time together. Their friends would whisk them away for weekend getaways to
forget their feelings of loneliness or worry. The actions of the friends and family members
lessened their aloneness and emboldened participants to embrace the positive aspects of an
empty nest.
The fourth theme was identity and self-discovery. Sugimura et al. (2016) wrote that
identity referred to self-concept and how one viewed oneself in relation to others. Identity
et al., 2016). Participants adjusted their self-concept to include a passive parental role. Some
embraced grandmotherhood as a new aspect of their identity, while others introspected about
their core values. Through a process of self-discovery, participants were able to make judgments
about themselves, face aspects of themselves they had not considered before, find strength in
themselves, and define their identity as a mother. This theme was evidenced by the patterns of
(a) focus on self, (b) purpose, (c) self-understanding, (d) role of a mother, and (e) spirituality.
Participants found that their relaxed parenting duties resulted in an overabundance of free
time which they used to focus on themselves. Many saw this as an opportunity to take up old
hobbies such as crafts and gardening. Others took this time to focus on self-development and
pursue lifelong dreams. Without the constant demands of parenting, participants experienced a
reintroduction to themselves and rediscovered their likes, dislikes, goals, and aspirations. Some
participants found this task challenging and chose to prioritize their children and grandchildren.
After decades of focusing on their children’s needs, these participants found it challenging to
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The results indicated that children took their mothers’ sense of purpose when they left
home. Participants no longer had to rush to complete daily chores or follow their children’s
schedules. They were lost and without a clear idea of what was required of them. Participants
found themselves searching for purpose after their children left home. Some participants
responded by spiraling into sadness, depression, and loneliness. Through time and great effort,
participants were able to reintroduce purpose in their lives. Those with grandchildren took up the
mantle of parenting thus finding purpose once again. Participants also found purpose in their
work, they focused on their jobs and gained purpose in achieving success in their vocation.
Additionally, purpose was found when participants turned their efforts inward to identify and
Many reflected on their values and self-concept and found that they remained the same person
throughout the experience. Others noted that the experience changed them and forced them to
take a more in-depth look at themselves. They used this as a catalyst for change and learned to
embrace aspects of themselves they had ignored, such as resiliency and determination. They
discovered that they could adapt to heartbreaking situations and maintain their core values.
The most challenging aspect of the empty nest phenomenon was the transition from an
active parenting role to a passive one. However, participants still identified as a mother. They
adjusted that definition to include caring for their children by listening, giving advice, and
offering solace when needed. The role of motherhood was forever embedded in their identity.
Spirituality is interwoven into the Caribbean identity and encompasses the subjective and
personal relationship that each individual has to other humans and the universe. According to
Chatters et al. (2008), the community provided by Black Caribbean churches enable parishioners
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to feel a sense of belonging, especially when facing many issues, including those associated with
acculturation. The current study supported this concept. Participants felt a sense of comradery
and support from their spiritual affiliations. They turned to their spiritual community for
guidance and support when faced with challenges. For participants, spirituality was highly
related to daily purpose and gave their lives meaning. This strongly embedded cultural identity
The study aimed to describe the empty nest experience from the perspective of single
Predominant emotional responses included loneliness, worry, and conflict. Participants told their
stories of adjusting to a passive parental role. In this transition to passive parenting, participants
let go and learned to observe their children from a distance. This resulted in less communication
between participants and their children. Participants also found that they struggled to keep
occupied now that there was a lax in the demands of parenting. The study revealed that
supportive relationships with children, family members, and friends helped mothers with their
transition. They believed that having these close relationships enabled them to successfully adapt
to an empty nest. Participants further developed their identity as a mother through self-reflection
and self-discovery. Participants described spirituality as integral to their identity and thoroughly
Kins et al. (2013) determined that mothers experienced worry and sadness as part of the
empty nest phenomenon. The current study supported that mothers do indeed experience
loneliness and tremendous worry when their children leave home. This study confirmed results
from several studies in China that explored the emotional aspect of the empty nest phenomenon
90
(Chang et al., 2016; Jia & Yuan, 2020; Wang et al., 2017). Chang et al. (2016) found a high
correlation between loneliness and having an empty nest. These results were similar to a study by
Wang et al. (2017), who also determined that there were higher levels of loneliness in empty
nesters living in rural China. Jia and Yuan (2020) found that depression and loneliness were
Bouchard and McNair (2016) described marital adjustment, adjusting to missing their
children, and changes to parent-child communications during an empty nest. They also found
that parents who had more communication with their children had higher levels of well-being
than those who had limited interactions (Bouchard & McNair, 2016). This was consistent with
the current study’s findings that participants adjusted to more mature communication and more
significant interactions with their children. Additionally, the current study indicated that mothers
experience adjustment with respect to their changing parental role and excess time. These results
were supported in a study by Bouchard and McNair (2016) which determined that parents
In a study by Boz (2018), it was found that increased social interactions had an inverse
effect on negative aspects of the empty nest. The current study explored the aspect of social
interactions during an empty nest. Participants described their relationships with their children,
family members, and friends as helpful when coping with an empty nest. Cao and Lu (2018)
found that increased social interactions moderated the loneliness experienced by empty nesters.
The current study confirmed that social interactions with children, family, and friends mitigated
Sumargi et al. (2018) described cultural role identity as a critical factor in parent-child
relationships. Participants described the role of mother as integral and cemented in their identity.
91
Cultural norms associated with maternal role identification included physically and emotionally
Spirituality is deeply ingrained in the cultural identity of Caribbean women (Dixon &
Arthur, 2019). This dimension of identity is integrated into every aspect of the Caribbean
woman, including being a mother. Steffen (2011) wrote that spirituality was a way for women to
cope with the loss of role identification regarding family and child-rearing. In this study,
participants similarly described spirituality. They saw spirituality as a vital part of their identity
that provided a lifeline of strength to help them cope with the transition from active parenting to
passive parenting.
Family development theory posits that several factors affect the family unit’s transition
from one stage of development to another (Duvall et al., 1953). These factors include individual
psychology, social interactions, and cultural experiences (Duvall et al., 1953). The present study
added to this theory and confirmed that both individual psychology and social interactions are
affected when the family unit transitioned to an empty nest. Participants described a
passive parenting roles. They embraced aspects of themselves they had not considered, such as
being durable and able to withstand heartbreak and living alone. They also dedicated time to
developing their vocation, hobbies, and interests, further adding to their identity beyond the role
of parenting.
interactions. This observation is consistent with the family stage of empty nest because this is
92
where changes in family interactions are expected (Duvall et al., 1953). Now that their children
were no longer physically available for consistent face to face interactions, participants turned
towards family members and friends who regularly engaged participants in social interactions.
Duvall et al. (1953) proposed that cultural norms heavily influence each stage in the life
cycle. Participants described Caribbean culture as one where children leave the nest later and this
delay allowed for a closer bond in the parent-child dyad. Many of the participants stated that
their children were older when they left home. The exceptions were those whose children started
college and lived on campus. Additionally, Caribbean culture places high priority on maintaining
close relationships with family members. This is supported by participants who maintained close
bonds with their family members and children, even after entering the empty nest stage.
Black psychology considers historical and current events that affect the individual as well
as social, religious, and cultural factors that influence individuals (Jamison, 2018). Fundamental
to Black psychology is spirituality, identity, and family. The results of the study indicated that
participants placed great emphasis on the family unit and maintaining close relationships. Family
is viewed as a unit of support and source of strength in Black psychology (Cokley & Garba,
2018). The study showed that the relationship with children crossed the parameters of parent-
child interactions and entered the realm of friendship and companionship. Participants also
described close relationships with family members who supported them during the transition to
an empty nest. Friends and family members noticed changes in their behavior or mental state and
deeply rooted spirituality was part of their identity and gave their lives meaning and purpose
93
The current study yielded results that resonated with the perspectives of family
development theory and Black psychology. The field of general psychology gained specific
information about single mothers of Caribbean descent, and their experience of an empty nest.
The study attempted to fill the gap in the literature about this population and confirmed previous
Previous research indicated that empty nesters who had regular social interactions with
their children showed decreased negative symptoms of mental health, such as loneliness and
depression (Bouchard & McNair, 2016). Participants indicated that they maintained
communication with their children which alleviated their mental state. For example, children
returned home to share a meal or they called on the phone or used video technology to converse
with their mothers. Regular interactions translated to less worrying about their children and
lessened feelings of aloneness. The close relationship between mothers and children minimized
the negative emotions of an empty nest. Boz (2018) determined that social support from
neighbors and friends mitigated the effects of loneliness and isolation. When participants isolated
themselves or struggled with loneliness, their friends and family members checked on them,
showing that they were not alone, or reached out to them and invited them to activities. The
current study provided evidence that social interaction and supportive relationships are important
Liang and Luo (2017) found that elders placed meaning in their lives based on cultural
experiences. In the current study, mothers struggled to find purpose in their lives after children
left home. From a cultural perspective, once their direct motherly duties were no longer
necessary, mothers had no purpose. To rectify this and find meaning in their lives, mothers
94
focused on themselves and pursued their vocation and hobbies. Meaning and purpose were
reinvigorated through interactions with their children, family members, friends, and society as a
whole. They also sought meaning through rediscovering aspects of themselves that were
Dixon and Arthur (2019) noted that religion offered alternative roles for churchgoers to
fill in their community, such as mentor, which further built their spiritual identity. Caribbean
mothers strongly identified as spiritual individuals, and many stated that they grew up rooted in
religion. Steffen (2011) found that women turned to spirituality when they experienced role loss.
Similarly, the current study found that mothers embraced their spirituality when children left
home. They also saw their spirituality as a way to cope with feelings of worry, isolation, and
loneliness and having an empty nest. The current study also determined that single mothers with
an empty nest experienced loneliness. Of import is that the current study focused on single
mothers without a spouse or life partner for intimate support. Participants felt isolated because
they lived alone, which exacerbated their feelings of loneliness. The social network of children,
family, and friends helped to mitigate the effects of loneliness. However, Caribbean mothers are
private individuals who hid their loneliness from their loved ones. They returned to an empty
house daily, which continuously fed their isolation and loneliness. Observant children, family,
and friends noticed a change in their moods and engaged participants in social outings.
This study added to the literature on several topics that include motherhood, single
mothers, empty nesters, and mothers with Caribbean ancestry. The current study confirmed that
95
dimension, adjustment, supportive relationships, and identity development. The findings
confirmed family development theory which indicated that, during this stage, parenting takes a
backseat. This is also the stage when parents seek to build their identity outside of parenting. The
findings also support the Black psychology approach that close familial bonds and spirituality
are essential aspects of the individual. The study was similar to previous research which
highlighted that empty nesters are vulnerable to loneliness and worry (Gao et al., 2017). The
findings supported previous literature that proposed increased social interactions have a positive
effect on adverse emotional responses (Zhao et al., 2018). Additionally, this study supported
previous research that empty nesters seek purpose and meaning in their lives according to their
Limitations
Qualitative research is rich with the unique subjective experiences of a select sample and
may not be generalized to a larger population. This sample comprised a very discrete group of
single mothers. The way they described their experiences were based on their idiosyncratic
communication styles and life experiences. Another sample may describe their experiences
entirely differently with different findings. An inherent design flaw with the generic qualitative
Findings are based on how interview questions were understood and how precisely participants
predispositions.
The literature review indicated that socioeconomic status affects the empty nest
experience. This sample was identified in the lower middle-class socioeconomic group. All
participants were first-generation immigrants with ancestry solely from a single Caribbean
96
island. The homogeneity of the sample may have provided limited results. A sample of second or
third-generation immigrants might have revealed other themes, such as acculturation and its
effect on the empty nest experience. A broader sample with participants from other Caribbean
islands might shed light on specific nuances within the Caribbean culture.
The current study confirmed family development theory that the empty nest stage is
expectations for an empty nest were based on their particular experiences, interactions with their
others, as well as cultural norms and expectations. Additionally, this study further informed
that their self-determination to find purpose, interact, and seek support from others helped them
navigate an empty nest. Both Black psychology and family development theory emphasized the
importance of culture. The study demonstrated that culture does indeed have an impact on the
empty nest experience. Future studies could further explore theoretical implications from the
One goal of this research was to inform practical implementations that can aid or provide
a service to the greater population. This research sought to discover new information related to
empty nest, single parenting, and cultural implications. This research could be beneficial for
mental health professionals who work with this population. Researchers have found that an
increasing number of empty nesters experience mental health issues such as loneliness and
depression (Thapa et al., 2018). Therefore, there is an increasing demand for professionals who
provide services for this population. Hence a practical implication is that professional health care
97
providers integrate results from this study into programs for empty nesters. Zhou et al. (2015)
indicated a need for community-based social programs for empty nest elders in China. Similarly,
There is a gap in the literature concerning the population of immigrants with Caribbean
ancestry. The recommendation is that future studies include married couples with Caribbean
ancestry. This will add to the scientific knowledge about this unique population. As discussed, a
larger sample that includes both parents’ perspectives would provide richer and more robust
Another recommendation is to replicate this study with a larger sample to identify other
pertinent factors of an empty nest. These factors may include socioeconomic status, age,
grandchildren, and occupation. Marital status may also be an important variable to consider. It is
recommended that future research explore the perspectives of recently divorced mothers,
widows, and mothers who were single-parent since their children were very young.
As noted, participants were all first-generation immigrants. Future research may expand
the sample to include second-, third-, or fourth-generation immigrants to identify the effect of
acculturation and assimilation on the empty nest. The study was limited to only English-speaking
Caribbean descendants. Future studies may include participants from non-native English
language islands to explore how language impacts the empty nest experience.
Conclusion
The study indicated that single mothers of Caribbean descent experienced several
dimensions of the empty nest phenomenon. They experienced an emotional reaction to change,
98
which manifested as loneliness, worry, and inner conflict. They also experienced adjustment to
living alone, which included acknowledging their children as adults, a change in communication
styles, and keeping themselves occupied with their newfound extra time. Participants explained
the importance of supportive relationships during this time, which comprised their children,
family members, and friends. They also described changes in their identity and self-discovery in
which they focused on themselves, found purpose in their lives, gained self-understanding,
Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that single mothers of Caribbean
descent share similar experiences of an empty nest. The study also showed that social
interactions and cultural role identity impact the experience of an empty nest. These experiences
concluded that identity and self-discovery are important dimensions of this phenomenon.
99
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