CARIBBEAN MOTHERS AND THE EMPTY NEST: A QUALITATIVE STUDY

by

Tamara Agimudie

GABRIELA MIHALACHE, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair

SARA JARVIS, PhD, Committee Member

MARK McCASLIN, PhD, Committee Member

Elizabeth Riley, PhD, Dean of Psychology

Harold Abel School of Psychology

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University

December 2020
© Tamara Agimudie, 2020
 Abstract

The objective of this dissertation was to add to the current research literature on the empty nest

phenomenon from the perspective of single mothers with Caribbean ancestry. The researcher

employed a generic qualitative inquiry research design to answer the research question, “How do

single mothers of Caribbean descent experience the empty nest phenomenon?” The sample

consisted of nine single mothers who lived alone and experienced an empty nest for at least one

year. Data collection occurred through one-on-one interviews based on guiding questions

designed to elicit a detailed description of the empty nest experience. Interviews were audio-

recorded and transcribed. Through thematic analysis with constant comparison, four themes

emerged from the data supported by 13 patterns. The results of the study indicated that mothers

experienced an emotional response to change which included loneliness, worry, and inner

conflict. They also experienced a period of adjustment where they adapted to diminished

interactions with their children and living alone. Participants indicated that supportive

relationships, such as those with their children, family members, and friends, were a source of

strength. Lastly, mothers experienced personal growth through deeper self-understanding,

finding renewed purpose in life, and spirituality. These findings confirmed previous research on

the topic of the empty nest. It is recommended that future research include analyses of

acculturation and cultural influence on this experience.

 Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to my family. Your support and inspiration shaped every

step of this process. Words cannot express my appreciation for being a part of your lives. Mom,

dad, Becky, and Elijah, you are my superstars. Thank you.

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 Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge Gabriela Mihalache, PhD, whose guidance was integral to

the completion of this dissertation. Your patience throughout the process is much appreciated. I

would also like to acknowledge the input and feedback from my committee members Sara Jarvis,

PhD, and Mark McCaslin, PhD. Lastly, I would like to thank and acknowledge Kimberly Boyd

who never stopped encouraging me to achieve my goals.

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 Table of Contents

Acknowledgments.................................................................................................. iv

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................1

Background of the Study .........................................................................................1

Need for the Study ...................................................................................................4

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................5

Significance of the Study .........................................................................................6

Research Question ...................................................................................................9

Definition of Terms..................................................................................................9

Research Design.....................................................................................................10

Assumptions and Limitations ..............................................................................111

Assumptions .................................................................................................111

Limitations ......................................................................................................13

Organization of the Remainder of the Study .........................................................15

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...........................................................................16

Methods of Searching ............................................................................................16

Theoretical Orientation for the Study ....................................................................17

Review of the Literature ........................................................................................27

Synthesis of the Research Findings .......................................................................42

Critique of Previous Research Methods ................................................................44

Summary ................................................................................................................45

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................47

Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................47

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 Research Question .................................................................................................47

Research Design.....................................................................................................48

Target Population and Sample ...............................................................................54

Population .......................................................................................................54

Sample ............................................................................................................55

Procedures ..............................................................................................................55

Participant Selection .......................................................................................55

Protection of Participants ................................................................................56

Data Collection ...............................................................................................58

Data Analysis ..................................................................................................59

Instruments .............................................................................................................60

The Role of the Researcher.............................................................................61

Guiding Interview Questions ..........................................................................62

Ethical Considerations ...........................................................................................63

Summary ................................................................................................................65

CHAPTER 4. PRESENTATION OF THE DATA............................................................67

Introduction: The Study and the Researcher ..........................................................67

Description of the Sample ......................................................................................68

Research Methodology Applied to the Data Analysis ...........................................69

Presentation of Data and Results of the Analysis ..................................................70

Summary ................................................................................................................80

CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS ....................82

Summary of the Results .........................................................................................82

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 Discussion of the Results .......................................................................................84

Conclusions Based on the Results .........................................................................90

Comparison of Findings with Theoretical Framework and Previous Literature ...92

Interpretation of the Findings.................................................................................94

Limitations .............................................................................................................96

Implications for Practice ........................................................................................97

Recommendations for Further Research ................................................................98

Conclusion .............................................................................................................98

References ........................................................................................................................100

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 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

The dissertation investigated the empty nest phenomenon as experienced by single mothers

of Caribbean descent. In this chapter, an introduction to the current research concerned with an

empty nest will be explored and the need for this study will be identified. An illustration of the

relevance of this study to the field of general psychology will be included, as well as an

introduction to the research design, including assumptions and limitations of the study.

Background of the Study

“Empty nest” refers to the stage of family development when adult children leave the

parental home. The empty nest syndrome is a term intended to describe negative aspects of this

stage, such as the emergence of depressive symptoms, loneliness, and a marked decline in mental

and physical health (Gong et al., 2018). Understandably, the topic of empty nest prompted much

research in the field of psychology (Bouchard, 2014; Gao et al., 2017; Mount & Moas, 2015).

The literature on the nature of this phenomenon indicated that married couples experience

various issues with social interactions and role identity when they enter the empty nest stage of

life (Kins et al., 2013; Papa & Lancaster, 2016; Seiffge-Krenke, 2006; Wu et al., 2010).

Supportive research suggested that single parents experience a profound emotional effect when

their adult children leave home (Bouchard, 2014; Hilton & Anderson, 2009; Schwarts & Ayalon,

2015). Parents also associate social isolation, identity crisis, and feelings of guilt and shame with

an empty nest (Kins et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2010). A shortcoming of current research was the

limited information about single parents and specifically about mothers of Caribbean descent

who have an empty nest.

Sumargi et al. (2018) described parenting in terms of several factors, including parent-

child relationships, social interactions, and cultural role identity. Several studies focused on

1
social isolation as experienced by empty nesters (Bouchard, 2014; Chang et al., 2016; Gao et al.,

2017; Wu et al., 2010). Bouchard (2014) studied the influence of an empty nest on parents’

marital quality and psychological well-being. She determined that parents experienced a

significant increase in loneliness and decreased social interactions (Bouchard, 2014). Gao et al.

(2017) found that empty nesters suffered more negative health effects and cognitive deterioration

than non-empty nesters. Their results coincided with a study by Chang et al. (2016), which

showed that most empty nest elders reported high levels of loneliness, which translated into poor

self-care and a higher risk of social isolation. These results were confirmed in a study by Wu et

al. (2010), which supported that Chinese empty nest elderly experienced significant loneliness

and social isolation when their children left home. An analysis of the research literature showed

that social isolation was a shared experience common to empty nesters. A shortcoming of this

research relevant to the current study was that research samples for these studies did not include

single parents or those identified as having Caribbean ancestry.

Sugimura et al. (2016) investigated the empty nest stage of life in terms of identity

changes, adjustment, cultural norms, beliefs, values, marriage, and parenting. They identified

cultural role identity as a factor of well-being and psychological adjustment to life changes, such

as when children leave home (Sugimura et al., 2016). Much research indicated that cultural role

identification affects how parents experience an empty nest (Bouchard, 2014; Mackey &

O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister, 2015; Pillay, 1988). Mackey and O’Brien (1998) determined

that African American participants reported less marital conflict because they identified with

nontraditional roles in their relationship, such as the equal distribution of nurturing children and

providing for the family. Hispanic and White participants had vague role identities, which

translated to higher marital conflict (Mackey & O’Brien, 1998). Pillay (1988) wrote that

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“unemployed” mothers with an empty nest experienced depression related to unfilled cultural

expectations of living in an extended family system. Mitchell and Wister (2015) also found that

cultural identification influenced expectations associated with the empty nest phenomenon. For

example, some participants anticipated that they would never have an empty nest because the

eldest son would never leave home. An important finding of these studies relevant to the current

study as well was that cultural expectations affect how parents experience cultural role identity

during the empty nest stage.

Scattered throughout the United States is an ever-increasing minority population

comprised of individuals of Caribbean descent (Ogunwole et al., 2017). Research about this

population is in its infancy, and there is limited literature about the experiences of this specific

population. The population of empty nest mothers of Caribbean ancestry is underrepresented in

the literature. Consequently, there is a need for researchers to learn more about this growing

populace and how they experience various phenomena, including the empty nest stage of life.

Several theoretical frameworks have been applied to research focused on the empty nest

phenomenon; however, family development theory was prominent in the literature (Bouchard &

McNair, 2016; Da Silva et al., 2016; Lippert, 1997; Mitchell & Wister, 2015). The research topic

will focus on the family life cycle, specifically on the empty nest stage, as described in family

development theory. During this stage, parents face transitioning parental roles, unique personal

development, and changing interactions with society (Borland, 1982).

Black psychology reinforces that culture affects perceptions of reality and how a

phenomenon is experienced (Cokley & Garba, 2018). The tenets of Black psychology include a

holistic view of the individual, in which several parts unify to represent a human being. The

essential principle is that every single person shares the common experience of being human, and

3
that culture, including values and beliefs, shape how someone experiences a phenomenon

(Association of Black Psychologists, 2019). Black psychology holds that cultural identity is an

integral part of any experience. This perspective will be incorporated in the study.

Family development theory and Black psychology may be applied to this study because

the research topic is concerned with a cultural minority group and the experience of a common

phenomenon. Family development theory and Black psychology share the assumption that the

human perspective is experienced through a cultural lens (Borland, 1982; Cokley & Garba,

2018). Both approaches consider familial, socioeconomic, and societal factors. This study will

integrate concepts from family development theory and Black psychology to provide a

theoretical framework for describing how single mothers of Caribbean descent experience the

empty nest phenomenon.

Need for the Study

A review of current literature indicated that parents experience changes in social

interactions (Chang et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2017; Iman & Aghamiri, 2011; Wu et al., 2010) and

cultural role identification (Bouchard, 2014; Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister, 2015;

Pillay, 1988) during the empty nest stage of life. However, there is an inadequate representation

of single parents in particular who experience an empty nest (Bouchard & McNair, 2016; Kins et

al., 2013). Investigators of this phenomenon proposed that future research include cultural

minorities which were not represented in their studies (Bouchard, 2014; Da Silva et al., 2016;

Kins et al., 2013). This research could add to the existing literature by offering insight into how

single mothers of Caribbean descent experience the empty nest stage of life.

There is significant research to support that married couples experience various issues

with social interactions and role identity when adult children leave home (Kins et al., 2013; Papa

4
& Lancaster, 2016; Seiffge-Krenke, 2006; Wu et al., 2010). The research found that an intense

emotional effect was experienced by single parents when children left home (Bouchard, 2014;

Hilton & Anderson, 2009; Schwarts & Ayalon, 2015). However, there is limited research into

how single mothers of Caribbean descent experience social interactions and role identity changes

during this transitional period of life. This study attempted to bridge the gap in the literature

about this population and phenomena.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to explore Caribbean mothers’ personal experiences with

the empty nest phenomenon. The research focused on social interactions and cultural role

identity associated with this life stage. Several researchers explored social interactions that focus

on loneliness and social isolation as part of elderly adults’ experiences of an empty nest

(Bouchard, 2014; Chang et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2010). Researchers found that

empty nest elders in China had a higher occurrence of isolation and health deterioration than

elders whose children lived with them (Chang et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2010).

Their results confirmed that a lack of support from others and a decline in social interactions

resulted in increased depression in empty nest elders (Chang et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2017; Wu et

al., 2010). A change in cultural role identity has also been identified as a transitional part of an

empty nest (Bouchard, 2014; Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister, 2015; Pillay, 1988).

Bouchard (2014) and Mitchell and Wister (2015) recognized that expectations concerning role

identity were based on cultural traditions and values, and greatly influenced the empty nest

experience. The literature showed that social interaction and cultural role identity were salient

factors to consider when researching the empty nest phenomenon.

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 The study will strive to discover emergent themes observed in how single mothers of

Caribbean descent experience an empty nest. This research has the potential to provide useful

information about the empty nest phenomenon from a single mother’s perspective as well as

from the perspective of a cultural minority. The research can enhance the body of knowledge

about the empty nest phenomenon, post parental transitions, and Caribbean mothers’ personal

experiences.

This research could be beneficial for mental health professionals who work with an

elderly population. Thapa et al. (2018) found that an increasing number of parents whose

children have left home experience higher levels of loneliness and depression. There is an

increasing demand for professionals who provide services for this population. Therefore,

professional health care providers may be able to integrate information from the study into

programs designed for this population. This study sought to discover new information related to

the empty nest phenomenon, single parenting, and cultural perspectives that will add to the

scientific community.

Significance of the Study

General psychology is a discipline that bridges subcategories in various fields, such as

abnormal, educational, and organizational psychology (APA Division One, 2018). APA

Division One (2018), also known as the Society for General Psychology, is focused on

promoting the integration of research, theory, and practice from multiple perspectives to develop

programs and projects beneficial to the field of general psychology. APA Division One supports

many research topics such as race, women and men, and parenting, which are broadly covered in

the field of general psychology. The current study addressed several areas of research, such as

multicultural, women, and post parenting issues. A study with the topic of an empty nest from

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the perspective of single mothers of Caribbean descent is significant to the field of general

psychology because it addresses parenting and race as critical topics for research.

General psychology includes various topics ranging in both qualitative and quantitative

studies. Many theories fall under general psychology, including social learning, cognitive

development, and moral foundations theories. This study will add to the existing literature on

general psychology by integrating multiple perspectives from various specializations in

psychology. For example, attachment theory (Kins et al., 2013), evolutionary psychology

(Mitchell & Lovegreen, 2009), and family development theory (Lippert, 1997) have been applied

in previous research into the topic of empty nest. Concepts from these perspectives may also be

integrated in this study to provide a detailed description of how single mothers experience the

empty nest phenomenon. This study has the potential to advance the scientific knowledge base

from the perspective of family development theory and Black psychology.

Since its conception, family development theory has been augmented, revised, and

adapted to reflect changing societal norms, cultural influences, and relationship roles in the

family life cycle (Duvall, 1988; Erickson, 1998; Kumar, 2017). Family development theory lends

itself to the adaptation of cultural and societal features. This research intends to expand family

development theory in terms of social interactions and cultural role identity from the perspective

of a cultural minority. Black psychology explores how individuals experience phenomena

differently from other cultures and focuses on the effect of historical experiences and current

situations on an individual’s perception of that experience (Cokley et al., 2019). Proponents of

Black psychology employ a holistic view of the person to include individual, social, political,

religious, and cultural factors (Jamison, 2018). This study intends to further Black psychology as

it pertains to information about factors that influence the empty nest experience of single mothers

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of Caribbean descent, such as relationships with the child/children’s biological father, family

values associated with parenting, and stigma associated with being a minority and a single

mother in the United States.

Family development theory falls under the umbrella of general psychology. This theory

focuses on the developmental stages experienced by families (Duvall, 1988). Additionally, the

tenets of Black psychology can be included in general psychology because this perspective

integrates cultural, social, and other aspects into human experiences. This research can be

applied to general psychology because it will explore the personal and cultural perspectives of

how single mothers experience the empty nest phenomenon.

Ko et al. (2016) described midlife as the time of transitions that adults face between 40

and 60. These transitions include changes in marital status, caretaking for elderly parents, career

advancement, and parenting (Ko et al., 2016). Lachman (2001) defined midlife as a subjective

phase of life that begins with an empty nest. Statistical data showed that the average American is

39 years old (Statista, 2017), which means that they are fast approaching midlife and related

concerns, such as empty nest. Therefore, research about aging, family development, parenting

and empty nest must be encouraged. This study will be vital to the scientific community because

it will add to knowledge about aging, family development, and parenting. An influx of

information about these topics can help communities with elderly empty nest parents by

providing evidence-based recommendations and information for this population.

Chang et al. (2016), Gao et al. (2017), and Wu et al. (2010) suggested that their research

be used to inform government programs designed to address issues of loneliness and health

deterioration experienced by elderly Chinese parents in the empty nest stage of life. Their

suggestion implied that more resources could be applied to address this issue. Similarly, Thapa et

8
al. (2018) determined that an increasing number of empty nest adults experience mental health

issues such as loneliness and depression. This indicated a demand for professional service

providers who can help to address this emerging issue (Thapa et al., 2018). Evidence suggested

that information from the study may be practically implemented to inform practice and provide

services for this population.

Research Question

The study was designed to answer the research question, “How do single mothers of

Caribbean descent experience the empty nest phenomenon?”

Definition of Terms

There are several key terms used throughout the study. Definitions of pertinent terms are

included to ensure a clear understanding of how these terms were interpreted and applied to the

study.

Caribbean descent. Caribbean descent was defined as people with ancestral origins from

the Caribbean islands (Agyemang et al., 2005). In other words, their ancestors migrated to the

United States via the Caribbean isles. This population was defined as having ancestors no more

than three generations removed from any native English-speaking Caribbean island.

Empty nest. Empty nest was defined as the time when all adult children have left home

and parenting was no longer the parents’ dominant role (Lachman, 2001; Mitchell & Lovegreen,

2009, Mount & Moas, 2015).

Single. The United States Census Bureau (2017) referred to anyone who has never been

married, divorced, or widowed as single. The definition of single also included the absence of a

significant other.

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 Research Design

Qualitative research is used to study and understand subjective experiences (Creswell &

Poth, 2018). It is concerned with specific behavior and perceptions related to a particular topic

(Creswell & Poth, 2018). Qualitative research can be used to understand complex issues, develop

a theory, and address gaps in current research. Generic qualitative methodology is utilized when

research questions do not precisely fit another qualitative methodology, such as phenomenology

or case study (Kahlke, 2014). A generic qualitative methodology was employed to answer the

stated research question.

Merriam (1998) wrote that generic qualitative research is designed to discover and

understand the personal perspective of participants. Caelli et al. (2003) wrote that there are four

fundamental areas in generic qualitative research: “The theoretical positioning of the researcher,

the congruence between methodology and methods, the strategies to establish rigor, and the

analytic lens through which the data are examined” (p. 5).

Theoretical positioning refers to the foundation, history, and experiences that influence a

researcher’s purpose for a study (Caelli et al., 2003). The researcher of this study identified as a

single mother and an individual with Caribbean ancestry. The researcher’s theoretical positioning

was based on her history, personal experiences, values, beliefs, and perceptions. Methodology

and methods refer to the guiding underlying beliefs and assumptions that power a study (Caelli et

al., 2003). There is no clearly defined methodology in generic qualitative research; however,

participant observation, knowledge development, and data saturation are appropriate for

maintaining integrity in the research.

Rigor refers to the theoretically informed approach or the theoretical stance taken by

researchers and the standpoint from which the research will be conducted (Caelli et al., 2003).

10
The theoretical stance in this study was a combination of family development theory and Black

psychology. The analytical lens refers to the underlying assumptions that guide the interpretation

of the data (Caelli et al., 2003). The assumptions associated with social constructivism were used

in the interpretation of the collected data. A generic qualitative methodology can be applied to

this research because this study aimed to discover the personal perspective of single mothers of

Caribbean descent as they experience the empty nest phenomenon.

Assumptions and Limitations

Assumptions

Underlying assumptions associated with research methodology influence the

implementation, analysis, and evaluation of the data. These assumptions also impact the chosen

methodology of the research study. Holdaway (2000) wrote about a connection between research

methods and theory which is based on philosophical anthropology, or the human perspective.

This philosophical anthropology encompasses “the active or passive nature of human beings …

and the relationship between mind and action” (Holdaway, 2000, p. 157). Positivism and social

constructivism are two philosophical paradigms that influence research. Positivism is associated

with quantitative methodologies. Social constructivism follows the various ways humans

interpret occurrences, such as phenomena, events, or experiences (Cottone, 2017). Qualitative

research methodologies are associated with this philosophical paradigm.

Philosophical anthropologies are based on four assumptions: epistemological,

ontological, methodological, and axiological (Höijer, 2008). Epistemological assumptions are

applied to the way that knowledge is acquired (Höijer, 2008). Ontological assumptions refer to

“implicit and unproven assumptions about reality” (Höijer, 2008, p. 276). Methodological

11
assumptions are concerned with the role of the researcher and the focus of research (Höijer,

2008). Axiological assumptions address values in research (Höijer, 2008).

Social Constructivism. The epistemological assumption of social constructivism is that

knowledge is based on social and cultural experiences (Cottone, 2017). Knowledge is described

as a social experience that results in learning (Cottone, 2017). Humans gain knowledge through

learning, which occurs in the context of interactions with others. It is the epistemological

assumption that the researcher will gain knowledge about the participants’ social and cultural

experiences through social interaction in the form of a qualitative interview.

The ontological assumptions of social constructivism are that human action creates

reality (Cottone, 2017) and that the meaning associated with reality is “specific, situation-bound,

changeable, and unstable” (Höijer, 2008, p. 277). Reality is constantly changing. It is also

assumed that reality is a unique experience for each individual based on their knowledge and

experiences (Holdaway, 2000). For this study, it was assumed that each participant’s reality was

unique to their individual life experiences.

The methodological assumption of social constructivism holds that the research is, in

fact, capable of investigating a subjective experience (Cottone, 2017). This is possible through

the use of data collection methods such as interviews, surveys, and questionnaires (Caelli et al.,

2003; Merriam, 1998; Percy et al., 2015). It is assumed that researchers are able to accurately

interpret and describe participants’ experiences of a phenomenon, event, or thought. It is

assumed that an in-depth interview will be sufficient to collect data and that thematic analysis

will be appropriate to interpret the data.

The axiological assumption associated with social constructivism identifies the role of a

researcher’s subjective values in the interpretation of data (Cottone, 2017). Social constructivists

12
assume that a researcher’s thoughts, opinions, and biases influence how they perceive the data

and therefore influences the interpretation of a study’s results. It is assumed that the researcher’s

experience as a single mother of Caribbean descent will influence how the data is interpreted.

The researcher will follow empirically supported guidelines to limit this effect in interpreting

data. This study focused on the subjective experience of a phenomenon and therefore aligns with

the assumptions of social constructivism.

The generic qualitative inquiry design is used to understand the subjective experience of

a phenomenon from the participants’ perspectives (Percy et al., 2015). The study intended to

describe the personal experience of the empty nest phenomenon from the participants’

perspectives. Data collection methods utilized in generic qualitative inquiry include structured

and unstructured interviews, open-ended qualitative surveys, participant observations, field

notes, journals, and other pertinent documents (Caelli et al., 2003; Merriam, 1998; Percy et al.,

2015). It is assumed that the subjective experiences of participants can be investigated through

the use of these data collection methods. For this study, a semistructured interview was used to

gather information about the personal experiences of each participant. Researchers utilizing the

generic qualitative inquiry approach use thematic analysis to attach meaning to the collected data

(Percy et al., 2015). This is the process of identifying emerging themes and patterns that are

common in the responses from participants. The patterns and themes are then synthesized to

represent a composite analysis of the data.

Limitations

Mothers of Caribbean descent from non-native English islands, such as the Dominican

Republic or Cuba, were intentionally excluded from the study. Demuro and Gurney (2018)

determined that there are implications for cultural developments based on the nature of how

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language is learned and communicated. Chan (2017) found that linguistic predisposition affects

learning and communication in Hong Kong students. The evidence suggested that language plays

a role in the development of an individual’s communication. The impact of language on cultural

role identity experienced by non-native English speakers was beyond the scope of this study. To

minimize miscommunication, the researcher chose to include only participants whose native

language is English. This exclusion may be a limitation of the study since non-native English

speakers with ancestry in the Caribbean are a part of the growing minority in the United States

(Ogunwole et al., 2017). A limitation of this study is that the sample did not comprehensively

represent single mothers of Caribbean descent.

It is not feasible to expect a researcher to be detached when evaluating data (Aanstoos,

1991). A limitation of using generic qualitative inquiry is the influence of the researcher’s

subjective interpretation of the data. It is assumed that the researcher’s values and beliefs will

affect the interpretation of the data (Hays & Singh, 2011). In other words, the results of a study

are the product of scientific facts interpreted from the researcher’s perspective. For example, the

researcher had personal experience of being a single mother of Caribbean descent, and her

experiences may influence how the data is interpreted. Hays and Singh (2011) determined that

the role of the researcher is to be the voice of the participants. The concern is that a researcher’s

subjective experience may not accurately represent the participants’ messages. To address this,

Hays and Singh (2011) proposed that qualitative researchers practice self-reflection and

awareness of subjective biases throughout the research process. The onus is on the researcher to

provide a rationale for how data was analyzed and to show that the highest scientific standards of

credibility and reliability were met.

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 Organization of the Remainder of the Study

This chapter presented a brief introduction to the research about an empty nest, and the

research design of the current study. Chapter 2 will address the literature review and provide an

in-depth summary of what has been researched on the empty nest phenomenon in order to justify

the need for the current study. Additionally, Chapter 2 will further expound on the theoretical

frameworks mentioned in this chapter. A detailed presentation of family development theory and

Black psychology and their relevance to the study will be examined. Chapter 3 will describe the

methodology utilized for the study and the data analysis process that was applied. Chapter 4 will

describe the results of the study and chapter five will summarize the results of the study and

identify the implications of the findings. Recommendations for future research will also be

included in Chapter 5.

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 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review is integral to every research project. It reviews previous theories and

research about a specific topic and references scholarly articles. The literature review offers

readers a groundwork comprised of past and current research on the topic. This chapter will

address the theoretical frameworks used for the study and a review of the research literature. The

findings outlined in the review will be synthesized. Lastly, a critique of the research literature

will be included in this chapter.

Methods of Searching

At the core of this study, the research question was, “How do single mothers of

Caribbean descent experience the empty nest phenomenon?” Various searches over a period of

nine months were conducted on multiple databases including PsycINFO, PsychARTICLES, and

Psychology Database, to answer this question. Several combinations of the keywords empty nest,

single mothers, midlife transition, single parent, Caribbean, and post-parenting were used. The

search parameters included peer reviewed journals and articles from the last seven years. The

exceptions to these parameters were primary resources with an older publication date related to

the theoretical frameworks relevant to the study.

In PsychARTICLES, there were three results generated that responded with single

mothers whose children left home. In Psychology Database, there were 2,256 results with the

key words empty nest. In PsychINFO there were 235 results for midlife transitions and four

results for single parent and post parenting. No results were found which pertained to the topic of

an empty nest and the Caribbean population.

One issue that arose with the database search was that many results were found based on

broad keyword searches. Some of these searches resulted in articles about birds, communication

16
through dance, and honeybees. Boolean searches were performed, which combined keywords

with modifiers such as and, not, and or, to narrow results. This method yielded relevant articles

that could be applied to the topic of empty nest, single parenthood, midlife, and post parenting.

In PsychINFO, this resulted in 10 articles related to empty nest and single parents. In Psychology

Database, this method generated nine articles that focused on empty nest or midlife transitions.

PsychARTICLES yielded 14 articles on the topic of empty nest.

There was a plethora of literature related to empty nest, single parents, post parenting,

and midlife transitions. The researcher examined the works cited and references in these articles

and found more articles that explored the topic of empty nest in non-White cultural groups such

as Indian, African, Chinese, African American, and Hispanic populations (Cao & Lu, 2018;

Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mansoor & Hasan, 2019; Pillay, 1988). However, zero studies

addressed the specific population of single mothers with Caribbean ancestry. This lack of

research pertaining to the Caribbean population was the motivation for pursuing the current

study. There is clearly a gap in the literature for single mothers of Caribbean ancestry and their

experience of the empty nest phenomenon.

Theoretical Orientation for the Study

The research topic focused on the empty nest stage of the family life cycle from two

theoretical frameworks: family development theory and Black psychology. During this stage,

parents experience changes in role identification and social interactions (Borland, 1982). This

study may expand family development theory by applying concepts of the family life cycle from

a cultural perspective. The analysis of the empty nest experience from a single mother’s

perspective will be based on family development theory developed by Duvall (1988).

17
 Black psychology emphasizes that perception is affected by cultural influences (Cokley

& Garba, 2018). The research topic will expand Black psychology by applying the concepts of

culture to an empty nest as experienced by single mothers of Caribbean descent (Cokley &

Garba, 2018). In addition, this research has the potential to inform Black psychology theories on

family development and parenting by adding the perspective of single Caribbean mothers with

an empty nest. The assumption that human behavior is experienced from a cultural perspective

will be used to interpret the data in this study.

Family Development Theory

Family development theory is rooted in the works of Evelyn Duval and Reuben Hill, who

examined familial relationships based on internal reactions among family members as well as the

social context of interaction with their community and society (Duvall et al., 1953). Their work

originated as a textbook for newly married couples struggling with changing demands of their

new identity as a young family (Duvall et al., 1953). This framework has since been used as a

model in the creation of several theories of family development, such as systematic family

development (Burgess, 1954), family systems theory (Bowen, 1961), and family life cycle theory

(Carter & McGoldrick, 1988). A crucial aspect of family development theory, which is a

common theme found in other theories of family development, is that family development occurs

in the context of individual, social, and historical experiences (Bowen, 1961; Burgess, 1954;

Carter & McGoldrick, 1988). Family development is inevitably affected by changes or

transitions on individual, social, historical, and cultural levels.

The concepts of family development theory initially proposed by Duvall et al. (1953)

was utilized as a theoretical framework for this study. Duvall et al. (1953) explored several

developmental patterns, such as critical periods in physical, personal, cognitive, and moral

18
development. Physical development included predictable physical changes that individuals

experience from birth through adolescence to adulthood, influenced by gender, race, and culture

(Duvall, 1988). Personal development, influenced by cultural and social expectations, focused on

an individual’s personality, which develops throughout the lifespan (Duvall, 1988). Cognitive

development referred to an individual’s capacity for knowledge and understanding of their

environment (Duvall, 1988). Moral development is concerned with behaviors designed to

conform to societal norms in order to avoid punishment and is influenced by culture and

socioeconomic status (Duvall, 1988).

The family life cycle follows the family unit as it transitions through a series of stages,

including becoming newlyweds, having children, and the empty nest. (Duvall, 1988; Duvall et

al., 1953). Demographic factors contributed to the experience and length of each stage of the

family life cycle (Duvall, 1988). For example, the retirement age for someone in a high-income

bracket may be younger than the retirement age for someone with a lower-paying career with

little benefits, or cultural and societal expectations for adult children may postpone the empty

nest stage. Since its conception, many changes were made to the family life cycle to incorporate

individual, societal, and cultural norms such as divorce, retirement, rearing grandchildren, and

adult children returning home (Chaulk et al., 2003; Martin, 2018).

Family development theory posits that families develop through the life cycle when

change and growth are experienced. Each stage of the life cycle is characterized by specific goals

and basic tasks that families must accomplish (Duvall, 1988). When these goals and basic tasks

are unmet, there is a disruption in the family unit, described as chaos, and progress to the next

stage is hindered (Duvall et al., 1953). Individuals transition to the next life stage when there are

19
changes in their current role. This change, which is fueled by growth or resistance, influences

their ability to accomplish the developmental tasks of the next stage (Duvall et al., 1953).

Proponents of family development theory describe transitional periods in personal, social,

family responsibilities, and interactions that result from critical events (Duvall, 1988; Duvall et

al., 1953). According to family development theory, basic family tasks are completed during

each stage of the family life cycle (Duvall, 1988). These basic tasks are: (a) providing physical

care, (b) allocating resources, (c) determining responsibilities, (d) socializing, (e) establishing

interactions patterns, (f) adding or losing family members, (g) interacting with society, and (h)

keeping each other motivated (Duvall, 1988). Transitional periods are delineated by a change in

the role filled by a family member (Duvall, 1988). An example can be seen when children are

born and married partners become parents and their role alters from that of a spouse to include

parenting. This role shift changes the inner dynamics of the family unit as well as how the new

parents interact with the environment outside of the home, such as with pediatricians and other

parents.

The family unit is based on interdependence (Duvall et al., 1953). Each family member is

dependent on the others and each member can instigate change in the family unit. Each family

member is an individual with their thoughts, opinions, emotions, values, and beliefs and has the

power to influence the thoughts, opinions, emotions, values, and beliefs of other family

members. This interdependence fosters boundaries, resilience, and communication among

members, translating into interactions with society (Duvall, 1988). Changes within any one

member of the family unit have a ripple effect on other members of the family unit, the family

unit as a whole, and how the unit and individual family members interact with their environment,

community, and society (Duvall, 1988).

20
 The first stage of family development occurs with the choice to become partners (Duvall

et al., 1953). Two individuals choose to leave their family of origin and establish their own

independent family unit and take on the expectations that society places on a new family unit,

such as financial independence and the possibility of becoming parents. The second stage occurs

when children are added to the unit (Duvall, 1988). Partners will integrate their spouse and

parental roles to make emotional, financial, biological, and psychological adjustments during this

stage.

A study by Chaulk et al. (2003) found that newly married couples and those with children

had lower financial risk tolerance compared to their counterparts. This difference aligns with

family development theory and the concept that family members make emotional and financial

adjustments based on their stage in the family life cycle.

There are several stages in the family life cycle based on children’s age (Duvall, 1988).

During these stages, children adapt to their roles both inside and outside the family unit and

navigate changing biological and psychosocial needs (Duvall, 1988). During these stages,

parents may pursue professional career goals and integrate new parenting skills into their family

unit (Duvall, 1988).

Davies and Gentile (2012) applied the concepts of family development to their study,

which highlighted changing parenting skills that adapted to the needs of children from infancy

through adolescence. They found that parents monitored their younger children’s media

consumption significantly more than parents with adolescents (Davies & Gentile, 2012). This

study portrayed a change in parenting skills to support the needs of their children. More media

monitoring occurred for younger, easily influenceable children compared to less monitoring of

older children capable of meeting parents’ expectations of healthy media habits.

21
 The last stages of the family life cycle begin with an empty nest and are concerned with

parental adjustment to children leaving home, retirement, and death (Duvall, 1988). During these

stages, children gain independence from their family of origin, and parents consider mortality

and seek to fulfill lifelong goals (Duvall, 1988). During this stage parents’ roles change to

accommodate their children leaving home and new societal demands based on their age and

stage of the family life cycle.

Hiedemann et al. (1998) studied factors that influence divorce. They determined that the

length of time married, wives’ economic independence, and economic status as a couple

influence marital disruption in the empty nest stage of the life cycle (Hiedemann et al., 1998).

That is to say, women who were married for a shorter period and who were economically

independent were more likely to divorce than their counterparts. This study is an example of

changing parental roles, specifically those of women, experienced in the empty nest stage of

family development.

Critics of family development theory state that human development is not linear or

cyclical, that transitions from one stage to another is not dependent on successfully navigating

the previous stage, and that family development theory does not support changing definitions of

the family unit to include nonnormative roles (O’Brien, 2005). Duvall (1988) wrote that culture

“sets the norm for the family” (p. 130); therefore, the family life cycle may adapt and change

depending on the cultural identity and dynamics of the family unit. Duvall (1988) identified

several factors that affect the family life cycle, including physical, psychosocial, moral,

cognitive, and personal development. Family development theory has adapted to reflect changing

societal norms, cultural influences, and relationship roles (Duvall, 1988; Erickson, 1998; Kumar,

2017).

22
 In his analysis of family development theory, Martin (2018) examined Duvall’s work on

family development and its transformation throughout the years. He determined that the initial

theory has been adapted into modern perspectives, which build on original concepts and reflect

changing social and cultural demands of the family unit (Martin, 2018). Family development

theory has been applied to work and social programs and influenced the scientific literature on

work-family balance, use of the technology with the family, and diverse, blended families

(Martin, 2018; Watt & White, 1999; White, 1999). The current study will benefit from the

adaptability of this theory to changing cultural and societal norms prominent in ethnic minority

populations.

Black Psychology

Black psychology integrates historic experiences as well as current events into the

experience of psychological phenomena (Cokley et al., 2019). The author’s target population

was single mothers of Caribbean descent. This population was defined as having ancestors no

more than three generations removed from any native English-speaking Caribbean island. The

population for this study included every race found in the Caribbean such as Afro Caribbean,

Asian Caribbean, European Caribbean, and Native Indian Caribbean descendants. Based on the

assumptions of Black psychology, the author presumed that historical and current events shaped

the development of this population.

Additionally, Black psychology holds a holistic view of the person, which integrates

individual, social, political, religious, and cultural factors (Jamison, 2018). The concept of the

person as an interdependent part of a collective community was applied to the study. The author

was interested in the social and cultural implications of the experience of an empty nest from the

Black psychology standpoint.

23
 Cokley et al. (2019) wrote that the development of the Black identity was rooted in

racism and oppression. Black psychology gained momentum to address social issues in the Black

community, and this movement strove to overcome the negative assumptions associated with the

Black community (Jamison, 2018). Black psychologists strive to identify and address social

problems rampant in the Black community and positively impact the mental health of this

population (Association of Black Psychologists, 2019). Black psychologists believe that self-

determination and knowledge are tools that can be used to heal people and communities in need

of assistance (Association of Black Psychologists, 2019).

Black psychology builds on the social looking-glass theory, which posits that self-

concept is determined by how others perceive an individual (Cokley & Garba, 2018). Black

psychologists assume that human behavior is experienced through one’s culture (Jamison, 2018).

Nobles (2015) wrote that “all human communities, especially African prior to invasion and

colonization, used their own … cultural appreciations, and apperceptions about reality to inform

their knowing framework and intellectual mindset” (p. 402). The reality for any community, is

based on that community’s cultural beliefs and assumptions, which are then used to interpret

every experience.

The Association of Black Psychologists (2019) defined Black/African centered

psychology as a framework to address personal and social issues in the Black community and to

encourage the development of capability and potential in oneself. In recognition of the

commonality of all human behaviors, Black psychologists take a holistic view of the individual

to include factors such as spirituality, socioeconomic standing, historical events, education,

cultural beliefs, and many more (Association of Black Psychologists, 2019).

24
 Black psychology is based on cosmology, ontology, epistemology, and axiology

(Jamison, 2018). Cosmology describes the interdependence each individual has with nature and

other inhabitants of the world. Subscribers of Black psychology promote the cosmology that

each individual is a collective part of the universe (Jamison, 2018). Ontology refers to

assumptions about existence and being (Höijer, 2008). The ontology of Black psychology

assumes that humans are a physical manifestation of the Spirit (Jamison, 2018). As such, Black

psychologists assume that spirituality is integral to existence. Epistemological assumptions refer

to the way that knowledge is acquired (Kim, 2001). In Black psychology, symbolism and

thought are the cornerstones for knowledge (Jamison, 2018). Symbolic meaning is associated

with language, expressions, and objects, and cognition is based on understanding the meaning

behind the symbolism. Lastly, the axiological value system of Black psychology is rooted in

positive human interactions and relationships (Jamison, 2018).

The principles of Black psychology are focused on developing Black identity, family, and

education (Association of Black Psychologists, 2019). To establish a Black identity,

psychologists, such as Janet Helms, adapted the initial racial identity theory to include

multidimensional aspects of identity that integrated demography, academic, acculturation,

socialization, and racism into identity development (Cokley et al., 2019). Black psychologists

perpetuate the idea that identity is rooted in both spiritual and collective interdependence with

others.

Black families are integral to forming identity and maintaining cultural systems (Cokley

& Garba, 2018). The definition of the Black family, which includes immediate family members,

also incorporates friends, neighbors, and community members that interact and shape a person’s

experience of acculturation, socialization, and life (Cokley & Garba, 2018). In Black

25
psychology, the family is viewed positively in terms of support for cultural values and beliefs

concerning spirituality, interdependence, and responsibility.

Great importance is placed on education in Black psychology because it is seen as a way

to combat the stereotype that African Americans have a lower capacity for intelligence,

language, and learning compared to other ethnicities (Nobles, 2015). One purpose of the

Association of Black Psychologists (2019) is to encourage the pursuit of knowledge and to

disseminate knowledge to the Black community through schools, outreach programs, and higher

education workshops that incorporate African ideals such as self-determination, unity, faith,

respect, and other important cultural values.

Black psychology has been associated with theories of acculturation and identity

(Jamison, 2018). The theoretical foundation created by Black psychologists allows for a better

understanding of Black identity development, including integral cultural factors such as family,

religion, education, and respect. Black psychology has informed research and educational and

social programs specifically designed to integrate Black tenets into its curriculum (Association of

Black Psychologists, 2019). These tenets include respect, spirituality, and responsibility (Cokley

& Garba, 2018).

The dissertation topic, which will focus on the personal experience of the empty nest

phenomenon experienced by single mothers of Caribbean descent, can be interpreted from the

frameworks of family development theory and Black psychology. During the empty nest stage,

parents experience transitional parental roles, unique personal development, and changing social

interactions (Borland, 1982). The researcher is interested in how single mothers of Caribbean

descent accomplish the basic tasks delineated by family development theory, focusing on social

interactions and cultural role identity. Both family development theory and Black psychology

26
identify the family as a significant component of an individual’s life (Jamison, 2018; Martin,

2018).

Family development theory follows members through each phase of the family life cycle

(Martin, 2018). Black psychology is rooted in the belief that family is an integral part of building

the Black identity (Jamison, 2018). Additionally, both approaches view the individual as part of

a collective community within both the family unit, community, and the larger society (Chaulk et

al., 2003; Cokley et al., 2019; Fair et al., 2018). Black psychology and family development

theory consider many factors that affect the individual’s development such as family, religion,

and education (Chaulk et al., 2003; Cokley et al., 2019; Fair et al., 2018). Both perspectives can

be integrated into the dissertation topic because their basic tenets are compatible. Additionally,

the theoretical implications and practical applications of both perspectives can be adapted and

applied to the current study.

Review of the Literature

The topic under investigation was the experience of an empty nest from the perspective

of single mothers of Caribbean descent, with a focus on social interactions and cultural role

identity. The literature review will present emerging themes according to the methodologies and

concepts identified in current research. There will be an analysis of the empty nest phenomenon

in terms of predicting factors, anxiety, and well-being. The following literature illuminated the

constructs of social interactions and cultural role identity in relation to an empty nest. The

literature review intended to elaborate on the empty nest phenomenon and the effect of cultural

role identity and social interactions on this experience.

27
Research on the Empty Nest Phenomenon

The empty nest stage of life is described as the time when parenting is no longer a

primary objective because adult children live outside the family home (Bouchard, 2014; Kins et

al., 2013; Lachman, 2001; Lippert, 1997; Mitchell & Wister, 2015; Mount & Moas, 2015).

Research of the empty nest phenomenon has been applied to quantitative and qualitative studies

in general psychology (Bouchard & McNair, 2016; Gao et al., 2017). The topic of this study

encompassed themes of parent-child relationships, empty nest, post parenting, and race which

are key topics researched in the general psychology specialization (APA Division One, 2018).

The shift to midlife, which begins with an empty nest, marks transitions in marital status, career

changes, and parenting (Ko et al., 2016).

The empty nest phenomenon has been studied within various frameworks such as

attachment theory (Kins et al., 2013), evolutionary psychology (Mitchell & Lovegreen, 2009),

and family development (Afiatin et al., 2016; Lippert, 1997). When children leave home, married

couples experience decreased social interactions and role identity issues (Kins et al., 2013; Papa

& Lancaster, 2016; Wu et al., 2010). Additionally, single parents exhibit a more significant

emotional response when children leave home (Bouchard, 2014; Hilton & Anderson, 2009;

Schwarts & Ayalon, 2015). There is a gap in the literature concerning empty nest and single

mothers of Caribbean descent.

Kins et al. (2013) studied separation anxiety in the family unit when emerging adults left

home. They hypothesized that the psychosocial development of both parents and children were

affected during this transitional period (Kins, et al., 2013). The sample consisted of 119 two-

parent Belgian families, of which 61% had their adult children still living at home, while in 31%

of families, children lived independently. A questionnaire that consisted of 17 measures

28
pertaining to six relationship dyads was administered to collect data on separation anxiety in the

family unit. Kins et al. (2013) reported a Cronbach’s alpha (α) ranging from 0.83 to 0.89 for their

questionnaire. They determined that separation anxiety can be found throughout the lifespan

during important transitional phases, such as when children leave home (Kins et al., 2013). They

found that maternal separation anxiety was expressed as worry, sadness, and guilt associated

with mother-child separation. They also discovered that separation anxiety was associated with

negative self-representations. A limitation of this study was that Kins et al. (2013) utilized a

sample that did not represent a nonnormative family because the researchers intentionally sought

two-parent families for the study. This limitation supported the need for a study with a focus on

single parents.

Luthar and Ciciolla (2016) compared the psychological well-being of well-educated

women in various parenting stages, ranging from infancy to empty nest. They utilized an online

survey (Cronbach α > 0.78) to collect data from 2,247 women. Luthar and Ciciolla (2016)

conducted multivariate analyses of variance, or MANOVA, which examines differences in

dependent variables by comparing the means of several quantitative outcome variables between

two or more groups (George & Mallery, 2016). In this study, the dependent variables were

maternal adjustment, parenting experiences, and perceptions of child. These were compared

between each stage of the family development life cycle. They hypothesized that women would

experience the least stress during the empty nest stage (Luthar & Ciciolla, 2016). They examined

both positive and negative aspects of adjustment, including anxiety, depression, and satisfaction

with life. Their results indicated that empty nest was indeed associated with the least role

overload, stress, and negative perceptions of children. A limitation of this study was that the

sample consisted of upper-middle-class mothers who had access to the online survey. Therefore,

29
mothers from lower socioeconomic standing may not have been fairly represented in their

sample.

There was an emerging theme that socioeconomic status, spousal relationships, and

education influence how empty nest is perceived and experienced. Chui (2018) sampled 339

Chinese elders with a low family income and a junior-secondary education. He administered the

Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale, the Lubben Social Network Scale, the

Meaning of Life Questionnaire, and the Older People’s Quality of Life Questionnaire. These

instruments reported Cronbach’s α ranging from .793 to .921, indicating high reliability (Chui,

2018). His study aimed to determine if quality of life is influenced by social networks, functional

disability, and meaning in life. An analysis of variance, or ANOVA, was used to identify an

association between demographic background and quality of life. He found that functional

disability was negatively associated with social networks. Participants with fewer friends and

family support showed more physical and mental decline. Chui (2018) identified an association

between functional disability and lower education and income levels. He also determined that

higher income and education were associated with a more extensive social network and higher

quality of life scores (Chui, 2018). A limitation of this study was the use of a nonprobability

sampling method, which may have biased the data collected. This study focused on three

dimensions of quality of life. Future studies could include other factors for a comprehensive

analysis of quality of life.

Wawrzyniak (2015) performed a series of in-depth surveys and statistical analyses with a

longitudinal sample, which started with 3,240 participants in 1969 and ended with 1,301

participants in 2010. The study was used to identify factors that predict the age of onset of the

post parental stage for married couples. The research showed that most married parents start this

30
stage in their sixties and that several factors affect when the post parental stage begins. These

factors included age that parents left their home, age of the birth of the first child, number of

children, and the gender and education of children. This article was useful in providing a

timeline for when parents can expect to experience an empty nest. A limitation of this study was

that participants were chosen from traditional families, and nontraditional families were

excluded.

Katya (2020) studied 6,130 empty-nesters in the Netherlands to determine life

satisfaction among biological and step parents. The dependent variable of life satisfaction was

measured using the Satisfaction of Life Scale (α > 0.86), which consisted of three items rated on

a Likert scale. Multiple linear regression analysis was performed to determine the association

between life satisfaction and demographic data, trust in partners, and closeness of relationship

with children. It was determined that parents with complicated parenting roles, such as that of

step-parents, reported lower life satisfaction scores than their counterparts with biological

children. This lower life satisfaction score was more pronounced for fathers than for mothers.

Katya (2020) found a positive association with life satisfaction, no reported mental health issues,

and higher education. Both biological and step-parents reported higher levels of life satisfaction

associated with the closeness of relationships with children. Katya (2020) determined that

differences in life satisfaction for step-parents and biological parents could be attributed to the

complex parenting role assumed by step parents. However, the results of the study were not

statistically significant. This indicated that there is no significant difference in the experience of

life satisfaction from step-parents’ perspective compared to biological parents. This study was

well designed. Future research may include variables that measure interpersonal skills. This topic

31
may also benefit from a longitudinal design that follows participants throughout the family life

cycle.

Factors that affect parenting include parent-child relationships, social interactions, and

cultural role identity (Sumargi et al., 2018). The dissertation topic focused on the experiences of

social interactions and cultural role identity associated with empty nest from the perspective of

single mothers of Caribbean descent.

The Effect of Social Interactions on Empty Nest

The topic of social isolation experienced by parents who have an empty nest has been the

focus of much research (Boz, 2018; Chen et al., 2012; Gao et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2010). Boz

(2018) utilized a qualitative approach to interview 10 participants over 65 in Ankara, Turkey.

Three of the participants were widows and all other participants were married. The purpose of

the study was to explore social networks and social communication methods utilized by the

elderly. Boz (2018) identified the home as a place of comfort, and several participants

recognized that they built close relationships with their neighbors and friends who lived within

the vicinity. They determined that as friends and family moved away, their social support

dwindled, and they did not embrace the changing environment (Boz, 2018). Female participants

assumed traditional roles for women in terms of social acceptance, marital status, and age which

limited their activities outside of the home. Boz (2018) examined the role of social networks and

found that participants identified family members, such as children and grandchildren, relatives,

and neighbors as integral to their social circle. Due to aging, migration, or relationship conflict,

social interactions decreased over time. Boz (2018) identified loneliness as a shared experience

among participants, especially those who felt isolated and did not keep in close communication

with their social circle. A limitation of this study was that the sample of 10 participants was

32
taken from a city in Turkey and may not effectively represent other older adults worldwide. This

study determined that loneliness and relationship conflict are part of an empty nest.

Several studies on the elderly living in rural China found an increase in loneliness

experienced by empty-nesters compared to elders who still lived with their children (Chen et al.,

2012; Wu et al., 2010). Researchers Chen et al. (2012) designed a quasiexperimental study to

determine what factors influence living conditions and life satisfaction for older adults with an

empty nest. They measured several dependent variables, including quality of life, living

conditions, and the ability to participate in social activities (Chen et al., 2012). Independent

variables for this study included relationship with children, support from family and friends,

social activities, and how participants viewed themselves (Chen et al., 2012). To measure these

variables, the authors created the Living Condition and Life Satisfaction of Elder People survey,

which used a six-point Likert scale format and comprised of three sections focused on living

conditions of older adults, living satisfactions of older adults, and demographic information

(Chen et al., 2012). They recruited 70 adults from a local government-funded senior center and

from a university center where they worked. They reported α > .90 for the first two parts of their

questionnaire and reported reliability for their study. The inclusion of this information added

validity and reliability to their study. They found that empty nesters who were socially active

reported higher levels of happiness and quality of life. They recommended that future research

utilize random sampling and use a larger sample to study other factors that influence living

conditions and life satisfaction for empty nesters.

Wang et al. (2017) utilized a multistage randomized cluster sampling method to sample

814 elderly adults from eight rural communities in Liuyang, China. They utilized several

questionnaires to measure loneliness and depression. Data was collected in face-to-face

33
interviews. They reported test-retest correlation coefficients of 0.722 and 0.702, this indicated

acceptable reliability for these measures (Warner, 2013). They performed a multiple linear

regression analysis to explore the association between empty nest and living situations,

loneliness, and depressive symptoms. Their results were significant, which indicated that

loneliness and depressive symptoms were associated with an empty nest. Their study met the

requirements for ethical and scientific merit through approval from Central South University. A

limitation of this study was that participants were chosen from rural communities in China. The

results may not accurately represent the worldwide population.

Cao and Lu (2018) collected data from 1,424 empty nest elders in China to explore the

correlation between social support and life satisfaction. They identified 16 rural villages in

Western China, where they invited participants to be part of the study through random sampling.

Cao and Lu (2018) utilized several questionnaires to measure the variables of social support,

satisfaction with life, and loneliness. They also included the covariates of gender, marital status,

age, education level, and income. Social support was measured using the Multidimensional Scale

of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), a 12-item scale that measured perceived social support

from three sources: family, friends, and significant others. The researchers reported a Cronbach α

of 0.94 for this scale. Satisfaction with life was measured with the Satisfaction with Life Scale

(SWLS). The SWLS consisted of 5 items and had α > 0.89. Loneliness was measured using the

UCLA Loneliness Scale, which reported α > 0.94. Several statistical analyses were performed,

including ANOVA, Pearson’s correlation matrix, and hierarchical regression. An analysis of

variance (ANOVA) showed a significant difference in life satisfaction among empty nest elders

based on gender, education level, and income. Pearson’s correlation coefficient indicated a

significant positive correlation with social support and life satisfaction and a negative correlation

34
between loneliness and social support. The hierarchical multiple regression showed that

loneliness was a moderating factor in the relationship between social support and life

satisfaction. Cao and Lu (2018) highlighted that loneliness was experienced by many empty

nesters. The researchers determined that higher levels of perceived social support led to higher

life satisfaction scores. They also determined that loneliness was an indicator of poor life

satisfaction. A strength of this study was that all measures reported high Cronbach α coefficients,

which indicated high internal consistency in the measures. A limitation of this study was that this

was a cross-sectional study. A longitudinal design would provide more data about social support

and life satisfaction.

These studies explored the effect of social isolation on an empty nest. A common theme

was that the parental experience of empty nest was linked to loneliness, which resulted in a

significant decline in mental and physical health. These studies show that social isolation is a

factor of the empty nest phenomenon (Bouchard, 2014; Cao & Lu, 2018; Chen et al., 2012;

Wang et al., 2017).

Researchers determined that there was an association between actively maintaining social

interactions, avoiding social isolation, and high levels of marital satisfaction and self-esteem

(Bouchard & McNair, 2016; Iman & Aghamiri, 2011; Tanis et al., 2017). Bouchard and McNair

(2016) explored the dyadic marital relationship with an empty nest. They recruited 102 Canadian

couples in the empty nest stage using word of mouth, sports, and cultural activities. The

researchers performed a Pearson’s bivariate correlation statistical analysis. In their study,

Bouchard and McNair (2016) defined six predictor variables, which were wives’ marital

adjustment, husbands’ marital adjustment, wives’ frequency of contact with children, husbands’

frequency of contact with children, wives’ frequency of contact with grandchildren, and

35
husbands’ frequency of contact with grandchildren. The outcome variable was life satisfaction

for husbands and wives. They hypothesized that marital adjustment, contact with children, and

having grandchildren were predictors of life satisfaction. They also hypothesized that interaction

with grandchildren influenced life satisfaction. Their results showed a positive statistically

significant relationship between frequency of contact with children and grandchildren, marital

adjustment and life satisfaction scores. This study highlighted social interaction with spouses,

children, and grandchildren affected life satisfaction.

Iman and Aghamiri (2011) researched the quality of relationships, participation in

hobbies, and social activities associated with parents who had an empty nest. Their sample

consisted of 241 families living in Sari City, Iran, who responded to questionnaires. They

integrated seasons of change theory in their research to investigate the psychological well-being

of mothers whose children left home (Iman & Aghamiri, 2011). Their research focused on

autonomy, positive relations with others, and personal growth during this time. There was a

positive correlation between psychological well-being and participation in hobbies and social

interactions (Iman & Aghamiri, 2011). Mothers who participated in extracurricular activities

reported higher levels of psychological well-being. Their research described the positive aspects

of an empty nest. A limitation of this study was that the Cronbach’s α reported for the

questionnaire ranged from 0.68 to 0.85, which translated as weak to moderate reliability.

Tanis et al. (2017) examined the social networking site use of parents and their adult

children and determined that parents increased their use of social networking technology to

communicate with their children after leaving home. This study focused on the changes in

interaction style in the parent-child relationship. Tanis et al. (2017) administered an online

survey to 748 parents living in the United States, and the data showed an upsurge in social

36
networking site use up to two years after children left home. They found a significant negative

association between the use of social network technology and symptoms of an empty nest, such

as loneliness, feelings of loss, emotional instability, and depression (Tanis et al., 2017). Their

findings showed that as social network technology use increased, there was a decrease in the

negative symptoms of empty nest (Tanis et al., 2017). Information on reliability or validity was

not included in this study.

Researchers found that empty nest can be a positive experience for parents who maintain

social interactions, have high levels of psychological well-being, and believe their children are

successful (Bouchard & McNair, 2016; Iman & Aghamiri, 2011). These researchers sought to

investigate factors positively associated with an empty nest.

Cultural Role Identity and the Empty Nest

According to Sugimura et al. (2016), identity is a fluid construct that changes as

individuals adjust to new experiences. Experiences with cultural norms, beliefs, and values

learned throughout the lifespan impact the development of an individual’s identity (Sugimura et

al., 2016). Additionally, life events such as marriage, migration, and parenting affect the

development of a person’s identity. Sugimura et al. (2016) determined a correlation between

cultural role identity and psychosocial adjustment and well-being. Supporting this finding,

several researchers determined that cultural role identification influences how parents experience

the empty nest phenomenon (Bouchard, 2014; Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister,

2015; Pillay, 1988).

Bouchard (2014) found that parents who did not have alternative roles as part of their

identity experienced a decrease in psychological well-being when their children left home.

Parents experienced a significant increase in loneliness and a decrease in social interactions

37
when children left home. Additionally, parents’ marital quality and psychological well-being

were also affected by launching children from home (Bouchard, 2014). Other factors associated

with empty nest included the age that children leave home, the gender of the children, and role

identity. Her analysis supported that an increase in maternal loneliness was fueled by a decrease

in interactions with others (Bouchard, 2014). Additional life changes, such as retirement and

grandmotherhood, was associated with increased stress for mothers. Bouchard (2014) compared

studies from America, Thailand, and China and found that Chinese data supported a negative

experience of an empty nest. Bouchard (2014) determined that in the studies from China, low

socioeconomic status and location of children affected deteriorating parent-child relationships.

The migration of children from rural areas to cities as a means to provide financially for

themselves attributed to poor family relationships, and added to feelings of loneliness and

depression experienced by Chinese empty nesters. On the other hand, Bouchard (2014)

determined that social status and pride in their children swayed Thai parents to have lower levels

of depression, which was similar to results from American studies.

Mackey and O’Brien (1998) studied alternative role identities in the context of cultural

identification. They investigated how 60 couples adapted to developmental stages in their lives,

including the empty nest stage. They sought to gain insight into marriage as it evolved and

adapted to life changes such as child-rearing and post-parenting transitions. Their sample

consisted of a diverse group of 60 couples that represented White, African American, and

Hispanic ethnicities. Data were collected through a semistructured open-ended interview. Two

raters coded and analyzed the data to increase interrater reliability. They reported a Cohen’s

kappa between .79 and .94, indicating there was reliability in the coding system. Mackey and

O’Brien (1998) determined that African American spouses held nontraditional cultural

38
expectations about marital roles and parenting. They found that Hispanics reported more

physical contact than other ethnic groups, even when sexual relations declined for all groups

during the empty nest years. They found a positive shift in conflict management, sexual

intimacy, and marital satisfaction during the empty nest years, noticeable with African

Americans. A limitation of this study was that participants may have had impaired and unreliable

memories of particular instances. However, the study highlighted the role of cultural differences

in the experience of marriage.

In a study on Indian mothers in South Africa, Pillay (1988) determined that mothers who

expected their children to stay at home longer than usual, experienced an identity crisis when

their children left home. With a sample of 56 women, he found that more than 50% of the

participants surveyed at a hospital exhibited depression due to adjusting to children leaving

home. He noted that the Indian community lived in an extended family system where adult

children live in the parental home even after marriage. An increasing number of children leaving

their parental homes constituted a change in cultural norms resulting in Indian mothers

exhibiting a depressive reaction to empty nest. The article shared insight into the cultural aspects

of empty nest and how cultural norms affected mothers’ adjustment to their children leaving

home. A limitation of this study was that participants were hospitalized and depression may be

attributed to other diagnoses and not the empty nest phenomenon.

Liang and Luo (2017) applied a grounded theory approach to develop a theoretical

framework for understanding the meaning of everyday life for 20 individuals over the age of 50

in rural China. They determined that individuals experience changing social roles throughout

their lifetime and emphasized historical and social contexts. Participants in this study

experienced life under the rule of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which limited freedoms

39
in adherence to communism. This included limitations on religion, leisure, and family planning,

such as the one-child policy. During this the Cultural Revolution occurred where intellectuals

were forced into manual work as part of their re-education training. Liang and Luo (2017)

identified that historical, social, cultural, and political changes affect a person’s perception,

decisions, and experiences. They employed purposeful sampling and collected data through in-

depth, semistructured interviews. Their results showed three emerging themes, which were

reminiscing, agency, and pathways in retirement. Participants reminisced about past experiences

such as living through the Korean War, the China-Soviet split, and the Cultural Revolution, and

this reminiscence allowed participants to allocate meaning to their lives. Agency included

adaptations to changing times such as being proactive, embracing changing family structures,

integrating technology into their skill set, and actively pursuing hobbies and leisure activities.

The authors discovered seven pathways in retirement: passivity, active pursuit, versatility,

productivity, lifelong learning, spirituality, and generosity (Liang & Luo, 2017). These pathways

demonstrated how individuals experience their later years. The study by Liang and Luo (2017)

presented important information on the effect of historical and cultural factors on the Chinese

elderly. Participants in this study were over 50 years old but were not empty nesters. Future

studies could explore how empty nesters attribute meaning to their daily lives in historical,

social, and cultural contexts.

Mitchell and Wister (2015) found that cultural beliefs and values associated with role

identity affected the transition to an empty nest. They demonstrated that parental negative or

positive impressions of their children leaving home greatly influenced the social aspect of the

parent-child relationship (Mitchell & Wister, 2015). Their study explored the effect an

individualistic or familistic culture had on parent-child relationships with an empty nest

40
(Mitchell & Wister, 2015). Their research supported that cultural role identity plays a big part in

the positive or negative outcome experienced by parents with an empty nest. White (1999) found

that the onset of an empty nest was postponed in African American and Hispanic families who

were more likely to live in extended family homes than their White counterparts (White, 1999).

She also found aspects such as age, class, culture, and economic status influence when children

leave home and how parents respond to this life event (White, 1999).

Gao et al. (2017) found that adverse health effects and cognitive deterioration were

experienced by Chinese elderly when their children left home. They determined that the

traditional Chinese family permitted elders to live with their children when they could no longer

function independently. However, parents and children lived separately because rural children

move to cities for financial success. Gao et al. (2017) studied the effect of an empty nest on

physical and psychological health and cognitive ability. A random sample of 7,823 participants

was included in the study, which represented both urban and rural elders. The independent

variable was having an empty nest and the dependent variables included physical, cognitive, and

psychological health. The researchers used the Hausman Test to evaluate a regression model for

the independent and dependent variables (Gao et al., 2017). Their results were statistically

significant. They determined that variables such as living resources, availability of medical

treatment, and social activities were potential moderators of health. They also determined that

empty nest elders experienced a decline in cognitive ability compared to non-empty nesters.

They found that single female empty-nesters had significantly lower scores than their

counterparts. This study was well-designed and indicated that women, especially single mothers,

experienced negative aspects of empty nest such as physical, cognitive, and psychological health

decline.

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 These studies highlighted the importance of alternative role identities as well as cultural

influences that affect the empty nest experience. Parents who were confident in alternative roles

besides that of ‘parent’ had positive well-being and higher satisfaction (Bouchard, 2014; Gao et

al., 2017; Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister, 2015; Pillay, 1988). There is a

proliferation of research on the topic of empty nest. However, the demographic data showed that

most participants were married White mothers (Bouchard & McNair, 2016; Kins et al., 2013).

There are limited studies on this stage of life from the perspective of single parents, and there are

minimal studies that focus on cultural minorities (Bouchard, 2014; Hilton & Anderson, 2009;

Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister, 2015; Pillay, 1988; Schwarts & Ayalon, 2015).

The dissertation topic will address a gap in the literature pertaining to single mothers of

Caribbean descent and their experience of the empty nest phenomenon.

Synthesis of the Research Findings

The literature review supported that there are both negative and positive aspects of

having an empty nest. Bouchard and McNair (2016) found that parents had high marital

satisfaction and self-esteem during the empty nest stage when they maintained social

interactions. When parents were confident in their children’s independence and maintained

quality relationships, their experience was positive, as evidenced by higher life satisfaction

scores (Iman & Aghamiri, 2011).

Researchers found evidence that an increasing number of parents experience mental

health issues such as loneliness and depression when their children leave home (Thapa et al.,

2018). There was a strong correlation to negative symptoms such as depression and mental

health decline when parents were isolated and separated from their family, friends, and society

(Chang et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2010). Chang et al. (2016), Gao et al. (2017), and

42
Wu et al. (2010) suggested that their research be used to inform government programs designed

to address issues of loneliness and health deterioration experienced by empty nesters.

There was evidence to support that post parenting can be a negative experience for

parents (Chang et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2010) or a positive one (Bouchard & McNair, 2016; Iman

& Aghamiri, 2011). The literature showed that empty nesters are at higher risk of social isolation

related to depression and mental decline. Parents who actively maintained a social life and roles

outside of parenting had higher marital and life satisfaction scores. A review of the literature

showed that research on “empty nest” focused on emerging adults leaving the family home

(Hilton & Anderson, 2009; Kins et al., 2013) as well as how parents adjust to an empty nest

(Bouchard, 2014; Mitchell & Lovegreen, 2009). Several factors affect the transition to the post

parental phase which included age parents left their home, age of the first child, the number of

children in the household, gender, and education (Wawrzyniak, 2015).

A similarity in these studies was the topic of empty nest and factors which affected the

experience. Kins et al. (2013) identified separation anxiety as a factor experienced by mothers

and its role in adjusting to an empty nest. Luthar and Ciciolla (2016) explored several factors that

influence adjustment to various stages of family development and found that the empty nest

experience was affected by how parents view their children. Chui (2018) explored

socioeconomic factors that affect the empty nest experience and found that mental decline was

associated with parents with lower socioeconomic standing. Wawrzyniak (2015) determined

several factors that predicted the onset of empty nest, which included the age at which the empty

nesters had children, how many children they had, and their children’s education. Katya (2020)

studied parenting from the perspective of step-parents and found that life stressors and

complicated parenting roles affect the experience of an empty nest. These studies indicated that

43
several factors affect the empty nest experience. These studies identified a gap in the literature

concerning Caribbean parents and the empty nest phenomenon.

Critique of Previous Research Methods

Scientific merit is synonymous with the quality of research and helps determine if the

research contributes valuable, meaningful, and valid information to the field. Researchers

included information about the reliability and validity of their studies to allow readers the

opportunity to identify the scientific merit of their works (Chen et al., 2012; Kins et al., 2013;

Wu et al., 2010). There was a plethora of designs and methodologies in the research about empty

nest, including quasiexperimental designs, nonexperimental designs, and qualitative approaches.

A quasiexperimental design is similar to experimental research; however, assignment to

groups is not randomized, instead rigor and tightly controlled settings are utilized throughout the

study (Leedy & Ormrod, 2016). Chen et al. (2012) utilized a quasiexperimental study to

determine what factors influence living conditions and life satisfaction for older adults with an

empty nest. They found that empty nesters who were socially active reported higher levels of

happiness and quality of life (Chen et al., 2012). The drawback to quasiexperimental designs is

that cause and effect relationships are difficult to prove without random assignment to groups.

Nonexperimental designs seek to explore associations rather than determine cause and

effect relationships (Trochim, 2006). Nonexperimental designs are descriptive, comparative, or

seek to determine correlations between variables (Trochim, 2006). In a study by Allen and

Finkelstein (2014), a cross-sectional, nonexperimental design was used to examine the

relationship between gender, age, and work-family conflict during family life stages. They found

that family life stage does affect work interference with family and family interference with

work; specifically, there was a negative correlation between empty nest and work interference

44
with family (Allen & Finkelstein, 2014). Nonexperimental designs may lack construct validity

and reliability, which may compromise the scientific merit of the research.

There are several approaches to qualitative designs: narrative, phenomenological,

grounded, ethnographic, and case study. Narrative research focuses on the story of individual

experiences, phenomenological research permits study into the subjective experience of a lived

phenomenon, grounded theory allows for the development of theories based on collected data,

ethnographic research can be applied to shared experiences of a specified group, and case study

research focuses on a comprehensive exploration of a case or cases (Creswell & Poth, 2018). The

purpose of employing a qualitative approach to the topic of empty nest is to better describe the

experience of a phenomenon or seek patterns of behavior common to certain populations

(Creswell & Poth, 2018). A downside to qualitative methodologies is that interpretation of the

research may be biased, and the themes or patterns discerned from the data are dependent on the

researcher’s ability to accurately portray participants’ subjective experiences (Creswell & Poth,

2018).

This study strove to describe an experience with the use of the generic qualitative inquiry

design. This was accomplished by maintaining rigor and high ethical standards throughout the

study to ensure that the data adequately reflected participants’ experiences. This study met the

hallmarks of good research with scientific merit because the research question is aligned with an

appropriate design, method, measures, and data analysis.

Summary

The study utilized the theoretical frameworks outlined by family development theory and

Black psychology. Both perspectives offer a holistic view of the individual in terms of the family

and society. Family development theory and Black psychology highlight the importance of social

45
interactions and cultural identity as integral to the individual. There is much research about the

post parental phase of life, loneliness, and social isolation (Bouchard, 2014; Chang et al., 2016;

Gao et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2010). Many research studies have also identified cultural role

identity as a significant influencer on the psychological and physical transitions during the post-

parenting stage of life (Mackey & O’Brien, 1998; Mitchell & Wister, 2015; Pillay, 1988).

There is much research about post parenting; however, there is limited research about

single parents or parents from cultural minority groups in the United States. The current study

can fill the gap in the literature about parent-child relationships, post parental transitions, and

personal experiences of mothers of Caribbean descent. Chapter 3 will explore the methodology

utilized in the dissertation.

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 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

Research methodology refers to the design, data collection, analysis, and conclusion of a

study and is associated with validity and reliability. This chapter aimed to describe the data

collection, analysis, and ethical considerations of the study. There are eight sections in this

chapter: the purpose of the study, the research question, research design, target population and

sample, procedures, instruments, ethical considerations, and summary. There will be a

presentation of the procedures used for participant selection, protection of participants, data

collection, and data analysis. Included in this chapter, is also a discussion on the role of the

researcher.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of the personal experience of

single mothers of Caribbean descent who have an empty nest. The research design was focused

on collecting, analyzing, and synthesizing data about this unique and personal experience from

each participant’s point of view. Much research has focused on the topic of empty nest and the

factors that influence how parents experience this phenomenon (Bouchard, 2014; Chang et al.,

2016; Gao et al., 2017; Mitchell & Wister, 2015). The theoretical framework and data collection

and analysis methods were chosen to obtain significant insight into the empty nest experience

from individuals with Caribbean ancestry.

Research Question

The research question for this study was, “How do single mothers of Caribbean descent

experience the empty nest phenomenon?”

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 Research Design

The generic qualitative inquiry design is used to explore people’s experiences through

their subjective opinions (Percy et al., 2015). Researchers utilizing the generic qualitative

research approach use thematic analysis to describe and interpret the meaning of collected data

(Percy et al., 2015).

According to Cooper and Endacott (2007), generic qualitative research should employ

reflexivity and establish rigor. Reflexivity allows the researcher to evaluate underlying

motivations for pursuing the topic under investigation (Cooper & Endacott, 2007). This self-

evaluation should also consider the theoretical framework used for the study. The researcher

included reflexivity in every step of the study and evaluated the motivations and preconceived

notions that could affect the study.

Methodology includes the sampling, data collection, and analysis procedures used in the

study (Cooper & Endacott, 2007). There are various types of sampling strategies for qualitative

inquiry, including purposeful sampling and snowball sampling. Both sampling strategies

provided a sample in this study that adequately explored the phenomenon being researched. The

data collection methods utilized in this generic qualitative inquiry included interviews and

observations (Cooper & Endacott, 2007). Snowball sampling was utilized and data was collected

through a semistructured interview. Rigor can be established through triangulation, or the use of

multiple sources of data, and respondent feedback, where participants are encouraged to share

feedback on the findings (Cooper & Endacott, 2007). Establishing rigor can add to the validity

and reliability of the study. The researcher established rigor through the use of respondent

feedback and member checking. This approach enabled collaboration between participants and

the researcher and allowed for accurate and meticulous interpretation of the data.

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 Kahlke (2014) delineated the positives and the pitfalls of a generic qualitative inquiry.

The strength of the generic qualitative inquiry is that the methodology is not clearly defined like

other qualitative approaches such as case study, ethnography, grounded theory, or

phenomenology (Kahlke, 2014). This lack of definition means that the generic qualitative

approach is appropriate for studies that do not fit the criteria for other methodologies (Kahlke,

2014). The generic qualitative approach is not without rigor and rigid procedures; instead,

researchers may choose to apply various frameworks to the study (Kahlke, 2014). The weakness

with the generic qualitative inquiry research design is that there is a lack of rigor and rigid

procedures for how data is interpreted, coded, or analyzed (Kahlke, 2014). Additionally,

researchers who utilize this approach may fall prey to mixing various aspects of different

methodologies, threatening the stability of the epistemological, ontological, methodological, and

axiological assumptions which guide the research process (Kahlke, 2014). It was determined that

for this study, the positive factors of utilizing a generic qualitative inquiry methodology

outweighed the limitations of this approach.

Newton et al. (2012) employed a generic qualitative approach to study emotional distress

experienced by women with scleroderma (N = 16). They collected data through a semistructured

qualitative interview designed to explore the research topic. They employed content-thematic

analysis and derived meaning from the data (Newton et al., 2012). Several concepts were

identified and coded throughout the analysis process. This study showed that generic qualitative

inquiry can be successfully used to explore a phenomenon.

Lyons et al. (2012) focused their study on the appropriateness of employing a generic

qualitative inquiry approach when working with a population of African descent. Lyons et al.

(2012) explored the cosmology, axiology, ontology, and epistemology associated with the

49
worldview of individuals of African descent. The cosmology emphasized interdependence with

nature and collectivism. This was reflected in research that utilized a holistic approach to the

individual, open to discovering and understanding the many and varied factors that affect people

of African descent. Lyons et al. (2012) identified the axiology of person-to-person interaction

illustrated through the data collection method of in person interviews and observations. This

quality was also noted in the cultural competence demonstrated throughout the research process.

Inductive thematic analysis allowed for the flexibility of discerning new themes or meanings

associated with a phenomenon. This approach fitted with the ontology and epistemology of

people of African descent. Lyons et al. (2012) identified qualitative data analysis as a way to

appropriately gain knowledge and insight into the population that identified as having African

descent. This post hoc approach allowed for the identification of new themes and patterns in the

data that was not constricted by predetermined hypotheses.

Both articles pointed to the application of generic qualitative inquiry in research. Newton

et al. (2012) was an example of the generic qualitative approach in action. Their study explored a

phenomenon and utilized the data collection method and analysis procedures utilized in this

study. Lyons et al. (2012) also illuminated the appropriateness of this methodology when

working with people of African descent. There was a parallel connection between this article and

the tenets of Black psychology used in the study.

Qualitative Validity Parameters

Tracy (2010) described eight criteria of quality in qualitative research: a worthy topic,

rich rigor, sincerity, credibility, resonance, significant contribution, ethics, and meaningful

coherence. According to Tracy (2010), a worthy topic is relevant and interesting. The empty nest

phenomenon is experienced worldwide and has garnered much research. However, there were no

50
studies that address this topic in relation to single mothers in the United States with Caribbean

ancestry. The gap in the literature showed the need for research on the empty nest as experienced

by single mothers of Caribbean descent.

Tracy (2010) stated that rich rigor is met when a study employs appropriate and sufficient

theoretical constructs and data collection and analysis processes. Rigor is evaluated in terms of

the appropriateness of methodology employed throughout the study. Complying with strict

methodologies and procedures allowed for the assumption of rigor to be met. One way to define

rigor is in terms of transferability and transparency. Transferability refers to the extent to which

results of a study reflect the sample or population (Creswell & Poth, 2018). For qualitative

research, this means that another study with a similar sample will have similar results. This is

achieved through comprehensive records that clearly describe all the procedures and methods

utilized in the study. This detailed record also provides transparency which adds to the rigor of

the study.

Tracy (2010) described sincerity in qualitative research as honesty and transparency

concerning the researcher’s personal attachment to the study’s topic, biases, and limitations.

Sincerity is evaluated in terms of self-reflexivity and transparency (Tracy, 2010). Self-reflexivity

is concerned with the researcher’s self-assessment when evaluating motivations, interpretations,

analyses, and conclusions made throughout the research process. The researcher performed

critical self-examinations and audited personal biases, which added to the sincerity of the study.

Credibility is of utmost importance in research and is determined by a study’s thick

descriptions, triangulation, and multivocality (Tracy, 2010). Thick description refers to the detail

with which information is presented to the audience so that readers can make their conclusions

from the data. Thick description allows for readers to consume information critically and to

51
examine the researcher’s analysis and conclusions. Crystallization and triangulation enable

researchers to present their findings confidently because results are based on the convergence of

evidence from several sources of data, theories, and analysis, which add credibility to research

findings. Multivocality is portrayed when results are shared with participants to determine if the

researcher’s interpretation accurately depicted their perceptions. Through member checking,

participants’ input was included in the analysis of the data. Qualitative validity can also be

described in terms of credibility and dependability, which can be achieved by strict adherence to

an appropriate methodology. Generic qualitative inquiry has been scientifically supported as a

credible method for qualitative research, and Percy et al. (2015) clearly delineated a step-by-step

process for data analysis. Dependability is established through confirmability. Actual exemplar

quotes from participants supported assumptions, theories, hypotheses, constructs, or conclusions

derived from the data. These quotes supported analysis and conclusions derived from the data.

This presentation of evidence, in the form of actual quotes, fostered dependability in the study.

Resonance is achieved through aesthetic merit, generalizability, and transferability

(Tracy, 2010). Aesthetic merit is the presentation of data which can evoke a reaction based on

self-reflection. Qualitative studies are rooted in participants’ subjective experiences, which

resonate with others who have similar experiences. Transferability and generalization share the

concept of aesthetic merit in that both encompass the audience’s ability to relate the participants’

perspective and point of view. Thus, readers can apply a participant’s experience to their frame

of reference to achieve resonance.

The significance of the contribution a study purports can be seen in how it is theoretically

significant, heuristically significant, and practically significant. This study purports to advance

the theoretical framework of family development theory and Black psychology. Family

52
development theory considers influential factors that contribute to the family life cycle, such as

societal and cultural adaptations. This study incorporated social interactions and cultural role

identity to advance the paradigms of family development theory. Black psychology utilizes a

holistic view to describe a person. This approach considers several spheres of influence that

affect a person, such as social network and cultural factors. This study interpreted and analyzed

the data through the paradigms of Black psychology which emphasize social interactions and

cultural role identity as it pertains to single mothers of Caribbean descent and their experience of

an empty nest.

Furthermore, this study purported heuristic significance through future research to

replicate, confirm, and expand this study. Future researchers may use this study as the basis for

research. The study’s practical significance was that it may inform practice concerning empty

nesters. This research sought to discover new information related to an empty nest, single

parenting, and cultural implications that can be beneficial to the scientific community. There is

an increase in empty nesters who exhibit mental health issues such as loneliness and depression

(Thapa et al., 2018). There is a higher demand for mental health professions with expertise in

this area. Information from this study may be included in programs designed specifically for

empty nesters.

The ethical validity of a study is communicated throughout the entire process of the

study. The onus of ethical research rests squarely on the shoulders of the researcher. The

researcher’s responsibility is to ensure that the chosen methodology, data collection procedures,

analytical process, and communication of results follow a clearly identified ethical standard

expected in the scientific community. This study received full approval from the Institutional

Review Board (IRB) of Capella University prior to its onset. The IRB approval delineated

53
procedures to ensure that participants were not harmed during the study as well as measures that

addressed any discomfort experienced from participation. The guidelines expressed in the IRB

approved document follow the highest ethical standards required for a study of this caliber, and

the researcher was expected to uphold them throughout the study.

The last criterion for qualitative research is concerned with meaningful coherence (Tracy,

2010). This involves evaluating the theories, literature, methodologies, and analysis procedures

to ensure that the study followed a logical sequence of events. The study aimed to explore the

personal experience of an empty nest from the perspective of single mothers of Caribbean

descent. The researcher assessed if this purpose was accomplished using a generic qualitative

inquiry methodology. The researcher also evaluated how well family development theory and

Black psychology act as the theoretical framework for the study. Lastly, an assessment of the

literature review and its relation to the study, methodology, and findings was used to ensure

meaningful coherence in the study.

Target Population and Sample

Population

In this study, the population referred to individuals who shared the common experience of

an empty nest and who claimed Caribbean ancestry. The sample is the representative group taken

from a population and consists of a few participants who embody and illustrate specific

characteristics of the larger population (Warner, 2013). The researcher included nine participants

who had an empty nest and were of Caribbean descent.

Mitchell and Wister (2015) found that societal and ethnic group norms affect parents’

views of empty nest as either negative or positive. This study focused on mothers, which allowed

for greater insight into how mothers transition to an empty nest. The target population allowed

54
the researcher to determine how single parents experience empty nest and explore cultural

implications associated with mothers of Caribbean descent.

Sample

The sample consisted of nine single mothers, defined as divorced, widowed, or never been

married (United States Census Bureau, 2017). Participants were no more than three generations

removed from the Caribbean islands. Additionally, all participants had an empty nest for at least

one year.

Procedures

This section included a step-by-step description of how the research was conducted and

detailed the steps taken at major junctions of the study. These junctions included the sampling

method used for selecting participants. Additionally, steps that protect participants throughout

the study were included. Clear instructions on how data collection and analysis was performed

was also included in this section.

Participant Selection

There are various types of sampling strategies for qualitative inquiry, including maximum

variation, critical case, intensity, criterion, opportunistic, and convenience (Creswell & Poth,

2018). Purposeful sampling is defined as purposefully selecting participants that can provide rich

information about a phenomenon (Creswell & Poth, 2018). The researcher utilized a purposeful

sampling strategy to determine eligible participants for this study.

Furthermore, the researcher selected participants through snowball sampling, where

participants shared information about the study with others who might fit the inclusion criteria

(Creswell & Poth, 2018). This method of sampling is recommended when it is challenging to

contact members of a specific population. Snowball sampling steps included identifying potential

55
participants and then encouraging those participants to share information about the study with

others who are encouraged to participate in the study. It is important to note that partaking in

snowball sampling and sharing information about the study was solely voluntary.

This researcher recruited participants from open Caribbean American social media

groups. These were public social media groups that did not require the moderator’s permission

before posting in the group. The recruitment post included the purpose of the study, the research

question, the requirements for participation, and a way to contact the researcher.

The researcher also recruited participants at a counseling center and a local library. The

sites did not require any specific permissions and did not have an IRB. Participants were

recruited through flyers placed at integral spaces at the counseling center and library. Written

permission to post flyers at these establishments were obtained prior to recruitment. The flyer

included the purpose of the study, the research question, the requirements for participation, and a

way to contact the researcher. Potential participants were screened to determine if they met the

inclusion criteria for the study. These criteria included self-identification as a parent, defined as

anyone who has birthed, adopted, fostered, or step-parented children. Single was defined as

living alone, without a partner or roommate. Caribbean descent referred to having ancestors from

the Caribbean. The criteria for empty nest was met if all children left the home within the last

year. Participants who met these requirements were invited to join the study. Volunteers who did

not meet these requirements were thanked for their time and interest in the study.

Protection of Participants

According to the Belmont Report, respect for persons is a fundamental ethical principle of

research (The National Commission, 1979). Researchers display respect for persons when they

value the rights, autonomy, and freedoms of participants. Researchers are also responsible for

56
protecting participants with diminished autonomy. Informed consent, debriefing procedures, and

carefully choosing, implementing, and adhering to an empirically supported research

methodology and design are ways researchers can protect participants.

Informed consent is a legal document that discloses each participant’s risks, benefits, and

rights (Hardicre, 2014). This document is used to inform participants that they are not obligated

to complete a study and they have the right to end participation at any time. Informed consent

also addresses how identifying data will be collected, stored, and destroyed (Hardicre, 2014).

Participants acknowledged and signed an informed consent document before data collection. The

informed consent document for this study included the purpose of the study, information about

the researcher, and information pertinent to the rights and risks of voluntarily participating in the

study.

Confidentiality entails protecting participants’ privacy and rights. To protect

confidentiality, participants were referred to as P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, P8, and P9, so that

identifying data was not shared during the course of the study. Collected data will be stored in a

locked place for seven years before it will be destroyed using the best commercial means

available at that time (Patton, 2015).

The population for this study was single mothers of Caribbean descent. Individuals who

come from communities of color or immigrant communities may be considered vulnerable,

especially if research focused on discrimination. The target population was not considered

vulnerable because of the topic and methodology that was utilized. Sensitive topics are likely to

cause stress, social stigma, risk to employability, or legal consequences to participants. The topic

of empty nest did not expressly qualify as a sensitive topic. This study did not pose more than

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minimal risk to participants. However, participants were given information for national and local

mental health resources.

Data Collection

Data collection is an essential part of every study. Percy et al. (2015) identified three

ways data can be collected for a generic qualitative inquiry: the semi or fully structured

interview, questionnaire, or survey. For the purposes of this study, data was collected from one-

on-one semistructured interviews aimed at discerning the experience of single mothers of

Caribbean descent with an empty nest. This data collection method was appropriate for the

research question because these interviews allowed the researcher to gather subjective data for

analysis.

Interviews were conducted through the use of a HIPPA compliant website. The

researcher invited participants to visit the website at the time of their interviews. These protocols

were set in place to ensure the safety of both the participants and the researcher during a

worldwide pandemic. Interested volunteers were screened to ensure they met the inclusion

criteria. During this phone call, an appointment was scheduled for the interview. Once the

appointment was scheduled, the informed consent document was electronically sent to

participants. Two participants requested paper copies of the informed consent document which

were mailed to them using the standard postal service. Participants had two weeks to review the

informed consent document and contact the researcher with questions, comments, or concerns

about the study or data collection methods. Interviews proceeded only after documentation of the

informed consent was received. Each interview began with the same scripted information

followed by demographic questions. Interviews were audio recorded on two devices. The

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researcher completed fieldnotes after each interview. Each interview was then transcribed, stored

on a secured digital device, and analyzed.

Data Analysis

Data was collected through semistructured interviews to give insight into the empty nest

experience from the perspective of single Caribbean mothers. Based on the qualitative nature of

the data, thematic analysis was appropriate. Thematic analysis involves analyzing data to

discover meaningful patterns (Attride-Stirling, 2001; Braun & Clarke, 2006). Proponents of

generic qualitative inquiry employ one of three approaches to thematic analysis. The three

approaches of thematic analysis used in generic qualitative inquiry are inductive analysis,

theoretical analysis, and thematic analysis with constant comparison (Percy et al., 2015).

Inductive analysis is used to identify, analyze, and report patterns observed in the data

(Braun & Clarke, 2006). Percy et al. (2015) wrote a 12-step description for inductive analysis,

which included reviewing data from each participant to identify meaningful sentences, phrases,

or paragraphs. Data is then sorted based on its relation to the research question. Data is then

coded and grouped to produce basic themes. The researcher then creates a written description for

each basic theme. The researcher then identifies descriptive words that recur throughout the data

that represent connections and patterns. A matrix is then created to arrange patterns into themes

(Percy et al., 2015). Lastly, a detailed abstract is written, which analyzes themes.

Researchers use theoretical analysis when predetermined themes apply to the data (Percy

et al., 2015). The 13-step analysis outlined by Percy et al. (2015) included identifying

meaningful sentences and phrases with predefined categories in mind. Data that is not related to

the research question is removed from the analysis process and saved for future reference. After

data is described and clustered based on patterns or connections, the researcher then categorizes

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the clusters according to the predetermined themes (Attride-Stirling, 2001). The data is then

revisited to identify new categories or patterns related to the research topic (Percy et al., 2015).

Lastly, themes are synthesized to create a clear analysis of the data.

Thematic analysis with constant comparison utilizes both inductive and theoretical

analysis (Percy et al., 2015). In this process, as data is collected, it is compared to previously

analyzed data. The steps for thematic analysis with constant comparison include clustering data

sets into patterns and then comparing newly collected data to these patterns (Attride-Stirling,

2001). Throughout this analysis process, the researcher is continuously searching for patterns to

support emerging themes (Percy et al., 2015). When themes have been identified and described,

the data is synthesized and applied to the research question.

The researcher prepared the data for analysis by transcribing audio recordings into

electronic word documents. One master copy of each interview was kept, and one working copy

was maintained throughout the analysis process. The working copy, which was created and

edited using the Microsoft word processor, Word 2019, was shared with a mentor to meet

standards for rigor and transparency throughout the study. Thematic analysis with constant

comparison was used for data analysis in this study.

Instruments

There are many types of data collection methods utilized in generic qualitative inquiry.

Researchers who employ a qualitative methodology assume that participants’ subjective

experiences could be investigated through the use of data collection methods such as interviews,

surveys, and questionnaires (Merriam, 1998). The researcher was also considered an integral

instrument in the qualitative data collection and analysis process.

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The Role of the Researcher

This researcher volunteered in an observation team that coded couples’ facial expressions

in therapy. She was trained to observe and note changes in facial expressions and body language

and to confer meaning on those changes. Throughout her masters’ and doctorate programs, she

practiced interviewing with structured and unstructured interviews and open-ended qualitative

surveys and questionnaires. This author is a licensed professional counselor and has used

motivational interviewing to collect data from clients during counseling sessions for the last

three years. She has limited experience with these data collection methods in any setting outside

of courses or counseling intake sessions. To increase her knowledge and skills in data collection,

she performed exhaustive research and attended webinars about the research process, including

data collection and analysis.

Inductive analysis is an approach to thematic analysis that is used to identify, analyze,

and report patterns or themes within data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). In a graduate psychology

course, this researcher successfully performed an online qualitative interview and applied

inductive analysis to data according to the paradigms of generic qualitative inquiry.

Hays and Singh (2011) wrote that the role of the researcher included reflexivity,

subjectivity, and being the voice of participants. They listed several strategies to address each

aspect of the researcher’s role, which included self-reflection, awareness of subjective biases,

and having participant checks to ensure that the research analysis is congruent with what the

participants experienced (Hays & Singh, 2011). The researcher implemented these strategies

throughout the study.

Generic qualitative researchers assume that the researcher’s subjective values and beliefs

will influence the interpretation of the data and that results are a product of scientific facts

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interpreted through the lens of the researcher (Kukla, 2000). This researcher maintained regular

communication with her mentor, journaled throughout the study to reduce the effects of

subjective values interfering with interpretation of the data, and attended several workshops and

training to build her skills in qualitative data collection and analysis.

Guiding Interview Questions

Data was collected using a semistructured interview. The semistructured interview

allowed the researcher to probe for more information on emerging topics throughout the

interview. Interviews lasted between 45 minutes to an hour. There were 15 guiding questions.

1. I know that your children have left home now but before they left, tell me your thoughts

about how your life would be without them living with you.

a. I wonder what it was like preparing for them to leave

2. What did you learn from this experience?

a. What is the meaning of this experience for you?

3. What was going on in your life then?

a. Can you tell me a little bit about the context?

4. What do you feel are your strengths in this situation?

5. What was it like to have your last/only child leave home?

6. Can you tell me something about the feelings that you associate with the experience?

a. Can you tell me something more about how these feelings developed over time?

7. Do you feel that you understand yourself, life, and the world in general, perhaps

differently?

8. What was it like to see your children leaving?

9. What are the significant changes in your life?

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 a. How did your daily routine change?

10. Please tell me about any changes in your relationship with your child/children.

11. Did you have any social support from family, friends, work, community?

a. Who has been the most supportive of you?

12. Did you observe any changes in the ways you behave or relate to others?

a. What about relationships?

13. How do you see your future?

a. Do you have any plans?

b. Where do you see yourself in 5 years?

14. What does it mean to be a mother now that your children are out of the house?

15. Are there any things you would like to share that would help me to understand your

experience better?

Ethical Considerations

Basic ethical principles of research were included in the Belmont Report (The National

Commission, 1979). These principles were respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Respect

for persons include informed consent and using a scientifically supported research methodology.

Beneficence refers to minimizing possible harm to participants and maximizing possible benefits

(The National Commission, 1979). Participants may be exposed to traumatic or stressful

experiences resulting from participation in a study and require that researchers have the

participants’ best interest at the forefront to minimize possible harm and protect their rights. This

study posed minimal harm to participants. Justice refers to the utilization of a clearly identified

and scientifically supported sampling procedure that ensures that each participant has an equal

probability of selection for participation in a study. This means that researchers tailor the
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research design to apply unbiased scientific sampling methods to select participants. The

researcher collected data from the first nine participants.

According to Bellamy et al. (2017), the researcher’s background and personal interest

influences how data is interpreted, analyzed, and presented. Therefore, researchers must reflect

on their affiliation and interest in the research question and address their assumptions about the

topic. Blair (2016) determined that it is challenging for researchers to detach themselves from

qualitative data analysis. Researchers can address this issue by sharing assumptions, having

transparency throughout the research process, and allowing readers to assess the credibility of the

research.

According to Cosgrove et al. (2008), a conflict of interest refers to any external biases

that may prejudice the results of a research study. This may include monetary compensation, an

imbalance in a relationship, or even the conference of some esteem. According to the American

Psychological Association (APA, 2018) code of ethics, informed consent should include the

purpose of the research, participants’ right to withdraw from the research, potential risks,

benefits, and limits of confidentiality. It also addressed offering incentives for research

participation by asking that reasonable efforts be made to avoid offering inappropriate

encouragements and that if something is offered, that participants are clear on the purpose, risk,

obligations, and limitations of accepting any compensation. This research was performed

following the ethical standards put forth in the scientific community for research and the APA

code of ethics.

It is essential to include any conflicts of interest during the informed consent process

when recruiting participants. There was no inducement for research participation. The first nine

participants who met the criteria for participation were included in the study. This addressed any

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bias in the sampling procedure. Sections six and eight of the APA (2018) code of ethics stated

that researchers make every effort to maintain confidentiality and protect participants’ privacy. It

also addressed documentation and records of scientific work to protect the identity of

participants and uphold the integrity of the study.

The APA (2018) code of ethics stated that researchers must receive institutional approval

prior to conducting research. This study received approval from Capella University’s

Institutional Review Board (IRB). The standards for ethical conduct were met and the study

posed minimal risks to participants. This is part of the federal regulations and university policy

protocols that safeguard the rights and risks to research involving human participants. For IRB

approval, all aspects of the study where human interactions are necessary were considered, and

detailed procedures were included for recruitment, informed consent, sampling, and data

collection and protection. This study received full approval and met the delineated standards for

rigor and ethical research.

Summary

The generic qualitative inquiry research method is a scientifically supported methodology

appropriate for qualitative research. For this study, the data collection method was

semistructured interviews based on 15 guiding questions designed to elicit information about

how participants experienced an empty nest. There was a detailed explanation of thematic

analysis with constant comparison, which was the method of analysis applied in this study. The

researcher was considered a tool in the qualitative research process, and an assessment on the

researcher’s role was considered. There was an investigation into the researcher’s knowledge,

experience, and skills using the generic qualitative inquiry method. The researcher’s training and

education thus far have prepared her to use this methodology. A reflection of the ethical

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considerations for this study was included. These encompassed the ethical principles for

research, conflicts of interest, and IRB approval. In summation, this chapter explained the

research design implemented and the instruments and ethical standards considered to maintain

transparency, rigor, and scientific merit in the study.

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 CHAPTER 4. PRESENTATION OF THE DATA

Chapter 4 will describe the data collection, analysis, and results of the study. It is

organized into five sections: an introduction to the study and researcher, a description of the

sample, the research methodology applied to data analysis, a presentation of the data and results,

and a summary of the findings. Chapter 4 fits into the overall dissertation by detailing the

sampling procedures, data collection methods, analysis approach employed, and presenting the

results. The generic qualitative inquiry approach was used to answer the research question, “How

do single mothers of Caribbean descent experience an empty nest?”

Introduction: The Study and the Researcher

The researcher is a single mother who sought to learn more about the empty nest in

preparation for her personal experience of this phenomenon. The researcher is also a first-

generation immigrant with Caribbean ancestry. From previous interactions with friends and

family members, as well as her observations, the researcher developed presumptions about the

empty nest experience. However, the scientist within the researcher sought to further explore this

phenomenon. Her curiosity on the topic motivated the researcher to investigate the empty nest

experience from the perspective of single mothers of Caribbean descent.

The researcher’s cultural background strengthened her vision of the study and also served

to bias her expectations. This background allowed the researcher to communicate with

participants on a deeper level as they identified with her Caribbean heritage. It also enabled the

researcher to understand underlying cultural meanings communicated during interviews. The

researcher’s cultural identity also brought with it prejudice about the experience of an empty

nest. The researcher struggled with this bias throughout the study in order to maintain

objectivity.

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 As a graduate learner, the researcher analyzed previous studies that utilized the generic

qualitative methodological approach. She also prepared for the study with extensive research and

data collection and analysis throughout her tertiary education. The researcher understood that her

personal experiences influenced every aspect of the study and kept this in mind as she strove to

identify and communicate the participants’ experiences.

Description of the Sample

Nine participants were recruited for the study. All participants were female between 43 to

70 years old. The average age for participants was 57.8 years (M = 57.77, SD = 8.89). Each

participant was a first-generation immigrant from the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Tobago.

All participants were single mothers with at least one adult child. Participants experienced an

empty nest for at least one year, with some having an empty nest for ten years. Three participants

identified themselves as homemakers. Five of the participants were gainfully employed, and one

was retired.

Participant profiles

P1. P1 was a 49-year-old mother who has one child in college. Her mother was also a

single mother.

P2. P2 was a 70-year-old widow of five children. She was also a grandmother.

P3. P3 was a 62-year-old divorced mother with three children.

P4. P4 was a 43-year-old divorcee with one child in college.

P5. P5 was a 50-year-old divorced mother of two children. She was also a grandmother.

P6. P6 was a 57-year-old widow with four children. She was also a grandmother.

P7. P7 was a 64-year-old single mother of two children.

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 P8. P8 was a 59-year-old divorcee who has two children. She was also a grandmother.

She grew up in a single-parent home.

P9. P9 was a 66-year-old divorced mother of one child. She had a grandchild.

Research Methodology Applied to the Data Analysis

The generic qualitative inquiry research methodology was applied to the data. Virtual

interviews were conducted using a HIPPA compliant web site. Interviews lasted between 45

minutes and 75 minutes. After completing each interview, the researcher wrote field notes, which

included both descriptive and reflective data. The researcher included observations about the

participants’ physical settings and interruptions during the interview in her field notes. The

researcher’s field notes included reflective information, such as when participants hesitated

before answering a question and her impressions during the interview. The researcher transcribed

each interview and replaced identifying data, such as names, with a letter and number (P1, P2,

P3…P9).

After transcription, the researcher applied thematic analysis with constant comparison.

Each interview was reviewed for meaning units that pertained to the research question. Any

unrelated data was removed and saved for future consideration. The meaning units were entered

into a matrix and clustered according to shared meanings. These clusters were described using a

code. Codes were grouped into patterns and patterns into themes. This process was done for each

interview with new meaning units added to the matrix and then clustered into codes and then into

patterns and themes.

According to Caretta and Pérez (2019), validity in qualitative research can be achieved

through member checking and triangulation. This can be attained through the inclusion of

participants in the data analysis process. Member checking occurs when researchers maintain a

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dialogue with and include participants in analyzing participatory research (Caretta & Pérez,

2019). The researcher contacted participants and discussed emerging codes, patterns, and themes

throughout data analysis. They determined the accuracy with which the themes described their

experiences and specific details they wanted to communicate to the scientific community. Leedy

and Ormrod (2016) wrote that triangulation is the use of multiple methods, sources, theories, and

researchers to evaluate data and build confidence in the results. The researcher shared her initial

analysis with each participant who then provided invaluable feedback. She then included their

feedback and shared the analysis again. This iterative process of triangulation allowed the

researcher to comprehensively describe the empty nest experience from the perspective of single

Caribbean mothers.

Presentation of Data and Results of the Analysis

Four themes emerged from the data analysis. These themes were (a) emotional response

to change, (b) adjustment to an empty nest, (c) supportive relationships, and (d) identity and self-

discovery.

Theme 1: Emotional Response to Change

The first theme apparent from the data was an emotional response to change. Emotions are

integral to human existence. Participants experienced a range of emotions related to having an

empty nest, which included loneliness, worry, and conflict. Of note is one specific emotional

response labeled as “hard.” Every participant used this word at least once in their interview.

Through member checking, it was determined that the connotation of “hard” was a substantial

adverse emotional reaction akin to depression, sadness, and discouragement.

While participants maintained that they were proud and happy for their children to be out

of the home, they also felt heartbroken. They balanced wanting their children to become

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independent with a desire for their children to remain at home. Participants also enjoyed the

freedom of no longer being responsible for their children. Additionally, participants missed their

children and felt alone without their company. Participants described their emotional response to

change in terms of three patterns, which were (a) loneliness, (b) worry, and (c) inner conflict.

• “When my daughter left it was very, very hard.” (P2)

• “I mean in my heart I wanted her to stay. But in my heart also I wanted her to be able to
pursue her dreams.” (P4)

• “That was still really hard to see them go out because they left.” (P6)

• “I’m happy to say that where my children are concerned, life could not have been better. I
am, what’s the word, I am so fulfilled when I look at them.” (P8)

Pattern 1.1. Loneliness. Participants noticed feelings of loneliness in response to an

empty nest. The knowledge that participants now lived alone enhanced their feelings of

loneliness. The comfort and reassurance of knowing others lived with them was replaced with

the realization that they were alone. Furthermore, participants substituted the cultural definition

of “hard” to describe their experience of loneliness.

• “It gets lonely without the kids in the house.” (P2)

• “It became a bit lonely.” (P4)

• “It was hard. It was hard. I wouldn’t lie for that. It was hard.” (P5)

• “Loneliness. It’s [empty nest] a very lonely experience.” (P6)

• “I think that was the hardest part, the loneliness.” (P8)

• “But then it got lonely. Being alone started to get lonely.” (P9)

Pattern 1.2. Worry. Another pattern in the data showed that several participants

experienced worry in response to an empty nest. Participants were naturally concerned about

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their children’s well-being and could not visually reassure themselves that their children were

healthy and happy. With this absence, participants worried about the welfare of their children.

• “As a parent, you worry about them, but you get used to it after a while.” (P2)

• “You never stop being concerned for your kids.” (P3)

• “I was worried. I was a bit worried when they were leaving.” (P5)

• “What it boiled down to is you will be worried.” (P6)

• “And you will worry a lot too.” (P7)

Pattern 1.3. Inner conflict. Participants experienced a plethora of emotions, some of

which conflicted with others. For example, participants experienced bittersweet emotions, which

translated to both a happy and an unhappy experience. Inner conflict also emerged when

participants expressed freedom and feelings of missing their children. These warring emotions

represented inner conflict which highlighted the positive and negative aspects of an empty nest.

• “It was a happy and sad moment.” (P1)

• “It’s sad, but good.” (P3)

• “It’s nice. This freedom.” (P4)

• “I had to balance the fact that I wanted her to grow to pursue education with the fact that I
would miss her emotionally.” (P4)

• “It was happy slash sad. Happy in the sense that she’s happy. Sad in the sense that she has
to leave to be happy.” (P5)

• “You miss them. But believe me, you enjoy the freedom too.” (P6)

• “It was bittersweet.” (P7)

• “It had its good moments and bad moments.” (P8)

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Theme 2: Adjustment to an Empty Nest

Participants described a daily struggle to accept their empty nest. Several participants

experienced a change in the parameters of the relationships with their children. New boundaries

were established, and participants acclimated to a less active role in their children’s lives. They

also acknowledged that intimate and habitual communications were no longer a part of their

daily routine. Some participants went months without any interactions with their children.

Participants noted that children no longer made demands on their time which resulted in an

excess of time. In response to this, participants pursued leisure activities.

Participants described adapting and transitioning to an empty nest, part of this transition

comprised of a changing view of their children. They were now independent persons capable of

taking care of themselves who no longer needed or wanted their mothers’ constant attention.

Participants found themselves able to make decisions without considering their children, a

foreign concept. They also experienced a change in the demands on their time. Three patterns

supported this theme of adjusting to an empty nest: (a) letting go, (b) change in communication,

and (c) keeping occupied.

• “Every day as the days go by it’s a new adjustment.” (P6)

Pattern 2.1. Letting go. Several participants shared the experience of “letting go.” This

involved acknowledging that their children were independent adults responsible for their

decisions. Participants expressed trouble adjusting to the concept that they were no longer

responsible for their children’s welfare.

• “I need to let him go and find that instead of trying to coop him up.” (P1)

• “I wanted to give her [daughter] that freedom to fly.” (P4)

• “I was happy to allow them to go. I didn’t want to hold them back.” (P5)
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 • “I learn to let go because they have to live their lives.” (P6)

• “You learn also that whatever situation come up, you have to keep your distance and
observe and let them learn to handle whatever situation because they have to grow now.”
(P6)

• “Letting go is the bigger challenge.” (P7)

• “I know that for them to be successful, they would have to live their own life.” (P8)

Pattern 2.2. Change in communication. As children lived independently, participants

experienced a drastic change in communication. Children were no longer easily accessible, and

this translated into less communication. Participants adapted to not being able to see their

children daily. They also found that it was difficult to seek them out for intimate conversations.

Other participants reveled in the mature nature of the conversations they had with their children.

• “We don’t talk like we used to.” (P1)

• “There was less communication.” (P4)

• “But to really have a heart to heart, it’s very rare that she would call me to confide in me
because I believe now she has other people that she’s confiding in.” (P4)

• “Sometimes they will talk to you, and they don’t expect advice. But they just want you to
listen and thing. So that is basically what I have become. I am a listening ear.” (P6)

• “And as such, we have adult conversations. We would relate to each other on a very
mature level now. And that’s pretty much the biggest change.” (P7)

Pattern 2.3. Keeping occupied. Five of the participants described keeping occupied as

part of adjusting to an empty nest. Participants had an excess of time throughout the day because

their schedule was not focused on their children’s needs. With nothing specific to do, participants

found time to contemplate their thoughts and emotions about an empty nest. They found that

keeping occupied made the time go by faster and allowed them to corral their otherwise turbulent

emotions.

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 • “I just had to fill that void myself.” (P4)

• “I need to find something to occupy myself without the kids.” (P6)

• My strength is learning to adapt. Finding other things to do to occupy yourself. I’ll tell
you what it comes down to, occupying your day so you wouldn’t, so your day wouldn’t
drag out. If your day drag out and you have too much time to just sit down, you find your
thoughts straying. (P6)

• “I just started doing things and take it off my mind. Just look for things to occupy myself.
Yeah. Occupy myself with doing things and just take it off my mind.” (P9)

Theme 3: Supportive Relationships

Humans are social beings, and social interactions are integrated into daily experiences.

All participants indicated they had a close bond with their children. This bond provided strength

throughout the empty nest experience. Supportive relationships proved to be a common theme

shared among participants.

Participants also indicated that support from family was a cultural expectation.

Participants stated they had close relationships with their children, as well as with family

members and friends. They referred to their cultural heritage as an explanation for those close

relationships. Two patterns supported this theme: (a) close bond with children, and (b) support

from family and friends.

Pattern 3.1. Close bond with children. All participants indicated that they had a close

bond with their children. The relationships between parent and child were amicable, going

beyond the bounds of minimum parent-child interactions. Participants were confident and

described their children as great sources of support. They explained that throughout the transition

to an empty nest and in the face of adversity, they maintained those close relationships with their

children.

• “I believe that we already had that bond, that close bond.” (P1)
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 • “My children have been very, very supportive in everything.” (P2)

• “We were close, I could not imagine her not being around.” (P4)

• “I think there’s no better relationship than the one between a parent and a child. Maybe
the one between a mother and a daughter is even more special.” (P4)

• “Is we… Nothing is too much for each of us to do for each other.” (P7)

• “We always had a very good relationship. Mother-daughter and she always tells me that
I’m her best friend.” (P7)

• “We were a very tight knit group family so that was important to us. Keep that link. To
keep that bond.” (P8)

• “Another of the strengths of this whole things is, even though I felt alone, I have a good
relationship with my kids.” (P8)

Pattern 3.2. Support from family and friends. Friends and family members provided

social support. Participants had a “hard” time working through feeling alone and worrying about

their children which was mitigated by the support they received from family and friends.

Participants attributed support from family as part of their Caribbean culture. Some participants

maintained that they were private people who did not share negative aspects of their experience

with others but believed they could have received family assistance if they had asked. Family

members and friends maintained social interactions and provided support throughout the

experience of an empty nest.

• “We are a more community-oriented, family-oriented people.” (P1)

• “My family back home are all very supportive of me. And that’s how it is with us
Caribbean people.” (P2)

• “Most important person, my sister. She’s in Trinidad and she was right there
encouraging me every single day.” (P3)

• “When my children left, my sisters would come over on and off. My brothers would
come over on and off. Yes. I had some support from them. I knew they passed through
the same thing.” (P5)
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 • “Family is one thing you could depend on in any kind of circumstance. In
circumstances, it’s your family. You could count on your family at any point in time
for anything.” (P6)

• “A day cannot pass and we haven’t spoken to each other. If we don’t see each other,
we must talk to each other. Every day God sends we will call each other.” (P6)

• “So, in so far as support, I had a lot of help from my brothers and sisters back on the
island. My sister was here. It helped.” (P8)

• “I have two friends. They come spend the weekend by me and then leave. We will go
for a little spin. Walk around. Go in the stores . . . We’ll sit down in the mall. Go to
movies.” (P9)

Theme 4: Identity and Self-discovery

Participants defined the empty nest as a time for identity development and self-discovery.

During this period, participants shifted their focus from their children to themselves. Some found

this difficult and struggled with putting themselves first. They also described feeling lost when

their children left, which fueled their feelings of depression and aloneness. Participants spent

considerable time contemplating their purpose, wants, and goals. Interwoven throughout their

experience was the strong identification of being a mother. Even though their children no longer

lived with them, all participants maintained that they still met their definitions of a mother, and

that aspect of their identity was not changed.

Participants used “purpose” as motivation to overcome their feelings of loneliness. They

focused on themselves and occupied their time with things they thought important. Through

focusing on themselves, they experienced deeper self-understanding and further cemented their

identity as a mother. Of great importance to every participant was spirituality. Participants stated

that spirituality provided purpose during their empty nest experience. Many said they gained

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strength from their faith and spirituality. The patterns for this theme included (a) focus on self,

(b) purpose, (c) self-understanding, (d) role of mother, and (e) spirituality.

Pattern 4.1. Focus on self. Participants described having more free time on their hands

to pursue activities they had sacrificed or postponed before having an empty nest. They were

able to spend time focusing on hobbies such as dancing, cooking, and gardening. Some

participants found it challenging to focus on themselves after years of prioritizing their children’s

needs. Participants found that focusing on themselves was a positive aspect of an empty nest.

• “I think I felt like it was time for me to focus on myself. ’Cause I did the kid for so many
years now. And now he’s doing his own things and I had to concentrate on myself.” (P1)

• “I guess with him not being there now, the focus is just on me.” (P1)

• “I didn’t have to get up and rush to do things anymore. I took time for myself.” (P2)

• “Being that I was a stay-at-home mom, most, all my focus was on my kids mostly… and
my focus changed.” (P3)

• “Because you are so busy. You’re going grocery, you’re cleaning, you’re washing, you’re
cooking. So now I have all this time, I could literally just take care of myself. And focus
more on me.” (P4)

• “I concentrate more on myself now. Making sure I am okay.” (P5)

• I’m still learning. I’m trying to focus on me now. But it’s difficult. Even that is a difficult
thing to do…I’ve never been one to put me first. I’ve always put the children first, family
first. (P7)

Pattern 4.2. Purpose. Purpose was synonymous with direction, meaning, and a clear

idea of goals and expectations. Participants stated that they lost purpose when their children left

and they struggled with this loss. Having a purpose encouraged participants to actively

participate in their own lives. Realizing their purpose was a pivotal moment in their experience

of an empty nest.

• “Everything I did after that had a purpose.” (P1)

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 • “I felt lost, like I had no purpose.” (P4)

• “I couldn’t continue to exist in that time of living that kind of aimless life where I didn’t
know what my purpose was. I didn’t have a goal. Because I think it was affecting me
mentally.” (P4)

• “What is my purpose?” (P7)

• “What happens when the grand [child] comes along? Oh, life has meaning. Purpose.” (P8)

Pattern 4.3. Self-understanding. Each person has intimate knowledge of who they are

and a concrete understanding of themselves. The experience of an empty nest enhanced self-

understanding for some participants. They adapted to and learned more about themselves and

their reaction to adverse experiences. They pondered their existence and their role in the universe

for deeper self-understanding.

• “You have a better understanding of yourself and where you come from so you don’t feel
lost.” (P1)

• “I know myself a little better.” (P3)

• “It has changed the way I look at things. It has made me think of getting older and my
eventual death.” (P4)

• “I am the same, same old person that I was when my children were here. And I’m the
same person when they left. That would not change.” (P5)

• “Certain aspects of my personality I’ve grown to accept now, which was not so evident
before.” (P7)

• “I had to live through it, my girls leaving for me to appreciate myself, my life.” (P8)

Pattern 4.4. Role of a mother. Building on the pattern of self-understanding was that

each participant firmly identified with the role of a mother. The role of a mother was all-

encompassing and included providing support for their children, showing them love, protecting

them, and ensuring that their basic needs were met. Above all else, participants agreed that a

mother’s role continued even with an empty nest.

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 • “I will always be a mother. His mom to the end of the Earth, or eternity.” (P1)

• “A mom will always be a mom, no matter how old your kids are.” (P2)

• “You provide for your children. You make sure they are fed. They get an education, that
they are clean. Teach them to take responsibility for themselves and their actions.” (P4)

• “I am still a mother. I am still a mother in every sense of the way.” (P5)

• “You still want to protect your child. And a mummy will always feel nobody could treat
your child like you would treat your child.” (P6)

• “That role has not changed at all. And it never will. As a matter of fact, it’s been
magnified now that I have grandbabies.” (P7)

Pattern 4.5. Spirituality. Participants identified spirituality as a strength throughout their

experience. They equated spirituality with purpose and found meaning through their religious

and spiritual beliefs. Spirituality was introduced to them from a young age and practiced

throughout their lives. It was also something they encouraged in their children.

• “We grow up going to church and believing in God for everything.” (P2)

• “So now that they have gone, it’s just my place to pray, to cover them with prayer.” (P3)

• “Having some level of faith in, religious faith, did help me throughout this process.” (P4)

• “You have to have God in your life. You must have God in your life.” (P6)

• “Your spirituality, you’ve got to keep at optimum. Because even that never stops
growing.” (P7)

• “My faith keeps me strong.” (P7)

• “Put God first and you can achieve anything you want.” (P8)

Summary

The data analysis revealed four themes supported by 13 patterns. The first two themes,

emotional reaction to change and adjustment to an empty nest, described feelings of depression

and worry and the transition to an empty nest, which ranged from learning to let go to changing
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communication styles. Participants also experienced inner conflict where emotions such as pride

and freedom clashed with feeling bittersweet and heartbroken. Another theme that emerged was

supportive relationships. The close relationship between mother and child and the social

interactions among family members and friends supported the development of this theme. The

last theme was identity and self-discovery supported by patterns of focus on self, purpose, self-

understanding, role of a mother, and spirituality. For participants, spirituality translated to

strength, and they saw their beliefs as a defining aspect of their experience.

The next chapter will include a summary of the results, a discussion, and conclusion of the

results. There will also be a comparison of the findings to previous literature and an

interpretation of the findings. Limitations and implications of the study will be identified, and

recommendations for further research will be explored.

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 CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

Chapter 5 will address the efficacy with which the study answered the research question.

Chapter 5 was divided into nine sections. First, a summary of the results will be presented

followed by conclusions based on results. Findings from the study will be compared to the

identified theoretical frameworks and previous literature on the subject. An interpretation of the

findings and the limitations of the study will be included. Implications of the study,

recommendations for future research, and a conclusion will be discussed.

Summary of the Results

There has been significant research on the empty nest phenomenon. The literature

indicated that married couples experienced a decline in social interactions and a change in role

identity when children leave home (Kins et al., 2013; Papa & Lancaster, 2016; Seiffge-Krenke,

2006; Wu et al., 2010). The literature also showed that single parents experienced an intense

emotional response to having an empty nest (Bouchard, 2014; Hilton & Anderson, 2009;

Schwarts & Ayalon, 2015). However, there was a noticeable lack of research concerning the

experience of an empty nest from the perspective of single mothers of Caribbean descent. The

current study aimed to fill this gap in the research.

Thapa et al. (2018) performed a meta-analysis of 25 scholarly articles focused on mental

health and empty nesters. They found that empty nest parents experienced mental health issues

such as depression, loneliness, lower life satisfaction, and cognitive deterioration (Thapa et al.,

2018). In a study by Mansoor and Hasan (2019), participants completed the Empty Nest

Syndrome questionnaire and Psychological Well-being scale to explore the relationship between

empty nest syndrome and psychological well-being. They determined that parents with lower

education were more likely to experience empty nest syndrome than parents who had a higher

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level of education. Jia and Yuan (2020) conducted a study with 1,658 elders in Shandong

Province, China, and found that elders with an empty nest reported much higher levels of

loneliness and poor sleep than their counterparts. The topic of empty nest has been well studied.

The present study aimed to increase current knowledge on the experience of Caribbean people

living in the United States. The study supplemented literature about the cultural aspects of the

empty nest phenomenon.

A generic qualitative inquiry methodology with thematic analysis was implemented to

answer the research question, “How do single mothers of Caribbean descent experience the

empty nest phenomenon?” The study resulted in four themes and 13 patterns:

Theme 1: Emotional Response to Change

Pattern 1.1 – Loneliness

Pattern 1.2 – Worry

Pattern 1.3 – Inner conflict

Theme 2: Adjustment to an Empty Nest

Pattern 2.1 – Letting go

Pattern 2.2 – Change in communication

Pattern 2.3 – Keeping occupied

Theme 3: Supportive Relationships

Pattern 3.1 – Close bond with children

Pattern 3.2 – Support from family and friends

Theme 4: Identity and Self-discovery

Pattern 4.1 – Focus on self

Pattern 4.2 – Purpose

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 Pattern 4.3 – Self-understanding

Pattern 4.4 – Role of a mother

Pattern 4.5 – Spirituality

Discussion of the Results

The nature of parents is to experience change and adapt to new situations. Empty nest is a

phase of life that begins when parenting becomes a passive role after children leave home

(Mount & Moas, 2015). This study explored the experience of an empty nest from the

perspective of single mothers of Caribbean descent. Bouchard (2014) identified a gap in the

literature of single parents who experience an empty nest. Kins et al. (2013) determined that

parents experience emotional and psychological responses to this phase of life.

Humans are sentient beings defined by the ability to feel or experience emotions. Some

emotions are positive, such as hope and happiness, others are negative such as depression and

anger. Emotions are integrated into all aspects of the human experience. Every participant

experienced a wide range of emotions in response to having an empty nest. The first theme that

emerged from the study was an emotional response to change, which included loneliness, worry,

and inner conflict.

Participants felt alone, which exacerbated their worry and fears; being alone translated to

participants’ experiences of loneliness. This loneliness was fueled by isolation since there were

no children to interact with daily. Participants felt vulnerable being alone, and concerns about

their physical safety arose. The sample consisted of nine mothers who were single and living

alone. Without their children present, participants were the only persons living in the home.

When their children left, they took the only company with which participants shared intimate

space. Some participants noted that silence filled their homes, which intensified their loneliness.

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To break the harshness of that silence, some participants got a pet. Participants who isolated

themselves from friends and family found that loneliness was a constant companion that

exacerbated the symptoms of depression and anxiety experienced by some participants.

Worry or excessive thoughts about their children’s well-being was an overriding pattern

that emerged from the data. Participants described sleepless nights where they ruminated about

their children’s safety, health, and overall welfare. Participants compared parenting experiences

from when they lived with their children to when their children left home. When their children

lived with them, they had visual reassurance of their children’s health and happiness and could

physically comfort them at a moments’ notice. When their children moved out, mothers

depended on infrequent communications from their children to check on their welfare. The stark

difference in the experiences resulted in the emotional response of worry. As stated, participants

found themselves with excess time. Some chose to spend this time worrying and dwelling on

possible adverse outcomes for their children.

Participants experienced inner conflict. They were heartbroken that their children were

out of the house, yet happy that their children found fulfillment in life. They experienced pride in

their children’s accomplishments, while at the same time, they felt sad and wanted to keep their

children at home. Some participants were ecstatic that they now had the freedom to enjoy their

lives without concern for their children, but they struggled with this freedom and missed having

the responsibility of taking care of their children. Humans continuously change emotional states

triggered by anything, from a smell to a sound to a taste. Participants struggled with both the

positive and negative emotions associated with an empty nest. The worry, loneliness, heartbreak,

and sadness they felt competed with their feelings of pride, freedom, and happiness. Their

conflicting emotional states manifested as two sides of the same experience. They identified both

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moments of happiness and sadness, they missed their children and cherished their newfound

freedom. This inner conflict was interlaced throughout their experience of an empty nest.

The second theme was adjustment to an empty nest. The term adjustment can vary

according to the context in which it is used. Luthar and Ciciolla (2016) defined adjustment in

terms of changes in personal well-being and changes in parenting. The results of this study

indicated that participants experienced adjustment in terms of parenting as well as personal well-

being. The theme of adjustment was supported by three patterns, which were (a) letting go, (b)

change in communication, and (c) keeping occupied.

Changes in parenting were seen in the patterns of letting go and change in

communication. Participants struggled with the concept of letting go. Their parental role thus far

had been to protect, care, and provide for their children. Now that their children could protect,

care, and provide for themselves, participants transitioned from an active parenting role to a

passive one. Participants described adjusting to becoming a spectator who supported from the

sidelines. They adjusted their expectations of themselves as passive parents as they came to

terms with the concept that their children were now capable adults.

Part of the transition to passive parenting included an adjustment in communication.

There was no longer an overabundance of conversations filled with trivial information about

day-to-day happenings. Daily communication was a former norm replaced by intermittent and

sometimes superficial conversations. Participants found that their children no longer sought

advice or shared intimate details of their lives. Therefore, conversations became concise,

specific, and limited in nature. Additionally, participants identified their children as confidants

and friends with whom they would share their daily adventures. Without them around for

consistent communication, participants had no one to talk to, which affected their well-being.

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 In terms of changes in personal well-being, participants found themselves with an excess

of time. They found that if they ruminated on their current situation, they worried or felt

depressed; therefore, participants chose to fill their time with things that kept them busy. This

step towards self-preservation meant that they focused on tasks as opposed to thoughts or

feelings. They adjusted their daily schedules to include tasks that kept their minds occupied, such

as work, chores, and hobbies.

The third theme was supportive relationships. Humans are social creatures who crave

social interactions with others. Although some participants isolated themselves at first,

eventually they found strength in the relationships and interactions they had with others. For

example, some friends and family members previously experienced an empty nest and

understood what participants were going through. They were able to identify behavioral and

emotional changes in participants and support and comfort them. This theme was supported by

two patterns, which were (a) close bonds with children, and (b) support from family and friends.

Participants proudly declared they maintained close relationships with their children.

They saw this bond as a strength and found comfort in knowing that they could depend on their

children in times of need. Participants stated that their children supported them throughout the

empty nest transition and would regularly visit or communicate, which reinforced their close

bond. They described this close bond as a cultural aspect of parenting, stating that, in the

Caribbean, it was a cultural expectation that parents and children have a close relationship. As

single parents, participants and their children developed profound bonds that surpassed the

boundaries of parent-child relationships to encompass facets of friendship and companionship.

Participants also described social interactions with their family and friends as integral to

their empty nest experience. Siblings and friends encouraged participants to socialize. They

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brought them out of isolation by inviting them to “lime,” which is a cultural slang for hanging

out and spending time together. Their friends would whisk them away for weekend getaways to

forget their feelings of loneliness or worry. The actions of the friends and family members

lessened their aloneness and emboldened participants to embrace the positive aspects of an

empty nest.

The fourth theme was identity and self-discovery. Sugimura et al. (2016) wrote that

identity referred to self-concept and how one viewed oneself in relation to others. Identity

development is influenced by cultural contexts such as individualism and collectivism (Sugimura

et al., 2016). Participants adjusted their self-concept to include a passive parental role. Some

embraced grandmotherhood as a new aspect of their identity, while others introspected about

their core values. Through a process of self-discovery, participants were able to make judgments

about themselves, face aspects of themselves they had not considered before, find strength in

themselves, and define their identity as a mother. This theme was evidenced by the patterns of

(a) focus on self, (b) purpose, (c) self-understanding, (d) role of a mother, and (e) spirituality.

Participants found that their relaxed parenting duties resulted in an overabundance of free

time which they used to focus on themselves. Many saw this as an opportunity to take up old

hobbies such as crafts and gardening. Others took this time to focus on self-development and

pursue lifelong dreams. Without the constant demands of parenting, participants experienced a

reintroduction to themselves and rediscovered their likes, dislikes, goals, and aspirations. Some

participants found this task challenging and chose to prioritize their children and grandchildren.

After decades of focusing on their children’s needs, these participants found it challenging to

give precedence to their own needs and wants.

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 The results indicated that children took their mothers’ sense of purpose when they left

home. Participants no longer had to rush to complete daily chores or follow their children’s

schedules. They were lost and without a clear idea of what was required of them. Participants

found themselves searching for purpose after their children left home. Some participants

responded by spiraling into sadness, depression, and loneliness. Through time and great effort,

participants were able to reintroduce purpose in their lives. Those with grandchildren took up the

mantle of parenting thus finding purpose once again. Participants also found purpose in their

work, they focused on their jobs and gained purpose in achieving success in their vocation.

Additionally, purpose was found when participants turned their efforts inward to identify and

pursue their goals and dreams.

Participants developed a deeper self-understanding after the experience of an empty nest.

Many reflected on their values and self-concept and found that they remained the same person

throughout the experience. Others noted that the experience changed them and forced them to

take a more in-depth look at themselves. They used this as a catalyst for change and learned to

embrace aspects of themselves they had ignored, such as resiliency and determination. They

discovered that they could adapt to heartbreaking situations and maintain their core values.

The most challenging aspect of the empty nest phenomenon was the transition from an

active parenting role to a passive one. However, participants still identified as a mother. They

adjusted that definition to include caring for their children by listening, giving advice, and

offering solace when needed. The role of motherhood was forever embedded in their identity.

Spirituality is interwoven into the Caribbean identity and encompasses the subjective and

personal relationship that each individual has to other humans and the universe. According to

Chatters et al. (2008), the community provided by Black Caribbean churches enable parishioners

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to feel a sense of belonging, especially when facing many issues, including those associated with

acculturation. The current study supported this concept. Participants felt a sense of comradery

and support from their spiritual affiliations. They turned to their spiritual community for

guidance and support when faced with challenges. For participants, spirituality was highly

related to daily purpose and gave their lives meaning. This strongly embedded cultural identity

was viewed as a core strength throughout the empty nest experience.

Conclusions Based on the Results

The study aimed to describe the empty nest experience from the perspective of single

mothers of Caribbean descent. Participants described an emotional reaction to an empty nest.

Predominant emotional responses included loneliness, worry, and conflict. Participants told their

stories of adjusting to a passive parental role. In this transition to passive parenting, participants

let go and learned to observe their children from a distance. This resulted in less communication

between participants and their children. Participants also found that they struggled to keep

occupied now that there was a lax in the demands of parenting. The study revealed that

supportive relationships with children, family members, and friends helped mothers with their

transition. They believed that having these close relationships enabled them to successfully adapt

to an empty nest. Participants further developed their identity as a mother through self-reflection

and self-discovery. Participants described spirituality as integral to their identity and thoroughly

embedded in the core of their experiences.

Kins et al. (2013) determined that mothers experienced worry and sadness as part of the

empty nest phenomenon. The current study supported that mothers do indeed experience

loneliness and tremendous worry when their children leave home. This study confirmed results

from several studies in China that explored the emotional aspect of the empty nest phenomenon

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(Chang et al., 2016; Jia & Yuan, 2020; Wang et al., 2017). Chang et al. (2016) found a high

correlation between loneliness and having an empty nest. These results were similar to a study by

Wang et al. (2017), who also determined that there were higher levels of loneliness in empty

nesters living in rural China. Jia and Yuan (2020) found that depression and loneliness were

highly correlated with elders who had an empty nest.

Bouchard and McNair (2016) described marital adjustment, adjusting to missing their

children, and changes to parent-child communications during an empty nest. They also found

that parents who had more communication with their children had higher levels of well-being

than those who had limited interactions (Bouchard & McNair, 2016). This was consistent with

the current study’s findings that participants adjusted to more mature communication and more

significant interactions with their children. Additionally, the current study indicated that mothers

experience adjustment with respect to their changing parental role and excess time. These results

were supported in a study by Bouchard and McNair (2016) which determined that parents

adjusted to missing their kids as well as their new parental roles.

In a study by Boz (2018), it was found that increased social interactions had an inverse

effect on negative aspects of the empty nest. The current study explored the aspect of social

interactions during an empty nest. Participants described their relationships with their children,

family members, and friends as helpful when coping with an empty nest. Cao and Lu (2018)

found that increased social interactions moderated the loneliness experienced by empty nesters.

The current study confirmed that social interactions with children, family, and friends mitigated

some of the feelings of loneliness and worry mothers experienced.

Sumargi et al. (2018) described cultural role identity as a critical factor in parent-child

relationships. Participants described the role of mother as integral and cemented in their identity.

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Cultural norms associated with maternal role identification included physically and emotionally

supporting their children throughout adulthood.

Spirituality is deeply ingrained in the cultural identity of Caribbean women (Dixon &

Arthur, 2019). This dimension of identity is integrated into every aspect of the Caribbean

woman, including being a mother. Steffen (2011) wrote that spirituality was a way for women to

cope with the loss of role identification regarding family and child-rearing. In this study,

participants similarly described spirituality. They saw spirituality as a vital part of their identity

that provided a lifeline of strength to help them cope with the transition from active parenting to

passive parenting.

Comparison of Findings With Theoretical Framework

and Previous Literature

Family development theory posits that several factors affect the family unit’s transition

from one stage of development to another (Duvall et al., 1953). These factors include individual

psychology, social interactions, and cultural experiences (Duvall et al., 1953). The present study

added to this theory and confirmed that both individual psychology and social interactions are

affected when the family unit transitioned to an empty nest. Participants described a

metamorphosis in their individual psychology as they adjusted their identity to encompass

passive parenting roles. They embraced aspects of themselves they had not considered, such as

being durable and able to withstand heartbreak and living alone. They also dedicated time to

developing their vocation, hobbies, and interests, further adding to their identity beyond the role

of parenting.

They described changes in communication with their children, emphasizing less

interactions. This observation is consistent with the family stage of empty nest because this is

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where changes in family interactions are expected (Duvall et al., 1953). Now that their children

were no longer physically available for consistent face to face interactions, participants turned

towards family members and friends who regularly engaged participants in social interactions.

Duvall et al. (1953) proposed that cultural norms heavily influence each stage in the life

cycle. Participants described Caribbean culture as one where children leave the nest later and this

delay allowed for a closer bond in the parent-child dyad. Many of the participants stated that

their children were older when they left home. The exceptions were those whose children started

college and lived on campus. Additionally, Caribbean culture places high priority on maintaining

close relationships with family members. This is supported by participants who maintained close

bonds with their family members and children, even after entering the empty nest stage.

Black psychology considers historical and current events that affect the individual as well

as social, religious, and cultural factors that influence individuals (Jamison, 2018). Fundamental

to Black psychology is spirituality, identity, and family. The results of the study indicated that

participants placed great emphasis on the family unit and maintaining close relationships. Family

is viewed as a unit of support and source of strength in Black psychology (Cokley & Garba,

2018). The study showed that the relationship with children crossed the parameters of parent-

child interactions and entered the realm of friendship and companionship. Participants also

described close relationships with family members who supported them during the transition to

an empty nest. Friends and family members noticed changes in their behavior or mental state and

responded by regularly engaging participants in social activities. Participants emphasized that

deeply rooted spirituality was part of their identity and gave their lives meaning and purpose

after their children left home.

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 The current study yielded results that resonated with the perspectives of family

development theory and Black psychology. The field of general psychology gained specific

information about single mothers of Caribbean descent, and their experience of an empty nest.

The study attempted to fill the gap in the literature about this population and confirmed previous

findings about the empty nest phenomenon.

Interpretation of the Findings

Previous research indicated that empty nesters who had regular social interactions with

their children showed decreased negative symptoms of mental health, such as loneliness and

depression (Bouchard & McNair, 2016). Participants indicated that they maintained

communication with their children which alleviated their mental state. For example, children

returned home to share a meal or they called on the phone or used video technology to converse

with their mothers. Regular interactions translated to less worrying about their children and

lessened feelings of aloneness. The close relationship between mothers and children minimized

the negative emotions of an empty nest. Boz (2018) determined that social support from

neighbors and friends mitigated the effects of loneliness and isolation. When participants isolated

themselves or struggled with loneliness, their friends and family members checked on them,

showing that they were not alone, or reached out to them and invited them to activities. The

current study provided evidence that social interaction and supportive relationships are important

to the positive experience of an empty nest.

Liang and Luo (2017) found that elders placed meaning in their lives based on cultural

experiences. In the current study, mothers struggled to find purpose in their lives after children

left home. From a cultural perspective, once their direct motherly duties were no longer

necessary, mothers had no purpose. To rectify this and find meaning in their lives, mothers

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focused on themselves and pursued their vocation and hobbies. Meaning and purpose were

reinvigorated through interactions with their children, family members, friends, and society as a

whole. They also sought meaning through rediscovering aspects of themselves that were

forgotten during their child-rearing years, such as bike riding or crafts.

Dixon and Arthur (2019) noted that religion offered alternative roles for churchgoers to

fill in their community, such as mentor, which further built their spiritual identity. Caribbean

mothers strongly identified as spiritual individuals, and many stated that they grew up rooted in

religion. Steffen (2011) found that women turned to spirituality when they experienced role loss.

Similarly, the current study found that mothers embraced their spirituality when children left

home. They also saw their spirituality as a way to cope with feelings of worry, isolation, and

loneliness. Through spirituality, mothers found purpose in their lives.

A study by Chang et al. (2016) found a statistically significant correlation between

loneliness and having an empty nest. The current study also determined that single mothers with

an empty nest experienced loneliness. Of import is that the current study focused on single

mothers without a spouse or life partner for intimate support. Participants felt isolated because

they lived alone, which exacerbated their feelings of loneliness. The social network of children,

family, and friends helped to mitigate the effects of loneliness. However, Caribbean mothers are

private individuals who hid their loneliness from their loved ones. They returned to an empty

house daily, which continuously fed their isolation and loneliness. Observant children, family,

and friends noticed a change in their moods and engaged participants in social outings.

This study added to the literature on several topics that include motherhood, single

mothers, empty nesters, and mothers with Caribbean ancestry. The current study confirmed that

the experience of the empty nest phenomenon is multidimensional. It included an emotional

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dimension, adjustment, supportive relationships, and identity development. The findings

confirmed family development theory which indicated that, during this stage, parenting takes a

backseat. This is also the stage when parents seek to build their identity outside of parenting. The

findings also support the Black psychology approach that close familial bonds and spirituality

are essential aspects of the individual. The study was similar to previous research which

highlighted that empty nesters are vulnerable to loneliness and worry (Gao et al., 2017). The

findings supported previous literature that proposed increased social interactions have a positive

effect on adverse emotional responses (Zhao et al., 2018). Additionally, this study supported

previous research that empty nesters seek purpose and meaning in their lives according to their

cultural backgrounds (Mitchell & Wister, 2015).

Limitations

Qualitative research is rich with the unique subjective experiences of a select sample and

may not be generalized to a larger population. This sample comprised a very discrete group of

single mothers. The way they described their experiences were based on their idiosyncratic

communication styles and life experiences. Another sample may describe their experiences

entirely differently with different findings. An inherent design flaw with the generic qualitative

inquiry methodology is that data collection is limited to participants’ communication capabilities.

Findings are based on how interview questions were understood and how precisely participants

expressed their answers. Additionally, interpretations can be influenced by the researcher’s

predispositions.

The literature review indicated that socioeconomic status affects the empty nest

experience. This sample was identified in the lower middle-class socioeconomic group. All

participants were first-generation immigrants with ancestry solely from a single Caribbean

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island. The homogeneity of the sample may have provided limited results. A sample of second or

third-generation immigrants might have revealed other themes, such as acculturation and its

effect on the empty nest experience. A broader sample with participants from other Caribbean

islands might shed light on specific nuances within the Caribbean culture.

Implications for Practice

The current study confirmed family development theory that the empty nest stage is

influenced by individual, family, and cultural systems. Participants’ perspectives and

expectations for an empty nest were based on their particular experiences, interactions with their

others, as well as cultural norms and expectations. Additionally, this study further informed

Black psychology’s perspective of self-determination, which is an important aspect of individual

and community development (Association of Black Psychologists, 2019). Participants indicated

that their self-determination to find purpose, interact, and seek support from others helped them

navigate an empty nest. Both Black psychology and family development theory emphasized the

importance of culture. The study demonstrated that culture does indeed have an impact on the

empty nest experience. Future studies could further explore theoretical implications from the

perspectives of family development theory and Black psychology.

One goal of this research was to inform practical implementations that can aid or provide

a service to the greater population. This research sought to discover new information related to

empty nest, single parenting, and cultural implications. This research could be beneficial for

mental health professionals who work with this population. Researchers have found that an

increasing number of empty nesters experience mental health issues such as loneliness and

depression (Thapa et al., 2018). Therefore, there is an increasing demand for professionals who

provide services for this population. Hence a practical implication is that professional health care

97
providers integrate results from this study into programs for empty nesters. Zhou et al. (2015)

indicated a need for community-based social programs for empty nest elders in China. Similarly,

a practical implementation of this study would be to inform social programs designed

specifically for single mothers with an empty nest.

Recommendations for Further Research

There is a gap in the literature concerning the population of immigrants with Caribbean

ancestry. The recommendation is that future studies include married couples with Caribbean

ancestry. This will add to the scientific knowledge about this unique population. As discussed, a

larger sample that includes both parents’ perspectives would provide richer and more robust

descriptions of the empty nest experience.

Another recommendation is to replicate this study with a larger sample to identify other

pertinent factors of an empty nest. These factors may include socioeconomic status, age,

grandchildren, and occupation. Marital status may also be an important variable to consider. It is

recommended that future research explore the perspectives of recently divorced mothers,

widows, and mothers who were single-parent since their children were very young.

As noted, participants were all first-generation immigrants. Future research may expand

the sample to include second-, third-, or fourth-generation immigrants to identify the effect of

acculturation and assimilation on the empty nest. The study was limited to only English-speaking

Caribbean descendants. Future studies may include participants from non-native English

language islands to explore how language impacts the empty nest experience.

Conclusion

The study indicated that single mothers of Caribbean descent experienced several

dimensions of the empty nest phenomenon. They experienced an emotional reaction to change,

98
which manifested as loneliness, worry, and inner conflict. They also experienced adjustment to

living alone, which included acknowledging their children as adults, a change in communication

styles, and keeping themselves occupied with their newfound extra time. Participants explained

the importance of supportive relationships during this time, which comprised their children,

family members, and friends. They also described changes in their identity and self-discovery in

which they focused on themselves, found purpose in their lives, gained self-understanding,

embraced their role as a mother, and strengthened their spirituality.

Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that single mothers of Caribbean

descent share similar experiences of an empty nest. The study also showed that social

interactions and cultural role identity impact the experience of an empty nest. These experiences

include an emotional reaction, adjustment, and supportive relationships. Additionally, it can be

concluded that identity and self-discovery are important dimensions of this phenomenon.

99
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