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Complete Italian Step-by-Step

This book contains content previously published in Easy Italian Step-
by-Step and Advanced Italian Step-by-Step.

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 Contents

Preface
Guide to Pronunciation

I Easy Italian Step-by-Step

1 Nouns, Articles, and Descriptive
Adjectives
The Gender of Nouns
The Indefinite Article
The Definite Article
Descriptive Adjectives
Key Vocabulary

2 Subject Pronouns, stare, and essere

Subject Pronoun Basics
Stare Versus essere
Key Vocabulary
 Reading Comprehension La casa

3 C’è and ci sono, Interrogative Words, and

the Calendar
C’è (There Is) and ci sono (There Are)
Interrogative Words
Calendario (Calendar)
Reading Comprehension Una città italiana
Key Vocabulary
Reading Comprehension Il cinema

4 Numbers, Time, and Dates

Cardinal Numbers
Ordinal Numbers
The Date
Telling Time
Reading Comprehension Il ristorante
Reading Comprehension Il lavoro casalingo

5 Regular Verbs
Uses of the Present Tense
-are Verbs
The Preposition a
-ere Verbs
-ire Verbs
-are and -ere Verbs with More than One Meaning
Reading Comprehension Arturo e Carla

6 Irregular Verbs
 Irregular -are Verbs
-ere Verbs
-ire Verbs
Reading Comprehension La famiglia Marchetti

7 Andare and the Future

Andare (to go; to be going)
The Future with andare + a + Infinitive
The Future Tense of Regular Verbs
Key Vocabulary
Useful Words: che and per
Key Vocabulary
Time Expressions
Reading Comprehension L’appuntamento dal dentista

8 Adjectives and Adverbs

Possessive Adjectives
Definite Articles
Demonstrative Adjectives
Adjectives of Nationality
Adjectives That Precede a Noun
Comparative Adjectives
Superlative Adjectives
Adverbs
Reading Comprehension Il cane e il gatto

9 Negatives and Prepositions

Negatives and Negative Expressions
Prepositions
Reading Comprehension Il treno
 Key Vocabulary
Reading Comprehension La visita

10 The Indirect Object

Piacere and the Indirect Object
Verbs Like piacere
Indirect Object Pronouns
Reading Comprehension Andare a fare spese
Reading Comprehension La spiaggia

11 The Direct Object

Transitive Verbs and the Direct Object
Direct Object Pronouns
Review Table of Indirect and Direct Object Pronouns
Reading Comprehension Gli svaghi degli italiani

12 Reflexive Verbs
Reflexive Pronouns
Frequently Used Reflexive Verbs
Reflexive Verbs Whose English Translations Do Not Include
Oneself
Position of the Reflexive Pronoun
Reflexive Verbs with Parts of the Body and Clothing
Reflexive Verbs That Express Emotion or Movement
Reflexive Verbs Followed by a Preposition
Review of Indirect and Direct Object Pronouns and Reflexive
Pronouns
Reflexive Verbs with Reciprocal Meanings
Si and Impersonal Expressions
Reading Comprehension I mezzi di trasporto pubblici
13 The Preterit and the Present Perfect
Tenses
Formation of the Preterit
Key Vocabulary
Uses of the Preterit
Irregular Verbs
The Present Perfect Tense
Present Perfect with essere
Reading Comprehension La moda italiana

14 The Imperfect Tense

Formation of the Imperfect
Uses of the Imperfect
Preterit, Present Perfect, and Imperfect Compared
Double Object Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns with Direct Object Pronouns
Reading Comprehension Il traffico in Italia

II Advanced Step-by-Step
Accent Marks, Stress, and Intonation in Italian

15 Nouns, Descriptive Adjectives, and

Pronouns
Definition and Classification of Nouns
The Gender of Nouns
Singular and Plural Nouns

16 Definite and Indefinite Articles

 Inclusion and Omission of Articles
Reading Comprehension Firenze
Indefinite Articles
The Partitive Article
Reading Comprehension Il gioco delle bocce

17 Descriptive Adjectives
Adjectives ending in –o
Invariable Adjectives
Position of the Adjectives
Descriptive Adjectives
Irregular Adjectives
Adjectives That Precede a Noun
The Adjective bello
Adjectives That Express Quantity
Adjectives That Express Next, Only, and Last
Adjectives Related to the Five Senses
Comparison of Adjectives, Adverbs, Nouns, and Verbs
Superlative Adjectives
Reading Comprehension Al ristorante
Suffixes of Adjectives
Adjectives and Possessive Pronouns

18 Possessive Pronouns
Formation and Uses of Possessive Pronouns
Relative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
19 Prepositions
The Preposition a
The Preposition in
The Preposition di
The Preposition da
The Preposition con
The Preposition su
The Preposition sotto
The Prepositions fra and tra
The Preposition per

20 Adverbs
Formation of Adverbs
Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of Location
Reading Comprehension Amici
Adverbial Expressions with the Prepositions: a, di, da, and in
Adverbs of Direction

21 Stare vs Essere
Uses of Stare
Present Continuous Tense (or Progressive Tense)
Reading Comprehension Il bar

22 Avere and Fare

Uses of Avere
Verb Fare (to do, to make)
Reading Comprehension Visita della mia amica Isabella
23 The Present Tense of Regular Verbs
Conjugations
Useful First Conjugation or –are Verbs
First Conjugation Verbs Ending in –care and –gare
First Conjugation Verbs Ending in –ciare, –giare, and –sciare
Second Conjugation, –ere Verbs
Second Conjugation Verbs Ending in –cere and –gere
Second Conjugation Verbs Ending in –gliere and –gnere
Verbs in –cere, –gere, –gliere, and –gnere
Modal Verbs
Conjugation of –ire Verbs
Group II Verbs in –isc
Uses of the Present Tense

24 The Imperfect Tense

Regular Verbs in the Imperfect
Irregular Verbs in the Imperfect
Uses of the Imperfect
Reading Comprehension Anna va in Italia a studiare
l’italiano

25 The Present Perfect Tense

Formation of the Present Perfect
Formation of the Past Participle
–Ere Verbs with Irregular Past Participles
The Present Perfect with avere
The Present Perfect with essere
Reading Comprehension La vendemmia

26 Negatives
 Negative Expressions
More Negative Expressions
Mica and Affatto
The Past Progressive Tense

27 Direct Object Pronouns

Transitive Verbs and the Direct Object Pronouns
The Indirect Object Pronoun

28 The Pronouns Ci and Vi and Ne

Pronouns Ci and Vi
Pronoun Ne

29 Combined Pronouns and Their Use

Combined Pronouns with the Imperative, the Infinitive, and the
Gerund
Double Pronouns with the Negative Form of the Imperative
Double Pronouns with Compound Tenses
Double Pronouns with Modal Verbs

30 Verbs with Pronouns

The Present Perfect with Modal Verbs
The Imperative of Reflexive Verbs

31 The Future
The Future Tense of Regular Verbs
Stem Changes in the Future Tense
The Future Tense of Irregular Verbs
Expressing the Future Using the Present Tense
 The Future Perfect Tense
Reading Comprehension I ponti di Roma e Venezia

32 The Conditional
Formation of the Conditional Tense
Verbs with Irregular Conditional Stems
Uses of the Conditional Tense
The Conditional Perfect
Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Speech

33 The Present Subjunctive

Formation of the Present Subjunctive
–are Verbs in the Present Subjunctive
–ere and –ire Verbs in the Present Subjunctive
Irregular Verbs in the Subjunctive
Uses of the Present Subjunctive
The Present Subjunctive After Certain Conjunctions
In Certain Dependent Adjective Clauses

34 The Present Perfect Subjunctive

Formation of the Present Perfect Subjunctive
Uses of the Present Perfect Subjunctive

35 The Imperfect Subjunctive

Formation of the Imperfect Subjunctive
Use of the Imperfect Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses
The Imperfect Subjunctive After Certain Verbs
The Se Clause
Conditions Contrary to the Fact
 Reading Comprehension Il carnevale

36 Past Perfect Subjunctive

Formation of the Past Perfect Subjunctive
Se Clause and the Past Perfect Subjunctive
Sequence of Tenses with the Subjunctive Mood

37 Special Construction and the Passive

Fare and Its Uses
Lasciare and Its Uses
Metterci and Volerci
The Passive Voice
Verbs Other Than Essere That Express the Passive
Alternative to the Passive Voice

38 Conjunctions and Verbs with Prepositions

Functions of Conjunctions in Italian
Most Commonly Used Conjunctions
Verbs and Expressions Followed by the Preposition a
Verbs and Expressions Followed by the Preposition di
Verbs Followed by the Preposition su
Reading Comprehension La musica italiana

Answer Key
Index
 Preface

Complete Italian Step-by-Step has been written for beginner and

advanced beginner learners. It teaches Italian grammar in a
progressive order, enabling students to acquire an advanced
knowledge of the language. It allows students to learn the rules of
the language, and to read and write Italian in a very natural way.
This is not an entirely new program, but rather the combination of
two previously published books: Easy Italian Step-by-Step and
Advanced Italian Step-by-Step. These two bestselling programs have
been combined in a way that makes it easier for students to learn
Italian in one streamlined style.
The first part of this book (Easy Italian Step-by-Step) provides the
essential grammatical rules of the language. It introduces the most
commonly-used vocabulary and the basic tenses of regular and
irregular verbs. There are many exercises to allow learners to
practice what they have studied or need to study. Its explanations
are easy to comprehend and to remember.
The second part of the book (Advanced Italian Step-by-Step)
provides a concise review of key concepts, then continues
challenging learners with new grammar rules and exercises. It dives
deeper into the nuances of Italian grammar and the conjugations of
the verbs. It offers many exercises to enhance students’ knowledge
so that they become more confident in speaking and understanding
Italian.
To take full advantage of the Complete Italian Step-by-Step
program, I advise you to complete all the exercises as you progress
through the book. By doing this, you will continue to reinforce what
you have studied in the chapters already completed. Do not be in a
rush! Make sure you have mastered the concepts studied so far
before moving on to the next chapter. By studying the rules a few at
a time, and by answering the progressive exercises, you will steadily
gain mastery of the language. And, self-study learner or a student in
a regular class, it is my fervent hope that you will find learning
Italian to be an enjoyable and rewarding experience.

Acknowledgments
Writing a grammar book that is cogent and written with learners in
mind is always my goal, and I think we have accomplished that with
Complete Italian Step-by-Step. I would like to thank Barbara
Bregstein, the author of Easy Spanish Step-by-Step, for laying the
foundation on which this program was created.
I would also like to thank Garret Lemoi and Christopher Brown,
my editors at McGraw-Hill, for their assistance, patience, and
guidance throughout the writing of the two original books that make
up this program. I would also like to thank my husband, Robert Tate,
for proofreading the books, and finally a big thank-you to all my
students who continue to inspire me to write and to all the people
whose love of Italian inspired them to pick up this program.
 Guide to Pronunciation

Italian is pronounced as it is written. This makes it easier to learn

how to say the words in Italian. The words are pronounced by
adding together the sound of each individual letter. There are only
twenty-one letters in the Italian alphabet: j, k, w, x, and y are not
part of the Italian alphabet. They belong to foreign words and they
are pronounced as the word requires.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations have been used throughout the text.

Vowels
Italian vowels are always pronounced in a sharp or clear way
regardless of stress. They are never slurred or pronounced weakly.
Pronounce the examples.

Consonants
 Here are some more sounds that are specifically found in the
Italian language.

Stress and Written Accentuation

The majority of the Italian words are stressed on the next-to-last
syllable. When the stress falls on the very last syllable, an accent
mark is put on it.

Two-syllable words stress the first syllable. This does not usually
affect the pronunciation.

Three-syllable words have their natural stress on the next to the

last syllable.
 Words of four or more syllables usually have their natural accent
on the third-to-last syllable.

If a one-syllable word has a written accent, it means that there is

another word in Italian that has the same spelling but a different
meaning.

Tips on Pronunciation

• While practicing, remember to keep vowel sounds short and

clear.

• Always use the Italian r sound. Remember that the single and
the double r are trilled or flipped.

• Pronounce z as tz (stazione).
• The letters c and g followed by an e or i have the soft sound of
church.

• Make sure you stress the pronunciation of double consonants.

• Put extra emphasis on the accent placed on the last vowel

(lunedì) of words.

• Do not rely on the written pronunciation of words. Get used to

pronouncing words correctly by repeating them aloud.

The Alphabet

Greetings and Salutations

 I
Easy Italian Step-by-Step
 1
Nouns, Articles, and
Descriptive Adjectives

The Gender of Nouns

A noun is a word that labels persons, animals, places, things, or
concepts.
In Italian all nouns are classified as masculine or feminine. This is
called grammatical gender. Gender is important because it
determines the form of the articles and the adjectives that
accompany nouns in sentences. Usually, a noun’s gender can be
identified by looking at its ending.
Most Italian nouns end in a vowel. (Nouns that end in a
consonant are of foreign origin.) Usually, Italian singular masculine
nouns end in -o, and feminine nouns end in -a. There are
exceptions, of course.

Singular Nouns
Masculine
Most nouns that end in -o are masculine singular.
NOTE: Exceptions to this rule include mano, foto, auto, and radio,
which end in -o but are feminine nouns.

Feminine
Most nouns ending in -a are feminine.

Nouns Ending in -e
Nouns ending in -e can be masculine or feminine. They are not too
many, so they are easy to memorize.
Nouns Ending in -amma or -ma
Nouns that end in -amma or -ma are masculine.

Nouns Ending in -zione and -sione

All nouns ending in -zione and -sione are feminine.

Nouns Ending in -ale, -ame, -ile, -one, and -ore

Almost all nouns ending in -ale, -ame, -ile, -one, and -ore are
masculine.

Nouns Ending in -si

Nouns ending in -si are of Greek origin, and they are feminine.

Patterns Determine Gender

There are some patterns that allow you to determine the gender of
the noun. In general the names of trees are masculine, while the
names of fruits are feminine.
There are a few exceptions, which are masculine and refer to both
the tree and the fruit.

Masculine -tore Equals Feminine -trice

When a masculine noun ends in -tore, and refers to a male person,
the corresponding female ends in -trice.

Masculine -ore Equals Feminine -essa

Some masculine nouns that refer to a person’s profession and that
end in -ore change to -essa in the feminine.

Nouns Ending in -ista

Nouns ending in -ista can be either masculine or feminine,
according to whether they refer to a male or a female. In this case
the article differentiates masculine and feminine. These nouns
generally refer to professionals.

Exercise 1.1

Write the appropriate endings for the masculine and feminine nouns.

1. cas_____
2. ragazz_____ (m.)
3. zain_____
4. scuol_____
5. specchi_____
6. penn_____
7. giornal_____
8. sapon_____
9. pan_____
10. ciliegi_____ (fruit)
11. fic_____
12. sal_____

Plural Nouns
When forming the plural of Italian nouns, the final vowel changes to
indicate a change in number.

Masculine Nouns
For regular masculine nouns that end in -o, the endings change to -i
in the plural.

The plural for uomo (man) is the irregular uomini.

Singular -co or -go to Plural -ci or -gi

Some masculine nouns ending in -co or -go change to -ci or -gi in
the plural.

Singular -co or -go to Plural -chi or -ghi

Some nouns ending in -co or -go change to -chi or -ghi in the
plural in order to preserve the hard sound of the consonant c.
Feminine Nouns
For regular feminine nouns that end in -a, the endings change to -e.

Singular -ca or -ga to Plural -che or -ghe

Feminine nouns ending in -ca or -ga change to -che or -ghe in the
plural.

Feminine -ea to -ee

Feminine nouns ending in -ea change to -ee in the plural.

With -i Singular and Plural Retain Same

Ending
Nouns ending in -i in the singular do not change in the plural: crisi
(crisis), analisi (analysis), ipotesi (hypothesis), tesi (thesis) stay
the same in the plural; only change the articles.

Plural of -e Is -i
The plural form of all nouns ending in -e is always -i, regardless of
whether the noun is masculine or feminine. The distinction rests with
the article, which changes according to whether the noun is
masculine or feminine (see “The Definite Article”).

Change the Article Instead: Forming Plurals

for Consonant-Ending Nouns
When forming the plural of nouns ending with a consonant, only the
article changes.

Exercise 1.2
Write the plural form of each of the singular nouns.

1. lettera _________________
2. pera _________________
3. stella _________________
4. sport _________________
5. lezione _________________
6. vino _________________
7. albero _________________
8. musica _________________
9. sale _________________
10. canzone _________________
11. altalena _________________
12. fiore _________________
13. dea _________________
14. amica _________________
15. amico _________________
16. film _________________

The Indefinite Article

The Italian indefinite article corresponds to English a and an and is
used with singular nouns. It also corresponds to the number one.

• Uno is used in front of masculine words beginning with z or s +

consonant, ps, or gn.
• Un is used in front of all other masculine words beginning with
any other consonant or vowel.
• Una is used in front of feminine words beginning with a
consonant.
• Un’ is used in front of feminine words beginning with a vowel.

Exercise 1.3

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the indefinite article.

1. _____ dottore e _____ dottoressa

2. _____ aranciata e _____ espresso
3. _____ studente e _____ studentessa
4. _____ psicologo e _____ psicologa
5. _____ macchina e _____ treno
6. _____ autobus e _____ bicicletta
7. _____ zoo e _____ animale
8. _____ uomo e _____ donna
9. _____ giornale e _____ edicola
10. _____ stadio e _____ binario
11. _____ zio e _____ zia
12. _____ elicottero e _____ attrazione

Change Article When Adjectives Precede Noun

When an adjective precedes the noun, the indefinite article changes

according to the initial sound: uno zio (an uncle) but un caro zio
(a dear uncle); un’automobile (a car) but una bella automobile
(a beautiful car).

The indefinite article also means one.

The indefinite article is not used in exclamations starting with Che

. . . ! (What . . . !).

The Definite Article

In English the definite article has only one form: the. In Italian it has
different forms according to the gender, number, and first letter of
the noun or adjective it precedes.
Here are some rules for using definite articles:

• Lo (plural gli) is used before masculine nouns beginning with s

+ consonant, z, ps, and gn.
• Il (plural i) is used before masculine nouns beginning with all
other consonants.
• La (plural le) is used before feminine nouns beginning with a
consonant.
• L’ (plural gli) is used before masculine nouns beginning with a
vowel.
• L’ (plural le) is used before feminine nouns beginning with a
vowel.
Notice the changes in the following phrases:

NOTE: The gender and number of the word immediately following

the article determines the article’s form. For example: il
nuovo orologio (the new clock).

Exercise 1.4

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the singular definite article.

1. _____ amico
 2. _____ casa
3. _____ autostrada
4. _____ zio
5. _____ padre
6. _____ automobile
7. _____ mano
8. _____ lezione
9. _____ stazione
10. _____ professore
11. _____ nonno
12. _____ entrata
13. _____ madre
14. _____ sport
15. _____ cielo
16. _____ dottore
17. _____ limone
18. _____ pesca
19. _____ pesco
20. _____ scrittore

Exercise 1.5

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the plural definite article.

1. _____ amici
2. _____ case
3. _____ zii
 4. _____ padri
5. _____ nonni
6. _____ entrate
7. _____ autostrade
8. _____ madri
9. _____ sport
10. _____ cieli
11. _____ automobili
12. _____ mani
13. _____ lezioni
14. _____ stazioni
15. _____ professori
16. _____ dottori
17. _____ limoni
18. _____ pesche
19. _____ peschi
20. _____ serpenti

Other Uses of the Definite Article

The definite article is used in many other ways such as in front of
geographical names, with dates, with parts of the body, with the
words scorso and prossimo, and with nouns that express
generalizations. There are exceptions, though, so read carefully and
learn the following rules.

• Always use definite articles in front of geographical names,

continents, countries, rivers, mountains, islands, and states.
• Do not use the definite article in front of the names of cities.

• Use definite articles with dates.

• Use definite articles with the days of the week to indicate

repeated action.

• Do not use the definite article when a specific day is intended.

• Use definite articles with parts of the body, clothing, and

possessive adjectives.
• Do not use the definite article when referring to a family member
in the singular form.

• Use the definite article with titles—unless the person mentioned

is spoken to directly.

• Use the definite article before names of a language, except when

the verbs parlare (to speak) or studiare (to study) directly
precede the name of the language. In those cases, the use of the
article is optional.

• Use it with the words scorso (last) and prossimo (next).

• Do not use the definite article after the preposition in or before

an unmodified geographical noun.

• Use the definite article when a geography-related noun is

modified.
• Use the definite article with nouns that express generalizations.

Exercise 1.6

Translate the nouns into English.

 Exercise 1.7

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the definite and the
indefinite articles, where necessary.
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 2. Lateral or “rolling” motion accomplished by wing warping
operated by a second lever.
These were the only controls used in the earliest gliders. It
remains to consider the third element of control, viz:
3. The directional or “yawing” control, which is accomplished by an
ordinary vertical rudder operated by a third lever.
The Wrights found the warping had all the effect anticipated but
had also certain secondary and undesirable effects. Whenever they
applied the warping lever to correct the rolling motion, the glider
responded as far as rolling control was concerned, but at the same
time would “yaw” or swerve out of its course to right or left. This was
a serious complication. For, in the moment of swerving, the high
wing which they desired to depress would advance faster than the
low wing, and solely by its higher velocity tended to develop a
greater lift and thereby neutralize the beneficial effect of the warp. In
many of their early glides, because of pronounced swerving, the
warp effect was entirely counteracted and failed to bring the glider
back to level; with the result that one wing tip would sink, at the
same time swinging backward until the machine was brought to the
ground. No amount of controlling could prevent this.
After much bewilderment on this point, the Wrights observed that
whenever a wing tip was warped to a large angle its resistance
became relatively greater and it slowed up while the opposite side
went ahead. They at once hit upon the idea of a rudder, previously
considered unnecessary, which they believed could be turned in
each case of yawing just enough to create a new and apposing
yawing force of equal magnitude.
They therefore attached a rudder at the rear, connecting its tiller
ropes to lever No. 2, and giving this lever a compound motion so that
one hand could operate either warp or rudder control independently
(or simultaneously in proper proportion to eliminate the yawing
tendency above mentioned). This combination is the basis of the
Wright patents and is essential in airplanes of today.
 Great success now ensued in their gliding experiments; the
machine was always in perfect control; could be manipulated in any
desired manner; turned to right or left, or brought down to earth with
safety.
Thus were the three elements of control applied by the Wrights to
their glider and the problem apparent in Lillienthal’s death was
solved. The next step was to install a power plant able to maintain
forward speed without resorting to coasting downhill by gravity; and
therefore capable of producing a horizontal flight.
In developing a power flyer aside from the question of control the
proper design was arrived at as follows:
Efficiency of Wings.—The Wrights knew from Langley and
Chanute that flat wings were inefficient and useless, and curved
wings essential; they did not know whether the amount of curvature
mattered much. To find this out by trials in gliding would be slow and
expensive. They adopted a better way—the wind-tunnel method,
wherein small-scale models were tested and compared for efficiency
in a blast of air. They made their wind tunnel 16 in. in diameter and
created a powerful air blast through it by means of an engine-driven
fan. Small models of wings were placed in the center of this confined
air blast, mounted on a balance arm which projected into the tunnel
from the outside. The air forces and efficiency of the models were
thus measured. A large variety of shapes were tested and one was
selected as best of all from the standpoint of curvature and rounded
wing tips. This shape was adopted in their flyer, and though on a
much larger scale fulfilled the predictions made for its efficiency in
the indoor wind-tunnel experiments.
The Wright glider was, of course, a biplane model. They tested a
small 6-in. model biplane and found that the two wings together were
less efficient than either wing by itself. However, other
considerations, such as rigidity of trussing, decided them to adopt
the biplane rather than a monoplane arrangement.
Low Resistance to Forward Motion.—The Wrights used their
wind tunnel also in choosing for the struts of their airplane a shape
which would present least head resistance to forward motion. They
found that a square strut had a resistance which could be decreased
by changing the shape to resemble a fish. The resistance of the pilot
himself was decreased by making him lie prone, face downward on
the bottom wing.
Propeller Efficiency.—Although little data on the subject of
propeller efficiency was available to the Wrights, they were able to
arrive at a very creditable design wherein two propellers were used,
driven from a single motor, and rotating one each side of the pilot.
The mechanical difficulties which have since embarrassed the use of
two propellers were less with the Wrights because they were dealing
with smaller horsepowers than are in use today; they therefore were
able to realize a very high propeller efficiency.
Motor.—When the Wrights were ready to apply a motor to their
glider, they found it impossible to secure one light enough, and had
to set about building one themselves. They adopted a four-cylinder
type, water-cooled, and their aim was to save weight and
complication wherever possible. Their first motor gave about 12 hp.,
which was raised to a higher and higher figure by subsequent
improvements until it reached 20 hp. In its earliest stages it was able
to give sufficient power for short horizontal flights.
Means of Starting and Landing.—One reason the Wrights could
use such low horsepower was that they employed auxiliary starting
apparatus to get up original speed. They knew that less horsepower
was necessary to fly an airplane after it was once in the air than was
necessary to get it into the air at the start, and they therefore rigged
up a catapult which projected their airplane forward on a rolling
carriage with great force at the start, so that all the motor had to do
was to maintain the flight in air. The Wright airplane had at first no
landing wheels, and was provided only with light skids on which it
could make a decent landing. Present-day airplanes, of course, have
wheels on which to roll both at starting and at landing and their
motors are powerful enough to eliminate the necessity for a starting
catapult.
 (Courtesy American Technical Society and Scientific American Supplement.)

Fig. 5.—Details of Bleriot XI monoplane.

Bleriot’s Contribution to Aviation.—Bleriot experimented a great

many years before he attained success and did so years after the
Wrights had successfully flown. But when he did obtain success, his
great ingenuity produced features of design which were a decided
step forward. He added a body to the airplane and produced a
machine which instead of being a pair of wings with various
appendages, was a body to which wings were attached, giving a
more shipshape and convenient arrangement. The motor, instead of
being located beside the pilot as in the Wright machine, was put in
the very front of the body ahead of the pilot where it was not likely to
fall on him in case of a smash. This location of the motor entailed the
use of a single propeller at the front, a “tractor” screw as it was
called, less efficient than the double propeller of the Wrights, but
better from the standpoint of mechanical convenience. The body of a
Bleriot, which was quite similar to the body of any bird in its general
arrangement, projected to the rear in a tapering form and carried at
the rear a rudder and elevator. The motor, pilot and tanks were thus
enclosed within the body and away from the wind. Bleriot’s
contributions were then, better location of the motor, adaptation of
the body or “fuselage,” elimination of the front elevator and
substitution of the rear elevator.
Nieuport and Fokker’s Contribution to Aviation.—A further
advance on Bleriot’s design was made by Nieuport and later by
Fokker. The former utilized the fuselage principle of Bleriot and
enclosed the whole framework, front and back, to give a stream-line
form, and even went so far as to make wind-tunnel experiments from
which he was able to choose a very efficient fuselage shape as well
as wing and strut efficiency.
 (From Hayward’s “Practical Aeronautics.”)
Fig. 6.—Nieuport monoplane.
Representing an advance in speed, due to covered stream-line body.
 CHAPTER II
TYPES OF MILITARY AIRPLANES AND THEIR
USES

Modern Airplanes Combining Best Features of Previous

Experiments.—The modern airplane, of which the Curtiss training
machine used at the U. S. Aviation Schools is typical, is a
combination of the best features referred to above. It is of the biplane
type for, as shown by Chanute, rigid trussing is thus possible, an
advantage sufficient to offset the slight loss of efficiency which exists
in the biplane. The landing gear consists of two wheels provided with
shock absorbers; the body is of the general stream-line type,
enclosed from front to back, containing comfortable seats for the
passengers and enclosing the motor and tanks away from the wind.
The motor is at the front where, in an accident, it will not be on top of
the pilot. The warping effect is obtained by hinging flaps at the wing
tips, the same effect being obtained while at the same time leaving
the whole wing structure rigid and strong rather than flexible and
weak, as was the case in the early warping type of machines.
Military Airplanes of Today.—In the modern airplane, therefore,
we see that matters of efficiency, to which the Wrights gave great
attention, have been sacrificed in favor of convenience, particularly
in favor of power and speed. This is the effect of military demands
for airplanes where power, speed, and ability to climb fast are vital
requirements. To escape from or to destroy an enemy, high speed
and ability to climb fast are, of course, prerequisites. Moreover, from
the standpoint of safety in maneuvering it is desirable to have a
reserve of power and speed. Therefore, the design of military
machines has tended in a given direction up to the present.
New considerations have arisen on this account, such as for
instance the question of landing. Fast machines in general make
high-speed landings, and are for that reason dangerous. The original
Wright machines were built to land at such a slow speed that
ordinary skids were sufficient to take the shocks. Nowadays the
high-powered airplane is likely to come to grief in landing more than
at any other time. The question of stability in flight has of recent
years been treated mathematically and experimentally, using of
course the fundamental system of “three axes control” first applied
by the Wrights. It has been found that by properly proportioning the
tail surfaces and properly arranging the wings and center of gravity,
any desired degree of stability may be obtained, such that a machine
may be made almost self-flying or, if preferred, may be made very
sensitive.
All of the above features of design have had consideration in the
latest types of military airplanes. Observe the high speed of the
latest speed scouts, where power is concentrated exclusively on
speed and climbing ability and landing speed is dangerously high.
We see the advent of the triplane scout, which is an attempt to
secure slow landing speed combined with high flying speed. We see
machines with the motor and propeller in the rear, or with two
motors, one to each side of the body out in the wings, the object
being to avoid interference of the propeller with the range of gun fire.
In short, we see the effect of many military considerations on the
design of the airplane. It will be interesting at this point to survey
what are these military uses of the airplane.
Aerial Fighting.—Fighting in the air is the most spectacular use to
which military airplanes have been put. The first requirements in a
fighting airplane are speed and climbing ability and these must be
obtained at all costs, because speed and climb are weapons of
defense and offense second only in value to the gun itself. The
concentration of motive power for speed and climb requires that as
little weight as possible be used; and therefore the fastest fighters
are designed to carry only one person and are very light and of
course very small. It is usual to have one gun fixed to the body and
firing through the propeller in the case of a tractor, and a second
adjustable aim gun pointing upwards over the top wing. This gives
the pilot a chance to fire a round at the enemy while “sitting on his
tail” or following from behind; and then when diving below the enemy
the second gun is available for shooting overhead. These very high-
speed fighters are difficult to land, due to their speed, and are
suitable only for the highest-trained pilots.
Directing Artillery Fire.—The friendly airplane is sent out over
the enemy’s positions, soars above the target, sends back signals by
wireless to the friendly battery regarding the effect of fire; practically
dictating the success of artillery operations.
Reconnaissance.—The friendly airplanes go out, usually in
squads for the sake of protection, and observe by means of
photographs or vision size of enemy troops, batteries, trenches, lines
of communication, etc.; report the situation to headquarters as a
source of daily photographic record of the operations of the enemy,
to such an extent that any change of the enemy’s position can be
analyzed. Of course the value of reconnaissance is lessened when
the enemy disguises his gun emplacements, etc. In reconnaissance
machines it is important to have two persons, one to steer and the
other to scan the countryside. The reconnaissance machine is
therefore a two-place type which may or may not have armament. It
need not be so fast, especially when convoyed by fighting speed
scouts. The two-place machines are frequently used for fighting, in
which case the pilot will have a gun fixed to the body and shooting
through the propeller, and the passenger, especially in German
machines, will also have a gun mounted in the turret so that it may
be shot in a variety of directions by the passenger.
Bomb Dropping.—This maneuver requires squad flights to be of
great value. The fundamental characteristic of a bombing airplane is
its ability to carry great weight. Such machines are of comparatively
large size and not particularly fast. Weight carrying is of course
incompatible with speed and climbing ability and therefore the
bombing machine must be a compromise if it is to have any
reasonable speed. It may be said that airplanes compare very
unfavorably with dirigible balloons for bomb raids because the latter
are able to carry several tons of bombs as against the airplane’s
quarter of a ton.
 Locating Submarines.—For coast patrol or submarine spotting,
the airplane is an important factor, for from an airplane it is possible
to see for a considerable depth into the water, and to locate hostile
submarines.
Training Student Aviators.—The training machine on which
prospective aviators secure their flying instruction may be
considered as a type in which great speed and power is not
essential, but in which reliability and ease of control is desirable. The
typical military training airplane in this country is a single-motor
tractor of moderate horsepower (about 100) having of course the
seats in tandem and furnished with dual control so that operation
may be from either pilot’s or passenger’s seat. The dual-control
system of training which prevails in this country differs from the
French method of starting the pupil out alone to try his wings; it
enables the pilot to keep a constant eye upon the pupil’s control
manipulations and to correct them instantly whenever they are in
error before any damage is done. A possible improvement in the
dual-control training machine will be the substitution of side by side
seats for tandem seats. At present, communication is difficult due to
the great noise of the motor; but with the adoption of side by side
seats such as is used in naval training schools, the pilot and pupil
will be able to communicate to better advantage.
 Fig. 7.—U. S. training airplane, dual control (Curtiss JN-4).
Speed 43 to 72 mi. per hr.; climbing ability 300 ft. per min.; 90 h.p.; weight fully
loaded 1,890 lbs.

Types of Airplanes.—To suit the foregoing purposes flying

machines exist in seven distinct different shapes at the present time,
namely: monoplanes, biplanes, triplanes, single-motor tractors,
single-motor pushers, double-motor machines and marine airplanes.
The last four types may be either monoplanes, biplanes or triplanes.
In order to understand the adoption of one or the other type for
military use, it is well to run over the characteristics of the seven
types mentioned.
Monoplanes.—The simplest form of airplane is the monoplane
which is fashioned after the manner of a bird (see Fig. 34). There are
two things to say in favor of the monoplane: first, that the passengers
have an unobstructed view forward and range of gun fire upward
because there is no wing above them; second, the aerodynamic
efficiency of the monoplane is superior to any other type. But when
the bird design is applied to a man-carrying apparatus, it becomes
impracticable to construct spars to take the place of the bird’s wing
bones; and therefore to give the wings proper strength it becomes
necessary to truss them with numerous tension wires stretching from
the running gear out to various portions of the wings. There are also
wires running from a vertical mast above the body to a point on the
top part of the wing; these wires, while they give the wing no added
strength during a flight, are necessary in order that the shock of
landing shall not break the wings off sharp at the shoulder. It is
characteristic of monoplane construction that from a point below the
body and also from a point above the body a number of heavy wires
run outward to various points on the wings; and it may be said that
the strength to be secured from this construction is not all that could
be desired.
Biplanes.—The biplane is an improvement over the monoplane
from the latter standpoint; in the biplane there are two parallel
surfaces separated by vertical sticks or struts, thus forming
parallelograms which are susceptible of being trussed by means of
tension-wire diagonals in a manner familiar and well understood in
case of bridges. It is possible to build up biplane wings of great
rigidity and strength by this system, much more easily than in case of
monoplanes. However, the biplane type is from the standpoint of
efficiency inferior to the monoplane. This is due to the fact that the
vacuum above the bottom wing which is so necessary for high duty
is somewhat interfered with by the upper wing; thus while in a
biplane the upper wing operates about as efficiently as it would
operate in a monoplane, yet the lower wing has its efficiency
materially reduced and the resulting overall efficiency of a biplane
compared area for area with the monoplane is about 85 per cent. as
great. However, recent developments of the airplane have more or
less put efficiency in the background and as a result today the
biplane is more popular than the monoplane. In addition to the
greater strength of biplane wings their span may be less than the
monoplane for the same supporting area. This makes them less
unwieldy. Moreover, for certain reasons a biplane machine of high
speed may be landed at a lower speed than equivalent monoplanes.
Triplanes.—What is true of the biplane is more true in almost
every item of the triplane, that is, it is comparatively strong, compact,
and of low landing speed, but of reduced efficiency.
 Fig. 8.—U. S. speed scout triplane, single seater.
(Curtiss Model S3), 55 to 115 mi. per hr.; climbing ability 900 ft. per min.; 100 h.p.;
weight fully loaded 1,320 lbs.

Single-Motor Tractors.—The single-motor tractor received its

name simply because the propeller is in front and draws the machine
forward; but this location of the propeller necessitates a distinct type
of airplane, wherein the power plant is located at the very nose of the
machine. The tractor type has the pilot and passenger located in or
to the rear of the wings in order that their weight may balance the
weight of the motor. This means that the view and range of fire of the
passengers is obstructed in a forward direction by the wings, and in
machines such as the U. S. training machine, the passenger, who is
practically in the center of the wings, can not look directly upward nor
directly downward. Moreover, as concerns gun fire, the propeller of a
tractor obstructs the range straight ahead. In the tractor the tail is
supported at the rear and on the same body which contains the
motor and passengers; this body constitutes a stream-line housing
for the machinery, seats, etc., and therefore has low wind resistance.
The tractor is a very shipshape design, compact and simple and is at
present the prevailing type on the European war front. However, it
has disadvantages which are only overcome in other types. One of
these disadvantages is of course the obstruction to range of gun fire.
The present practice in fighting airplanes is simply to shoot the gun
straight through the circle of rotation of the propeller on the
assumption that most of the bullets will get through and that those
which hit the shank of the propeller blade will be deflected by proper
armoring. An attempt is made to insure that all the shots will get
through by connecting the gun mechanism mechanically to the motor
shaft in such a way that bullets will be discharged only at the instant
when their path is unobstructed by a propeller blade. This practice is
possible of course only in guns which are fixed immovably to the
airplane.

Fig. 9.—Fuselage diagram, Curtiss “R4” reconnaissance biplane.

Speed 48 to 90 mi. per hr.; climbing ability 400 ft. per min.; 200 h.p.; weight fully
loaded 3,245 lbs.
 Fig. 10.—An American pusher biplane design.
Crew in front, motor and propeller in the rear, tail support on outriggers.

Single-motor Pusher Airplanes.—The pusher type has

popularity because the propeller and motor rotate to the rear of the
passenger, who takes his place in the very front of the body and has
an open range of vision and gun fire downward, upward and
sideways. Another point in favor of the pusher is that the oil and
fumes of the motor do not blow into his face as in the case of the
tractor. The disadvantage of the pusher is that the motor, being
located behind the pilot, will be on top of him in the case of a fall.
Another disadvantage is that the body can not be given its shipshape
stream-line form because to do so will interfere with the rotation of
the propeller. Therefore, the body is abruptly terminated just to the
rear of the wings and it is just long enough to hold the passenger
and the motor, the propeller sticking out behind. The tail surfaces are
then attached to the airplane by means of long outriggers springing
from the wing beams at points sufficiently far from the propeller axis
so as not to interfere with the propeller.
 Fig. 11.—U. S. army battle plane.
Two 100 h.p. motors; speed 85 mi. per hr.

Double-motor Machines.—In order to combine the advantages of

the tractor and pusher types and eliminate their disadvantages, the
double-motor machines have been developed. In these there is no
machinery whatever in the body either in front or back, and the
passengers may take seats at the extreme front as is desirable. The
body then tapers off to the rear in stream-line form and supports the
tail surfaces. The power plants are in duplicate and one is located to
each side of the body out on the wings. It is customary to enclose
each of these two motors in a casing so that the whole power plant
presents a more or less stream-line shape to the wind, the propellers
projecting from the front or rear of these stream-line shapes. It may
be said that in the double-motor airplane it makes very little
difference whether the propeller is in front or behind so that while a
“twin-motor” machine may be more accurately specified as a “twin-
motor pusher” or a “twin-motor tractor,” it is usually sufficient
indication of a machine’s characteristics to call it a twin-motor
machine.
By adopting this twin-motor form we bring in new disadvantages.
One of these is due to the fact that the heavy motors are now
located some distance from the center of gravity of the machine.
This requires stronger supporting members between the motor and
the body. It also makes the lateral control comparatively logy for now
the heavy masses are far from the center of gravity, resisting the
pilot’s efforts to use the lateral control. The second disadvantage in
the twin-motor type results from possible stoppage of either motor. In
this case, of course, the propelling force is some distance off center
and is also reduced to one-half its value requiring energetic exercise
of the control wheel to maintain equilibrium. It is reported, however,
that twin machines can continue to fly and even climb with only one
motor running. In this country the twin-motor type has not developed
as was hoped at first, and on the European firing lines it is not so
numerous as the single-motor tractor type.
Marine Airplanes.—The possibility of mechanical flight having
once been established and wheels having been applied to the
airplane so that it could start from and land on the ground, the logical
next step was to substitute some form of boat for the wheels so that
flights could be made over the water.
Experiments were made in France by M. Fabre in this direction
and in this country by G. H. Curtiss. The latter, in his flight down the
Hudson from Albany to New York, equipped his airplane with a light
float to provide against forced landing in the river. Pursuing this
general idea he made some experiments under the auspices of
Alexander Graham Bell’s Aerial Experiment Association, in which a
canoe was substituted for the wheels, and in which an attempt was
made to start from the surface of the water. Success did not come at
first and this plan gave no satisfaction. Curtiss next turned his
attention to the hydroplane type of boat and made a series of
experiments at San Diego. The hydroplane appeared to be much
better adapted to his purpose than the canoe had been, and he was
able to obtain success.
 Fig. 12.—Thomas Type H. S. seaplane. Double pontoons.
Speed 47 to 82 mi. per hr.; climbing ability 270 ft. per min.; 135 h.p.; weight, fully
loaded 2,600 lbs.
 Fig. 13.—Curtiss Model F flying boat.
Speed 45 to 65 mi. per hr.; climbing ability 150 ft. per min.; 90 h.p.; weight fully
loaded 2,100 lbs.

The Hydro-airplane (or “Seaplane”).—From analogy to the

airplane one might at first imagine that a suitable hydroplane would
have a wide span and fore and aft length; but such proportion would
give a very poor stability on the water, and would require auxiliary
hydroplanes in the same way that an airplane requires auxiliary
guiding surfaces. So Curtiss, with his customary eye for simplicity
and convenience, adopted a type of hydroplane which had the
general proportions of an ordinary boat, i.e., was long and narrow,
thus obviating the necessity of auxiliary hydroplanes at the tail of the
machine. To prevent the machine’s tipping over sidewise, “wing
pontoons” were attached at the lower wing tips to prevent capsizing.
Fig. 14.—Building a flying boat hull.
Note wing stumps and hydroplane fins.