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(Download PDF) Complete Italian Step by Step 1St Edition Paola Nanni Tate Full Chapter PDF
(Download PDF) Complete Italian Step by Step 1St Edition Paola Nanni Tate Full Chapter PDF
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Copyright © 2020 by McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Except as
permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of
this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by
any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the
prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-1-26-046324-8
MHID: 1-26-046324-9
The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this
title: ISBN: 978-1-26-046323-1, MHID: 1-26-046323-0.
TERMS OF USE
Preface
Guide to Pronunciation
5 Regular Verbs
Uses of the Present Tense
-are Verbs
The Preposition a
-ere Verbs
-ire Verbs
-are and -ere Verbs with More than One Meaning
Reading Comprehension Arturo e Carla
6 Irregular Verbs
Irregular -are Verbs
-ere Verbs
-ire Verbs
Reading Comprehension La famiglia Marchetti
12 Reflexive Verbs
Reflexive Pronouns
Frequently Used Reflexive Verbs
Reflexive Verbs Whose English Translations Do Not Include
Oneself
Position of the Reflexive Pronoun
Reflexive Verbs with Parts of the Body and Clothing
Reflexive Verbs That Express Emotion or Movement
Reflexive Verbs Followed by a Preposition
Review of Indirect and Direct Object Pronouns and Reflexive
Pronouns
Reflexive Verbs with Reciprocal Meanings
Si and Impersonal Expressions
Reading Comprehension I mezzi di trasporto pubblici
13 The Preterit and the Present Perfect
Tenses
Formation of the Preterit
Key Vocabulary
Uses of the Preterit
Irregular Verbs
The Present Perfect Tense
Present Perfect with essere
Reading Comprehension La moda italiana
II Advanced Step-by-Step
Accent Marks, Stress, and Intonation in Italian
17 Descriptive Adjectives
Adjectives ending in –o
Invariable Adjectives
Position of the Adjectives
Descriptive Adjectives
Irregular Adjectives
Adjectives That Precede a Noun
The Adjective bello
Adjectives That Express Quantity
Adjectives That Express Next, Only, and Last
Adjectives Related to the Five Senses
Comparison of Adjectives, Adverbs, Nouns, and Verbs
Superlative Adjectives
Reading Comprehension Al ristorante
Suffixes of Adjectives
Adjectives and Possessive Pronouns
18 Possessive Pronouns
Formation and Uses of Possessive Pronouns
Relative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
19 Prepositions
The Preposition a
The Preposition in
The Preposition di
The Preposition da
The Preposition con
The Preposition su
The Preposition sotto
The Prepositions fra and tra
The Preposition per
20 Adverbs
Formation of Adverbs
Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of Location
Reading Comprehension Amici
Adverbial Expressions with the Prepositions: a, di, da, and in
Adverbs of Direction
21 Stare vs Essere
Uses of Stare
Present Continuous Tense (or Progressive Tense)
Reading Comprehension Il bar
26 Negatives
Negative Expressions
More Negative Expressions
Mica and Affatto
The Past Progressive Tense
31 The Future
The Future Tense of Regular Verbs
Stem Changes in the Future Tense
The Future Tense of Irregular Verbs
Expressing the Future Using the Present Tense
The Future Perfect Tense
Reading Comprehension I ponti di Roma e Venezia
32 The Conditional
Formation of the Conditional Tense
Verbs with Irregular Conditional Stems
Uses of the Conditional Tense
The Conditional Perfect
Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Speech
Answer Key
Index
Preface
Acknowledgments
Writing a grammar book that is cogent and written with learners in
mind is always my goal, and I think we have accomplished that with
Complete Italian Step-by-Step. I would like to thank Barbara
Bregstein, the author of Easy Spanish Step-by-Step, for laying the
foundation on which this program was created.
I would also like to thank Garret Lemoi and Christopher Brown,
my editors at McGraw-Hill, for their assistance, patience, and
guidance throughout the writing of the two original books that make
up this program. I would also like to thank my husband, Robert Tate,
for proofreading the books, and finally a big thank-you to all my
students who continue to inspire me to write and to all the people
whose love of Italian inspired them to pick up this program.
Guide to Pronunciation
Abbreviations
The following abbreviations have been used throughout the text.
Vowels
Italian vowels are always pronounced in a sharp or clear way
regardless of stress. They are never slurred or pronounced weakly.
Pronounce the examples.
Consonants
Here are some more sounds that are specifically found in the
Italian language.
Two-syllable words stress the first syllable. This does not usually
affect the pronunciation.
Tips on Pronunciation
• Always use the Italian r sound. Remember that the single and
the double r are trilled or flipped.
• Pronounce z as tz (stazione).
• The letters c and g followed by an e or i have the soft sound of
church.
The Alphabet
Singular Nouns
Masculine
Most nouns that end in -o are masculine singular.
NOTE: Exceptions to this rule include mano, foto, auto, and radio,
which end in -o but are feminine nouns.
Feminine
Most nouns ending in -a are feminine.
Nouns Ending in -e
Nouns ending in -e can be masculine or feminine. They are not too
many, so they are easy to memorize.
Nouns Ending in -amma or -ma
Nouns that end in -amma or -ma are masculine.
Exercise 1.1
Write the appropriate endings for the masculine and feminine nouns.
1. cas_____
2. ragazz_____ (m.)
3. zain_____
4. scuol_____
5. specchi_____
6. penn_____
7. giornal_____
8. sapon_____
9. pan_____
10. ciliegi_____ (fruit)
11. fic_____
12. sal_____
Plural Nouns
When forming the plural of Italian nouns, the final vowel changes to
indicate a change in number.
Masculine Nouns
For regular masculine nouns that end in -o, the endings change to -i
in the plural.
Plural of -e Is -i
The plural form of all nouns ending in -e is always -i, regardless of
whether the noun is masculine or feminine. The distinction rests with
the article, which changes according to whether the noun is
masculine or feminine (see “The Definite Article”).
Exercise 1.2
Write the plural form of each of the singular nouns.
1. lettera _________________
2. pera _________________
3. stella _________________
4. sport _________________
5. lezione _________________
6. vino _________________
7. albero _________________
8. musica _________________
9. sale _________________
10. canzone _________________
11. altalena _________________
12. fiore _________________
13. dea _________________
14. amica _________________
15. amico _________________
16. film _________________
Exercise 1.3
Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the indefinite article.
Exercise 1.4
Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the singular definite article.
1. _____ amico
2. _____ casa
3. _____ autostrada
4. _____ zio
5. _____ padre
6. _____ automobile
7. _____ mano
8. _____ lezione
9. _____ stazione
10. _____ professore
11. _____ nonno
12. _____ entrata
13. _____ madre
14. _____ sport
15. _____ cielo
16. _____ dottore
17. _____ limone
18. _____ pesca
19. _____ pesco
20. _____ scrittore
Exercise 1.5
Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the plural definite article.
1. _____ amici
2. _____ case
3. _____ zii
4. _____ padri
5. _____ nonni
6. _____ entrate
7. _____ autostrade
8. _____ madri
9. _____ sport
10. _____ cieli
11. _____ automobili
12. _____ mani
13. _____ lezioni
14. _____ stazioni
15. _____ professori
16. _____ dottori
17. _____ limoni
18. _____ pesche
19. _____ peschi
20. _____ serpenti
Exercise 1.6
Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the definite and the
indefinite articles, where necessary.
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2. Lateral or “rolling” motion accomplished by wing warping
operated by a second lever.
These were the only controls used in the earliest gliders. It
remains to consider the third element of control, viz:
3. The directional or “yawing” control, which is accomplished by an
ordinary vertical rudder operated by a third lever.
The Wrights found the warping had all the effect anticipated but
had also certain secondary and undesirable effects. Whenever they
applied the warping lever to correct the rolling motion, the glider
responded as far as rolling control was concerned, but at the same
time would “yaw” or swerve out of its course to right or left. This was
a serious complication. For, in the moment of swerving, the high
wing which they desired to depress would advance faster than the
low wing, and solely by its higher velocity tended to develop a
greater lift and thereby neutralize the beneficial effect of the warp. In
many of their early glides, because of pronounced swerving, the
warp effect was entirely counteracted and failed to bring the glider
back to level; with the result that one wing tip would sink, at the
same time swinging backward until the machine was brought to the
ground. No amount of controlling could prevent this.
After much bewilderment on this point, the Wrights observed that
whenever a wing tip was warped to a large angle its resistance
became relatively greater and it slowed up while the opposite side
went ahead. They at once hit upon the idea of a rudder, previously
considered unnecessary, which they believed could be turned in
each case of yawing just enough to create a new and apposing
yawing force of equal magnitude.
They therefore attached a rudder at the rear, connecting its tiller
ropes to lever No. 2, and giving this lever a compound motion so that
one hand could operate either warp or rudder control independently
(or simultaneously in proper proportion to eliminate the yawing
tendency above mentioned). This combination is the basis of the
Wright patents and is essential in airplanes of today.
Great success now ensued in their gliding experiments; the
machine was always in perfect control; could be manipulated in any
desired manner; turned to right or left, or brought down to earth with
safety.
Thus were the three elements of control applied by the Wrights to
their glider and the problem apparent in Lillienthal’s death was
solved. The next step was to install a power plant able to maintain
forward speed without resorting to coasting downhill by gravity; and
therefore capable of producing a horizontal flight.
In developing a power flyer aside from the question of control the
proper design was arrived at as follows:
Efficiency of Wings.—The Wrights knew from Langley and
Chanute that flat wings were inefficient and useless, and curved
wings essential; they did not know whether the amount of curvature
mattered much. To find this out by trials in gliding would be slow and
expensive. They adopted a better way—the wind-tunnel method,
wherein small-scale models were tested and compared for efficiency
in a blast of air. They made their wind tunnel 16 in. in diameter and
created a powerful air blast through it by means of an engine-driven
fan. Small models of wings were placed in the center of this confined
air blast, mounted on a balance arm which projected into the tunnel
from the outside. The air forces and efficiency of the models were
thus measured. A large variety of shapes were tested and one was
selected as best of all from the standpoint of curvature and rounded
wing tips. This shape was adopted in their flyer, and though on a
much larger scale fulfilled the predictions made for its efficiency in
the indoor wind-tunnel experiments.
The Wright glider was, of course, a biplane model. They tested a
small 6-in. model biplane and found that the two wings together were
less efficient than either wing by itself. However, other
considerations, such as rigidity of trussing, decided them to adopt
the biplane rather than a monoplane arrangement.
Low Resistance to Forward Motion.—The Wrights used their
wind tunnel also in choosing for the struts of their airplane a shape
which would present least head resistance to forward motion. They
found that a square strut had a resistance which could be decreased
by changing the shape to resemble a fish. The resistance of the pilot
himself was decreased by making him lie prone, face downward on
the bottom wing.
Propeller Efficiency.—Although little data on the subject of
propeller efficiency was available to the Wrights, they were able to
arrive at a very creditable design wherein two propellers were used,
driven from a single motor, and rotating one each side of the pilot.
The mechanical difficulties which have since embarrassed the use of
two propellers were less with the Wrights because they were dealing
with smaller horsepowers than are in use today; they therefore were
able to realize a very high propeller efficiency.
Motor.—When the Wrights were ready to apply a motor to their
glider, they found it impossible to secure one light enough, and had
to set about building one themselves. They adopted a four-cylinder
type, water-cooled, and their aim was to save weight and
complication wherever possible. Their first motor gave about 12 hp.,
which was raised to a higher and higher figure by subsequent
improvements until it reached 20 hp. In its earliest stages it was able
to give sufficient power for short horizontal flights.
Means of Starting and Landing.—One reason the Wrights could
use such low horsepower was that they employed auxiliary starting
apparatus to get up original speed. They knew that less horsepower
was necessary to fly an airplane after it was once in the air than was
necessary to get it into the air at the start, and they therefore rigged
up a catapult which projected their airplane forward on a rolling
carriage with great force at the start, so that all the motor had to do
was to maintain the flight in air. The Wright airplane had at first no
landing wheels, and was provided only with light skids on which it
could make a decent landing. Present-day airplanes, of course, have
wheels on which to roll both at starting and at landing and their
motors are powerful enough to eliminate the necessity for a starting
catapult.
(Courtesy American Technical Society and Scientific American Supplement.)