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Engineering Practice With Oilfield and Drilling Applications 1St Edition Scott D Sudhoff Full Chapter PDF
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Engineering Practice with Oilfield and
Drilling Applications
Wiley-ASME Press Series
Fabrication of Metallic Pressure Vessels
Owen Greulich, Maan H. Jawad
Engineering Practice with Oilfield and Drilling Applications
Donald W. Dareing
Flow-Induced Vibration Handbook for Nuclear and Process Equipment
Michel J. Pettigrew, Colette E. Taylor, Nigel J. Fisher
Vibrations of Linear Piezostructures
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Bearing Dynamic Coefficients in Rotordynamics: Computation Methods and Practical Applications
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Advanced Multifunctional Lightweight Aerostructures: Design, Development, and Implementation
Kamran Behdinan, Rasool Moradi-Dastjerdi
Vibration Assisted Machining: Theory, Modelling and Applications
Li-Rong Zheng, Dr. Wanqun Chen, Dehong Huo
Two-Phase Heat Transfer
Mirza Mohammed Shah
Computer Vision for Structural Dynamics and Health Monitoring
Dongming Feng, Maria Q Feng
Theory of Solid-Propellant Nonsteady Combustion
Vasily B. Novozhilov, Boris V. Novozhilov
Introduction to Plastics Engineering
Vijay K. Stokes
Fundamentals of Heat Engines: Reciprocating and Gas Turbine Internal Combustion Engines
Jamil Ghojel
Offshore Compliant Platforms: Analysis, Design, and Experimental Studies
Srinivasan Chandrasekaran, R. Nagavinothini
Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing
Zhuming Bi, Xiaoqin Wang
Pumps and Compressors
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Corrosion and Materials in Hydrocarbon Production: A Compendium of Operational and Engineering Aspects
Bijan Kermani and Don Harrop
Design and Analysis of Centrifugal Compressors
Rene Van den Braembussche
Case Studies in Fluid Mechanics with Sensitivities to Governing Variables
M. Kemal Atesmen
The Monte Carlo Ray-Trace Method in Radiation Heat Transfer and Applied Optics
J. Robert Mahan
Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies: A Self-Learning Approach
Mohammed F. Daqaq
Primer on Engineering Standards, Expanded Textbook Edition
Maan H. Jawad and Owen R. Greulich
Engineering Optimization: Applications, Methods and Analysis
R. Russell Rhinehart
Compact Heat Exchangers: Analysis, Design and Optimization using FEM and CFD Approach
C. Ranganayakulu and Kankanhalli N. Seetharamu
Robust Adaptive Control for Fractional-Order Systems with Disturbance and Saturation
Mou Chen, Shuyi Shao, and Peng Shi
Robot Manipulator Redundancy Resolution
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Stress in ASME Pressure Vessels, Boilers, and Nuclear Components
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Combined Cooling, Heating, and Power Systems: Modeling, Optimization, and Operation
Yang Shi, Mingxi Liu, and Fang Fang
Applications of Mathematical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Models in Engineering and Medicine
Abram S. Dorfman
Bioprocessing Piping and Equipment Design: A Companion Guide for the ASME BPE Standard
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Nonlinear Regression Modeling for Engineering Applications: Modeling, Model Validation, and Enabling Design of Experiments
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Geothermal Heat Pump and Heat Engine Systems: Theory and Practice
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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibrations
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Introduction to Dynamics and Control in Mechanical Engineering Systems
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Engineering Practice with Oilfield and Drilling
Applications
Donald W. Dareing
University of Tennessee
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ISBN: 9781119799498
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To Kristin:
My wonderful companion, whose energy, integrity, support, and reliability go beyond measure.
vii
Contents
Preface xxi
Nomenclature xxiii
Concurrent Engineering 14
Feasibility of Concept 14
Evaluating Design Alternatives 14
Evaluation Metrics 15
Scoring Alternative Concepts 15
Starting the Design 16
Design for Simplicity 16
Identify Subsystems 17
Development of Oil and Gas Reservoirs 17
Design of Offshore Drilling and Production Systems 18
Connection of Subsystems 19
Torsion Loading on Multibolt Patterns 19
Make-Up Force on Bolts 21
Preload in Drill Pipe Tool Joints 24
Shoulder Separation 26
Possible Yielding in the Pin 26
Make-Up Torque 28
Bolted Brackets 29
Welded Connections 30
Torsion Loading in Welded Connections 30
Attachments of Offshore Cranes 32
Quality Assurance 33
Engineering Education 34
Mission Statement 34
Academic Design Specifications 34
Design of the Academic Program 35
Outcomes Assessment 35
Saturn – Apollo Project 35
Notes 36
References 36
Material Yielding 62
Stress Concentration 62
Wear 63
Fatigue 63
Stress Corrosion Cracking 69
Brittle Fracture 69
Fluid Flow Through Pipe 70
Continuity of Fluid Flow 70
Bernoulli’s Energy Equation (First Law) 71
Reynolds Number 71
Friction Head for Laminar Flow 72
Turbulent Flow Through Pipe 72
Senior Capstone Design Project 74
Pump Selection 74
Required Nozzle Velocity 74
Nozzle Pressure 74
Pump Flow Rate Requirement 75
Vibration Considerations 77
Natural Frequency of SDOF Systems 80
Location of Center of Gravity 84
Moment of Inertia with Respect to Point A 84
Springs in Series, Parallel 85
Deflection of Coiled Springs 86
Free Vibration with Damping 86
Quantifying Damping 87
Critical Damping in Vibrating Bar System 88
Forced Vibration of SDOF Systems with Damping 89
Nonlinear Damping 93
Vibration Control 93
Other Vibration Considerations 94
Transmissibility 94
Vibration Isolation 95
Commonality of Responses 96
Application of Vibration Absorbers in Drill Collars 96
Natural Frequencies with Vibration Absorbers 97
Responses to Nonperiodic Forces 100
Dynamic Load Factor 102
Packaging 103
Vibrations Caused by Rotor Imbalance 105
Response to an Imbalanced Rotating Mass 105
Synchronous Whirl of an Imbalanced Rotating Disk 106
Balancing a Single Disk 109
Synchronous Whirl of Rotating Pipe 109
Stability of Rotating Pipe under Axial Load 110
Balancing Rotating Masses in Two Planes 112
x Contents
Index 593
xxi
Preface
Engineers are trained to understand the fundamental principles of mechanics and mathematics.
These tools provide a background of knowledge for making professional decisions. The tools of
engineering science apply across most engineering disciplines. The key to their application is visua-
lizing a reasonable mathematical model for the problem at hand. Freebody diagrams are helpful in
this regard. Mathematical solutions follow, leading to reasonable engineering results. Typically,
there is only one answer, so each problem is closed-ended.
On the other hand, design and problem-solving are open-ended. There are many possible solu-
tions and alternatives must be created. While each engineering design is different, the approach is
the same. An objective of this book is to explain the engineering design process and show how to
apply basic engineering tools.
The book contains three parts.
Part I gives a systematic process for developing an engineering design. The application of engi-
neering tools is illustrated during the conceptual and preliminary activities of design. Concept eval-
uation and selection are explained. Visualizing a total device or any system in terms of its
subsystems is helpful in creating a design. Key considerations in finalizing a design are implement-
ing feedback from test results or other evaluation sources, finalizing a design and presentation of
final manufacturing drawings.
Every machine has (i) a prime mover or power source, (ii) mechanisms to transmit energy and
(iii) energy consumed by forming the final product, plus friction. Part II covers Power Generation,
Transmission, and Consumption.
Part III contains useful tools of engineering mechanics. Each selected topic goes beyond the tra-
ditional tools of design. Mathematical modeling and methods of solution are of historical signifi-
cance. Each topic is supplemented with key references for additional background information.
Physical responses of engineering systems are predictable through science and mathematics. This
one thing makes it possible to design modern structures and machinery to a high degree of relia-
bility. The first scientifically based engineered bridge is the Eads Bridge which spans the Mississippi
River at St. Louis. It was designed and constructed by James Eads. Construction began in 1867. It
was dedicated in 1874 and is still in use today.
xxii Preface
My goal in writing this book was to document the essence of engineering practice. The manu-
script is a condensation of lecture notes developed over years of teaching across the mechanical
engineering curriculum and industrial practice in the petroleum industry. It is written for under-
graduate and graduate students and as a reference for practicing engineers.
Donald W. Dareing
Professor Emeritus, Mechanical Engineering
University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Life Fellow Member, ASME
Knoxville, TN, USA
April 2021
xxiii
Nomenclature
a acceleration
BF buoyancy factor
c distance to outside beam surface, damping coefficient
ccr critical damping coefficient
E modulus of elasticity
Em energy per pound
F applied force, axial internal force at drill pipe-collar
interface above hydrostatic
FS safety factor
f friction force, vibration frequency
FB axial force in pipe (lower end)
Fcr critical buckling force
fn natural frequency, cps
G modulus of rigidity, angular momentum
h lubrication film thickness, enthalpy
hf friction head
H linear momentum, elevation
I area moment of inertia
Im impulse
J angular moment of inertia of a cross section,
angular mass moment of inertia
k, K local (modal) mechanical spring constant
K0 stress intensity factor
L length
m, M local (modal) mass, bending moment
N force
NR Reynolds number
p pressure
P unit force (force per area), power, diametral pitch
of gears
Q moment of area above shear surface, heat,
compressive force
Qeff = Q + (piAi − poAo) plus sign means compression
q roller bearing exponent
r radial position, frequency ratio (ω/ωn)
xxiv Nomenclature
Greek Symbols
Part I
Engineering design is a logical sequence of activities that solves a problem or achieves a specified
objective. Every design project has a beginning and an end. They can be several years long, such as
putting a man on the moon and returning safely to earth, or it can be short, such as designing and
fabricating a water pump. Successful engineering designs require a clear objective – well thought
out and executed. Planning is critical. The design process may also be applied to management or
any problem situation.
In conducting design, it is important to understand the difference between “open-end problems”
and “closed-ended problems.” Engineering tools of design are usually closed ended and based on
fundamental laws of engineering science. The answer is unique. Use of engineering tools usually
follows certain steps:
1) Develop a mathematical model for the physical element under consideration.
2) Develop a freebody diagram of the element along with forces and moment considering the con-
straints placed on the element.
3) Solve the mathematical equations leading to a prediction of performance, usually expressed in
terms of stress, deflection, vibration, etc.
4) Judge the answer against experience, order of magnitude (believable), and uniformity of
dimensions.
On the other hand, open-ended problems have many possible solutions. Each must be generated
and evaluated before a design can start. Solving open-ended problems requires imagination and
creativity. Part I gives a process for solving open-ended problems, including steps in project work.
It also underscores important design principles that may be considered in moving through an engi-
neering project.
Engineering Practice with Oilfield and Drilling Applications, First Edition. Donald W. Dareing.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3
Engineering design involves management of people, resources, money, and time. Success depends
on planning, resource, and time management. Time is usually the driver.
When discussing the importance of teaming with one company, the response was, “teaming isn’t
important – it is everything.” The very success of a company depends upon people skills and the
ability to work with others as a team member. Pete Carroll, while head football coach at the
University of Southern California, says, “Winning players don’t always win. It’s the winning plays
that win.”
Planning is a matter of thinking through the activities and tasks that will be necessary to achieve
the stated goal. This is somewhat experience dependent. For large projects, it may be useful to
divide tasks into major activities, such as design, fabrication, installation, and commission, which
are usually conducted in tandem. In other projects, where several activities are conducted simul-
taneously, major groupings may be needed. An example would be a military operation involving
various branches.
General Dwight Eisenhower, along with his staff, spent months developing a plan for the inva-
sion of Europe. His team of officers generated and evaluated various plans of attack. Eisenhower
once said “… the plan itself is not as important as the act of planning.” Thinking through the plan is
the key.
Plans need to be flexible. As new information is gathered along the way, the plan may need to be
modified. A good manager anticipates problems and deals with them early to avoid crises. A crisis is
a situation where a critical problem needs to be solved, but there is little time to solve it. A Gantt
chart can be useful in this regard.
Design Methodology
Basic steps for developing a product idea (or service) into a profitable venture are given in
Figure 1.1. The first few boxes indicate the importance of a preliminary market analysis and input
from customers to determine market reaction to a new product. Also, a preliminary market analysis
helps define and refine the attributes of the product. Initial feedback from customers is useful in
deciding whether to proceed with further development.
Design specifications are based on specific needs and expected performance. Design specifica-
tions represent the initial engineering baseline for generating design alternatives. In most cases,
design specification are legal statements of what is expected. They must be established accurately
and in concert with users of the future product.
Engineering Practice with Oilfield and Drilling Applications, First Edition. Donald W. Dareing.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4 Design and Problem Solving Guidelines
Operation requirements
Design specifications
Synthesis
Analysis
Evaluate concepts
Preliminary
design
Build prototype
Test prototype
Fabrication
drawings
Manufacture
Design alternatives are typically generated by a team of professionals with special skills, such as
marketing, design, and manufacturing. This activity is sometimes called concurrent engineering
where the team considers every aspect of the product from technical feasibility to product life cycle
to manufacturing and marketing strategy. Feedback from potential customers is important. The
team also evaluates each design alternative and selects the best concept to advance. Depending
on the complexity of the concept, technical feasibility studies, requiring advanced computational
techniques, may be required during the refinements of design alternatives.
Since design is open ended, there are many possible solutions or design alternatives that satisfy a
given set of specifications. Once viable designs have been generated, they need to be ranked so
choice can be made. Choosing a preferred concept is based on trade-offs among evaluation metrics
identified for a given product; an evaluation method will be described later.
A preliminary design represents an update of the engineering baseline. The preliminary design
refines the preferred alternative. It advances the engineering baseline for the final design and fab-
rication phases.
Operational Requirements 5
Developing a final design may require the use of computer-aided-design (CAD), numerical anal-
ysis, and other analytical tools to refine dimensions. Prototype testing may also be desirable. Com-
puter simulations may alleviate the high cost of prototype testing.
The product configuration is again evaluated in the marketplace for customer feedback and
approval. This is accomplished through market surveys or market focus groups depending on
the nature of the product.
The next step is to interface CAD codes with manufacturing (CAM). This requires converting
design codes into machine tool codes. Depending on the product and the market, the ability to
reconfigure the machining and handling process in a timely manner may be important for “just
in time” delivery.
Market Analysis
The purpose of a market analysis is to identify what potential customers want in a new product, estab-
lish the size of the market, and determine what price the market is willing to pay for the product.
A market analysis will produce a set of product attributes, which more clearly define the main features
of the planned product. Using customer input and competitor product features, important features for
the new product can be identified and ranked as to their importance. This information identifies cus-
tomer preferences and competitive differentiation during the conceptual stage of product development.
New products can be either research driven, or market driven. Research-driven products stem
from ideas that spawn from basic or fundamental research. In this case, a new technique or device
may be the objective or a by-product of the study. The technique or device then becomes a solution
looking for a problem, so to speak. The market-driven product is developed in response to a definite
market need. In some cases, a market may be developed for a new idea.
Before investing much time and money, it is best to conduct a patent search to make sure the
product does not infringe on active patents. This exercise will also give useful information on
the state-of-the-art of products as applied to a given market. It may show the patent protection
period on a product has expired, offering the opportunity to enter the market with a competitor’s
product – with improvements.
In recent years, markets have become more demanding on product delivery. Customer needs
may change over a short period. Companies that can retool for “just in time manufacturing” in
response to this demand have an advantage. One tool company, that makes diamond drill bits
for oil and gas well drilling, built its business on making diamond drill bits overnight; each diamond
was handset. Each diamond bit was and still is tailored to suit a set of design specifications stipu-
lated by an oil company. The main reason for a quick response capability (or “just in time manu-
facturing”) is moderate demand for high cost of diamond drill bits. It is not good business to
stockpile high-cost products for a limited market application. Warehoused products may become
outdated. It is costly and risky.
Operational Requirements
Product Development
Top management may define the operational requirements for a product, based on a market anal-
ysis. Company engineers then develop a set of design specifications before proceeding. Product
design may be conducted within a company or contracted outside.
•• Range
Speed
•• Landing capabilities
Weapon weight
• Weather considerations.
The GSA would expand the requesting agency’s description of operational requirements.
Effective market research and analysis must be conducted to assure that user need is satis-
fied. During the market research and analysis phase, the preparing activity should advise
potential agency users that a FPD is being developed. Ask potential users to provide a state-
ment of their needs in essential functional or performance terms to the maximum practical
extent.
In addition to a clear description of operational requirements, FPDs will also develop a compre-
hensive list of design specifications for a new product. The tender document would be reviewed at
various levels with GSA before it is released to contract bidders.
Design specifications would document detailed engineering constraints on the design, such as
environmental conditions, ocean floor mud line load-bearing capabilities, material specifications,
expected loads, 100-year storm conditions, etc.
Design Specifications 7
Design Specifications
Design specifications are an itemized set of constraints placed on a design. They identify product
performance expectations: what the product is supposed to do and how the product should perform.
They are contractual and represent the initial “engineering baseline” from which all concepts are
generated. They are an important part of a contract between customer and designer. Usually, the
customer signs-off on a set of specifications once they have been documented. Any changes, for any
reason, after the development work starts, will cause delays, and increase costs. The cost of making
changes is usually written into a contract.
Once operational requirements have been set, design specifications are documented. They may
be expanded by outside contractors in conjunction with company engineers. The contract usually
puts the burden of completeness on the contractor, such as all relevant Codes and Standards are the
responsibility of the design contractor.
Specification Topics
Design specifications are usually subdivided into key topics. Topics normally considered are dis-
cussed below.
Performance Requirements
Performance requirements identify specifics, such as loads, motions, flow rates, operating
pressures, and temperature limits, to name a few. In addition, the technical specifications
may include physical and chemical properties of materials to be used. Material properties
may include such items as yield strength and hardness. Weld procedures (including preheating)
and welder qualification requirements, special heat treatment and annealing may be specified.
Environmental and climate conditions may affect design. Examples are wind, oceanographic
conditions, such as wave height, wind-driven current velocities, and tidal currents.
Performance requirements define the physical constraints in the design. Depending upon the size
of the project, the specification document can be as small as a few pages or several volumes.
Sustainability
Sustainability means being good stewards of the resources on planet earth. A 1987 UN report
defines sustainable development as: “Meeting the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” This specification is relevant, ethical,
8 Design and Problem Solving Guidelines
and makes good economic sense. Earlier business strategies were based on planned obsolescence,
where products were intentionally designed to wear out after a given period [2].
A few metrics relating to sustainability are:
Environmental
Designers should consider the environmental impact of a new product throughout the product’s life
cycle, i.e. from fabrication to product disposal. Even in the early stages of offshore platform design,
disposal of a structure at the end of production life (about 20–30 years) is considered.
Design Specifications 9
The most vulnerable or highest risk components in the design should be identified and environ-
mental consequences associated with possible failure considered. The designer needs to consider
the “what if” scenarios. If a failure occurs, how would it affect public health, public safety, public
image of company, property damage, as well as damage to the environment. Goodwill is an asset on
the balance sheet of any company.
Social Considerations
People, who will be affected by the implementation or use of a given product or project, should be
consulted and brought into design deliberations as early as possible – the sooner the better. This is
not only right but, by doing so, misunderstanding is alleviated, and public resistance will be reduced
as the project develops. People simply want to be consulted and given the opportunity to make
input on issues that affect their lives. If not given this opportunity, citizens may unite and work
against a worthwhile project.
Aside from human reaction, there are legitimate reasons for considering social factors in design,
such as safety and preservation of a culture. When oil companies began to develop oil fields in the
northern part of the North Sea, oil transportation from the offshore platforms had to be resolved.
Crude oil could be off-loaded directly onto tankers or transported to land by a pipeline and then
loaded onto tankers in a protected harbor for transport to refineries. The closest land point from
the platforms was to the small fishing village of Solom Voe, Shetland Islands. An extensive study
was conducted to design a port that would not destroy centuries-old lifestyle of the people living in
this area. There were also benefits to local economies.
Reliability
There are two methods of design which relate to the safety and reliability of products: (i) factor of
safety and (ii) statistical or reliability.
The factor of safety method is commonly used in engineering design. It is a time-proven design
tool and when used properly, safe and reliable designs are developed. Factor of safety (FS) is the
ratio of failure stress to an allowable design stress.
Material yield strength, σ yld, is often used as the failure stress. In this case
σ yld σ yld
FS = = 11
σ allowable σa
where σ a is the allowable stress level used throughout a design. When the factor of safety is
given, then
σ yld
σa = 12
FS
predictions of local stress in complex geometries, and thus reduce the uncertainty of stress
predictions.
The statistical or reliability approach seeks to establish design parameters so that the product
performs to an expected level of reliability [3]. Reliability is a statistical measure of performance.
For example, a product reliability of 0.9 means that there is a 90% chance that a given product will
perform its proper function without failure. The method requires statistical data on all random vari-
ables, such as strength, size, and weight. With this approach, products can be designed to a required
level of reliability.
Cost Considerations
Economics should be considered during the early stages of concept generation. Concepts that allow
for early return on investments may be critical. Oil companies want to begin oil production as early
as possible, maybe prior to the completion of the overall production system. Time is money and if it
takes three years to bring a reservoir online that’s three years without return on investment if early
production is not achieved.
Aesthetics
Product appearance is not usually a concern of engineers. However, aesthetics could be an impor-
tant marketing feature and should not be overlooked. Actual performance capabilities versus per-
ceived performance capabilities can be important. The customer may perceive a feature to be weak
or strong depending on the history of a product. Perception of certain product features should be
considered in some cases.
Aesthetics does not mean that a design must be ornamental or that geometry controls the shape
of the design or its components. Manufacturing complex geometries is impractical and costly. How-
ever, if a design is balanced (cost effective and functional), it is usually artful.
1) Development
2) Market growth
3) Market maturity
4) Market decline
5) Product disposal
During the first phase, the product is developed and introduced to the market. This creates neg-
ative cash flow, so developing the product in a timely and cost-efficient manner is important. Dur-
ing the second phase, the product finds its way into the market and can generate cash flow while
establishing itself in the marketplace. Products then reach a level of maturity and are usually able to
capture a portion of the market and generate revenue. During this time, the product generates max-
imum return on investment. At some point in time, the market for a product declines and even-
tually vanishes. This could be the result of new products entering the market or simply the lack
of demand for a product. For these reasons, investors look for new products.
In setting design specifications, remember cost and safety override everything.
Design Specifications 11
Negligence – In legal terms, negligence is the failure to do what people of ordinary care and pru-
dence would do under the same or similar circumstances. When applied to design and manu-
facturing, the question becomes: are decisions, that affect product safety, being made
professionally, objectively, and fairly? Prior to 1970, many personal injury claims were filed
under the negligence theory of law. The plaintiff’s attorney had to establish the standard of
due care required of engineers and manufacturers.
Strict liability – The emphasis under this theory of recovery is on product defect and not on the
person or person’s negligence. The focus of the court is solely on the performance of the product.
In this case, the plaintiff needs to only prove that the product had an unreasonable dangerous
defect when it left manufacturing. The court recognizes three types of defects: manufacturing
defects, design defects, and warning defects. Design as used by the courts encompasses the entire
process by which a product is created and marketed. This theory is more favorable to the plaintiff
because it exposes the entire product development chain to liability, allowing the plaintiff to
choose the most advantageous defendant.
Fraud/misrepresentation – Fraud is a false representation of fact, by works, or conduct, which is
intended to and does deceive another, who then makes decisions based on the false information
and suffers legal injury. The elements required in an action of law are representation, falsity,
knowledge of falsity, intent to deceive the plaintiff, justifiable reliance by the plaintiff, and
damages. Examples are falsifying test data to deliver a product to the customer to meet a dead-
line, approving a design that does not meet required codes to eliminate redesign and fabrication
costs and misuse of Professional Registration approval.
Breach of warranty – Product does not satisfy the expressed warranty or implied warranty for
fitness.
Engineering Ethics
Ethics deals with the principles of human duty, moral principles, and rules of conduct. Engineering
ethics deals with the moral conduct of engineers in serving the public, their employers, and their
clients. What is at stake can be expressed in terms of public safety, public health, and the environ-
ment to mention a few. The challenge is to design and manufacture a product for profit without
undue risk to the general welfare of the public and environment. Ethics comes into play when a
company and its professional staff knowingly produce a product that has a high risk for personal
injury and/or damage to the environment. Unethical decisions are usually made for selfish or mon-
etary reasons.
Engineers make many ethical decisions independent of others. A good check list for these deci-
sions is:
•• Is it legal?
Is it fair?
The ASME has adopted the following Code of Ethics of Engineers for its members1
1) Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the performance
of their professional duties.
2) Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence.
3) Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers and shall pro-
vide opportunities for the professional and ethical development of those engineers under their
supervision.
4) Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trus-
tees and shall avoid conflicts of interest or the appearance of conflicts of interest.
5) Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall not
compete unfairly with others.
6) Engineers shall associate only with reputable persons or organizations.
7) Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
8) Engineers shall consider environmental impact in the performance of their professional duties.
Once design specifications have been set, design alternatives can be generated. Since design is open
ended, i.e. there are many possible solutions, it is desirable to generate several design concepts,
evaluate them as a group before choosing the best direction for the design. The objective at this
point is to create design concepts that satisfy the specifications. Realistic concepts are ones that
are technically feasible and cost effective.
Innovation is a matter of synthesis and analysis of ideas. It requires time, focus, and effort of
thought. The quality of each concept depends on the ability to think conceptually.
Parker [6] lists some traits of the creative personality:
•• curiosity
risk taker
•• emotionally stable
uninhibited
•• imaginative, original
intuitive
•• task committed
sense of humor.
Tools of Innovation
Ullman [7] discusses useful concept generation tools.
Creating Design Alternatives 13
Patents
Some new products are based on a modification or direct extension of established products, in
which case, the objective is to provide a higher quality or improved version of what is already
on the market. Legally, this is allowed, provided the patent right period has expired. US patent
law provides a 20-year life of a patent from the date the patent application was filed, and no shorter
than 17 years from issuance. A patent survey will show whether your idea is truly novel or is infring-
ing on an existing patent. A patent search early in the development process is worth the cost, time,
and effort. It could eliminate legal problems later.
Brainstorming
Ideas are generated spontaneously. Successive ideas feed off the group discussion; “piggyback” is
sometimes used to describe this type of idea generation. All the ideas are reviewed and evaluated for
relevance and practicality. Features of the better ideas will merge and come together.
The rules for brainstorming are:
•• Geometric modifications
Energy-flow modifications
– Change in the path
– Change in the form
Remember, there is no need to redesign every component in a new product. Use as many off-the-
shelf items as possible. Take advantage of current and established technology, such as gears, bear-
ings, and motors. On the other hand, some components may have to be tailored.
14 Design and Problem Solving Guidelines
As part of the creative process, new ideas (untried techniques) must be proven technically feasible
before they can be accepted as viable alternatives. Feasibility studies may be required to show con-
cepts are fundamentally sound and will work. Some concepts may be evaluated experimentally,
analytically, or both. The results may expose risk and cost of untried concepts.
This is a screening activity to move the better ideas forward and remove alternatives that are not
technically sound. More detailed analyses may be required during the design stage of the develop-
ment process. Concept development may include iterations involving synthesis and analysis as
shown in Figure 1.1. Also, every aspect of product life cycle needs to be considered by the product
development team.
Concurrent Engineering
It is generally accepted that there are three basic activities for developing a profitable product. They
are marketing, designing, and manufacturing. Until the 1980s, these activities were conducted
sequentially, i.e. market data were passed on to designers who subsequently transmitted their
design to manufacturing. These three activities were conducted separately with essentially little
or no collaboration among the three disciplines.
World competition brought about competitive pricing and quick response to a dynamic market.
In response to this challenge, marketing, designing, and manufacturing issues are now being con-
sidered by a team. Marketing seeks and monitors customer input to the new product. Designers
seek the latest customer feedback from market analyst. Manufacturing issues are considered
throughout the conceptual work to avoid costly redesigns brought about by impractical or ineffi-
cient manufacturing requirements. Collaboration of marketing, design, and manufacturing
throughout the development process is commonly called Concurrent Engineering. It substantially
reduces development cost over the sequential operations approach.
Feasibility of Concept
Each concept must prove to be technically feasible before it is evaluated. This means that some
engineering may be required, and even drawings made to advance an idea beyond a hand sketch.
A preliminary study may be needed to show an idea is workable, realistic and satisfies all design
constraints or specifications, including cost constraints. In engineering practice, feasibility analyses
may require extensive computer calculations and/or laboratory testing.
Innovation will produce several design alternatives, each of which satisfies the given set of design
specifications. The problem now is to choose the “best” concept among many alternatives.
Each of us make choices every day. Without realizing it, trade-offs are made leading up to a deci-
sion. The basic elements in making decisions are performance, cost, risk, and availability. Consider
the purchase of an automobile. The buyer has established mentally a set of performance criteria
(city driving, off road, mountain terrain, luxury, etc.), the price compatible with the family budget,
maintenance, or track record of the car (is it a new model), and availability. The final choice is a
trade-off among these four evaluation elements. The same rationale is used to purchase a suit or
buy a house.
Evaluating Design Alternatives 15
Evaluation Metrics
Four metrics (performance, cost, risk, and availability) are basic in choosing a preferred design con-
cept [8]. The following defines these metrics as they relate to mechanical design:
A procedure for scoring several alternatives is to divide each of these four metrics into key sub-
metrics and give each an appropriate weight. Each design alternative can then be scored under each
submetric. The scoring is strictly judgmental, so experience is important. The more experience, the
better the judgment of scoring. Once each concept has been scored for each submetric, the numbers
are totaled for a composite score for each concept. The total scores provide a means of comparing
each concept against the others.
This numerical evaluation scheme has two key objectives. The first is to have a way to quantify
one’s judgment against a fixed scale so that each design concept can be rated in the same manner,
thus, showing their truest level of merit in comparison with each other. The second objective is to
give a way to examine the rationale of the final scores by looking at the subelements of each concept
to see the strong and weak features of each. Since all design selections are the result of trade-offs, the
scoring system aids in selecting a preferred concept.
Weight Concepts
(%) A B C D
Performance 35 20 35 30 25
Cost 20 15 10 18 16
Risk 25 10 20 23 18
Availability 20 20 18 16 12
Once each alternative has been evaluated and ranked and the preferred design concept selected,
it is always a good idea to revisit the marketplace to see if the customers agree and to get further
feedback for the preliminary design. Keep in mind that each stage in the progression along the
development process represents an upgrade of the engineering baseline. The description and spe-
cifics of the preferred concept are an expansion of the initial set of design specifications and rep-
resent the most recent engineering baseline for the remaining steps in the development process.
Design specifications have therefore been greatly refined beyond the initial set. The design can
now move forward with a detailed description of the product.
Mechanical devices typically contain a power source and a means of transmitting the power to
bring about a desired end effect.
A design may start with the end effect, which establishes the magnitude of loads throughout the
device, transmission linkages, and power requirements. This sets the overall size of the device and
nominal dimensions of the subparts. Force magnitudes, power requirements (output torque and
speed), pump requirements (flow rates and pressure demand), materials, and criteria of failure, fas-
teners should have been established earlier during the feasibility studies. Forces affect stress mag-
nitude and component dimensions. Types of stresses (bending, torsion, shear, etc.) and how they
combine should be visualized and understood. Are stresses the result of static or dynamic loads?
These initial calculations can be made by hand. More precise calculations, based on computer mod-
els, can be made later.
a) Minimize the number of parts. Reliability varies inversely with number of parts.
b) Keep the design simple, Complexity reduces reliability.
c) Use standard parts when possible; there are plenty of statistical performance data.
When configuring the design, it is helpful to consider whether starting the design from the out-
side-in or inside-out. If the design centers on a specific technical concept, such as a microcanti-
lever sensor, it may be helpful to start there, and work inside-out, i.e. let the cantilever be the
center point of the design and build outward from it. The sensor itself becomes the center point
of the device and will dictate other features, such as how it is to be held and how information is to
be retrieved.
Other projects may be constrained by space or how it links with other devices or subsystems. In
this case, it may be useful to start with the geometric constraint and work inward. For example, the
design of a house starts with the available space on a lot. Many times, the shape of the lot dictates
Development of Oil and Gas Reservoirs 17
the shape of the house, including the foundation, exterior walls, and roof. These subsystems, of
course, are based on the preferred concept, established earlier. The details of the inside, such as
heating and air conditioning, are designed after the size and shape of each room has been
determined.
Identify Subsystems
Consider the total design as a combination of subsystems. This is typically done in very large pro-
jects, but it is helpful in small projects, too. Breaking the whole design into subsystems helps vis-
ualize and organize how the whole design goes together. It also gives a clear division of
responsibility for different team members. Subsystems may include
•• Frame or fixture
Power unit, such as motor
•• Transmission linkages
“Use” mechanism, final form of design
• Controls.
This approach is common in industry especially for huge projects involving several subcontrac-
tors. It provides a clear division of effort and responsibility. Subsystems may also be broken down
into smaller units or sub-subsystems, etc.
The human body is a good example of subsystems. The body contains a frame (skeleton) or bone
structure with consideration of joints and flexibility. The skeleton supports other subsystems, such
as the lungs, heart, kidneys, brain, and all the plumbing. The gastrointestinal subsystem converts
raw fuel into useful energy. Medical doctors specialize in each subsystem.
Innovation continues during this activity and therefore teaming is important. Each team member
has something unique to add and the division of responsibility makes efficient use of each team
member. Team meetings allow ideas to be integrated and refined.
An objective at this point is to configure the design in terms of its shape and subsystems and how
they all fit together. This activity is best made by using classical engineering calculations; simple
hand calculations are fine. These initial calculations establish component sizes, which are refined
later. It is important to get a feel for the magnitude of loads, stress levels, and deflections as you
begin to work through the design.
Significant advances in two technologies allowed oil companies to increase production over the past
50 years. They are (i) geophysical mapping of underground rock formations and (ii) directional dril-
ling, which allows navigation through multilayered formations to reach specific locations in deep
and complex reservoirs. A third technology, which has almost doubled oil and gas reserves, is hor-
izontal drilling and fracking. The later technology substantially increases oil and gas recovery.
While seismic surveys can map geologic formations and identify possible oil and gas traps, explor-
atory drilling must be performed to determine the existence of hydrocarbons and chemical com-
position. Once an oil reservoir has been delineated by directional drilling, an economic
evaluation is conducted to determine the best plan for developing the reservoir for maximum
recovery.
18 Design and Problem Solving Guidelines
Oil companies typically identify business activities according to the following categories.
1) Geophysical surveying
2) Exploratory drilling
3) Production drilling
4) Production of oil and gas
5) Transportation of crude oil and gas
6) Refining crude oil and gas
7) Marketing.
Perhaps 80% of a company’s budget is directed at the first four (4) categories, which are classified
as upstream activities.
•• Location of entry point into the oil and gas reservoir relative to the rig.
Assessment of directional drilling equipment needed to reach the entry point as well as the
well path.
•• Formations to be encountered and anticipated drill bit types to penetrate these formations.
Anticipated formation pressures (normal as well as abnormal pressures).
•• Reservoir pressures to be controlled and blow out prevention concerns and strategies.
Casing programs from surface to total depth.
Connection of Subsystems
An early consideration in any design is the attachment of subsystems. Bolt-type attachments allow
removal and replacement of subparts. Bolted connections can also be adjusted. Welded connections
can’t. It may be desirable in some cases to weld subsystems, such as the frame. Warpage and
machining of surfaces should be considered.
V
Bolt
rn Beam
Fn
The total torque, T, applied to the bolted joint relates to shear force in each bolt by
T = F 1 r1 + F 2 r2 + F 3 r3 + 13
Assuming the shear force, F, taken by each bolt depends on distance from the centroid of the bolt
pattern,
F1 F2 F3 Fn
= = = = 14
r1 r2 r3 rn
Combining these two equations gives the force in each bolt.
Tr n
Fn = 15
r 21 + r 22 + r 23 +
The above formula is very similar to the shaft shear stress formula,
Tr
τ= 16
J
which states that shear stress is proportional to radius, r. The shear stress formula is modified as
follows to match the above bolt analysis.
Fn Tr n
τn = = 17
An r 2i Ai
Tr n An
Fn = 18
r 2i Ai
which agrees with Eq. (1.5). The direction of shear forces caused by torque on a bolt pattern is per-
pendicular to the r vectors as shown.
With reference to Figure 1.2, assume
V = 2000 lb
Length = 12 in. (from center of bolt pattern)
Bolt diameter = 0.25 in.
Bolt spacing = 2 in.
δspring
δbolt
ks
P PS
P PB
22 Design and Problem Solving Guidelines
PS = P − ΔPS
PB = P + ΔPB
At this festival of Bast half the persons taking part in the celebrations
must have become intoxicated. The Egyptians were always given to wine-
drinking, and Athenæus goes so far as to say that they were a nation addicted
to systematic intemperance. The same writer on the authority of Hellanicus,
states that the vine was cultivated in the Nile Valley at a date earlier than that
at which it was first grown by any other people; and it is to this circumstance
that Dion attributes the Egyptian’s love of wine. Strabo and other writers
speak of the wines of Egypt as being particularly good, and various kinds
emanating from different localities are mentioned. The wines made from
grapes were of the red and white varieties; but there were also fruit wines,
made from pomegranates and other fruits. In the list of offerings inscribed
on the walls of temples and tombs one sees a large number of varieties
recorded—wines from the North, wines from the South, wines provincial,
and wines foreign. Beer, made of barley, was also drunk very largely, and
this beverage is heartily commended by the early writers. Indeed, the wine
and beer-bibber was so common an offender against the dignity of the
nation, that every moralist who arose had a word to say against him. Thus,
for example, in the maxims of Ani one finds the moralist writing:—
“Do not put thyself in a beer-house. An evil thing are words reported as coming from
thy mouth when thou dost not know that they have been said by thee. When thou fallest thy
limbs are broken, and nobody givest thee a hand. Thy comrades in drink stand up, saying
‘Away with this drunken man.’ ”
She knows that she will be too deeply steeped in the stupor of the
Underworld to remember her husband, and unselfishly she urges him to
continue to be happy after the manner of his nation. Then, in a passage
which rings down the years in its terrible beauty, she tells of her utter
despair, lying in the gloomy Underworld, suffocated with the mummy
bandages, and craving for the light, the laughter, and the coolness of the day.
“The water of life,” she cries, “with which every mouth is moistened, is corruption to
me, the water that is by me corrupteth me. I know not what to do since I came into this
valley. Give me running water; say to me, ‘Water shall not cease to be brought to thee.’ Turn
my face to the north wind upon the edge of the water. Verily thus shall my heart be cooled
and refreshed from its pain.”
It is, however, the glory of life, rather than the horror of death which is the
dominant note in the inscriptions and reliefs. The scenes in the tomb
decorations seem to cry out for very joy. The artist has imprisoned in his
representations as much sheer happiness as was ever infused into cold stone.
One sees there the gazelle leaping over the hills as the sun rises, the birds
flapping their wings and singing, the wild duck rising from the marshes, and
the butterflies flashing overhead. The fundamental joy of living—the gaiety
of life which the human being may feel in common with the animals—is
shown in these scenes as clearly as is the merriment in the representations of
feasts and dancing. In these paintings and reliefs one finds an exact
illustration to the joyful exhortation of the Psalmist as he cries, “Let the
heavens rejoice, and let the earth be glad; ... let the fields be joyful, and all
that is therein.” In a land where, to quote one of their own poems, “the tanks
are full of water and the earth overflows with love,” where “the cool north
wind” blows merrily over the fields, and the sun never ceases to shine, it
would be a remarkable phenomenon if the ancient Egyptians had not
developed the sanguine temperament. The foregoing pages have shown them
at their feasts, in their daily occupations, and in their sports, and the reader
will find that it is not difficult to describe them, in the borrowed words of the
old geographer, as a people always gay and never-ceasingly “fond of
dancing and red wine.”
CHAPTER VII
EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT
decorated with charming designs in gold. There in the far corner, placed
upon the top of a number of large white jars, stood the light chariot which
Yuaa had owned in his lifetime. In all directions stood objects gleaming with
gold undulled by a speck of dust, and one looked from one article to another
with the feeling that the entire human conception of Time was wrong. These
were the things of yesterday, of a year or so ago. Why, here were meats
prepared for the feasts in the Underworld; here were Yuaa’s favourite joints,
each neatly placed in a wooden box as though for a journey. Here was his
staff, and here were his sandals—a new pair and an old. In another corner
there stood the magical figures by the power of which the prince was to
make his way through Hades. The words of the mystical “Chapter of the
Flame” and of the “Chapter of the Magical Figure of the North Wall” were
inscribed upon them; and upon a great roll of papyrus twenty-two yards in
length other efficacious prayers were written.
But though the eyes passed from object to object, they ever returned to
the two lidless gilded coffins in which the owners of this room of the dead
lay as though peacefully sleeping. First above Yuaa and then above his wife
the electric lamps were held, and as one looked down into their quiet faces
(from which the bandages had been removed by some ancient robber), there
was almost the feeling that they would presently open their eyes and blink at
the light. The stern features of the old man commanded one’s attention, and
again and again our gaze was turned from this mass of wealth to this
sleeping figure in whose honour it had been placed here.
At last we returned to the surface to allow the thoughts opportunity to
collect themselves and the pulses time to quiet down, for, even to the most
unemotional, a discovery of this kind, bringing one into the very presence of
the past, has really an unsteadying effect. Then once more we descended,
and made the preliminary arrangements for the cataloguing of the
antiquities. It was now that the real work began, and, once the excitement
was passed, there was a monotony of labour to be faced which put a very
considerable strain on the powers of all concerned. The hot days when one
sweated over the heavy packing-cases, and the bitterly cold nights when one
lay at the mouth of the tomb under the stars, dragged on for many a week;
and when at last the long train of boxes was carried down to the Nile en
route for the Cairo Museum, it was with a sigh of relief that I returned to my
regular work.
This, of course, was a very exceptional discovery. We afterwards made
other great finds, but to me they did not equal in dramatic interest the
discovery just recorded. Even in this royal valley, however, there is much
drudgery to be faced, and for a large part of the season’s work it is the
excavator’s business to turn over endless masses of rock chippings, and to
dig huge holes which have no interest for the patient digger. Sometimes the
mouth of a tomb is bared, and is entered with the profoundest hopes, which
are at once dashed by the sudden abrupt ending of the cutting a few yards
from the surface. At other times a tomb-chamber is reached and is found to
be absolutely empty.
At another part of Thebes, the well-known Italian Egyptologist, Professor
Schiaparelli, had excavated for a number of years without finding anything
of much importance, when suddenly one fine day he struck the mouth of a
large tomb which was evidently intact. I was at once informed of the
discovery, and proceeded to the spot as quickly as possible. The mouth of
the tomb was approached down a flight of steep, rough steps, still half-
choked with débris. At the bottom of this the entrance of a passage running
into the hillside was blocked by a wall of rough stones. After photographing
and removing this, we found ourselves in a long, low tunnel, blocked by a
second wall a few yards ahead. Both these walls were intact, and we realised
that we were about to see what probably no living man had ever seen before:
the absolutely intact remains of a rich Theban of the Imperial Age—i.e.,
about 1200 or 1300 B.C. When this second wall was taken down we passed
into a carefully cut passage high enough to permit of our standing upright.
At the end of this passage a plain wooden door barred our progress. The
wood retained the light colour of fresh deal, and looked for all the world as
though it had been set up but yesterday. A heavy wooden lock, such as is
used at the present day, held the door fast. A neat bronze handle on the side
of the door was connected by a string to a wooden knob set in the masonry
door-post; and this string was carefully sealed with a small dab of stamped
clay. The whole contrivance seemed so modern that Professor Schiaparelli
called to his servant for the key, who quite seriously replied, “I don’t know
where it is, sir.” He then thumped the door with his hand to see whether it
would be likely to give; and, as the echoes reverberated through the tomb,
one felt that the mummy, in the darkness beyond, might well think that his
resurrection call had come. One almost expected him to rise, like the dead
knights of Kildare in the Irish legend, and to ask, “Is it time?” for the three
thousand years which his religion had told him was the duration of his life in
the tomb was already long past.
Meanwhile we turned our attention to the objects which stood in the
passage, having been placed there at the time of the funeral, owing to the
lack of room in the burial-chamber. Here a vase, rising upon a delicately
shaped stand, attracted the eye by its beauty of form; and here a bedstead
caused us to exclaim at its modern appearance. A palm-leaf fan, used by the
ancient Egyptians to keep the flies off their wines and unguents, stood near a
now empty jar; and near by a basket of dried-up fruit was to be seen. This
dried fruit gave the impression that the tomb was perhaps a few months old,
but there was nothing else to be seen which suggested that the objects were
even as much as a year old. It was almost impossible to believe, and quite
impossible to realise, that we were standing where no man had stood for well
over three thousand years; and that we were actually breathing the air which
had remained sealed in the passage since the ancient priests had closed the
entrance thirteen hundred years before Christ.
Before we could proceed farther, many flashlight photographs had to be
taken, and drawings made of the doorway; and after this a panel of the
woodwork had to be removed with a fretsaw in order that the lock and seal
might not be damaged. At last, however, this was accomplished, and the way
into the tomb-chamber was open. Stepping through the frame of the door, we
found ourselves in an unencumbered portion of the floor, while around us in
all directions stood the funeral furniture, and on our left the coffins of the
deceased noble and his wife loomed large. Everything looked new and
undecayed, and even the order in which the objects were arranged suggested
a tidying-up done that very morning. The gravel on the floor was neatly
smoothed, and not a speck of dust was anywhere to be observed. Over the
large outer coffin a pall of fine linen was laid, not rotting and falling to
pieces like the cloth of mediæval times we see in our museums, but soft and
strong like the sheets of our beds. In the clear space before the coffin stood a
wooden pedestal in the form of a miniature lotus column. On the top of this,
resting on three wooden prongs, was a small copper dish, in which were the
ashes of incense, and the little stick used for stirring them. One asked oneself
in bewilderment whether the ashes here, seemingly not cold, had truly
ceased to glow at a time when Rome and Greece were undreamt of, when
Assyria did not exist, and when the Exodus of the Children of Israel was yet
unaccomplished.
On low tables round cakes of bread were laid out, not cracked and
shrivelled, but smooth and brown, with a kind of white-of-egg glaze upon
them. Onions and fruit were also spread out; and the fruit of the dôm palm
was to be seen in plenty. In various parts of the chamber there were
numerous bronze vessels of different shapes, intended for the holding of
milk or wine.
Well supplied with food and drink, the senses of the dead man were
soothed by a profusion of flowers, which lay withered but not decayed
beside the coffin, and which at the time of the funeral must have filled the
chamber with their sweetness. Near the doorway stood an upright wooden
chest closed with a lid. Opening this, we found it to contain the great
ceremonial wig of the deceased man, which was suspended from a rail
passing across the top of the chest, and hung free of the sides and bottom.
The black hair was plaited into hundreds of little tails, but in size the wig
was not unlike those of the early eighteenth century in Europe. Chairs, beds,
and other pieces of furniture were arranged around the room, and at one side
there were a number of small chests and boxes piled up against the wall. We
opened one or two of these, and found them to contain delicate little vases of
glass, stone and metal, wrapped round with rags to prevent them breaking.
These, like everything else in the tomb, were new and fresh, and showed no
trace of the passing of the years.
The coffins, of course, were hidden by the great casing in which each
rested, and which itself was partly hidden by the linen pall. Nothing could be
touched for many days until photographs had been taken and records made;
and we therefore returned through the long passage to the light of the day.
There must have been a large number of intact tombs to be found when
the first modern interest in Egyptian antiquities developed; but the market
thus created had to be supplied, and gangs of illicit diggers made short work
of the most accessible tombs. This illegal excavation, of course, continues to
some extent at the present day, in spite of all precautions, but the results are
becoming less and less proportionate to the labour expended and risk taken.
A native likes best to do a little quiet digging in his own back yard and to
admit nobody else into the business. To illustrate this, I may mention a
tragedy which was brought to my notice a few years ago. A certain native
discovered the entrance of a tomb in the floor of his stable, and at once
proceeded to worm his way down the tunnel. That was the end of the native.
His wife, finding that he had not returned two hours or so later, went down
the newly found tunnel after him. That was the end of her also. In turn, three
other members of the family went down into the darkness, and that was the
end of them. A native official was then called, and, lighting his way with a
candle, penetrated down the winding passage. The air was so foul that he
was soon obliged to retreat, but he stated that he was just able to see in the
distance ahead the bodies of the unfortunate peasants, all of whom had been
overcome by what he quaintly described as “the evil lighting and bad
climate.” Various attempts at the rescue of the dead bodies during the day
and the night having failed, I gave orders that this tomb should be regarded
as their sepulchre, and that its mouth should be sealed up. According to the
natives, there was evidently a vast hoard of wealth stored at the bottom of
this tomb, and the would-be robbers had met their death at the hands of the
demon in charge of it, who had seized each man by the throat as he came
down the tunnel and had strangled him.
The Egyptian peasants have a very strong belief in the power of such
creatures of the spirit world. A native who was attempting recently to
discover hidden treasure in a certain part of the desert, sacrificed a lamb each
night above the spot where he believed the treasure to lie, in order to
propitiate the djin who guarded it. On the other hand, however, they have no
superstition as regards the sanctity of the ancient dead, and they do not
hesitate on that ground to rifle the tombs. Thousands of graves have been
desecrated by these seekers after treasure, and it is very largely the result of
this that scientific excavation is often so fruitless nowadays. When an
excavator states that he has discovered a tomb, one takes it for granted that
he means a plundered tomb, unless he definitely says that it was intact, in
which case one calls him a lucky fellow and regards him with green envy.
And thus we come back to my remarks at the beginning of this chapter,
that there is a painful disillusionment awaiting the man who comes to dig in
Egypt in the hope of finding the golden cities of the Pharaohs or the
bejewelled bodies of their dead.
CHAPTER VIII
In January, 1907, the excavations in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings at
Thebes, which were being conducted each year under my supervision at the
expense of Mr. Davis, brought to light the entrance of a tomb which, by its
style, appeared to be that of a royal personage of the XVIIIth Dynasty. The
Valley lies behind the cliffs which form the western boundary of Thebes, and
is approached by a long winding road running between the rocks and rugged
hills of the Lybian desert. Here the Pharaohs of the XVIIIth to the XXth
Dynasties were buried in large sepulchres cut into the sides of the hills; and
the excavations had for their object the removal of the débris which had
collected at the foot of these hills, in order that the tombs hidden beneath
might be revealed. About sixty tombs are now open, some of which were
already known to Greek and Roman travellers; and there are palpably not
more than two or three still to be discovered.
When this new tomb-entrance was uncovered I was at once notified, and
proceeded with all despatch to the Valley. It was not long before we were
able to enter the tomb. A rough stairway led down into the hillside, bringing
us to the mouth of a passage which was entirely blocked by a wall of built
stones. On removing this wall we found ourselves in a small passage,
descending at a sharp incline to a chamber which could be seen a few yards
further on. Instead of this passage being free from débris, however, as we
had expected on finding the entrance-wall intact, it was partly filled with
fallen stones which seemed to be the ruins of an earlier entrance-wall. On
top of this heap of stones lay one of the sides of a large funeral shrine,
almost entirely blocking the passage. This shrine, as we later saw, was in the
form of a great box-like sarcophagus, made of cedar-wood covered with
gold, and it had been intended as an outer covering for the coffin of the
deceased person. It was, however, not put together: three sides of it were
leaning against the walls of the burial-chamber, and the fourth was here in
the passage. Either it was never built up, or else it was in process of being
taken out of the tomb again when the work was abandoned.
To pass this portion of the shrine which lay in the passage without doing
it damage was no easy matter. We could not venture to move it, as the wood
was rotten; and indeed, for over a year it remained in its original position.
We therefore made a bridge of planks within a few inches of the low roof,
and on this we wriggled ourselves across into the unencumbered passage
beyond. In the funeral-chamber, besides the other portions of the shrine, we
found at one corner a splendid coffin, in the usual form of a recumbent
figure, inlaid in a dazzling manner with rare stones and coloured glass. The
coffin had originally lain upon a wooden bier, in the form of a lion-legged
couch; but this had collapsed and the mummy had fallen to the ground, the
lid of the coffin being partly
The entrance of the Tomb of Queen Tiy, with a native policeman guarding it. The large Tomb of
Rameses X. is to the left
thrown off by the fall, thus exposing the head and feet of the body, from
which the bandages had decayed and fallen off. In the powerful glare of the
electric light which we carried, the bare skull, with a golden vulture upon it,
could be seen protruding from the remains of the linen bandages and from
the sheets of flexible gold-foil in which, as we afterwards found, the whole
body was wrapped. The inscription on the coffin, the letters of which were
made of rare stones, gave the titles of Akhnaton, “the beautiful child of the
Sun”; but turning to the shrine we found other inscriptions stating that King
Akhnaton had made it for his mother, Queen Tiy, and thus no immediate
reply could be given to those at the mouth of the tomb who called to us to
know which of the Pharaohs of Egypt had been found.
In a recess in the wall above the body there stood four alabaster “canopy”
jars, each with a lid exquisitely sculptured in the form of a human head. In
another corner there was a box containing many little toilet vases and
utensils of porcelain. A few alabaster vases and other objects were lying in
various parts of the chamber arranged in some sort of rough order.
Nothing, of course, could yet be touched, and for several days, during the
lengthy process of photographing and recording the contents of the tomb in
situ, no further information could be obtained as to the identity of the owner
of the tomb. The shrine was certainly made for Queen Tiy, and so too were
the toilet utensils, judging by an inscription upon one of them which gave
the names of Tiy and her husband, King Amenophis III., the parents of
Akhnaton. It was, therefore, not a surprise when a passing doctor declared
the much broken bones to be those of a woman—that is to say, those of
Queen Tiy. For reasons which will presently become apparent, it had been
difficult to believe that Akhnaton could have been buried in this Valley, and
one was very ready to suppose that the coffin bearing his name had but been
given by him to his mother.
The important discovery was now announced, and caused considerable
interest and excitement. At the end of the winter the various archæologists
departed to their several countries, and it fell to me to despatch the
antiquities to the Cairo Museums, and to send the bones, soaked in wax to
prevent their breakage, to Dr. Elliot Smith, to be examined by that eminent
authority. It may be imagined that my surprise was considerable when I
received a letter from him reading—“Are you sure that the bones you sent
me are those which were found in the tomb? Instead of the bones of an old
woman, you have sent me those of a young man. Surely there is some
mistake.”
There was, however, no mistake. Dr. Elliot Smith later informed me that
the bones were those of a young man of about thirty years of age, and at first
this description did not seem to tally with that of Akhnaton, who was always
thought to have been a man of middle age. But there is now no possibility of