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Engineering Practice with Oilfield and
Drilling Applications
Wiley-ASME Press Series
Fabrication of Metallic Pressure Vessels
Owen Greulich, Maan H. Jawad
Engineering Practice with Oilfield and Drilling Applications
Donald W. Dareing
Flow-Induced Vibration Handbook for Nuclear and Process Equipment
Michel J. Pettigrew, Colette E. Taylor, Nigel J. Fisher
Vibrations of Linear Piezostructures
Andrew J. Kurdila, Pablo A. Tarazaga
Bearing Dynamic Coefficients in Rotordynamics: Computation Methods and Practical Applications
Lukasz Brenkacz
Advanced Multifunctional Lightweight Aerostructures: Design, Development, and Implementation
Kamran Behdinan, Rasool Moradi-Dastjerdi
Vibration Assisted Machining: Theory, Modelling and Applications
Li-Rong Zheng, Dr. Wanqun Chen, Dehong Huo
Two-Phase Heat Transfer
Mirza Mohammed Shah
Computer Vision for Structural Dynamics and Health Monitoring
Dongming Feng, Maria Q Feng
Theory of Solid-Propellant Nonsteady Combustion
Vasily B. Novozhilov, Boris V. Novozhilov
Introduction to Plastics Engineering
Vijay K. Stokes
Fundamentals of Heat Engines: Reciprocating and Gas Turbine Internal Combustion Engines
Jamil Ghojel
Offshore Compliant Platforms: Analysis, Design, and Experimental Studies
Srinivasan Chandrasekaran, R. Nagavinothini
Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing
Zhuming Bi, Xiaoqin Wang
Pumps and Compressors
Marc Borremans
Corrosion and Materials in Hydrocarbon Production: A Compendium of Operational and Engineering Aspects
Bijan Kermani and Don Harrop
Design and Analysis of Centrifugal Compressors
Rene Van den Braembussche
Case Studies in Fluid Mechanics with Sensitivities to Governing Variables
M. Kemal Atesmen
The Monte Carlo Ray-Trace Method in Radiation Heat Transfer and Applied Optics
J. Robert Mahan
Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies: A Self-Learning Approach
Mohammed F. Daqaq
Primer on Engineering Standards, Expanded Textbook Edition
Maan H. Jawad and Owen R. Greulich
Engineering Optimization: Applications, Methods and Analysis
R. Russell Rhinehart
Compact Heat Exchangers: Analysis, Design and Optimization using FEM and CFD Approach
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Robust Adaptive Control for Fractional-Order Systems with Disturbance and Saturation
Mou Chen, Shuyi Shao, and Peng Shi
Robot Manipulator Redundancy Resolution
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Stress in ASME Pressure Vessels, Boilers, and Nuclear Components
Maan H. Jawad
Combined Cooling, Heating, and Power Systems: Modeling, Optimization, and Operation
Yang Shi, Mingxi Liu, and Fang Fang
Applications of Mathematical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Models in Engineering and Medicine
Abram S. Dorfman
Bioprocessing Piping and Equipment Design: A Companion Guide for the ASME BPE Standard
William M. (Bill) Huitt
Nonlinear Regression Modeling for Engineering Applications: Modeling, Model Validation, and Enabling Design of Experiments
R. Russell Rhinehart
Geothermal Heat Pump and Heat Engine Systems: Theory and Practice
Andrew D. Chiasson
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibrations
Liang-Wu Cai
Introduction to Dynamics and Control in Mechanical Engineering Systems
Cho W.S. To
Engineering Practice with Oilfield and Drilling
Applications
Donald W. Dareing
University of Tennessee
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vii
Contents
Preface xxi
Nomenclature xxiii
Part I Engineering Design and Problem Solving 1
1 Design and Problem Solving Guidelines 3

Design Methodology 3
Market Analysis 5
Operational Requirements 5
Product Development 6
Government Procurement Procedure 6
Petroleum Industry Procedure 6
Design Specifications 7
Specification Topics 7
Performance Requirements 7
Sustainability 7
Codes and Standards 8
Environmental 8
Social Considerations 9
Reliability 9
Cost Considerations 10
Aesthetics 10
Product Life Cycle 10
Product Safety and Liability 11
Engineering Ethics 11
Creating Design Alternatives 12
Tools of Innovation 12
Patents 13
Reference Books and Trade Journals 13
Experts in a Related Field 13
Brainstorming 13
Existing Products and Concepts 13
viii Contents
Concurrent Engineering 14
Feasibility of Concept 14
Evaluating Design Alternatives 14
Evaluation Metrics 15
Scoring Alternative Concepts 15
Starting the Design 16
Design for Simplicity 16
Identify Subsystems 17
Development of Oil and Gas Reservoirs 17
Design of Offshore Drilling and Production Systems 18
Connection of Subsystems 19
Torsion Loading on Multibolt Patterns 19
Make-Up Force on Bolts 21
Preload in Drill Pipe Tool Joints 24
Shoulder Separation 26
Possible Yielding in the Pin 26
Make-Up Torque 28
Bolted Brackets 29
Welded Connections 30
Torsion Loading in Welded Connections 30
Attachments of Offshore Cranes 32
Quality Assurance 33
Engineering Education 34
Mission Statement 34
Academic Design Specifications 34
Design of the Academic Program 35
Outcomes Assessment 35
Saturn – Apollo Project 35
Notes 36
References 36
2 Configuring the Design 37

Force and Stress Analysis 37
Beam Analysis 39
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams 40
Bending Stresses 45
Beam Deflection and Boundary Conditions 47
Shear Stress in Beams 48
Neutral Axis 50
Composite Cross Sections 52
Material Selection 54
Mechanical Properties of Steel 54
Use of Stress–Strain Relationship in a Simple Truss 57
Statically Indeterminate Member 59
Modes of Failure 62
Contents ix
Material Yielding 62
Stress Concentration 62
Wear 63
Fatigue 63
Stress Corrosion Cracking 69
Brittle Fracture 69
Fluid Flow Through Pipe 70
Continuity of Fluid Flow 70
Bernoulli’s Energy Equation (First Law) 71
Reynolds Number 71
Friction Head for Laminar Flow 72
Turbulent Flow Through Pipe 72
Senior Capstone Design Project 74
Pump Selection 74
Required Nozzle Velocity 74
Nozzle Pressure 74
Pump Flow Rate Requirement 75
Vibration Considerations 77
Natural Frequency of SDOF Systems 80
Location of Center of Gravity 84
Moment of Inertia with Respect to Point A 84
Springs in Series, Parallel 85
Deflection of Coiled Springs 86
Free Vibration with Damping 86
Quantifying Damping 87
Critical Damping in Vibrating Bar System 88
Forced Vibration of SDOF Systems with Damping 89
Nonlinear Damping 93
Vibration Control 93
Other Vibration Considerations 94
Transmissibility 94
Vibration Isolation 95
Commonality of Responses 96
Application of Vibration Absorbers in Drill Collars 96
Natural Frequencies with Vibration Absorbers 97
Responses to Nonperiodic Forces 100
Dynamic Load Factor 102
Packaging 103
Vibrations Caused by Rotor Imbalance 105
Response to an Imbalanced Rotating Mass 105
Synchronous Whirl of an Imbalanced Rotating Disk 106
Balancing a Single Disk 109
Synchronous Whirl of Rotating Pipe 109
Stability of Rotating Pipe under Axial Load 110
Balancing Rotating Masses in Two Planes 112
x Contents
Refining the Design 113

Manufacturing 113
Manufacturing Drawings 114
Dimensioning 114
Tolerances 115
Three Types of Fits 116
Surface Finishes 117
Nanosurface Undulations 118
Machining Tools 119
Lathes 119
Drill Press 119
Milling Machines 120
Machining Centers 120
Turning Centers 120
References 121
Part II Power Generation, Transmission, Consumption 123
3 Power Generation 125

Water Wheels 125
Fluid Mechanics of Water Wheels 125
Steam Engines 127
Steam Locomotives 128
Power Units in Isolated Locations 130
Regional Power Stations 131
Physical Properties of Steam 131
Energy Extraction from Steam 132
First Law of Thermodynamics – Enthalpy 132
Entropy – Second Law 132
Thermodynamics of Heat Engines 133
Steam Turbines 135
Electric Motors 136
Internal Combustion Engines 137
Four Stroke Engine 137
Two Stroke Engines 138
Diesel Engines 139
Gas Turbine Engines 139
Impulse/Momentum 141
Energy Considerations 142
Engine Configurations 142
Rocket Engines 144
Rocketdyne F-1 Engine 144
Atlas Booster Engine 144
Gas Dynamics Within Rocket Engines 145
Contents xi
Rocket Dynamics 146

Energy Consumption in US 147
Solar Energy 148
Hydrogen as a Fuel 149
Hydroelectric Power 149
Wind Turbines 149
Geothermal Energy 149
Atomic Energy 150
Biofuels 150
Notes 150
References 150
4 Power Transmission 151

Gear Train Transmission 153
Water Wheel Transmission 153
Fundamental Gear Tooth Law 154
Involute Gear Features 154
Gear Tooth Size – Spur Gears 156
Simple Gear Train 158
Kinematics 158
Worm Gear Train 159
Planetary Gear Trains 160
Compound Gear Trains 161
Pulley Drives 162
Rope and Friction Pulleys 162
Belted Connections Between Pulley Drives 164
Fundamentals of Shaft Design 166
Shear Stress 167
Stress Analysis of Shafts 170
Twisting in Shafts Having Multiple Gears 171
Keyway Design 172
Mechanical Linkages 173
Relative Motion Between Two Points 173
Absolute Motion Within a Rotating Reference Frame 175
Scotch Yoke 177
Slider Crank Mechanism 178
Velocity Analysis 179
Acceleration Analysis 180
Four-Bar Linkage 181
Three Bar Linkage 184
Velocity Equation 185
Acceleration Equation 185
xii Contents

Geneva Mechanism 188
Flat Gear Tooth and Mating Profile 189
Cam Drives 191
Cam Drives – Linear Follower 191
Acceleration Polygon 193
Cam with Linear Follower, Roller Contact 194
Velocity Analysis – Rotating Reference Frame 195
Acceleration Analysis – Rotating Reference Frame 195
Velocity Analysis – Ritterhaus Model 196
Acceleration Analysis – Ritterhaus Model 196
Cam with Pivoted Follower 196
Power Screw 198
Hydraulic Transmission of Power 199
Kinematics of the Moineau Pump/Motor 202
Mechanics of Positive Displacement Motors 203
References 208
5 Friction, Bearings, and Lubrication 209

Rolling Contact Bearings 209
Rated Load of Rolling Contact Bearings 210
Effect of Vibrations on the Life of Rolling Contact Bearings 213
Effect of Environment on Rolling Contact Bearing Life 216
Effect of Vibration and Environment on Bearing Life 217
Hydrostatic Thrust Bearings 220
Flow Between Parallel Plates 220
Fluid Mechanics of Hydrostatic Bearings 222
Optimizing Hydrostatic Thrust Bearings 224
Pumping Requirements 224
Friction Losses Due to Rotation 225
Total Energy Consumed 226
Coefficient of Friction 227
Squeeze Film Bearings 228
Pressure Distribution Under a Flat Disc 228
Comparison of Pressure Profiles 230
Spring Constant of Hydrostatic Films 231
Damping Coefficient of Squeeze Films 231
Other Shapes of Squeeze Films 233
Squeeze Film with Recess 233
Squeeze Film Under a Washer 234
Spherical Squeeze Film 235
Nonsymmetrical Boundaries 236
Application to Wrist Pins 237
Contents xiii
Thick Film Slider Bearings 240

Slider Bearings with Fixed Shoe 240
Load-Carrying Capacity 243
Friction in Slider Bearings 243
Center of Pressure 244
Slider Bearing with Pivoted Shoe 245
Frictional Resistance 246
Exponential Slider-Bearing Profiles 247
Pressure Distribution for Exponential Profile 247
Pressure Comparison with Straight Taper Profile 248
Pressure Distribution for Open Entry 249
Exponential Slider Bearing with Side Leakage 250
Hydrodynamic Lubricated Journal Bearings 254
Pressure Distribution Around an Idealized Journal Bearing 254
Minimum Film Thickness in Journal Bearings 258
Friction in an Idealized Journal Bearing 259
Petroff’s Law 259
Sommerfeld’s Solution 260
Stribeck Diagram and Boundary Lubrication 261
Regions of Friction 261
Comparison of Journal Bearing Performance with Roller Bearings 263
Journal Bearing 263
Roller Contact Bearing (See Footnote 1) 263
Ball Bearing (See Footnote 1) 264
Note 264
References 264
6 Energy Consumption 267

Subsystems of Drilling Rigs 267
Draw Works in Drilling Rigs 269
Block and Tackle Hoisting Mechanism 270
Spring Constant of Draw Works Cables 270
Band Brakes Used to Control Rate of Decent 270
Rotary Drive and Drillstring Subsystem 272
Kelly and Rotary Table Drive 272
Friction in Directional Wells 272
Top Drive 273
Drillstring Design and Operation 275
Buoyancy 276
Hook Load 277
Definition of Neutral Point 277
Basic Drillstring: Drill Pipe and Drill Collars 279
xiv Contents
Physical Properties of Drill Pipe 279

Selecting Drill Pipe Size and Grade 281
Select Pipe Grade for a Given Pipe Size 281
Determine Maximum Depth for Given Pipe Size and Grade 282
Roller Cone Rock Bits 283
Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (PDC) Drill Bits 283
Natural Diamond Drill Bits 284
Hydraulics of Rotary Drilling 285
Optimized Hydraulic Horsepower 285
Field Application 288
Controlling Formation Fluids 290
Hydrostatic Drilling Mud Pressure 290
Annular Blowout Preventer 290
Hydraulic Rams 292
Casing Design 293
Collapse Pressure Loading (Production Casing) 295
Burst Pressure Loading (Production Casing) 295
API Collapse Pressure Guidelines 297
Plastic Yielding and Collapse with Tension 297
Summary of Pressure Loading (Production Casing) 298
Effect of Tension on Casing Collapse 298
Tension Forces in Casing 300
Design of 95 8 in. Production Casing 302
Design Without Factors of Safety 302
Directional Drilling 306
Downhole Drilling Motors 306
Rotary Steerable Tools 307
Stabilized Bottom-Hole Assemblies 308
Power Units at the Rig Site 310
References 310
Part III Analytical Tools of Design 313
7 Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies 315

Statics – Bodies in Equilibrium 315
Force Systems 316
Freebody Diagrams 318
Force Analysis of Trusses 318
Method of Joints 319
Method of Sections 319
Kinematics of Particles 320
Linear Motion 320
Rectangular Coordinates 321
Polar Coordinates 322
Contents xv
Velocity Vector 325

Acceleration Vector 325
Curvilinear Coordinates 325
Navigating in Geospace 328
Tracking Progress Along a Well Path 328
Minimum Curvature Method 329
Dogleg Severity 331
Projecting Ahead 332
Kinematics of Rigid Bodies 333
Rigid Body Translation and Rotation 333
General Plane Motion 334
Dynamics of Particles 335
Units of Measure 335
Application of Newton’s Second Law 336
Static Analysis 336
Dynamic Analysis 337
Work and Kinetic Energy 337
Potential Energy 339
Drill Bit Nozzle Selection 341
Impulse–Momentum 342
Impulse–Momentum Applied to a System of Particles 343
Mechanics of Hydraulic Turbines 345
Performance Relationships 349
Maximum Output of Drilling Turbines 350
Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 351
Rigid Bodies in Plane Motion 352
Translation of Rigid Bodies 354
Rotation About a Fixed Point 354
Center of Gravity of Connecting Rod 355
Mass Moment of Inertia of Connecting Rod 356
General Motion of Rigid Bodies 356
Dynamic Forces Between Rotor and Stator 359
Interconnecting Bodies 361
Gear Train Start-Up Torque 361
Kinetic Energy of Rigid Bodies 363
The Catapult 364
Impulse–Momentum of Rigid Bodies 364
Linear Impulse and Momentum 365
Angular Impulse and Momentum 365
Angular Impulse Caused by Stabilizers and PDC Drill Bits 368
Accounting for Torsional Flexibility in Drill Collars 369
Interconnecting Bodies 370
Conservation of Angular Momentum 371
References 374
xvi Contents
8 Mechanics of Materials 375

Stress Transformation 376
Theory of Stress 377
Normal and Shear Stress Transformations 377
Maximum Normal and Maximum Shear Stresses 378
Mohr’s Stress Circle 381
Theory of Strain 383
Strain Transformation 384
Mohr’s Strain Circle 386
Principal Axes of Stress and Strain 386
Generalized Hooke’s Law 388
Theory of Plain Stress 388
Orientation of Principal Stress and Strain 389
Theory of Plain Strain 391
Pressure Vessel Strain Measurements 391
Analytical Predictions of Stress and Strain 391
Strain in the Spherical Cap 393
Conversion of Strain Measurements to Principal Strains and Stresses 393
Beam Deflections 396
Cantilever Beam with Concentrated Force 397
Cantilevered Beam with Uniform Load 398
Simply Supported Beam with Distributed Load 399
Statically Indeterminate Beams 400
Multispanned Beam Columns 402
Large Angle Bending in Terms of Polar Coordinates 403
Bending Stresses in Drill Pipe Between Tool Joints 405
Application to Pipe Bending in Curved Well Bores 408
Multispanned Beam in Terms or Polar Coordinates 410
Pulling Out of the Well Bore 410
Columns and Compression Members 411
Column Buckling Under Uniform Compression 411
Columns of Variable Cross Section 415
Tubular Buckling Due to Internal Pressure 416
Effective Tension in Pipe 417
Buckling of Drill Collars 418
Combined Effects of Axial Force and Internal/External Pressure 420
Buckling of Drill Pipe 420
Bending Equation for Marine Risers 424
Unique Features of the Differential Equation of Bending 424
Effective Tension 426
Buckling of Marine Risers 426
Tapered Flex Joints 429
Equation of Bending 430
Parabolic Approximation to Moment of Inertia 430
Solution to Differential Equation 432
Contents xvii
Application to Marine Risers 435

Torsional Buckling of Long Vertical Pipe 435
Boundary Conditions 436
Both Top and Bottom Ends Pinned 438
Simply Supported at Both Ends with no End Thrust 440
Force Applied to Lower End 441
Effect of Drilling Fluid on Torsional Buckling 442
Lower Boundary Condition Fixed 442
Operational Significance 442
Pressure Vessels 443
Stresses in Thick Wall Cylinders 443
Stresses in Thin-Wall Cylinders 444
Stresses Along a Helical Seam 444
Interference Fit Between Cylinders 445
Thin-Wall Cylinders 445
Surface Deflections of Thick-Wall Cylinders 447
Thick Wall Cylinder Enclosed by Thin Wall Cylinder 448
Thick Wall Cylinder Enclosed by Thick Wall Cylinder 448
Elastic Buckling of Thin Wall Pipe 449
Bresse’s Formulation 450
Application to Long Cylinders 451
Thin Shells of Revolution 452
Curved Beams 455
Location of Neutral Axis 455
Stress Distribution in Cross Section 456
Shear Centers 460
Unsymmetrical Bending 464
Principal Axis of Inertia 464
Neutral Axis of Bending 468
Bending Stresses 470
Beams on Elastic Foundations 471
Formulating the Problem 472
Mathematical Solution 473
Solution to Concentrated Force 474
Radial Deflection of Thin Wall Cylinders Due to Ring Loading 475
Formulation of Spring Constant 476
Equation of Bending for Cylindrical Arc Strip 477
Reach of Bending Moment 480
Bending Stress in Wall of a Multi Banded Cylinder 480
Criteria of Failure 482
Combined Stresses 482
Internal Pressure 483
xviii Contents
Applied Torque 483

Bending Moment 483
Failure of Ductile Materials 484
Visualization of Stress at a Point 485
Pressure Required to Yield a Cylindrical Vessel 486
Failure of Brittle Materials 487
Mode of Failure in Third Quadrant 489
References 489
9 Modal Analysis of Mechanical Vibrations 491

Complex Variable Approach 491
Complex Transfer Function 493
Interpretation of Experimental Data 493
Natural Frequency 494
Damping Factor 494
Spring Constant 495
Mass 495
Damping Coefficient 495
Two Degrees of Freedom 495
Natural Frequencies and Modes of Vibration 495
SDOF Converted to 2-DOF 497
Single Degree of Freedom 497
Two Degrees of Freedom 498
Other 2-DOF Systems 499
Undamped Forced Vibrations (2 DOF) 500
Undamped Dynamic Vibration Absorber 502
Base and Absorber Pinned Together 503
Multi-DOF Systems – Eigenvalues and Mode Shapes 507
Flexibility Matrix – Stiffness Matrix 508
Direct Determination of the Stiffness Matrix 511
Direct Determination of the Mass Matrix 512
Amplitude and Characteristic Equations 512
Parameters Not Chosen at Discrete Masses 514
Lateral Stiffness of a Vertical Cable 515
Building the Damping Matrix 516
Modal Analysis of Discrete Systems 516
Orthogonal Properties of Natural Modes 517
Proportional Damping 518
Transforming Modal Solution to Local Coordinates 519
Free Vibration of Multiple DOF Systems 520
Free Vibration of 2 DOF Systems 521
Suddenly Stopping Drill Pipe with the Slips 522
Critical Damping of Vibration Modes 524
Forced Vibration by Harmonic Excitation 526
Contents xix
Complex Variable Approach 526

Harmonic Excitation of 3 DOF Systems 527
Modal Solution of a Damped 2-DOF System 529
General Complex Variable Solution 530
Experimental Modal Analysis 532
Modal Response to Nonperiodic Forces 535
Natural Frequencies of Drillstrings 536
References 538
10 Fluid Mechanics 541

Laminar Flow 541
Viscous Pumps 541
Force to Move Runner 543
Capillary Tubes 544
Flow Through Noncircular Conduits 545
Elliptical Conduit 545
Rectangular Conduit 546
Unsteady Flow Through Pipe 547
Hydraulics of Non-Newtonian Fluids 551
Hydraulics of Drilling Fluids 551
Pressure Loss Inside Drill Pipe 551
Pressure Loss in Annulus 552
Oil Well Drilling Pumps 552
Drilling Hydraulics 554
Power Demands of Downhole Motors 556
Performance of Positive Displacement Motors (PDM) 557
Application of Drilling Turbines 560
Hydraulic Demands of Drilling Motors – Turbines 561
Fluid Flow Around Vibrating Micro Cantilevers 562
Mathematical Model 563
Fluid Pressure Formulation 564
Fluid Velocity Formulation 565
References 566
11 Energy Methods 569

Principle of Minimum Potential Energy 569
Stable and Unstable Equilibrium 569
Stability of Floating Objects 570
Stability of a Vertical Rod 572
Rayleigh’s Method 573
Multiple Degrees of Freedom 574
Structure Having Two Degrees of Freedom 574
Analysis of Beam Deflection by Fourier Series 576
Concentrated Load 577
Distributed Load 577
Axially Loaded Beam (Column) 578
xx Contents
Principle of Complementary Energy 579

Engineering Application 580
Castigliano’s Theorem 582
Chemically Induced Deflections 588
Microcantilever Sensors 588
Simulation Model 588
Molecular and Elastic Potential Energies 591
References 592
Index 593
xxi
Preface
Engineers are trained to understand the fundamental principles of mechanics and mathematics.
These tools provide a background of knowledge for making professional decisions. The tools of
engineering science apply across most engineering disciplines. The key to their application is visua-
lizing a reasonable mathematical model for the problem at hand. Freebody diagrams are helpful in
this regard. Mathematical solutions follow, leading to reasonable engineering results. Typically,
there is only one answer, so each problem is closed-ended.
On the other hand, design and problem-solving are open-ended. There are many possible solu-
tions and alternatives must be created. While each engineering design is different, the approach is
the same. An objective of this book is to explain the engineering design process and show how to
apply basic engineering tools.
The book contains three parts.
Part I Engineering Design and Problem-Solving

Part II Power Generation, Transmission, Consumption
Part III Analytical Tools of Design
Part I gives a systematic process for developing an engineering design. The application of engi-
neering tools is illustrated during the conceptual and preliminary activities of design. Concept eval-
uation and selection are explained. Visualizing a total device or any system in terms of its
subsystems is helpful in creating a design. Key considerations in finalizing a design are implement-
ing feedback from test results or other evaluation sources, finalizing a design and presentation of
final manufacturing drawings.
Every machine has (i) a prime mover or power source, (ii) mechanisms to transmit energy and
(iii) energy consumed by forming the final product, plus friction. Part II covers Power Generation,
Transmission, and Consumption.
Part III contains useful tools of engineering mechanics. Each selected topic goes beyond the tra-
ditional tools of design. Mathematical modeling and methods of solution are of historical signifi-
cance. Each topic is supplemented with key references for additional background information.
Physical responses of engineering systems are predictable through science and mathematics. This
one thing makes it possible to design modern structures and machinery to a high degree of relia-
bility. The first scientifically based engineered bridge is the Eads Bridge which spans the Mississippi
River at St. Louis. It was designed and constructed by James Eads. Construction began in 1867. It
was dedicated in 1874 and is still in use today.
xxii Preface
My goal in writing this book was to document the essence of engineering practice. The manu-
script is a condensation of lecture notes developed over years of teaching across the mechanical
engineering curriculum and industrial practice in the petroleum industry. It is written for under-
graduate and graduate students and as a reference for practicing engineers.
Donald W. Dareing
Professor Emeritus, Mechanical Engineering
University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Life Fellow Member, ASME
Knoxville, TN, USA
April 2021
xxiii
Nomenclature
a acceleration
BF buoyancy factor
c distance to outside beam surface, damping coefficient
ccr critical damping coefficient
E modulus of elasticity
Em energy per pound
F applied force, axial internal force at drill pipe-collar
interface above hydrostatic
FS safety factor
f friction force, vibration frequency
FB axial force in pipe (lower end)
Fcr critical buckling force
fn natural frequency, cps
G modulus of rigidity, angular momentum
h lubrication film thickness, enthalpy
hf friction head
H linear momentum, elevation
I area moment of inertia
Im impulse
J angular moment of inertia of a cross section,
angular mass moment of inertia
k, K local (modal) mechanical spring constant
K0 stress intensity factor
L length
m, M local (modal) mass, bending moment
N force
NR Reynolds number
p pressure
P unit force (force per area), power, diametral pitch
of gears
Q moment of area above shear surface, heat,
compressive force
Qeff = Q + (piAi − poAo) plus sign means compression
q roller bearing exponent
r radial position, frequency ratio (ω/ωn)
xxiv Nomenclature
S section modulus of a cross sectional area, Sommerfeld

number, entropy
t, T time, torque, period of oscillation
T eff = F B + wx + L − x A0 γ 0 − Ai γ i marine riser (x measured up from bottom)
T eff = F B + wx + L − x wm drill pipe (x measured up from bottom)
TR transmissibility
U, V principal axis of inertia of a cross section, V also indi-
cated shear force
V velocity, also total potential energy
w, W distributed load on a beam, weight of a discrete body
x, y, z reference frame
X, Y, Z reference frame
[X] modal matrix
x(t) local response
Z viscosity (cp)
Greek Symbols
δ displacement, log decrement

μ viscosity, coefficient of friction
ω rotational speed, circular frequency
ωn natural circular frequency
θ angular position
σ normal stress
τ shear stress
ɛ normal strain
γ shear strain
ζ damping factor
ν Poisson’s ratio
η(t) modal response
σa allowable design stress
σ yld yield strength
x
ζ=
L
F B + LA0 γ 0 − LAi γ i L2
β=
EI
w − A0 γ 0 + Ai γ i L3
α=
EI
TL
Θ=
EI
1
Part I
Engineering Design and Problem Solving
Engineering design is a logical sequence of activities that solves a problem or achieves a specified
objective. Every design project has a beginning and an end. They can be several years long, such as
putting a man on the moon and returning safely to earth, or it can be short, such as designing and
fabricating a water pump. Successful engineering designs require a clear objective – well thought
out and executed. Planning is critical. The design process may also be applied to management or
any problem situation.
In conducting design, it is important to understand the difference between “open-end problems”
and “closed-ended problems.” Engineering tools of design are usually closed ended and based on
fundamental laws of engineering science. The answer is unique. Use of engineering tools usually
follows certain steps:
1) Develop a mathematical model for the physical element under consideration.
2) Develop a freebody diagram of the element along with forces and moment considering the con-
straints placed on the element.
3) Solve the mathematical equations leading to a prediction of performance, usually expressed in
terms of stress, deflection, vibration, etc.
4) Judge the answer against experience, order of magnitude (believable), and uniformity of
dimensions.
On the other hand, open-ended problems have many possible solutions. Each must be generated
and evaluated before a design can start. Solving open-ended problems requires imagination and
creativity. Part I gives a process for solving open-ended problems, including steps in project work.
It also underscores important design principles that may be considered in moving through an engi-
neering project.
Engineering Practice with Oilfield and Drilling Applications, First Edition. Donald W. Dareing.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3
Design and Problem Solving Guidelines
Engineering design involves management of people, resources, money, and time. Success depends
on planning, resource, and time management. Time is usually the driver.
When discussing the importance of teaming with one company, the response was, “teaming isn’t
important – it is everything.” The very success of a company depends upon people skills and the
ability to work with others as a team member. Pete Carroll, while head football coach at the
University of Southern California, says, “Winning players don’t always win. It’s the winning plays
that win.”
Planning is a matter of thinking through the activities and tasks that will be necessary to achieve
the stated goal. This is somewhat experience dependent. For large projects, it may be useful to
divide tasks into major activities, such as design, fabrication, installation, and commission, which
are usually conducted in tandem. In other projects, where several activities are conducted simul-
taneously, major groupings may be needed. An example would be a military operation involving
various branches.
General Dwight Eisenhower, along with his staff, spent months developing a plan for the inva-
sion of Europe. His team of officers generated and evaluated various plans of attack. Eisenhower
once said “… the plan itself is not as important as the act of planning.” Thinking through the plan is
the key.
Plans need to be flexible. As new information is gathered along the way, the plan may need to be
modified. A good manager anticipates problems and deals with them early to avoid crises. A crisis is
a situation where a critical problem needs to be solved, but there is little time to solve it. A Gantt
chart can be useful in this regard.
Design Methodology
Basic steps for developing a product idea (or service) into a profitable venture are given in
Figure 1.1. The first few boxes indicate the importance of a preliminary market analysis and input
from customers to determine market reaction to a new product. Also, a preliminary market analysis
helps define and refine the attributes of the product. Initial feedback from customers is useful in
deciding whether to proceed with further development.
Design specifications are based on specific needs and expected performance. Design specifica-
tions represent the initial engineering baseline for generating design alternatives. In most cases,
design specification are legal statements of what is expected. They must be established accurately
and in concert with users of the future product.
Engineering Practice with Oilfield and Drilling Applications, First Edition. Donald W. Dareing.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4 Design and Problem Solving Guidelines
Operation requirements
Design specifications
Synthesis
Analysis
Concept A Concept B Concept C
Evaluate concepts
Preliminary
design
Build prototype
Test prototype
Fabrication
drawings
Manufacture
Figure 1.1 Design development process.
Design alternatives are typically generated by a team of professionals with special skills, such as
marketing, design, and manufacturing. This activity is sometimes called concurrent engineering
where the team considers every aspect of the product from technical feasibility to product life cycle
to manufacturing and marketing strategy. Feedback from potential customers is important. The
team also evaluates each design alternative and selects the best concept to advance. Depending
on the complexity of the concept, technical feasibility studies, requiring advanced computational
techniques, may be required during the refinements of design alternatives.
Since design is open ended, there are many possible solutions or design alternatives that satisfy a
given set of specifications. Once viable designs have been generated, they need to be ranked so
choice can be made. Choosing a preferred concept is based on trade-offs among evaluation metrics
identified for a given product; an evaluation method will be described later.
A preliminary design represents an update of the engineering baseline. The preliminary design
refines the preferred alternative. It advances the engineering baseline for the final design and fab-
rication phases.
Operational Requirements 5
Developing a final design may require the use of computer-aided-design (CAD), numerical anal-
ysis, and other analytical tools to refine dimensions. Prototype testing may also be desirable. Com-
puter simulations may alleviate the high cost of prototype testing.
The product configuration is again evaluated in the marketplace for customer feedback and
approval. This is accomplished through market surveys or market focus groups depending on
the nature of the product.
The next step is to interface CAD codes with manufacturing (CAM). This requires converting
design codes into machine tool codes. Depending on the product and the market, the ability to
reconfigure the machining and handling process in a timely manner may be important for “just
in time” delivery.
Market Analysis
The purpose of a market analysis is to identify what potential customers want in a new product, estab-
lish the size of the market, and determine what price the market is willing to pay for the product.
A market analysis will produce a set of product attributes, which more clearly define the main features
of the planned product. Using customer input and competitor product features, important features for
the new product can be identified and ranked as to their importance. This information identifies cus-
tomer preferences and competitive differentiation during the conceptual stage of product development.
New products can be either research driven, or market driven. Research-driven products stem
from ideas that spawn from basic or fundamental research. In this case, a new technique or device
may be the objective or a by-product of the study. The technique or device then becomes a solution
looking for a problem, so to speak. The market-driven product is developed in response to a definite
market need. In some cases, a market may be developed for a new idea.
Before investing much time and money, it is best to conduct a patent search to make sure the
product does not infringe on active patents. This exercise will also give useful information on
the state-of-the-art of products as applied to a given market. It may show the patent protection
period on a product has expired, offering the opportunity to enter the market with a competitor’s
product – with improvements.
In recent years, markets have become more demanding on product delivery. Customer needs
may change over a short period. Companies that can retool for “just in time manufacturing” in
response to this demand have an advantage. One tool company, that makes diamond drill bits
for oil and gas well drilling, built its business on making diamond drill bits overnight; each diamond
was handset. Each diamond bit was and still is tailored to suit a set of design specifications stipu-
lated by an oil company. The main reason for a quick response capability (or “just in time manu-
facturing”) is moderate demand for high cost of diamond drill bits. It is not good business to
stockpile high-cost products for a limited market application. Warehoused products may become
outdated. It is costly and risky.
Operational Requirements
Operational requirements or product attributes describe the expected functional performance of a

new product. Product description may come out of a business plan for a new product concept, a
government need for a new weapon, or an oil company’s need to develop an oil field in a given
geographic location.
Product Development
Top management may define the operational requirements for a product, based on a market anal-
ysis. Company engineers then develop a set of design specifications before proceeding. Product
design may be conducted within a company or contracted outside.
Government Procurement Procedure

The federal government has very strict guidelines for procuring products and services [1]. Govern-
ment procurement is normally through the General Service Administration (GSA). The need for a
product may come to the GSA from any government agency, which in turn coordinates the Federal
Product Description (FPD). An FPD describes the operational requirements and required functions.
For example, assume that the Joint Chief of Staff decides that the military needs a new type of
aircraft. They would make their request to the GSA and describe the aircraft in terms of expected
operational requirement, such as:
•• Range
Speed
•• Landing capabilities
Weapon weight
• Weather considerations.
The GSA would expand the requesting agency’s description of operational requirements.
Effective market research and analysis must be conducted to assure that user need is satis-
fied. During the market research and analysis phase, the preparing activity should advise
potential agency users that a FPD is being developed. Ask potential users to provide a state-
ment of their needs in essential functional or performance terms to the maximum practical
extent.
In addition to a clear description of operational requirements, FPDs will also develop a compre-
hensive list of design specifications for a new product. The tender document would be reviewed at
various levels with GSA before it is released to contract bidders.
Petroleum Industry Procedure

An economic analysis is conducted on each new oil reservoir to determine its profitability and the
best way to develop it. Following this, operational requirements are set before proceeding. Oper-
ational requirements may include such factors as
•• Ocean water depth

Size of reservoir
•• Oil, gas, water content of reservoir

Reservoir pressure
• Production rate (barrels per day).
Design specifications would document detailed engineering constraints on the design, such as
environmental conditions, ocean floor mud line load-bearing capabilities, material specifications,
expected loads, 100-year storm conditions, etc.
Considerable time is spent in gathering this information to establish operational requirements

and design specifications. Company engineers build a set of design specifications to form a “tender
document” for contractor bid preparation.
There are two contract approaches: turnkey and cost plus. Turnkey simply means that the con-
tractor will deliver a product at a fixed price. The contractor is responsible for every detail, including
identifying and satisfying all codes and standards relevant to the design. Since the price is fixed, oil
companies would be concerned about delivery dates. Missing the planned delivery date could
greatly increase future monetary returns and profit.
A cost plus is based on an agreed hourly rate. The equipment and supplies are additional costs to
the buyer. Usually there is a percentage tacked on to these costs. Company representatives are
directly involved in day-to-day decisions.
Design Specifications
Design specifications are an itemized set of constraints placed on a design. They identify product
performance expectations: what the product is supposed to do and how the product should perform.
They are contractual and represent the initial “engineering baseline” from which all concepts are
generated. They are an important part of a contract between customer and designer. Usually, the
customer signs-off on a set of specifications once they have been documented. Any changes, for any
reason, after the development work starts, will cause delays, and increase costs. The cost of making
changes is usually written into a contract.
Once operational requirements have been set, design specifications are documented. They may
be expanded by outside contractors in conjunction with company engineers. The contract usually
puts the burden of completeness on the contractor, such as all relevant Codes and Standards are the
responsibility of the design contractor.
Specification Topics
Design specifications are usually subdivided into key topics. Topics normally considered are dis-
cussed below.
Performance Requirements
Performance requirements identify specifics, such as loads, motions, flow rates, operating
pressures, and temperature limits, to name a few. In addition, the technical specifications
may include physical and chemical properties of materials to be used. Material properties
may include such items as yield strength and hardness. Weld procedures (including preheating)
and welder qualification requirements, special heat treatment and annealing may be specified.
Environmental and climate conditions may affect design. Examples are wind, oceanographic
conditions, such as wave height, wind-driven current velocities, and tidal currents.
Performance requirements define the physical constraints in the design. Depending upon the size
of the project, the specification document can be as small as a few pages or several volumes.
Sustainability
Sustainability means being good stewards of the resources on planet earth. A 1987 UN report
defines sustainable development as: “Meeting the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” This specification is relevant, ethical,
and makes good economic sense. Earlier business strategies were based on planned obsolescence,
where products were intentionally designed to wear out after a given period [2].
A few metrics relating to sustainability are:
a) design efficiency in terms of materials, weight, cost, energy consumption

b) quantity and type of waste from fabrication
c) minimal friction, wear, maintenance, reliability
d) use of renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar
e) environmental impact of a possible failure
f) environmental recovery plan in case of an unexpected failure/disaster
g) design for modular replacement instead of product throw-away
h) disposal at end-of-life cycle (computers, TVs)
i) automation verses human control (cause of many disasters)
j) redundancy in monitoring system performance.
Codes and Standards
During the midst of the industrial revolution of the nineteenth century, it became apparent that
mechanical components needed to be standardized to assure, for example, bolts made in one place
could fit together with nuts made in another place. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) took a leading role in standardizing mechanical components, such as pulleys, gears, and
key seats. Even shop drawing symbols needed to be standardized.
During the early days of the steam engine, it was common for steam boilers to explode causing
personal injury and death. In 1884, the ASME established a uniform test standard for boilers; this
was ASME’s first standard. This standard was followed by a boiler construction standard, which
was published in 1915. Such standards became the foundation of ASME’s current Boiler and Pres-
sure Vessel Code. Since the development of this Code, boiler disasters have been essentially
eliminated.
What is a Code? A code is a standard that has been mandated by one or more government
bodies. A code has the force of law behind it. When a standard is specified in a business contract,
it becomes a code, as well. Therefore, the words, codes, and standards, are sometimes used
interchangeably.
What is a Standard? Standards are a set of technical definitions and guidelines or a set of instruc-
tions for designers and manufacturers. Their use is strictly voluntary, and they do not have the force
of law. Standards serve as a vehicle of communications, defining quality, and establishing safety
criteria for producers and users.
Many professional organizations develop Standards; however, they must follow procedures
accredited by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). These procedures must reflect
openness, transparency, balance of interest, and due process.
Many turnkey contracts make the contractor or design company responsible for applying all rel-
evant codes and standards to a design. While specific codes and standards are not listed in a tender
document, they are implied through legal contracts.
Environmental
Designers should consider the environmental impact of a new product throughout the product’s life
cycle, i.e. from fabrication to product disposal. Even in the early stages of offshore platform design,
disposal of a structure at the end of production life (about 20–30 years) is considered.
The most vulnerable or highest risk components in the design should be identified and environ-
mental consequences associated with possible failure considered. The designer needs to consider
the “what if” scenarios. If a failure occurs, how would it affect public health, public safety, public
image of company, property damage, as well as damage to the environment. Goodwill is an asset on
the balance sheet of any company.
Social Considerations
People, who will be affected by the implementation or use of a given product or project, should be
consulted and brought into design deliberations as early as possible – the sooner the better. This is
not only right but, by doing so, misunderstanding is alleviated, and public resistance will be reduced
as the project develops. People simply want to be consulted and given the opportunity to make
input on issues that affect their lives. If not given this opportunity, citizens may unite and work
against a worthwhile project.
Aside from human reaction, there are legitimate reasons for considering social factors in design,
such as safety and preservation of a culture. When oil companies began to develop oil fields in the
northern part of the North Sea, oil transportation from the offshore platforms had to be resolved.
Crude oil could be off-loaded directly onto tankers or transported to land by a pipeline and then
loaded onto tankers in a protected harbor for transport to refineries. The closest land point from
the platforms was to the small fishing village of Solom Voe, Shetland Islands. An extensive study
was conducted to design a port that would not destroy centuries-old lifestyle of the people living in
this area. There were also benefits to local economies.
Reliability
There are two methods of design which relate to the safety and reliability of products: (i) factor of
safety and (ii) statistical or reliability.
The factor of safety method is commonly used in engineering design. It is a time-proven design
tool and when used properly, safe and reliable designs are developed. Factor of safety (FS) is the
ratio of failure stress to an allowable design stress.
Material yield strength, σ yld, is often used as the failure stress. In this case
σ yld σ yld
FS = = 11
σ allowable σa
where σ a is the allowable stress level used throughout a design. When the factor of safety is
given, then
σ yld
σa = 12
FS
Designs are configured (size, dimension) according to the allowable stress.

Factors of safety are intended to cover all uncertainties not identified in a set of specifications.
In general, the higher the factor of safety, the higher the product weight and cost. So, it is impor-
tant to keep the FS as low as possible. Computation accuracy affects factor of safety too. Computer
software based on numerical techniques, such as finite element methods, provide very accurate
predictions of local stress in complex geometries, and thus reduce the uncertainty of stress
predictions.
The statistical or reliability approach seeks to establish design parameters so that the product
performs to an expected level of reliability [3]. Reliability is a statistical measure of performance.
For example, a product reliability of 0.9 means that there is a 90% chance that a given product will
perform its proper function without failure. The method requires statistical data on all random vari-
ables, such as strength, size, and weight. With this approach, products can be designed to a required
level of reliability.
Cost Considerations
Economics should be considered during the early stages of concept generation. Concepts that allow
for early return on investments may be critical. Oil companies want to begin oil production as early
as possible, maybe prior to the completion of the overall production system. Time is money and if it
takes three years to bring a reservoir online that’s three years without return on investment if early
production is not achieved.
Aesthetics
Product appearance is not usually a concern of engineers. However, aesthetics could be an impor-
tant marketing feature and should not be overlooked. Actual performance capabilities versus per-
ceived performance capabilities can be important. The customer may perceive a feature to be weak
or strong depending on the history of a product. Perception of certain product features should be
considered in some cases.
Aesthetics does not mean that a design must be ornamental or that geometry controls the shape
of the design or its components. Manufacturing complex geometries is impractical and costly. How-
ever, if a design is balanced (cost effective and functional), it is usually artful.
Product Life Cycle

Every product has a life cycle, which includes periods of:
1) Development
2) Market growth
3) Market maturity
4) Market decline
5) Product disposal
During the first phase, the product is developed and introduced to the market. This creates neg-
ative cash flow, so developing the product in a timely and cost-efficient manner is important. Dur-
ing the second phase, the product finds its way into the market and can generate cash flow while
establishing itself in the marketplace. Products then reach a level of maturity and are usually able to
capture a portion of the market and generate revenue. During this time, the product generates max-
imum return on investment. At some point in time, the market for a product declines and even-
tually vanishes. This could be the result of new products entering the market or simply the lack
of demand for a product. For these reasons, investors look for new products.
In setting design specifications, remember cost and safety override everything.
Product Safety and Liability

Currently, there are no federal product liability laws. Each state has developed its own legal
approach in this area. Under Tennessee’s product liability laws, there are four theories of recovery
[4, 5]:
Negligence – In legal terms, negligence is the failure to do what people of ordinary care and pru-
dence would do under the same or similar circumstances. When applied to design and manu-
facturing, the question becomes: are decisions, that affect product safety, being made
professionally, objectively, and fairly? Prior to 1970, many personal injury claims were filed
under the negligence theory of law. The plaintiff’s attorney had to establish the standard of
due care required of engineers and manufacturers.
Strict liability – The emphasis under this theory of recovery is on product defect and not on the
person or person’s negligence. The focus of the court is solely on the performance of the product.
In this case, the plaintiff needs to only prove that the product had an unreasonable dangerous
defect when it left manufacturing. The court recognizes three types of defects: manufacturing
defects, design defects, and warning defects. Design as used by the courts encompasses the entire
process by which a product is created and marketed. This theory is more favorable to the plaintiff
because it exposes the entire product development chain to liability, allowing the plaintiff to
choose the most advantageous defendant.
Fraud/misrepresentation – Fraud is a false representation of fact, by works, or conduct, which is
intended to and does deceive another, who then makes decisions based on the false information
and suffers legal injury. The elements required in an action of law are representation, falsity,
knowledge of falsity, intent to deceive the plaintiff, justifiable reliance by the plaintiff, and
damages. Examples are falsifying test data to deliver a product to the customer to meet a dead-
line, approving a design that does not meet required codes to eliminate redesign and fabrication
costs and misuse of Professional Registration approval.
Breach of warranty – Product does not satisfy the expressed warranty or implied warranty for
fitness.
Engineering Ethics
Ethics deals with the principles of human duty, moral principles, and rules of conduct. Engineering
ethics deals with the moral conduct of engineers in serving the public, their employers, and their
clients. What is at stake can be expressed in terms of public safety, public health, and the environ-
ment to mention a few. The challenge is to design and manufacture a product for profit without
undue risk to the general welfare of the public and environment. Ethics comes into play when a
company and its professional staff knowingly produce a product that has a high risk for personal
injury and/or damage to the environment. Unethical decisions are usually made for selfish or mon-
etary reasons.
Engineers make many ethical decisions independent of others. A good check list for these deci-
sions is:
•• Is it legal?
Is it fair?
• Is it morally right; can I live with the outcome?

The ASME has adopted the following Code of Ethics of Engineers for its members1
1) Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the performance
of their professional duties.
2) Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence.
3) Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers and shall pro-
vide opportunities for the professional and ethical development of those engineers under their
supervision.
4) Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trus-
tees and shall avoid conflicts of interest or the appearance of conflicts of interest.
5) Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall not
compete unfairly with others.
6) Engineers shall associate only with reputable persons or organizations.
7) Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
8) Engineers shall consider environmental impact in the performance of their professional duties.
Creating Design Alternatives
Once design specifications have been set, design alternatives can be generated. Since design is open
ended, i.e. there are many possible solutions, it is desirable to generate several design concepts,
evaluate them as a group before choosing the best direction for the design. The objective at this
point is to create design concepts that satisfy the specifications. Realistic concepts are ones that
are technically feasible and cost effective.
Innovation is a matter of synthesis and analysis of ideas. It requires time, focus, and effort of
thought. The quality of each concept depends on the ability to think conceptually.
Parker [6] lists some traits of the creative personality:
•• curiosity
risk taker
•• emotionally stable
uninhibited
•• imaginative, original
intuitive
•• high energy level

independent
•• task committed
sense of humor.
Innovation is an individual activity. The foundation of science is built on the genius of

individuals. Great ideas were not usually generated by committees. Once a fundamental
concept or hypothesis is presented, others will add value. Design innovation usually starts with
individual thought. Don’t be afraid to propose novel ideas. You may be the leader others are waiting
to follow.
Tools of Innovation
Ullman [7] discusses useful concept generation tools.
Creating Design Alternatives 13
Patents
Some new products are based on a modification or direct extension of established products, in
which case, the objective is to provide a higher quality or improved version of what is already
on the market. Legally, this is allowed, provided the patent right period has expired. US patent
law provides a 20-year life of a patent from the date the patent application was filed, and no shorter
than 17 years from issuance. A patent survey will show whether your idea is truly novel or is infring-
ing on an existing patent. A patent search early in the development process is worth the cost, time,
and effort. It could eliminate legal problems later.
Reference Books and Trade Journals

Reference books are a good source of information on existing design concepts or designs that are
currently in use. They may give analytical discussions of related designs. These discussions some-
time suggest alternatives based on direct extensions of current design concepts. Many trade journals
feature new products, which may spark new ideas.
Experts in a Related Field

Experts can sometimes provide insight for new concepts. Experts can be research and development
oriented in each technical field or they can be a company representative, such as a salesperson or a
customer service representative, who have detailed knowledge about a product type.
Brainstorming
Ideas are generated spontaneously. Successive ideas feed off the group discussion; “piggyback” is
sometimes used to describe this type of idea generation. All the ideas are reviewed and evaluated for
relevance and practicality. Features of the better ideas will merge and come together.
The rules for brainstorming are:
1) Record all the ideas generated.

2) Generate as many ideas as possible.
3) Think wildly. Impractical ideas sometime lead to a useful one.
4) Do not evaluate or criticize ideas while they are being generated.
Existing Products and Concepts

Many hours have gone into developing existing products and most have the benefit of being tested
in the marketplace. Existing products can be extrapolated into new product variations. This also
eliminates reinventing the wheel so to speak. Types of modifications that may be considered are:
•• Geometric modifications
Energy-flow modifications
– Change in the path
– Change in the form
• Materials used in the product.
Remember, there is no need to redesign every component in a new product. Use as many off-the-
shelf items as possible. Take advantage of current and established technology, such as gears, bear-
ings, and motors. On the other hand, some components may have to be tailored.
As part of the creative process, new ideas (untried techniques) must be proven technically feasible
before they can be accepted as viable alternatives. Feasibility studies may be required to show con-
cepts are fundamentally sound and will work. Some concepts may be evaluated experimentally,
analytically, or both. The results may expose risk and cost of untried concepts.
This is a screening activity to move the better ideas forward and remove alternatives that are not
technically sound. More detailed analyses may be required during the design stage of the develop-
ment process. Concept development may include iterations involving synthesis and analysis as
shown in Figure 1.1. Also, every aspect of product life cycle needs to be considered by the product
development team.
Concurrent Engineering
It is generally accepted that there are three basic activities for developing a profitable product. They
are marketing, designing, and manufacturing. Until the 1980s, these activities were conducted
sequentially, i.e. market data were passed on to designers who subsequently transmitted their
design to manufacturing. These three activities were conducted separately with essentially little
or no collaboration among the three disciplines.
World competition brought about competitive pricing and quick response to a dynamic market.
In response to this challenge, marketing, designing, and manufacturing issues are now being con-
sidered by a team. Marketing seeks and monitors customer input to the new product. Designers
seek the latest customer feedback from market analyst. Manufacturing issues are considered
throughout the conceptual work to avoid costly redesigns brought about by impractical or ineffi-
cient manufacturing requirements. Collaboration of marketing, design, and manufacturing
throughout the development process is commonly called Concurrent Engineering. It substantially
reduces development cost over the sequential operations approach.
Feasibility of Concept
Each concept must prove to be technically feasible before it is evaluated. This means that some
engineering may be required, and even drawings made to advance an idea beyond a hand sketch.
A preliminary study may be needed to show an idea is workable, realistic and satisfies all design
constraints or specifications, including cost constraints. In engineering practice, feasibility analyses
may require extensive computer calculations and/or laboratory testing.
Evaluating Design Alternatives
Innovation will produce several design alternatives, each of which satisfies the given set of design
specifications. The problem now is to choose the “best” concept among many alternatives.
Each of us make choices every day. Without realizing it, trade-offs are made leading up to a deci-
sion. The basic elements in making decisions are performance, cost, risk, and availability. Consider
the purchase of an automobile. The buyer has established mentally a set of performance criteria
(city driving, off road, mountain terrain, luxury, etc.), the price compatible with the family budget,
maintenance, or track record of the car (is it a new model), and availability. The final choice is a
trade-off among these four evaluation elements. The same rationale is used to purchase a suit or
buy a house.
Evaluating Design Alternatives 15
Evaluation Metrics
Four metrics (performance, cost, risk, and availability) are basic in choosing a preferred design con-
cept [8]. The following defines these metrics as they relate to mechanical design:
Performance – Capability to achieve needed operational characteristics, plus reliability.

Cost – Estimated cost of the design, including development and manufacturing costs.
Risk – Possibility that performance may not be met because of the design approach,
absence of testing, or some specific technical consideration.
Availability – Availability of a design depending upon the stage of development.
A procedure for scoring several alternatives is to divide each of these four metrics into key sub-
metrics and give each an appropriate weight. Each design alternative can then be scored under each
submetric. The scoring is strictly judgmental, so experience is important. The more experience, the
better the judgment of scoring. Once each concept has been scored for each submetric, the numbers
are totaled for a composite score for each concept. The total scores provide a means of comparing
each concept against the others.
This numerical evaluation scheme has two key objectives. The first is to have a way to quantify
one’s judgment against a fixed scale so that each design concept can be rated in the same manner,
thus, showing their truest level of merit in comparison with each other. The second objective is to
give a way to examine the rationale of the final scores by looking at the subelements of each concept
to see the strong and weak features of each. Since all design selections are the result of trade-offs, the
scoring system aids in selecting a preferred concept.
Scoring Alternative Concepts

Table 1.1 illustrates the evaluation of four design alternatives and a hypothetical score for each. All
constituents affected by the outcome of the project work together to set the weight given each met-
ric and scoring. Each of the four basic metrics will have sub-metrics, as well.
This example indicates that concept C is the best because it scored the highest among the four
alternatives. Other alternatives may have ranked higher in certain categories, but overall concept
C scored the highest. There may a discussion over individual scores in the various categories, but
the table provides a good basis for discussing the strengths and weaknesses of each alternative.
Results from this scoring method give a rationale for recommending a preferred concept and a jus-
tification for the choice.
Table 1.1 Evaluation summary (hypothetical numbers).
Weight Concepts
(%) A B C D
Performance 35 20 35 30 25
Cost 20 15 10 18 16
Risk 25 10 20 23 18
Availability 20 20 18 16 12
Total score 100 65 83 87 71

Once each alternative has been evaluated and ranked and the preferred design concept selected,
it is always a good idea to revisit the marketplace to see if the customers agree and to get further
feedback for the preliminary design. Keep in mind that each stage in the progression along the
development process represents an upgrade of the engineering baseline. The description and spe-
cifics of the preferred concept are an expansion of the initial set of design specifications and rep-
resent the most recent engineering baseline for the remaining steps in the development process.
Design specifications have therefore been greatly refined beyond the initial set. The design can
now move forward with a detailed description of the product.
Starting the Design
Mechanical devices typically contain a power source and a means of transmitting the power to
bring about a desired end effect.
A design may start with the end effect, which establishes the magnitude of loads throughout the
device, transmission linkages, and power requirements. This sets the overall size of the device and
nominal dimensions of the subparts. Force magnitudes, power requirements (output torque and
speed), pump requirements (flow rates and pressure demand), materials, and criteria of failure, fas-
teners should have been established earlier during the feasibility studies. Forces affect stress mag-
nitude and component dimensions. Types of stresses (bending, torsion, shear, etc.) and how they
combine should be visualized and understood. Are stresses the result of static or dynamic loads?
These initial calculations can be made by hand. More precise calculations, based on computer mod-
els, can be made later.
Design for Simplicity

Keep the design simple. Use off-the-shelf components where possible. Commercial items have
already gone through development and testing and have a proven performance record. Vendors
for commercial products are happy to discuss performance details and quote prices. Also, keep
the number of parts to a minimum. This increases product reliability. One company in East Ten-
nessee rewards individual performance on reduction of design components. In addition, always
consider how each part is to be fabricated. Curved shapes look good but are costly to make. Each
of these considerations will make the device more reliable and easier to maintain in the end. Under-
lying principles of good design practice are:
a) Minimize the number of parts. Reliability varies inversely with number of parts.
b) Keep the design simple, Complexity reduces reliability.
c) Use standard parts when possible; there are plenty of statistical performance data.
When configuring the design, it is helpful to consider whether starting the design from the out-
side-in or inside-out. If the design centers on a specific technical concept, such as a microcanti-
lever sensor, it may be helpful to start there, and work inside-out, i.e. let the cantilever be the
center point of the design and build outward from it. The sensor itself becomes the center point
of the device and will dictate other features, such as how it is to be held and how information is to
be retrieved.
Other projects may be constrained by space or how it links with other devices or subsystems. In
this case, it may be useful to start with the geometric constraint and work inward. For example, the
design of a house starts with the available space on a lot. Many times, the shape of the lot dictates
Development of Oil and Gas Reservoirs 17
the shape of the house, including the foundation, exterior walls, and roof. These subsystems, of
course, are based on the preferred concept, established earlier. The details of the inside, such as
heating and air conditioning, are designed after the size and shape of each room has been
determined.
Identify Subsystems
Consider the total design as a combination of subsystems. This is typically done in very large pro-
jects, but it is helpful in small projects, too. Breaking the whole design into subsystems helps vis-
ualize and organize how the whole design goes together. It also gives a clear division of
responsibility for different team members. Subsystems may include
•• Frame or fixture
Power unit, such as motor
•• Transmission linkages
“Use” mechanism, final form of design
• Controls.
This approach is common in industry especially for huge projects involving several subcontrac-
tors. It provides a clear division of effort and responsibility. Subsystems may also be broken down
into smaller units or sub-subsystems, etc.
The human body is a good example of subsystems. The body contains a frame (skeleton) or bone
structure with consideration of joints and flexibility. The skeleton supports other subsystems, such
as the lungs, heart, kidneys, brain, and all the plumbing. The gastrointestinal subsystem converts
raw fuel into useful energy. Medical doctors specialize in each subsystem.
Innovation continues during this activity and therefore teaming is important. Each team member
has something unique to add and the division of responsibility makes efficient use of each team
member. Team meetings allow ideas to be integrated and refined.
An objective at this point is to configure the design in terms of its shape and subsystems and how
they all fit together. This activity is best made by using classical engineering calculations; simple
hand calculations are fine. These initial calculations establish component sizes, which are refined
later. It is important to get a feel for the magnitude of loads, stress levels, and deflections as you
begin to work through the design.
Development of Oil and Gas Reservoirs
Significant advances in two technologies allowed oil companies to increase production over the past
50 years. They are (i) geophysical mapping of underground rock formations and (ii) directional dril-
ling, which allows navigation through multilayered formations to reach specific locations in deep
and complex reservoirs. A third technology, which has almost doubled oil and gas reserves, is hor-
izontal drilling and fracking. The later technology substantially increases oil and gas recovery.
While seismic surveys can map geologic formations and identify possible oil and gas traps, explor-
atory drilling must be performed to determine the existence of hydrocarbons and chemical com-
position. Once an oil reservoir has been delineated by directional drilling, an economic
evaluation is conducted to determine the best plan for developing the reservoir for maximum
recovery.
Oil companies typically identify business activities according to the following categories.
1) Geophysical surveying
2) Exploratory drilling
3) Production drilling
4) Production of oil and gas
5) Transportation of crude oil and gas
6) Refining crude oil and gas
7) Marketing.
Perhaps 80% of a company’s budget is directed at the first four (4) categories, which are classified
as upstream activities.
Design of Offshore Drilling and Production Systems

The design, fabrication, installation, and operation of offshore production system require an overall
plan that may take a few years to complete. The project begins only after an economic analysis has
been made, including current cost and future value of the asset.
In many cases, an offshore reservoir may extend across multiple sections licensed by different oil
companies. The proportional ownership is determined seismic survey maps. The oil company pos-
sessing the largest portion of the reservoir becomes the operator of the field. All companies pay their
share of development costs and benefit proportionately.
Planning is usually divided into the major activities mentioned above. One of the first activities is
documenting a thorough and complete understanding of design specifications. This may require
extensive data gathering on environmental, oceanographic, soil, and other specifics as mentioned
earlier. Results of these efforts are compiled in a sizable specifications document often called a ten-
der document. The tender document is used to gather additional information on contractor cap-
abilities as well as for contractor bids on certain portions of the project. The bidding process,
involving a few contractors is an opportunity, through discussions, to expand design specifications.
The design, fabrication, installation of offshore oil and gas production systems are multifaceted,
high risk, and costly. The total effort involves a team, including operator, design contractors, fab-
rication contractors, installation contractors, and drilling contractors to mention a few. An Engi-
neering Management contractor is often used to coordinate and interface each contractor’s
activities. The tow-out date of offshore platforms usually depends on the weather pattern for a spe-
cific location. For example, the tow-out and installation window for platforms in the North Sea
starts in May and ends in September. Delays in design or fabrication could result in costly losses
of early production. Upstream planning for this weather window is of the essence.
Major subsystems in offshore drilling and production platforms include
1) Base structure (steel jacket, concrete, tension leg, compliant structure).
2) Operating facilities, including personnel facilities, oil and gas processing for transportation
to land.
3) Drilling and production equipment.
4) Transportation, such as pipelines, of crude to onshore facilities.
Each of these subsystems has its own subparts, etc. Each can be viewed as specific designs, which
interface with the total system. For example, the drilling system typically includes
1) Derrick
2) Hydraulic system
3) Blow Out Preventer system

4) Drillstring including bottom hole equipment
5) Power system.
A few considerations in designing oil well drilling programs are
•• Location of entry point into the oil and gas reservoir relative to the rig.
Assessment of directional drilling equipment needed to reach the entry point as well as the
well path.
•• Formations to be encountered and anticipated drill bit types to penetrate these formations.
Anticipated formation pressures (normal as well as abnormal pressures).
•• Reservoir pressures to be controlled and blow out prevention concerns and strategies.
Casing programs from surface to total depth.
• Implementing optimum drilling practices.
Connection of Subsystems
An early consideration in any design is the attachment of subsystems. Bolt-type attachments allow
removal and replacement of subparts. Bolted connections can also be adjusted. Welded connections
can’t. It may be desirable in some cases to weld subsystems, such as the frame. Warpage and
machining of surfaces should be considered.
Torsion Loading on Multibolt Patterns

Bolts are often used to fasten beams to form a frame or support a given load, such as illustrated in
Figure 1.2. Four bolts are shown even though multiple bolts making up various patterns could be
used. The design objective is to determine the total shear force in each bolt to establish bolt size and
material strength.
The total shear force on each bolt is the vector sum of direct shear force and force caused by the
torsion moment at the support. The first force is simply the total shear force divided by the number
of bolts (assumes the connection is rigid). The direction of the shear force on each bolt is downward.
The second force is caused by a moment on the bolt pattern and is determined as follows.
V
Bolt
rn Beam
Fn
Figure 1.2 Bolted connection.

The total torque, T, applied to the bolted joint relates to shear force in each bolt by
T = F 1 r1 + F 2 r2 + F 3 r3 + 13
Assuming the shear force, F, taken by each bolt depends on distance from the centroid of the bolt
pattern,
F1 F2 F3 Fn
= = = = 14
r1 r2 r3 rn
Combining these two equations gives the force in each bolt.
Tr n
Fn = 15
r 21 + r 22 + r 23 +
The above formula is very similar to the shaft shear stress formula,
Tr
τ= 16
J
which states that shear stress is proportional to radius, r. The shear stress formula is modified as
follows to match the above bolt analysis.
Fn Tr n
τn = = 17
An r 2i Ai
Tr n An
Fn = 18
r 2i Ai
Only when all bolts are the same size,

Tr n
Fn = 19
r 2i
which agrees with Eq. (1.5). The direction of shear forces caused by torque on a bolt pattern is per-
pendicular to the r vectors as shown.
With reference to Figure 1.2, assume
V = 2000 lb
Length = 12 in. (from center of bolt pattern)
Bolt diameter = 0.25 in.
Bolt spacing = 2 in.
Direct shear force 2000

FV = = 500 lb
4
Torsion shear force Tr n T 24 000
Fn = 2 = = = 4243 lb
4r n 4r n 4 1 414
Total shear force F = F V + F n where each force is a vector
F = − 500j + 4243 i cos 45 − j sin 45
F = − 500j + 3000 i − j = 3000i − 3500j
F = 4610 lb (scalar magnitude)
The cross-sectional area of each bolt is A = π4 d2 = π4 0 25 2 = 0 0491 in 2 The maximum shear

4610
stress in the nth bolt is τn = = 93 885 psi. This shear stress level occurs in both inside bolts.
0 0491
Make-Up Force on Bolts

A consideration in bolted attachments is the level of pretightening. Often bolted connections are
subjected to externally applied forces, which may cause further extension of the bolt leading to pos-
sible separation of contacting surfaces.
Consider the two situations illustrated in Figure 1.3. The left drawing shows a bolt compressing a
spring of stiffness, ks. As the bolt is tightened, the shank of the bolt elongates while compressing the
spring. The extension of the bolt shank relates to bolt force by
PL P E B AB
δB = = where k B = 1 10
E B AB kB L
At the same time, the spring is compressed by
P
δS = 1 11
kS
The internal force, P, in the bolt and the spring are the same (Figure 1.4a). The force level is estab-
lished by the make-up torque.
If an external force, F, is applied to the connection, forces in the bolt (PB) and spring (PS) are no
longer equal (Figure 1.4b). The challenge is to determine the magnitude of these two forces in rela-
tion to the externally applied force, F.
δspring
δbolt
ks
Figure 1.3 Make-up force in bolted connection.
Figure 1.4 Force response to an external load. (a) (b) F
P PS
P PB
Consider the freebody diagram in Figure 1.4b. For equilibrium

F = PB − P S 1 12
Since there are two unknown forces in this one equation, it is necessary to consider deflections in
the bolt and spring.
F = P + ΔPB − P − ΔPS
F = ΔPB + ΔpS
where ΔPB is increase in bolt tension and ΔPS is reduction in spring force. F is the externally
applied force.
When load, F, is applied, the bolt stretch increases while the spring compression is relaxed by the
same amount.
ΔδB = ΔδS deflection equation 1 13
In terms of force changes
ΔPS ΔPB EA
= where k B = 1 14
kS kB L
By substitution
kB
F = ΔPS + ΔPS 1 15
kS
giving
ks
ΔPS = F 1 16
kB + kS
Also
kS
F = ΔPB + ΔPS 1 17
kB
kB
ΔPB = F 1 18
kB + kS
The resulting forces in the spring and bolt are
PS = P − ΔPS
PB = P + ΔPB
These relationships are shown in Figure 1.5.

kS
PS = P − F 1 19
kB − ks
kB
PB = P + F 1 20
kB + kS
The force required to separate the surfaces or created zero force in the spring is determined by
setting PS = 0
kB
F cr = P 1 + 1 21
kS
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the guests in creating a general hullabaloo. Let those state who will that the
Egyptian was a gloomy individual, but first let them not fail to observe that
same Egyptian trying to stand upon his head amidst the roars of laughter of
his friends.
Dancing as a religious ceremony is to be found in many primitive
countries, and in Egypt it exists at the present day in more than one form. In
the days of the Pharaohs it was customary to institute dances in honour of
some of the gods, more especially those deities whose concerns were earthly
—that is to say, those connected with love, joy, birth, death, fertility,
reproduction, and so on. It will be remembered how David danced before the
ark of the Lord, and how his ancestors danced in honour of the golden calf.
In Egypt the king was wont to dance before the great god Min of the crops,
and at harvest-time the peasants performed their thanksgiving before the
figures of Min in this manner. Hathor and Bast, the two great goddesses of
pleasure, were worshipped in the dance. Hathor was mistress of sports and
dancing, and patron of amusements and mirth, joy, and pleasure, beauty and
love; and in regard to the happy temperament of the Egyptians, it is
significant that this goddess was held in the highest esteem throughout the
history of the nation.
Bast was honoured by a festival which for merriment and frivolity could
not well be equalled. The festival took place at Bubastis, and is described by
Herodotus in the following words:—
“This is the nature of the ceremony on the way to Bubastis. They go by water, and
numerous boats are crowded with persons of both sexes. During the voyage several women
strike the cymbals, some men play the flute, the rest singing and clapping their hands. As
they pass near a town they bring the boat close to the bank. Some of the women continue to
sing and play the cymbals; others cry out as long as they can, and utter mocking jests
against the people of the town, who begin to dance, while the former pull up their clothes
before them in a scoffing manner. The same is repeated at every town they pass on the river.
Arrived at Bubastis, they celebrate the festival of Bast, sacrificing a great number of
victims, and on that occasion a greater consumption of wine takes place than during the
whole of the year.”
At this festival of Bast half the persons taking part in the celebrations
must have become intoxicated. The Egyptians were always given to wine-
drinking, and Athenæus goes so far as to say that they were a nation addicted
to systematic intemperance. The same writer on the authority of Hellanicus,
states that the vine was cultivated in the Nile Valley at a date earlier than that
at which it was first grown by any other people; and it is to this circumstance
that Dion attributes the Egyptian’s love of wine. Strabo and other writers
speak of the wines of Egypt as being particularly good, and various kinds
emanating from different localities are mentioned. The wines made from
grapes were of the red and white varieties; but there were also fruit wines,
made from pomegranates and other fruits. In the list of offerings inscribed
on the walls of temples and tombs one sees a large number of varieties
recorded—wines from the North, wines from the South, wines provincial,
and wines foreign. Beer, made of barley, was also drunk very largely, and
this beverage is heartily commended by the early writers. Indeed, the wine
and beer-bibber was so common an offender against the dignity of the
nation, that every moralist who arose had a word to say against him. Thus,
for example, in the maxims of Ani one finds the moralist writing:—
“Do not put thyself in a beer-house. An evil thing are words reported as coming from
thy mouth when thou dost not know that they have been said by thee. When thou fallest thy
limbs are broken, and nobody givest thee a hand. Thy comrades in drink stand up, saying
‘Away with this drunken man.’ ”
The less thoughtful members of society, however, considered drunkenness as

a very good joke, and even went so far as to portray it in their tomb
decorations. One sees men carried home from the feast across the shoulders
of three of their companions, or ignominiously hauled out of the house by
their ankles and the scruff of their neck. In the tomb of Paheri at El Kab
women are represented at a feast, and scraps of their conversation are
recorded, such, for instance, as “Give me eighteen cups of wine, for I should
love to drink to drunkenness: my inside is as dry as straw.” There are
actually representations of women overcome with nausea through
immoderate drinking, and being attended by servants who have hastened
with basins to their assistance. In another tomb-painting, a drunken man is
seen to have fallen against one of the delicate pillars of the pavilion with
such force that it has toppled over, to the dismay of the guests around.
In the light of such scenes as these one may picture the life of an
Egyptian in the elder days as being not a little depraved. One sees the men in
their gaudy raiment, and the women luxuriously clothed, staining their
garments with the wine spilt from the drinking bowls as their hands shake
with their drunken laughter; and the vision of Egyptian solemnity is still
further banished at the sight. It is only too obvious that a land of laughter and
jest, feasting and carouse, must be situated too near a Pompeian volcano to
be capable of endurance and the inhabitants too purposeless in their
movements to avoid at some time or other running into the paths of burning
lava. The people of Egypt went merrily through the radiant valley in which
they lived, employing all that the gods had given them—not only the green
palms, the thousand birds, the blue sky, the hearty wind, the river and its
reflections, but also the luxuries of their civilisation—to make for
themselves a frail feast of happiness. And when the last flowers, the latest
empty drinking-cup, fell to the ground, nothing remained to them but that
sodden, drunken night of disgrace which so shocks one at the end of dynastic
history, and which inevitably led to the fall of the nation. Christian
asceticism came as the natural reaction and Mohammedan strictness
followed in due course; and it required the force of both these movements to
put strength and health into the people once more.
One need not dwell, however, on this aspect of the Egyptian
temperament. It is more pleasing, and as pertinent to the argument, to follow
the old lords of the Nile into the sunshine once more, and to glance for a
moment at their sports. Hunting was a pleasure to them, in which they
indulged at every opportunity. One sees representations of this with great
frequency upon the walls of the tombs. A man will be shown standing in a
reed boat which has been pushed in amongst the waving papyrus. A
boomerang is in his hand, and his wife by his side helps him to locate the
wild duck, so that he may penetrate within throwing-distance of the birds
before they rise. Presently up they go with a whir, and the boomerang claims
its victims; while all manner of smaller birds dart amidst the reeds, and
gaudy butterflies pass startled overhead. Again one sees the hunter galloping
in his chariot over the hard sand of the desert, shooting his arrows at the
gazelle as he goes. Or yet again with his dogs he is shown in pursuit of the
long-eared Egyptian hare, or of some other creature of the desert. When not
thus engaged he may be seen excitedly watching a bull-fight, or eagerly
judging the merits of rival wrestlers, boxers, and fencers. One may follow
him later into the seclusion of his garden, where, surrounded by a wealth of
trees and flowers, he plays draughts with his friends, romps with his
children, or fishes in his artificial pond.
There is much evidence of this nature to show that the Egyptian was as
much given to these healthy amusements as he was to the mirth of the feast.
Josephus states that the Egyptians were a people addicted to pleasure, and
the evidence brought together in the foregoing pages shows that his
statement is to be confirmed. In sincere joy of living they surpassed any
other nation of the ancient world. Life was a thing of such delight to the
Egyptian, that he shrank equally from losing it himself and from taking it
from another. His prayer was that he might live to be a centenarian. In spite
of the many wars of the Egyptians, there was less unnecessary bloodshed in
the Nile Valley than in any other country which called itself civilised. Death
was as terrible to them as it was inevitable, and the constant advice of the
thinker was that the living should make the most of their life. When a king
died, it was said that “he went forth to heaven having spent life in
happiness,” or that “he rested after life, having completed his years in
happiness.” It is true that the Egyptians wished to picture the after-life as one
of continuous joy. One sees representations of a man’s soul seated in the
shade of the fruit-trees of the Underworld, while birds sing in the branches
above him, and a lake of cool water lies before him; but they seemed to
know that this was too pleasant a picture to be a real one. A woman, the wife
of the high priest, left upon her tombstone the following inscription,
addressed to her husband:
“O, brother, husband, friend,” she says, “thy desire to drink and to eat has not ceased.
Therefore be drunken, enjoy the love of women—make holiday. Follow thy desire by night
and by day. Put not care within thy heart. Lo! are not these the years of thy life upon earth?
For as for the Underworld, it is a land of slumber and heavy darkness, a resting-place for
those who have passed within. Each sleepeth there in his own form, they never awake to see
their fellows, they behold not their fathers nor their mothers, their heart is careless of their
wives and children.”
She knows that she will be too deeply steeped in the stupor of the
Underworld to remember her husband, and unselfishly she urges him to
continue to be happy after the manner of his nation. Then, in a passage
which rings down the years in its terrible beauty, she tells of her utter
despair, lying in the gloomy Underworld, suffocated with the mummy
bandages, and craving for the light, the laughter, and the coolness of the day.
“The water of life,” she cries, “with which every mouth is moistened, is corruption to
me, the water that is by me corrupteth me. I know not what to do since I came into this
valley. Give me running water; say to me, ‘Water shall not cease to be brought to thee.’ Turn
my face to the north wind upon the edge of the water. Verily thus shall my heart be cooled
and refreshed from its pain.”
It is, however, the glory of life, rather than the horror of death which is the
dominant note in the inscriptions and reliefs. The scenes in the tomb
decorations seem to cry out for very joy. The artist has imprisoned in his
representations as much sheer happiness as was ever infused into cold stone.
One sees there the gazelle leaping over the hills as the sun rises, the birds
flapping their wings and singing, the wild duck rising from the marshes, and
the butterflies flashing overhead. The fundamental joy of living—the gaiety
of life which the human being may feel in common with the animals—is
shown in these scenes as clearly as is the merriment in the representations of
feasts and dancing. In these paintings and reliefs one finds an exact
illustration to the joyful exhortation of the Psalmist as he cries, “Let the
heavens rejoice, and let the earth be glad; ... let the fields be joyful, and all
that is therein.” In a land where, to quote one of their own poems, “the tanks
are full of water and the earth overflows with love,” where “the cool north
wind” blows merrily over the fields, and the sun never ceases to shine, it
would be a remarkable phenomenon if the ancient Egyptians had not
developed the sanguine temperament. The foregoing pages have shown them
at their feasts, in their daily occupations, and in their sports, and the reader
will find that it is not difficult to describe them, in the borrowed words of the
old geographer, as a people always gay and never-ceasingly “fond of
dancing and red wine.”
CHAPTER VII
EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT
There came to the camp of a certain professor, who was engaged in

excavating the ruins of an ancient Egyptian city, a young and faultlessly-
attired Englishman, whose thirst for dramatic adventure had led him to offer
his services as an unpaid assistant digger. This immaculate personage had
read in novels and tales many an account of the wonders which the spade of
the excavator could reveal, and he firmly believed that it was only necessary
to set a “nigger” to dig a little hole in the ground to open the way to the
treasuries of the Pharaohs. Gold, silver, and precious stones gleamed before
him, in his imagination, as he hurried along subterranean passages to the
vaults of long-dead kings. He expected to slide upon the seat of his very
well-made breeches down the staircase of the ruined palace which he had
entered by way of the skylight, and to find himself, at the bottom, in the
presence of the bejewelled dead. In the intervals between such experiences
he was of opinion that a little quiet gazelle shooting would agreeably fill in
the swiftly passing hours; and at the end of the season’s work he pictured
himself returning to the bosom of his family with such a tale to tell that
every ear would be opened to him.
On his arrival at the camp he was conducted to the site of his future
labours; and his horrified gaze was directed over a large area of mud-pie,
knee-deep in which a few bedraggled natives slushed their way downwards.
After three weeks’ work on this distressing site, the professor announced that
he had managed to trace through the mud the outline of the palace walls,
once the feature of the city, and that the work here might now be regarded as
finished. He was then conducted to a desolate spot in the desert, and until the
day on which he fled back to England he was kept to the monotonous task of
superintending a gang of natives whose sole business it was to dig a very
large hole in the sand, day after day and week after week.
It is, however, sometimes the fortune of the excavator to make a
discovery which almost rivals in dramatic interest the tales of his youth.
Such an experience fell to the lot of Emil Brugsch Pasha when he was
lowered into an ancient tomb and found himself face to face with a score of
the Pharaohs of Egypt, each lying in his coffin; or when Howard Carter and
Lord Carnarvon climbed into the tomb of Tutankhamen, and saw before
them the glorious funeral paraphernalia of the Pharaoh; or again, when
Monsieur de Morgan discovered the great mass of royal jewels in one of the
pyramids at Dachour. But such finds can be counted on the fingers, and more
often an excavation is a fruitless drudgery. Moreover, the life of a digger is
not always a pleasant one.
It will perhaps be of interest to the reader of romances to illustrate the
above remarks by the narration of some of my own experiences; but there
are only a few interesting and unusual episodes in which I have had the
peculiarly good fortune to be an actor. There will probably be some drama to
be felt in the account of the more important discoveries (for there certainly is
to the antiquarian himself); but it should be pointed out that the interest of
these rare finds pales before the description which many of us have heard, of
how the archæologists of a past century discovered the body of Charlemagne
clad in his royal robes and seated upon his throne—which, by the way, is
quite untrue. In spite of all that is said to the contrary, truth is seldom
stranger than fiction; and the reader who desires to be told of the discovery
of buried cities whose streets are paved with gold should take warning in
time and return at once to his novels.
If the dawning interest of the reader has now been thoroughly cooled by
these words, it may be presumed that it will be utterly annihilated by the
following narration of my first fruitless excavation; and thus one will be able
to continue the story with the relieved consciousness that nobody is
attending.
In the capacity of assistant to Professor Flinders Petrie, I was set, many
years ago, to the task of excavating a supposed royal cemetery in the desert
behind the ancient city of Abydos, in Upper Egypt. Two mounds were first
attacked; and after many weeks of work in digging through the sand, the
superstructure of two great tombs was bared. In the case of the first of these
several fine passages of good masonry were cleared, and at last the burial
chamber was reached. In the huge sarcophagus which was there found great
hopes were entertained that the body and funeral-offerings of the dead prince
would be discovered; but when at last the interior was laid bare the solitary
article found was a copy of a French newspaper left behind by the last, and
equally disgusted, excavator. The second tomb defied the most ardent
exploration, and failed to show any traces of a burial. The mystery was at
last solved by Professor Petrie, who, with his usual keen perception, soon
came to the conclusion that the whole tomb was a dummy, built solely to
hide an enormous mass of rock chippings, the presence of which had been a
puzzle for some time. These mason’s chippings were evidently the output
from some large cutting in the rock, and it became apparent that there must
be a great rock tomb in the neighbourhood. Trial trenches in the vicinity
presently revealed the existence of a long wall, which, being followed in
either direction, proved to be the boundary of a vast court or enclosure built
upon the desert at the foot of a conspicuous cliff. A ramp led up to the
entrance; but as it was slightly askew and pointed to the southern end of the
enclosure, it was supposed that the rock tomb, which presumably ran into the
cliff from somewhere inside this area, was situated at that end. The next few
weeks were occupied in the tedious task of probing the sand hereabouts, and
at length in clearing it away altogether down to the surface of the underlying
rock. Nothing was found, however; and sadly we turned to the exact middle
of the court, and began to work slowly to the foot of the cliff. Here, in the
very middle of the back wall, a pillared chamber was found, and it seemed
certain that the entrance to the tomb would now be discovered.
The best men were placed to dig out this chamber, and the excavator—it
was many years ago—went about his work with the weight of fame upon his
shoulders and an expression of intense mystery upon his sorely sun-scorched
face. How clearly memory recalls the letter home that week, “We are on the
eve of a great discovery”; and how vividly rises the picture of the baking
desert sand into which the sweating workmen were slowly digging their
way! But our hopes were short-lived, for it very soon became apparent that
there was no tomb entrance in this part of the enclosure. There remained the
north end of the area, and on to this all the available men were turned.
Deeper and deeper they dug their way, until the mounds of sand thrown out
formed, as it were, the lip of a great crater. At last, some forty or fifty feet
down, the underlying rock was struck, and presently the mouth of a great
shaft was exposed leading down into the bowels of the earth. The royal tomb
had at last been discovered, and it only remained to effect an entrance. The
days were now filled with excitement, and, the thoughts being concentrated
on the question of the identity of the royal occupant of the tomb, it was soon
fixed in our minds that we were about to enter the burial-place of no less a
personage than the great Pharaoh Senusert III. (Sesostris), the same king
whose jewels were found at Dachour.
One evening, just after I had left the work, the men came down to the
distant camp to say that the last barrier was now reached and that an entrance
could be effected at once. In the pale light of the moon, therefore, I hastened
back to the desert with a few trusted men. As we walked along, one of these
natives very cheerfully remarked that we should all probably get our throats
cut, as the brigands of the neighbourhood had got wind of the discovery, and
were sure to attempt to enter the tomb that night. With this pleasing prospect
before us we walked with some caution over the silent desert. Reaching the
mound of sand which surrounded our excavation, we crept to the top and
peeped over into the crater. At once we observed a dim light below us, and
almost immediately an agitated but polite voice from the opposite mound
called out in Arabic, “Go away, mister. We have all got guns.” This remark
was followed by a shot which whistled past me; and therewith I slid down
the hill once more, and heartily wished myself safe in my bed. Our party
then spread round the crater, and at a given word we proposed to rush the
place. But the enemy was too quick for us, and after the briefest scrimmage,
and the exchanging of a harmless shot or two, we found ourselves in
possession of the tomb, and were able to pretend that we were not a bit
frightened.
Then into the dark depths of the shaft we descended, and ascertained that
the robbers had not effected an entrance. A long night watch followed, and
the next day we had the satisfaction of arresting some of the criminals. The
tomb was found to penetrate several hundred feet into the cliff, and at the
end of the long and beautifully worked passage the great royal sarcophagus
was found—empty! So ended a very strenuous season’s work.
If the experiences of a digger in Professor Petrie’s camp are to be
regarded as typical, they will probably serve to damp the ardour of eager
young gentlemen in search of ancient Egyptian treasure. One lives in a bare
little hut constructed of mud, and roofed with cornstalks or corrugated iron;
and if by chance there happens to be a rain storm, as there was when I was a
member of the community, one may watch the frail building gently subside
in a liquid stream upon one’s bed and books. For seven days in the week
one’s work continues, and it is only to the real enthusiast that that work is
not monotonous and tiresome.
A few years later it fell to my lot to excavate for the Government the
funeral temple of Thutmosis III. at Thebes, and a fairly large sum was spent
upon the undertaking. Although the site was most promising in appearance,
a couple of months’ work brought to light hardly a single object of
importance, whereas exactly similar sites in the same neighbourhood had
produced inscriptions of the greatest value. Many years ago Lord Carnarvon
began his work upon a site of my own selection, the net result of which, after
six weeks’ labour, was one mummified cat! To sit over the work day after
day, as did that patient excavator, then new to this sort of adventure, with the
flies buzzing around his face and the sun blazing down upon him from a
relentless sky, was hardly a pleasurable task; and to watch the clouds of dust
go up from the tip-heap, where tons of unprofitable rubbish rolled down the
hillside all day long was an occupation for the damned. Yet that is
excavating as it is usually found to be.
Now let us consider the other side of the story. In the Valley of the Tombs
of the Kings at Thebes excavations were conducted for some years at the
expense of Mr. Theodore M. Davis, of Newport, Rhode Island, by special
arrangement with the Department of Antiquities of the Egyptian
Government; and as the representative of that Department I had to supervise
the work. The finding of the tomb of Yuaa and Tuau during these
excavations was an event only eclipsed by Lord Carnarvon’s recent
discovery, and one which came somewhere near to the standard of romance
set by the novelists. Yuaa and Tuau were the parents of Queen Tiy, the
discovery of whose tomb is recorded in the next chapter. When the entrance
of their tomb was cleared, a flight of steps was exposed, leading down to a
passage blocked by a wall of loose stones. In the top right hand corner a
small hole, large enough to admit a man, had been made in ancient times,
and through this we could look down into a dark passage. As it was too late
in the day to enter at once, we postponed that exciting experience until the
morrow, and some police were sent for to guard the entrance during the
night. I had slept the previous night over the mouth, and there was now no
possibility of leaving the place for several more nights, so a rough camp was
formed on the spot.
Here I settled myself down for the long watch, and speculated on the
events of the next morning, when Mr. Davis and one or two well-known
Egyptologists were to come to the valley to be present at the opening of the
sepulchre. Presently, in the silent darkness, a slight noise was heard on the
hillside, and immediately the challenge of the sentry rang out. This was
answered by a distant call, and after some moments of alertness on our part
we observed two figures approaching us. These, to my surprise, proved to be
a well-known American artist and his wife,[3] who had obviously come on
the expectation that trouble was ahead; but though in this they were destined
to suffer disappointment, still, out of respect for the absolute unconcern of
both visitors, it may be mentioned that the mouth of a lonely tomb already
said by native rumour to contain incalculable wealth is not perhaps the safest
place in the world. Here, then, on a level patch of rock we three lay down
and slept fitfully until the dawn. Soon after breakfast the wall at the mouth
of the tomb was pulled down, and the party passed into the low passage
which sloped down to the burial chamber. At the bottom of this passage
there was a second wall blocking the way; but when a few layers had been
taken off the top we were able to climb, one by one, into the chamber.
Imagine entering a town house which had been closed for the summer;
imagine the stuffy room, the stiff, silent appearance of the furniture, the
feeling that some ghostly occupants of the vacant chairs have just been
disturbed, the desire to throw open the windows to let life into the room once
more. That was perhaps the first sensation as we stood, really dumbfounded,
and stared around at the relics of the life of over three thousand years ago, all
of which were as new almost as when they graced the palace of Prince Yuaa.
Three arm-chairs were perhaps the first objects to attract the attention:
beautiful carved wooden chairs, decorated with gold. Belonging to one of
these was a pillow made of down and covered with linen. It was so perfectly
preserved that one might have sat upon it or tossed it from this chair to that
without doing it injury. Here were fine alabaster vases, and in one of these
we were startled to find a liquid, like honey or syrup, still unsolidified by
time. Boxes of exquisite workmanship stood in various parts of the room,
some resting on delicately wrought legs. Now the eye was directed to a
wicker trunk fitted with trays and partitions, and ventilated with little
apertures, since the scents were doubtless strong. Two most comfortable
beds were to be observed, fitted with springy string mattresses and
Excavating the Osireion at Abydos. A chain of boys handing up baskets of sand to the surface
Photograph by the Author
decorated with charming designs in gold. There in the far corner, placed
upon the top of a number of large white jars, stood the light chariot which
Yuaa had owned in his lifetime. In all directions stood objects gleaming with
gold undulled by a speck of dust, and one looked from one article to another
with the feeling that the entire human conception of Time was wrong. These
were the things of yesterday, of a year or so ago. Why, here were meats
prepared for the feasts in the Underworld; here were Yuaa’s favourite joints,
each neatly placed in a wooden box as though for a journey. Here was his
staff, and here were his sandals—a new pair and an old. In another corner
there stood the magical figures by the power of which the prince was to
make his way through Hades. The words of the mystical “Chapter of the
Flame” and of the “Chapter of the Magical Figure of the North Wall” were
inscribed upon them; and upon a great roll of papyrus twenty-two yards in
length other efficacious prayers were written.
But though the eyes passed from object to object, they ever returned to
the two lidless gilded coffins in which the owners of this room of the dead
lay as though peacefully sleeping. First above Yuaa and then above his wife
the electric lamps were held, and as one looked down into their quiet faces
(from which the bandages had been removed by some ancient robber), there
was almost the feeling that they would presently open their eyes and blink at
the light. The stern features of the old man commanded one’s attention, and
again and again our gaze was turned from this mass of wealth to this
sleeping figure in whose honour it had been placed here.
At last we returned to the surface to allow the thoughts opportunity to
collect themselves and the pulses time to quiet down, for, even to the most
unemotional, a discovery of this kind, bringing one into the very presence of
the past, has really an unsteadying effect. Then once more we descended,
and made the preliminary arrangements for the cataloguing of the
antiquities. It was now that the real work began, and, once the excitement
was passed, there was a monotony of labour to be faced which put a very
considerable strain on the powers of all concerned. The hot days when one
sweated over the heavy packing-cases, and the bitterly cold nights when one
lay at the mouth of the tomb under the stars, dragged on for many a week;
and when at last the long train of boxes was carried down to the Nile en
route for the Cairo Museum, it was with a sigh of relief that I returned to my
regular work.
This, of course, was a very exceptional discovery. We afterwards made
other great finds, but to me they did not equal in dramatic interest the
discovery just recorded. Even in this royal valley, however, there is much
drudgery to be faced, and for a large part of the season’s work it is the
excavator’s business to turn over endless masses of rock chippings, and to
dig huge holes which have no interest for the patient digger. Sometimes the
mouth of a tomb is bared, and is entered with the profoundest hopes, which
are at once dashed by the sudden abrupt ending of the cutting a few yards
from the surface. At other times a tomb-chamber is reached and is found to
be absolutely empty.
At another part of Thebes, the well-known Italian Egyptologist, Professor
Schiaparelli, had excavated for a number of years without finding anything
of much importance, when suddenly one fine day he struck the mouth of a
large tomb which was evidently intact. I was at once informed of the
discovery, and proceeded to the spot as quickly as possible. The mouth of
the tomb was approached down a flight of steep, rough steps, still half-
choked with débris. At the bottom of this the entrance of a passage running
into the hillside was blocked by a wall of rough stones. After photographing
and removing this, we found ourselves in a long, low tunnel, blocked by a
second wall a few yards ahead. Both these walls were intact, and we realised
that we were about to see what probably no living man had ever seen before:
the absolutely intact remains of a rich Theban of the Imperial Age—i.e.,
about 1200 or 1300 B.C. When this second wall was taken down we passed
into a carefully cut passage high enough to permit of our standing upright.
At the end of this passage a plain wooden door barred our progress. The
wood retained the light colour of fresh deal, and looked for all the world as
though it had been set up but yesterday. A heavy wooden lock, such as is
used at the present day, held the door fast. A neat bronze handle on the side
of the door was connected by a string to a wooden knob set in the masonry
door-post; and this string was carefully sealed with a small dab of stamped
clay. The whole contrivance seemed so modern that Professor Schiaparelli
called to his servant for the key, who quite seriously replied, “I don’t know
where it is, sir.” He then thumped the door with his hand to see whether it
would be likely to give; and, as the echoes reverberated through the tomb,
one felt that the mummy, in the darkness beyond, might well think that his
resurrection call had come. One almost expected him to rise, like the dead
knights of Kildare in the Irish legend, and to ask, “Is it time?” for the three
thousand years which his religion had told him was the duration of his life in
the tomb was already long past.
Meanwhile we turned our attention to the objects which stood in the
passage, having been placed there at the time of the funeral, owing to the
lack of room in the burial-chamber. Here a vase, rising upon a delicately
shaped stand, attracted the eye by its beauty of form; and here a bedstead
caused us to exclaim at its modern appearance. A palm-leaf fan, used by the
ancient Egyptians to keep the flies off their wines and unguents, stood near a
now empty jar; and near by a basket of dried-up fruit was to be seen. This
dried fruit gave the impression that the tomb was perhaps a few months old,
but there was nothing else to be seen which suggested that the objects were
even as much as a year old. It was almost impossible to believe, and quite
impossible to realise, that we were standing where no man had stood for well
over three thousand years; and that we were actually breathing the air which
had remained sealed in the passage since the ancient priests had closed the
entrance thirteen hundred years before Christ.
Before we could proceed farther, many flashlight photographs had to be
taken, and drawings made of the doorway; and after this a panel of the
woodwork had to be removed with a fretsaw in order that the lock and seal
might not be damaged. At last, however, this was accomplished, and the way
into the tomb-chamber was open. Stepping through the frame of the door, we
found ourselves in an unencumbered portion of the floor, while around us in
all directions stood the funeral furniture, and on our left the coffins of the
deceased noble and his wife loomed large. Everything looked new and
undecayed, and even the order in which the objects were arranged suggested
a tidying-up done that very morning. The gravel on the floor was neatly
smoothed, and not a speck of dust was anywhere to be observed. Over the
large outer coffin a pall of fine linen was laid, not rotting and falling to
pieces like the cloth of mediæval times we see in our museums, but soft and
strong like the sheets of our beds. In the clear space before the coffin stood a
wooden pedestal in the form of a miniature lotus column. On the top of this,
resting on three wooden prongs, was a small copper dish, in which were the
ashes of incense, and the little stick used for stirring them. One asked oneself
in bewilderment whether the ashes here, seemingly not cold, had truly
ceased to glow at a time when Rome and Greece were undreamt of, when
Assyria did not exist, and when the Exodus of the Children of Israel was yet
unaccomplished.
On low tables round cakes of bread were laid out, not cracked and
shrivelled, but smooth and brown, with a kind of white-of-egg glaze upon
them. Onions and fruit were also spread out; and the fruit of the dôm palm
was to be seen in plenty. In various parts of the chamber there were
numerous bronze vessels of different shapes, intended for the holding of
milk or wine.
Well supplied with food and drink, the senses of the dead man were
soothed by a profusion of flowers, which lay withered but not decayed
beside the coffin, and which at the time of the funeral must have filled the
chamber with their sweetness. Near the doorway stood an upright wooden
chest closed with a lid. Opening this, we found it to contain the great
ceremonial wig of the deceased man, which was suspended from a rail
passing across the top of the chest, and hung free of the sides and bottom.
The black hair was plaited into hundreds of little tails, but in size the wig
was not unlike those of the early eighteenth century in Europe. Chairs, beds,
and other pieces of furniture were arranged around the room, and at one side
there were a number of small chests and boxes piled up against the wall. We
opened one or two of these, and found them to contain delicate little vases of
glass, stone and metal, wrapped round with rags to prevent them breaking.
These, like everything else in the tomb, were new and fresh, and showed no
trace of the passing of the years.
The coffins, of course, were hidden by the great casing in which each
rested, and which itself was partly hidden by the linen pall. Nothing could be
touched for many days until photographs had been taken and records made;
and we therefore returned through the long passage to the light of the day.
There must have been a large number of intact tombs to be found when
the first modern interest in Egyptian antiquities developed; but the market
thus created had to be supplied, and gangs of illicit diggers made short work
of the most accessible tombs. This illegal excavation, of course, continues to
some extent at the present day, in spite of all precautions, but the results are
becoming less and less proportionate to the labour expended and risk taken.
A native likes best to do a little quiet digging in his own back yard and to
admit nobody else into the business. To illustrate this, I may mention a
tragedy which was brought to my notice a few years ago. A certain native
discovered the entrance of a tomb in the floor of his stable, and at once
proceeded to worm his way down the tunnel. That was the end of the native.
His wife, finding that he had not returned two hours or so later, went down
the newly found tunnel after him. That was the end of her also. In turn, three
other members of the family went down into the darkness, and that was the
end of them. A native official was then called, and, lighting his way with a
candle, penetrated down the winding passage. The air was so foul that he
was soon obliged to retreat, but he stated that he was just able to see in the
distance ahead the bodies of the unfortunate peasants, all of whom had been
overcome by what he quaintly described as “the evil lighting and bad
climate.” Various attempts at the rescue of the dead bodies during the day
and the night having failed, I gave orders that this tomb should be regarded
as their sepulchre, and that its mouth should be sealed up. According to the
natives, there was evidently a vast hoard of wealth stored at the bottom of
this tomb, and the would-be robbers had met their death at the hands of the
demon in charge of it, who had seized each man by the throat as he came
down the tunnel and had strangled him.
The Egyptian peasants have a very strong belief in the power of such
creatures of the spirit world. A native who was attempting recently to
discover hidden treasure in a certain part of the desert, sacrificed a lamb each
night above the spot where he believed the treasure to lie, in order to
propitiate the djin who guarded it. On the other hand, however, they have no
superstition as regards the sanctity of the ancient dead, and they do not
hesitate on that ground to rifle the tombs. Thousands of graves have been
desecrated by these seekers after treasure, and it is very largely the result of
this that scientific excavation is often so fruitless nowadays. When an
excavator states that he has discovered a tomb, one takes it for granted that
he means a plundered tomb, unless he definitely says that it was intact, in
which case one calls him a lucky fellow and regards him with green envy.
And thus we come back to my remarks at the beginning of this chapter,
that there is a painful disillusionment awaiting the man who comes to dig in
Egypt in the hope of finding the golden cities of the Pharaohs or the
bejewelled bodies of their dead.
CHAPTER VIII
THE TOMB OF TIY AND AKHNATON[4]
In January, 1907, the excavations in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings at
Thebes, which were being conducted each year under my supervision at the
expense of Mr. Davis, brought to light the entrance of a tomb which, by its
style, appeared to be that of a royal personage of the XVIIIth Dynasty. The
Valley lies behind the cliffs which form the western boundary of Thebes, and
is approached by a long winding road running between the rocks and rugged
hills of the Lybian desert. Here the Pharaohs of the XVIIIth to the XXth
Dynasties were buried in large sepulchres cut into the sides of the hills; and
the excavations had for their object the removal of the débris which had
collected at the foot of these hills, in order that the tombs hidden beneath
might be revealed. About sixty tombs are now open, some of which were
already known to Greek and Roman travellers; and there are palpably not
more than two or three still to be discovered.
When this new tomb-entrance was uncovered I was at once notified, and
proceeded with all despatch to the Valley. It was not long before we were
able to enter the tomb. A rough stairway led down into the hillside, bringing
us to the mouth of a passage which was entirely blocked by a wall of built
stones. On removing this wall we found ourselves in a small passage,
descending at a sharp incline to a chamber which could be seen a few yards
further on. Instead of this passage being free from débris, however, as we
had expected on finding the entrance-wall intact, it was partly filled with
fallen stones which seemed to be the ruins of an earlier entrance-wall. On
top of this heap of stones lay one of the sides of a large funeral shrine,
almost entirely blocking the passage. This shrine, as we later saw, was in the
form of a great box-like sarcophagus, made of cedar-wood covered with
gold, and it had been intended as an outer covering for the coffin of the
deceased person. It was, however, not put together: three sides of it were
leaning against the walls of the burial-chamber, and the fourth was here in
the passage. Either it was never built up, or else it was in process of being
taken out of the tomb again when the work was abandoned.
To pass this portion of the shrine which lay in the passage without doing
it damage was no easy matter. We could not venture to move it, as the wood
was rotten; and indeed, for over a year it remained in its original position.
We therefore made a bridge of planks within a few inches of the low roof,
and on this we wriggled ourselves across into the unencumbered passage
beyond. In the funeral-chamber, besides the other portions of the shrine, we
found at one corner a splendid coffin, in the usual form of a recumbent
figure, inlaid in a dazzling manner with rare stones and coloured glass. The
coffin had originally lain upon a wooden bier, in the form of a lion-legged
couch; but this had collapsed and the mummy had fallen to the ground, the
lid of the coffin being partly
The entrance of the Tomb of Queen Tiy, with a native policeman guarding it. The large Tomb of
Rameses X. is to the left
thrown off by the fall, thus exposing the head and feet of the body, from
which the bandages had decayed and fallen off. In the powerful glare of the
electric light which we carried, the bare skull, with a golden vulture upon it,
could be seen protruding from the remains of the linen bandages and from
the sheets of flexible gold-foil in which, as we afterwards found, the whole
body was wrapped. The inscription on the coffin, the letters of which were
made of rare stones, gave the titles of Akhnaton, “the beautiful child of the
Sun”; but turning to the shrine we found other inscriptions stating that King
Akhnaton had made it for his mother, Queen Tiy, and thus no immediate
reply could be given to those at the mouth of the tomb who called to us to
know which of the Pharaohs of Egypt had been found.
In a recess in the wall above the body there stood four alabaster “canopy”
jars, each with a lid exquisitely sculptured in the form of a human head. In
another corner there was a box containing many little toilet vases and
utensils of porcelain. A few alabaster vases and other objects were lying in
various parts of the chamber arranged in some sort of rough order.
Nothing, of course, could yet be touched, and for several days, during the
lengthy process of photographing and recording the contents of the tomb in
situ, no further information could be obtained as to the identity of the owner
of the tomb. The shrine was certainly made for Queen Tiy, and so too were
the toilet utensils, judging by an inscription upon one of them which gave
the names of Tiy and her husband, King Amenophis III., the parents of
Akhnaton. It was, therefore, not a surprise when a passing doctor declared
the much broken bones to be those of a woman—that is to say, those of
Queen Tiy. For reasons which will presently become apparent, it had been
difficult to believe that Akhnaton could have been buried in this Valley, and
one was very ready to suppose that the coffin bearing his name had but been
given by him to his mother.
The important discovery was now announced, and caused considerable
interest and excitement. At the end of the winter the various archæologists
departed to their several countries, and it fell to me to despatch the
antiquities to the Cairo Museums, and to send the bones, soaked in wax to
prevent their breakage, to Dr. Elliot Smith, to be examined by that eminent
authority. It may be imagined that my surprise was considerable when I
received a letter from him reading—“Are you sure that the bones you sent
me are those which were found in the tomb? Instead of the bones of an old
woman, you have sent me those of a young man. Surely there is some
mistake.”
There was, however, no mistake. Dr. Elliot Smith later informed me that
the bones were those of a young man of about thirty years of age, and at first
this description did not seem to tally with that of Akhnaton, who was always
thought to have been a man of middle age. But there is now no possibility of

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Engineering Practice With Oilfield and Drilling Applications 1St Edition Scott D Sudhoff Full Chapter PDF

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Engineering Practice with Oilfield and

Drilling Applications 1st Edition Scott

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Foundation Engineering: Geotechnical Principles and

This Work is a co-publication between ASME Press

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for:

Cover Design: Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

Part I Engineering Design and Problem Solving 1

1 Design and Problem Solving Guidelines 3

2 Configuring the Design 37

Refining the Design 113

Part II Power Generation, Transmission, Consumption 123

3 Power Generation 125

Rocket Dynamics 146

4 Power Transmission 151

Acceleration Analysis 187

5 Friction, Bearings, and Lubrication 209

Thick Film Slider Bearings 240

6 Energy Consumption 267

Physical Properties of Drill Pipe 279

Part III Analytical Tools of Design 313

7 Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies 315

Velocity Vector 325

8 Mechanics of Materials 375

Application to Marine Risers 435

Applied Torque 483

9 Modal Analysis of Mechanical Vibrations 491

Complex Variable Approach 526

10 Fluid Mechanics 541

11 Energy Methods 569

Principle of Complementary Energy 579

Part I Engineering Design and Problem-Solving

S section modulus of a cross sectional area, Sommerfeld

δ displacement, log decrement

Engineering Design and Problem Solving

Design and Problem Solving Guidelines

Concept A Concept B Concept C

Figure 1.1 Design development process.

Operational requirements or product attributes describe the expected functional performance of a

Government Procurement Procedure

Petroleum Industry Procedure

•• Ocean water depth

•• Oil, gas, water content of reservoir

• Production rate (barrels per day).

Considerable time is spent in gathering this information to establish operational requirements

a) design efficiency in terms of materials, weight, cost, energy consumption

Designs are configured (size, dimension) according to the allowable stress.

Product Life Cycle

Product Safety and Liability

• Is it morally right; can I live with the outcome?

Creating Design Alternatives

•• high energy level

Innovation is an individual activity. The foundation of science is built on the genius of

Reference Books and Trade Journals

Experts in a Related Field