(Download PDF) Feng Fu Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures Elsevier 2018 Desconocido Full Chapter PDF

Feng Fu Design and Analysis of Tall
and Complex Structures Elsevier 2018

Desconocido
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/feng-fu-design-and-analysis-of-tall-and-complex-struc
tures-elsevier-2018-desconocido/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Reinforced Concrete Structures Analysis and Design (2nd

Edition) David A Fanella
https://ebookmass.com/product/reinforced-concrete-structures-
analysis-and-design-2nd-edition-david-a-fanella/
Single Skin and Double Skin Concrete Filled Tubular

Structures : Analysis and Design Mohamed Elchalakani
https://ebookmass.com/product/single-skin-and-double-skin-
concrete-filled-tubular-structures-analysis-and-design-mohamed-
elchalakani/
Analysis and Design of Prestressed Concrete Di Hu
https://ebookmass.com/product/analysis-and-design-of-prestressed-
concrete-di-hu/
Design of Concrete Structures 15th Edition, (Ebook PDF)
https://ebookmass.com/product/design-of-concrete-structures-15th-
edition-ebook-pdf/
Design of Concrete Structures 16th Edition David Darwin
https://ebookmass.com/product/design-of-concrete-structures-16th-
edition-david-darwin/
Design and analysis of centrifugal compressors Van Den

Braembussche
https://ebookmass.com/product/design-and-analysis-of-centrifugal-
compressors-van-den-braembussche/
Seismic Design and Analysis of Tanks Gian Michele Calvi
https://ebookmass.com/product/seismic-design-and-analysis-of-
tanks-gian-michele-calvi/
Integration with Complex Numbers : A Primer on Complex

Analysis Aisling Mccluskey
https://ebookmass.com/product/integration-with-complex-numbers-a-
primer-on-complex-analysis-aisling-mccluskey/
Steel Structures Design for Lateral and Vertical

Forces, Second Edition Williams
https://ebookmass.com/product/steel-structures-design-for-
lateral-and-vertical-forces-second-edition-williams/
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
OF TALL AND COMPLEX
STRUCTURES
This page intentionally left blank
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
OF TALL AND COMPLEX
STRUCTURES
FENG FU
Butterworth-Heinemann
An imprint of Elsevier
ELSEVIER
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OXS 1 GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on
how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher's permissions policies and
our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the
Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by
the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices,
or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and
the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of
products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-08-101018-1
For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Working together
��
Book Aid
to grow libraries in
International developing countries
www.elsev1er.com • www.booka1d.org
Publisher: Matthew Deans

Acquisition Editor: Ken McCombs
Editorial Project Manager: Serena Castelnovo
Production Project Manager: Swapna Srinivasan
Cover Designer: Matthew Limbert
Typeset by SPi Global, India

CONTENTS
The Author ix
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Aims and Scope 1
1.2 The Main Design Issues of Tall and Complex Structures 2
1.3 Structure of the Book 2
References 4
2. Fundamentals of Tall Building Design 5

2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 History of Tall Buildings 6
2.3 The Lateral Stability System for Tall Buildings 7
2.4 Loads on Tall Buildings 18
2.5 Floor System 22
2.6 Vertical Support Systems 27
2.7 Earthquake Design 29
2.8 Wind Load Design 43
2.9 Design to Prevent Progressive Collapse 58
2.10 Fire Safety Design 60
2.11 Design of Tall Building Under Blast Loading 66
2.12 Foundation Design for Tall Buildings 69
2.13 Construction Methods and Technologies 72
2.14 Creep, Shrinkage, and Column Shortening Effect 74
2.15 Cladding 76
References 78
3. Shear Wall, Core, Outrigger, Belt Truss, and Buttress

Core System for Tall Buildings 81
3.1 Introduction 81
3.2 Shear Wall and Core System 82
3.3 Introduction of Outrigger, Belt Truss, and Buttress Core System 84
3.4 Outrigger Structures 85
3.5 Belt Truss and Ring Truss System 96
vi Contents
3.6 Buttressed Core System 98

3.7 Summary 105
References 106
4. Tube System in Tall Building 109

4.1 Introduction of Tube Structures 109
4.2 Tube-in-Tube System 110
4.3 Framed Tubes 116
4.4 Braced Tubes Structure (Trussed Tube Structure) 123
4.5 Bundled Tube 124
4.6 Hybrids Tube System 126
4.7 Superslender Tall Building Design 127
4.8 Conclusion 134
References 134
5. Bracing, Diagrid, 30 Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural

Systems in Tall Buildings 137
5.1 Introduction 137
5.2 Bracing Systems 137
5.3 3D Space Truss System 142
5.4 Diagrid Structures 145
5.5 Moment Resisting Frames 162
5.6 Mega Frame Structures (Superframe Structures) 164
5.7 Conclusion 174
References 175
6. Design and Analysis of Complex Structures 177

6.2 Examples of Complex Structures 179
6.3 Design Considerations in Complex Structures 187
6.4 Complex Structural Analysis Methods 194
6.5 Building Information Modeling 195
6.6 Parametric Design Process 197
6.7 API and GUI Development for Analysis Program 202
6.8 Example of Set up a 3D Model for Long-Span Structures-Roof
of Wembley Stadium 203

6.9 Case study of Long-Span Roof in King's Cross St Pancras Station
Using Ansys 207

Contents vii
6.10 Case Study of Multiphysics Fire Analysis of Building in Cardington

Fire Test Using ANSYS 207
6.11 Conclusion 210
References 210
7. Design and Analysis of Tensile Structures and Tensegrity

Structures 213
7.1 Introduction to Tensile Structures 213
7.2 General Considerations in Structural Design ofTensile Membrane
Structure 223
7.3 Structural Analysis of Tensile Membrane Structure 227
7.4 Modeling Examples of Tensile Membrane Structure 235
7.5 Introduction to Tensegrity Structures 237
7.6 Structural Analysis of Tensegrity Structures 239
References 248
8. Design of Offshore Structures 251

8.2 Oil Platform 251
8.3 Incidents of Offshore Structures 264
8.4 Offshore Wind Turbine Structures 265
8.5 Major Design Consideration and Design Guidelines for Offshore
Structures 272
8.6 Structural Analysis of Offshore Structures (Modeling Example of an
Oil Platform Using SAP2000) 287
References 292
Index 295
THE AUTHOR
Dr. Feng Fu is a Chartered Structural Engineer. He is a professional member

of the Institution of Structural Engineers, the Institution of Civil Engineers,
and the American Society of Civil Engineering. He is also a committee
member of Disproportionate Collapse Mitigation of Building Structure
Standards and Blast Protection of Building Standards, American Society
of Civil Engineers. He is in the editorial board of International Journal
and Advances in Computational design and Proceedings of the Institution
of Civil Engineers - Structures and Buildings.
He is currently a lecturer in Structural Engineering in City, University of
London, following his work at the University of Bradford. Before his aca
demic careers, he has worked for several world leading consultancy companies
and was involved in the design of several prestigious construction projects
worldwide. He worked in the advanced analysis team in the WSP Group
Ltd., London, following his work as a structural engineer in Waterman Group
Ltd., London. Before starting his PhD in the UK, he also worked as a struc
tural engineer for one of the best design companies in China, Beijing Institute
ofArchitectural Design (Group) Co. , Ltd. In this book, the author takes up for
discussion seven tall building projects designed by these three companies.
During his professional engineering experience, he worked with many
world-class architects and designed and analyzed all kinds of complex and
challenging structures around the world, such as tall buildings, long-span
space structures, and bridges.
Dr. Fu has extensive research experience in the area of progressive col
lapse, structural fire analysis, and blast analysis of tall buildings and long-span
structures. He also conducted his research in the area of tensegrity structures
and steel and composite structures. His currently research interests also
include fluid and structure interaction of offshore structures such as offshore
wind turbine and oil platform. He is specialized in advanced numerical
modeling and has developed several modeling programs using different
programming languages . He is currently working on a €1 ,438,020.85
research proj ect funded by the European Commission Research Fund
for Coal and Steel (RFCS) , proj ect number STABFI 75 1 583, " Steel
cladding systems for stabilization of steel buildings in fire . " He is a PhD
supervisor. He is also a peer reviewer for more than 22 international
ixl
x The Author
j ournals and 4 books of internationally renowned publishers . He has publi

shed more than 30 technical papers and two textbooks:
"Advanced Modeling Techniques i n Structural Design, ISBN: 978- 1 -
1 1 8-82543-3 , May 20 1 5 , Wiley-Blackwell. "
" Structural Analysis and Design to Prevent Disproportionate Collapse,
March 10, 20 1 6 Forthcoming by CRC Press, ISBN 97 8 1 498706797 . "
PREFACE
In the past decades, with the development of construction technology and

computer analysis methods, extensively tall and complex structures, such as
Burj Khalifa, Taipei 1 0 1 , the Bird's Nest, etc . , have been built. The demand
from the construction market requires that a civil engineer has the ability to
design and analyze these challenging structures. The author has been
working in the industry and the academia for many years . As a professional
engineer, I have been working on a variety of tall and complex structures,
such as the Shard, the tallest building in West Europe, the scheme design of
Nakheel Tower (1 -km-tall building, designed to be the tallest building in
the world, proj ect is on hold) , etc . I noticed that most practicing engineers
as well as current college or university students lack the knowledge on the
design and analysis of tall and complex structures. Therefore, a textbook
conveying the knowledge of design and analysis of this type of structures
is increasingly important.
The aim of this book is to provide engineers and students with knowl
edge on the design principles and analysis methods of tall and complex struc
tures, the effective way to model these types of structures using the
conventional commercial software, and the theories and design principles
that underpin the relevant analysis . This book has been written to serve
as a textbook for college and university students and also as a reference book
for practicing engineers.
This book discuses almost all types of tall building systems and other com
plex structural forms such as long-span structures, tensile structures, tensegrity
structures, offshore oil platforms, offshore wind turbine, etc . It covers the
structural design problems, such as lateral stability analysis, earthquake
analysis, wind engineering, foundation design for tall buildings, nonlinear
geometric analysis and form finding method for tensile structures and
tensegrity, multiphysics modeling for fire safety, fluid structure interaction
for offshore structures, etc .
Another feature of this book is that most of the design principles and
analysis methods are demonstrated using case studies and modeling examples
of existing prestigious proj ects around the world, such as the tallest buildings
in the world: theJeddah Tower (the tallest building in the world) , the Twin
Towers (in New York, demolished by 9 / 1 1 attack) , 432 Parke Avenue in
New York (the tallest residential building in the world) , Shanghai Tower
xii Preface
(632-m tall, the tallest mega-frame building in the world) , Guangzhou Inter
national Finance Center (432-m tall, the tallest diagrid building in the
world) , China Zun Tower (528 m) , Petronas Tower (378 m) , Georgia
Dome (the first tensegrity dome in the world) , Allianz Tower in Milan, etc .
This book also introduces several proj ects designed by the author's
previous employers, which include The Shard (the tallest building in
Western Europe) , One World Trade Center (54 1 . 3-m tall, the tallest build
ing in the western hemisphere) , 432 Park Avenue (425 . 5-m tall) , Hearst
Tower (1 82-m tall) by WSP group , NEO Bankside Tower by Waterman
Group , Poly International Plaza, and China Zun Tower (528-m tall) by
Beijing Institute of Architectural Design Group Co . , Ltd.
The book also emphasizes on the features of major commercial programs
used in the current design practice (such as SAP2000, ET ABS, Abaqus,
ANSYS, Rhino , Revit, and AutoCAD) , helping the engineers to under
stand an effective way to model complex structures.
One of the highlights of this book is the introduction of the cutting
edge technology used in the current construction industry, the Parametric
Modeling and Building Information Modeling method.
In addition, this book also incorporates a vast number of proj ect photo
graphs across the world. Majority of them were taken by the author, which
help the reader to have a better understanding of the topics introduced in
this book.
Feng Fu
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author expresses his gratitude to Computer and Structures Inc . , ANSYS
Inc . and/ or its subsidiaries, Autodesk Inc . , and Robert McNeel & Associates
for having given him the permission to use the images of their product.
I also thank BSI Group in the UK and the National Institute of Building
Sciences in the USA for giving me the permission to reproduce some of the
tables and charts from their design guidance.
I am thankful to all reviewers who have offered their comments. A very
special thanks is due to Kenneth P. McCombs from Elsevier for his assistance
in the preparation of this book.
Some of the models used in this book are built by me and some are based
on the models set up by the MSc and final year students under my supervi
sion. I am very appreciative of my final year and MSc students: Mrs. Hasine
Rezaee, Mr. Ervin Duka, Mr. Shahzeb Khan, Mr. Elhashmi Galeisa,
Mr. Jorge Caro Yika. Mr. Enammul Miah, Mr. Shariq Naqvi, Mr. Wing
Sing Tsang, and Mr. Mauro Jorge Campos.
Thanks to my family, especially my father Mr. Changbin Fu, my mother
Mrs. Shuzhen Chen, and my wife Dr. Yan Tan for their support that made
this book possible.
xiii I
?> CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
?> 1.1 AIMS A N D SCOPE
In the past decade, an increasing number of tall buildings and complex

structures such as the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, the Bird's Nest Stadium in
Beijing, and the London Aquatic Center were built. These proj ects demand
that the civil and structural engineers have the ability to handle the increasing
difficulty in designing even more complicated proj ects such as tall buildings
or structures with complex geometries. The effective design of these types of
structures is based on a clear understanding of the behavior of the structures,
relevant analysis theory and method, knowledge of effective numerical
modeling software, and of specific design principles. However, it has been
noticed that, in the construction industry, most structural engineers find
themselves lacking the relevant knowledge . In most universities, the basic
design modules are taught to students . However, it is hard to find a module
that has the systematic introduction on the design and analysis of tall and
complex structures. Therefore, a book in this area is imperative .
The main purpose of this book is to provide students and design practi
tioners detailed knowledge of advanced design and analysis methods of tall
and complex structures, such as tall buildings, long-span structures, tensile
structures, tensegrity structures, offshore oil platforms, and offshore wind
turbines . It also introduces maj or modeling programs (such as SAP2000
[ 1 ] , ETABS [2] , Abaqus [3] , and ANSYS [4] ) and the software to generate
the structural geometry (Rhino [5] , Revit [6] , AutoCAD [7] , and
MicroStation [8] ) used in structural design practice. It demonstrates the
design knowledge through prestigious proj ects across the world, such as
Jeddah Tower (1 008-m tall) , Shanghai Tower (632-m tall) , etc . It also
demonstrates the latest technologies used in design such as the BIM (building
information modeling) and parametric modeling technique.
Des��n and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures © 2018 Elsevier Ltd.
https://doi.org/1ll.1016/13978-0-08-101018-1.00001-0 All rights reserved.
2 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures
1.2 THE MAI N DESIGN ISS U ES OF TALL AN D COM PLEX

STRUCTURES
The maj or design issues of tall buildings are the lateral stability system
and the gravity system for the superstructure as well as for the foundation
design. The primary design target is to provide sufficient stiffness to tall
buildings to resist lateral or gravity loadings. It should also be ensured that
a correct foundation be selected, which can securely transmit loads
from the superstructure to the soil. Chapters 2- 5 of the book cover such
design issues .
For complex structures, one of the maj or design issues is how to set up a
complex structural geometry. Due to the complexity, the innovative tech
nology such as the BIM and parametric modeling techniques become the
key solutions to it. Another design issue of complex structures is the capa
bility to analyze complex structural problems such as fluid and structure
interaction, geometrical nonlinear analysis, form finding, multiphysics
modeling, etc . In addition, the designers should also understand the under
pin analysis theories of some special types of structures, such as the offshore
structures and tensile structures, as their design and analysis methods are
different from the conventional structures. All the design issues for complex
structures are covered in Chapters 6-8 of this book.
?> 1.3 STRUCTU RE OF THE BOOK
Chapte' 1 is the introduction to the book.

Chapter 2 gives the fundamental principles of designing tall buildings. It
begins with a history of world's tall buildings, then a brief description is given
of the maj or loadings that need to be considered during the design stage. It is
followed by a detailed introduction to the floor system and the vertical sup
port system. The next section starts with a detailed discussion of the earth
quake design, covering the structural analysis methods for evaluating
earthquakes, energy dissipation, structural regularity, and measures to reduce
earthquake response, such as using damping systems. The following section
provides information on wind loading, enlightening the readers on the fun
damentals of wind loadings, enlisting the maj or design requirements for the
occupant comfort design. After this section, discussions on progressive
collapse, fire safety design, and blast design are made. In the latter part of
this chapter, the foundation design, construction method, as well as the
Introduction 3
shortening effect and cladding system are dealt with. Chapter 2 is the most
important chapter for the topic of tall buildings, as it attempts to cover all the
maj or design issues of tall buildings.
A detailed introduction of the lateral stability system is made in Chapters
3- 5 . Chapter 3 covers the shear wall and core wall system, the outrigger and
belt truss system, and the buttressed core system. The case study of the tall
building proj ects such as the Shard and theJeddah Tow er is discussed in this
chapter. Chapter 4 introduces one of the widely used lateral stability systems,
the Tube system. It gives a detailed description on the different tube systems,
such as the tube-in-tube, framed tube, braced tube, bundle tube, and the
hybrid tube system. The case studies of the Twin Towers and One World
Trade Center (the replacement of the Twin Towers) are made. In the final
part of Chapter 4, two super-slender buildings are considered as a case study:
432 Parke Avenue (425 . 5-m tall) and Allianz Tower. Chapter 5 focuses on
the bracing system, diagrid system, and the mega-frame system. Different
types of bracing systems, such as the concentric bracing and the eccentric
bracing are introduced, followed by the three-dimensional (3D) truss system
used in tall buildings . The diagrid system is described in great detail. A case
study of Guangzhou International Finance Centre (432-m tall) , the tallest
diagrid structure in the world, is made. The latter part of the chapter deals
with the moment resisting frames and mega-frame structures . The mega
frame structure is demonstrated using two case studies, the Shanghai Tower
(632-m tall, the tallest mega-frame building in the world) and the China Zun
Tower (528-m tall) .
Chapter 6 deals with complex structures. It gives detailed examples of the
existing complex structures in the world, which covers the opera house,
train station, hotel, aquatic center, and cable car supports . This gives the
readers a clear picture of the different types of complex structures . The major
design considerations for complex structures, such as the design of space
structure, arches, as well as support and connections are made. Real proj ect
examples are also given. It is followed by a brief introduction of the analysis
methods for complex structures. The highlights of this chapter are the intro
duction of the BIM and parametric modeling, which are the cutting-edge
technologies used in the construction industry. In the final part of this chap
ter, there is a brief description of the development of the API (application
program interface) and GUI (graphical user interface) .
Chapter 7 presents the design and analysis of two special types of struc
tures : tensile structures and tensegrity structures. Detailed analysis theories
for form finding and static analysis, such as the nonlinear finite element
method, force density method, dynamic relaxation method are introduced,

including some important design issues such as wrinkling of the membrane.
The way to model membrane structure i n ANSYS and Abaqus is also dem
onstrated. The analysis methods for tensegrity are demonstrated using the
Georgia Dome as a prototype, which is modeled using the design-orientated
program SAP2000.
Chapter 8 introduces the design and analysis of offshore structures,
including offshore oil platforms and offshore wind turbines. The incidents
of offshore structures are demonstrated. Detailed introduction of major
loadings and design guidelines are made . The wave theories to model the
fluid and structure interaction are also elaborated. In particular, the design
guidelines on offshore structures are described. This chapter is endeavored
to give the reader a fundamental understanding of how to design and analyze
offshore structures .
REFERENCES
[1] SAP2000 Theory Manual, Version 19, Copyright Computers and Structures, Inc., 2016.
[2] ETABS Theory Manual, Version 2016, Copyright Computers and Structures, Inc.,
2016.
®
[3] Abaqus Theory Manual, Version 14.1 Hibbitt Karlsson and Sorensen, Inc., Pawtucket
(RI), 2016.
[4] ANSYS Theory Manual, Version 18, ANSYS Inc., 2017.
[5] Rhino 5.0 Robert McNeel & Associates, 2017.
[6] Building Design Software, Revit Family, "Autodesk. Official Website", Autodesk Inc.,
2014.
[7] AutoCAD, 3D Design, Engineering & Entertaining Software, "Autodesk. Official
Website", Autodesk Inc., 2017.
[8] Bentley System Inc., Bentley System Official Website, 2017.
� CHAPTER SEVEN
Design and Analysis of Tensile

Structures and Tensegrity
Structures
Abstract
In this chapter, the design and analysis of two special types of structures: tensile and
tensegrity structures are explained. It starts with the introduction of tensile structure,
including different membrane materials, different types of support. This is followed
by discussion of major loadings need to be considered for tensile structural. Then,
the general design considerations are illustrated which covers some of the important
design issues such as wrinkling of the membrane. Detailed analysis theories for form
finding and static analysis are illustrated. They are nonlinear finite element method,
force density method, and dynamic relaxation method. The way to model membrane
structure in ANSYS and Abaqus are also described. In the final two sections of this chap
ter it covers the topic of tensegrity structures. Design and analysis methods are exam
ined. The analysis methods for tensegrity structure are demonstrated using Georgia
Dome as a prototype, which is modeled using design orientated program SAP2000.
Keywords: Tensile structures, Tensegrity structures, Form finding, Geometrical

nonlinearity, Nonlinear finite element method, Force density method, Dynamic
relaxation method
7.1 I NTRODUCTION TO TENSI LE STRUCTURES

Tensile structure is one ofthe unique complex structures. Its structural
members can only carry tension but there can be no compression or bend
ing. It normally consists of exterior fabric material with its framework such as
cables. The fabric and the cables are maintained in tension in all directions to
provide stability. Membranes are one of the common fabric material used in
the tensile structure.
A membrane is tensioned between rigid structural elements such as steel
frames or flexible structural elements cables . The membrane itself can resist
external loading only through increasing tension in the membrane, which
results compression and bending in supporting elements. To achieve ade
quate stiffness, its surface curvatures must be relatively high. Therefore,
Des(�n and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures © 2018 Elsevier Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.11116/13978-11-08-1011118-1.011007-1 All rights reserved.
21 4 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures
doubly curved forms are conventional in design as it provides greatest sta

bility. As this type of material can only carry tension but no compression
or bending, its surface shape must be generated through form finding to find
the equilibrium position of a structure for a given stress state .
7.1 . 1 Type of Fabric Material

There are several different kinds of membrane materials such as polytetra
fluorethylene (PTFE)-coated fiberglass, polyvinylchloride (PVC)-coated poly
ester fabric, silicon-coated glass, etc. Ethylene-tetra-fluorethylene (ETFE) film
is another type of membrane material; it can be used as either single layer
or cushion form (which is inflammable) . The two famous stadiums for 2008
Beijing Olympic Birds Nest and Water Cube have used ETFE membrane.
In Water Cube, the inflated cushions provide good insulation and beautiful aes
thetic effect. Through the volume control of inflated air, the transparency of the
membrane can be changed, therefore the natural light can be effectively used, and
in addition, the reflection of sound can also be controlled.
The material of membrane structure has unique feature in terms of
insulation, light transmission, and fire protection. Therefore, the selection
of the membrane material is important in the design of this type of structure .
Among them, PTFE , PVC, and ETFE are widely used with a wide range of
tests performed; therefore, they are the preferable material for an engineer to
choose. For ETFE material, the stains can be simply washed off by the rain.
Although the ETFE is susceptible to punctures, these can be easily fixed with
ETFE tape.
7 . 1 .2 Type of Support
The maximum span of the fabric itself can achieve 30 m. To cover longer
span, the fabric should be supported by cables (Figs. 7 . 1 and 7 . 2) or steel frames
(Fig. 7 . 5) . These cables are further supported to the main supports (Fig. 7 . 1 A) or
directly anchored to the foundation (Fig. 7. lB) . For the main support, there are
different types, such as mast support, compression rings, beams, arch support, or
hanging by cables. They are going to be explained here.
7.1.2.1 Supported by Hanging Cables

As shown in Fig. 7 . 1 , in 02 arena, the membrane is directly supported by
cables, these cables are further supported by hanging cables which are
supported back to masts (Fig. 7 . 1 A) , which will result huge compression
force to be resisted by these masks. Therefore, the masks are normally
supported by heavy concrete block (Fig. 7 . 2B) , which shows another
Design and Analysis of Tensile Structures and Tensegrity Structures 215
Fig. 7.1 (A) Ten si l e mem brane structure, the 02 d ome, London , UK and (B) the an chor
age of the cable. (Photo taken by the author.)
Fig. 7.2 A tensi le mem brane canopy of a tol l station at Highway of Beijing International
Airport, Beijing, Chi n a: (A) overview of the entire structure, (B) detai l s of m ast con nection
to concrete foun d ation support, and (C) detai l s of cable support. (Photo taken by the
author.)
membrane structure with a similar support system. In this shape of structures,

the membranes are anchored back to the foundations through cables to
maintain its shape (Figs. 7. lB and 7 .2C) .
This kind of support is quite common. Fig. 7 .2 is another example of this
type of support. It shows a tensile membrane canopy of a toll station on a
highway to Beijing International Airport.
7.1.2.2 Supported Directly by Mast

Most tensile structures are supported by some forms of compression or
bending elements, such as masts (Fig. 7.3) , compression rings, or beams.
Fig. 7 .3 is another example of membrane structure. It is at the Entertainment
Center in Astana, Kazakhstan designed by Architect Foster + partners .
The whole membrane structure is supported on a large compression masts
which consists of three truss columns to resist the huge compression force
come from the supported membrane structures (Fig. 7.4) .
7.1.2.3 Supported by Steel Frames

As shown in Figs. 7.5 and 7.6 steel frames are used to support the large
inflammable cushion membrane panels.
7.1.2.4 Supported by Arches

Arch support is one of the typical supports for membrane structures
(Fig. 7.7) . This is because by using the arch support, saddle curvature can
Fig. 7.3 Mem bra ne structure Kha n Shatyr Enterta i n ment Center, Asta na, Kazakhsta n .
(Photo taken by the author.)
Design and Analysis of Tensile Structures and Tensegrity Structures 21 7
Fig. 7.4 Interior of Enterta i n ment Center in Asta na, Kazakhsta n . (Photo taken by the
author.)
Fig. 7.5 Mem bra ne roof in Ma nchester Victoria Tra i n Station, Ma nchester, UK.
Fig. 7.6 Mem bra ne structu re in Eton Project, Cornwa l l, UK. (Photo taken by the author.)
Fig. 7.7 A bridge with a rch su pported membra ne canopy at G reenwich, London, UK.
be formed in between the support of arch, which allows adequate resistance

to buckling of the membrane.
7.1.3 Introduction of Different Projects Using Membrane

Material
In order to give the readers a clear explanation of membrane structure, in this
section, different proj ects across the world are using the membrane material
that will be discussed. D ifferent membrane material and supporting struc
tures are chosen for clear demonstration of membrane structures.
7.1.3.1 Khan Shatyr Entertainment Center in Astana Kazakhstan

As shown in Figs . 7 . 3 and 7 . 4, Khan Shatyr is a giant transparent membrane
structure in Astana, Kazakhstan. This proj ect was completed on December
9, 2006. The Khan Shatyr Entertainment Center was designed by an UK
architect Foster + Partners and UK structural engineer Buro Happold.
The height of the structure is 1 50 m, it has a 200-m elliptical base cove
ring 1 40,000 m2 . As shown in Fig. 7 . 4 , the area is larger than 10 football
stadiums, is an urban-scale internal park, shopping, and entertainment venue
with squares and cobbled streets [ 1 ] .
The fabric roof is constructed from ETFE-cushions. It can also b e seen in
Fig. 7 . 4 that the fabric roof is suspended on a network of cables, they are
further supported by a central mask. The transparent membrane allows
sunlight through, working with air heating and cooling systems, it can main
tain an internal temperature between 1 5 and 30°C in the main space and
1 9-24°C in the retail units.
7.1.3.2 Eden Project (Cushion Membrane)

As shown in Fig. 7 . 6 , Eden Proj ect is located in Cornwall, England. It is
designed by architects Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners . The proj ect was built
by McAlpine as a j oint venture . It is featured in its two biome-the
Rainforest Biome and the Mediterranean Biome, each of them consist of
several domes which are j oined in the middle by the link building. The clad
ding panels are made from the thermoplastic ETFE large cushion panels, up
to 9 m across, were made by several layers of thin ETFE film, which are
sealed around their perimeter and inflated. These panels are supported on
steel space structures using tubular steel, forming hexagonal shape frame.
These cushions provide good thermal insulation to the structure . It can be
seen in Fig. 7 . 6 that the structure is completely self-supporting, with no
internal supports. Owing to its lightweight, wind uplift has been considered,
therefore, the domes are tied into the foundations with ground anchors.
7.1.3.3 02 Arena Dome

As shown in Fig. 7 . 1 , the 02 arena hosted the 20 1 2 Summer 0lympics
Games . It is an indoor arena covered by the tensile membrane dome using
PTFE-coated glass fiber supported by the hanging cables. Its structure was
designed by BuroHappold. It is supported by high-strength cables spanning
from outer edge to the center, which are supported by 1 2 1 00-m-high
yellow steel support towers. As shown in Fig. 7 . 1 , the cables are anchored
back to concrete block, to support the fabric.
According to Ref. [2], the arena provides 1 00,000 m2 of enclosed space.

The structure is 365 m in diameter, with a circumference of 1 km and a
maximum height of 50 m.
It was the largest structure in the world when it was built. It can be seen
that for such a large span structure, membrane material would be the first
option due to its super lightweight.
7.1.3.4 Jeju World Cup Stadium

As shown in Fig. 7.8, theJej u World Cup Stadium located onJeju Island,
with a 35,657-person capacity. It was built in the city of Seogwipo onJej u
Island i n South Korea. I t was designed resembling the shape o f the mouth of
a volcano and its roof in the shape of nets of traditional fishing boats in
Jeju [3]. The stadium was built 1 4-m below ground level to endure strong
winds. It used the FGT-800 membrane material. FGT series are the glass
fiber B yarn clothes impregnated with fluoroplastic PTFE and then sintered.
The B yarn has the specific strength even excellent than steel. It has the resis
tance of high temperature up to 700-800°C and can resist ultraviolet
rays. This kind of membrane also has the anti-adhesion and water-repellent
features. Therefore, it is a good option for stadium roof.
As we can see that the membrane structures are also supported on the
arch which is supported by the cable hanging from six large masks, the arch
itself is also anchored back to the mass concrete blocks at the two ends of the
structure.
Fig. 7.8 Jeju World C u p Sta d i u m , Seogwi po, Jeju, South Korea. (Photo taken by the
author.)
7.1.3.5 Birds Nest Stadium, Beijing

As shown in Fig. 7 . 9 , the Beij ing National Stadium was completed in early
2008. It has a gross floor area of254,600 m2 with seating capacity for 9 1 ,000
including 1 1 ,000 temporary seats. CITIC Internationals Contracting Inc.
was the maj or construction contractor. The structural engineering, mechan
ical, and electrical engineering, fire safety engineering, and acoustic designs
were made by Ove Arup & Partners.
The National Stadium's main structure is an enormous saddle-shaped
elliptic steel structure weighing 42,000 t. The stadium extends 333 m from
north to south and 294 m from east to west, with a height of 69.2 m [4] .
It uses the ETFE cushion membrane as the roof structure. As shown
in Fig. 7 . 10 , it provides a half transparent but water-resistant roof, allow
sunshine to penetrate through, but reduce the intensity of the ultraviolet
from the sun.
7.1.4 Pros and Cons of Using Tensil e S tructures

From the explanation of Section 7 . 1 . 3 , it can be seen that there are plenty of
benefits in using tensile structures. Most membrane structures have high sun
reflectivity and low absorption of sunlight. They also have benefits such as
flexible design aesthetics, good translucency, excellent durability and low
maintenance, and cost effective . In addition, daylight is maximized in build
ing interiors, thus reducing the costs for electric lighting.
� =-
·
· ·
·· '"· ··· ··
Fig. 7.9 Interior of Bi rds Nest Sta d i u m in Beijing, China. (Photo taken by the author.)
Fig. 7.10 Mem brane roof of Birds Nest Sta d i u m in Beijing, China. (Photo taken by the
author.)
In term of structural design, the lightweight membrane is a cost-effective

solution that requires less structural steel to support the roof compared to con
ventional building materials, therefore, it is ideal to use in long-spans struc
tures. Owing to its flexible feature, it can also be used as a deployable structure.
However, there are also some disadvantages of using membrane struc
tures. Owing to the lightweight of the structure, wind becomes critical
for loading, and several accidents of membrane structure can be damaged
due to wind that have been reported.
7.1 .5 Design Code for Membrane S tructures

Currently, there are not many design guidance for membrane structures
cross the world. In China, CECS 1 58 :2004 [5] "Technical specification
for membrane structures" is one of the detailed design code for membrane
structure . It covers the basic design specifications, structural analysis methods,
fabrication, construction, procedures for approval, and structure mainte
nance. It is one of the most detailed design codes for membrane structures.
The European Standard, EN 1 3782:2005 [6] "Temporary structures
Tents-Safety, " covers the safety requirements for tents during design, calcu
lation, manufacture, installation, maintenance, operation, and examination
for temporary installed tents of more than 50-m2 ground areas . The contents
cover fundamental terms and definitions, the general requirements for design,
principles of numerical analysis, the design actions, the verification ofstability,
and equilibrium, the ground anchorages, the other structural components, the
special design and manufacture criteria, the manufacture and supply, the
examination, the competence, procedures for approval, examination and
tests, and the aerodynamic coefficients for round-shape tents.
There is another European design guidance, EN 1 5 6 1 9 :2008 + A1 :20 1 0
"Rubber o r plastic coated fabrics-Safety o f temporary structures (tents)
Specification for coated fabrics intended for tents and related structures" [7] .
It covers the level of performance for different fabrics.
Membrane structure has been widely used in Japan for long time, espe
cially inflammable membrane structures . MSAJ!M-03 :2003 "Test methods
for membrane materials (coated fabrics) -qualities and performances [8] "
describes the testing procedures for membrane materials .
In the United States, the ASCE Standard 55- 1 0 "Tensile Membrane
Structures" [9] covers the design approach and the prescriptions for an appro
priate fabrication and erection of the structure. It includes the properties of
membrane materials, the connections details, load combinations and strength
reduction factors . It also suggests recommendations about the use of wind
tunnel analysis in order to investigate the wind pressures (where the shape
of the membrane does not fall within the limits of the prescriptive load requi
rements) , the flutter at free edges and the resonance of the entire structures.
ASCE Standard 1 7-96 "Air Supported Structures" [ 10] and ASCE Stan
dard 1 9-96 "Structural applications of Steel Cables for Buildings" [ 1 1 ] are
the other two design guidance related to the design of membrane structures.
7.2 G E N E RAL CONSIDERATIONS IN STRUCTU RAL

DESIGN OF TENSILE M EMBRAN E STRUCTURE
Owing to its unique feature, the design and analysis of membrane struc
ture is different from conventional structures . The support, geometry and pre
stressing of the membrane are three key design considerations. In addition,
patterning is another important design process. Structural fabrics are manu
factured as flat panels, for this reason, tensile fabric structures cannot be formed
without incurring stresses in the surface. The conventional structural fabrics
are manufactured with a typical width of 2-3 m, and a maximum width of
5 m [ 1 2] . Ifit is a large structure, multiple panels are needed. The shape ofthese
panels affects the final form and stress distribution of the membrane. There
fore, a specialist design process, patterning, is needed for this type of structure .
The flow chart of the whole design process is shown in Fig. 7 . 1 1 , which
will be introduced in the following sections.
L Form finding �
Structural analysis under
loading
Patterning
Fabrication construction
Fig. 7.11 Flow chart of design a n a lysis process of tensile mem brane structure.
7.2.1 Desig n Loading

In this design, the loadings below need to be considered, dead load, snow
load, wind load, earthquake load, and thermal loading. The dead loads
are mainly from the self-weight of the membrane, as membrane is a super
light material, so it is quite small, around 1 kg/m2 . The membrane roofis not
accessible in reality; therefore, the live load can be ignored. Owing to its
lightweight, the inertial force is quite small during the earthquake; therefore,
the earthquake loading is not a maj or consideration.
Wind loading is maj or load which needs to be considered in the design;
this is due to its smaller stiffness compared to other kind of structure . Wind is
one of the maj or causes for the failure of membrane structures. The wind
load can be resistant through the wrinkling of the membrane. There are
quite a few incidents of damage to membrane structure under wind loading
that has been reported. Therefore, wind is a dominant load in the design
consideration discussed in detail further.
7.2.2 Wind Loading

As mentioned, because membrane structures are lightweight and flexible,
wind resistance is critical to their structural design. Wind is a dominant load
in the design.
In terms of structural analysis of membrane structure under wind load
ings, there are two approaches available to use : quasi-static and dynamic
approach.
Quasi-static approach is to assume that the dynamic wind effects can be

ignored in designing a membrane structure, so the structure only undergoes
deformation, therefore wind load can be considered as static load case. In this
case, the wind load can be derived directly using the normal wind code
such as EN 1 99 1 - 1 -4 [ 1 3] . The mean wind load at a certain point on the
surface of a structure is computed as the product of a mean dynamic pressure
at a specific point, a dimensionless pressure coefficient, and further
coefficients.
Dynamic approach membrane structures have a considerably low natural
frequency (typically 0. 5-1 . 5 Hz) . This damping results from the crimp inter
change of the yarns. The high flexibility of membranes leads to considerably
large deformations for external loadings, which makes membrane structures
susceptible to wind-induced aeroelastic effects. Therefore, to accurately ana
lyze the structure under wind load, the dynamic effect of the wind on the
membrane structure needs to be considered. Wind tunnel experiments are
necessary to determine the wind load on membrane structures, due to their
individual geometry. In addition, numerical approach computational fluid
dynamics for the analysis of membrane structures is also necessary. Examples
are the works of Saberi-Haghighi [ 1 4] , Hubner [ 1 5] , and Gliick and
Halfmann [ 1 6 , 1 7] . They analyze membrane-wind interaction through fully
coupled fluid-structure interaction simulation, however, with simplified
boundary conditions for the fluid analysis . In Ref. [ 1 8] , Alexander Markus
Kupzok also simulated membrane-wind interaction through surface
coupled fluid-structure interaction method.
In real design practice, for large-scale complex membrane structures, the
geometry coefficient and wind pressure coefficient under different direc
tions of wind loading is determined using wind tunnel test. However, for
simple membrane structure, different design codes such as "Temporary
structure Tents Safety" [6] , gives the aerodynamic coefficients for round
shape tents for wind design.
7.2.3 Wrinkl ing

Owing to its low compressive strength, wrinkles can be formed in mem
brane material in certain loading conditions . The wrinkle often gives a
negative image; therefore, to understand what would result in wrinkle
occurrence is important for membrane structural design.
Wrinkling theory was the iterative materials properties (IMP) model
firstly developed by Miller and Hedgepeth [ 1 9 ,20]. They presume that if
a simulation of a membrane element is deemed to be wrinkled, the geomet

ric strain in the direction perpendicular to the direction of the wrinkles,
due to out-of-plane deformation of the material, can be modeled by intro
ducing a variable efficacious Poisson's ratio for the element. Hence, the stan
dard "taut" modulus matrix, predicated on Hooke's law for plane stress and
[ ]
given by.
1 v 0
E
� ( 1 - v)
M- v 1
__ 0 (7. 1 )
r
1 - v2 0 0
-
[ ]
was replaced by "wrinkled" modulus matrix.
E
2 ( 1 + A) 0 B �
M111 = - 0 2 ( 1 - A) (7.2)
4
B B
Based on above theory, Guo [2 1 ] gives two methods to make wrinkle

analysis:
1 . Tensile field theory method
when the principle strain. e1 > 0 , e2 :S 0 wrinkle occurs
2 . Finite element static buckling analysis method of membrane
Using FE analysis package such as LS-DYNA, a buckling analysis of
membrane can be performed.
The main obj ective of wrinkle analysis is to find the regions affected by
wrinkles and the direction of wrinkles .
7.2.4 The Initial Geometrical Eq uilibrium-Form Finding

Before analyzing under the loading condition, the membrane and its rein
forcing members (cables) should be prestressed to provide adequate stiffness.
Therefore, a certain shape of the structure can be formed. Without prestress,
the structure does not have adequate stiffness to resist the external loading.
For this reason, initial geometrical equilibrium of the structure position need
to be found before the load can be applied to the structure, this process is
called form finding. Through the form finding, the adequate stiffness can
be achieved. Therefore, no wrinkling will be formed under the normal
loading.
According to Ref. [22] , there are certain assumption made when per
form form finding:
1. small strain behavior in a model undergoing large deformations, and
2. the form-finding system significantly more flexible than the form-found
shape while still maintaining the desirable relative element stiffness .
There are several form-finding theories discussed in Section 7 . 3 .
7.2.5 Patterning of Tensil e Fabric S tructures

Patterning is a unique design stage for tensile fabric structures. In the pattern
ing design stage, the three-dimensional surface of the fabric members
(membrane) , found by means of form finding is flattened obtaining a
two-dimensional cutting pattern for the fabric . This process is generally
based on mathematical studies, which is included to determine the arrange
ment of planar fabric panels when the panels are assembled, the desired 3D
form to be achieved, ensuring that the stress distribution is as close as possible
to that intended during form finding. Fabric usage should also be minimized,
so that the membrane can be fabricated.
Based on Ref. [ 1 2] , the patterning process can be divided into the
following steps:
Step 1 : Seam definition concerns the division of the form-found mem
brane surface into panels . The divisions are defined by seams which gen
erally take the form of sewn and/ or welded overlapping panels of fabric .
Step 2: Flattening, developing a portion of the 3D form-found
membrane surface into the 2D plane.
Step 3: Stress reduction, using iterative methods to the flattened panel
geometry to reduce stresses .
Step 4: Compensation, concerns the shrinking of the pattern to account
for tensioning of the membrane during construction.
Step 5: Pattern assembly, can be included in patterning schemes to
calculate the final geometry and stresses in the constructed membrane.
There are two numerical analysis methods used for patterning: dynamic
relaxation method (DRM) and force density method (FDM) , which is
explained in Section 7 . 3 .
7.3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF TE NSILE M EM BRAN E

STRUCTU RE
Analysis of cable-membrane structure is a geometrical nonlinear

problem due to its large deformation when resisting the external loading.
Therefore, this type of structure is very sensitive to the geometry shape.
In the analysis, the structure can be idealized into the elements and nodes.
The membrane can be discretized into a system of nodes and 2D finite ele
ments, traditionally, triangle elements are chosen for the simulation of mem
brane, as shown in Fig. 7 . 1 2 .
As shown in Fig. 7 . 1 3 , cables can b e simulated using 1 D finite elements
such as cable elements or tension-only elements, both consist of two nodes
with six degrees of freedom.
The equilibrium position of each node under loading condition can be
searched iteratively using different numerical tools such as DRM and FDM
discussed here.
7.3 . 1 Nonl inear Finite El ement Meth od

For each node of the cable-membrane structure, the equilibrium equation of
a node under external loading can be seen in Ref. [23] and Eq. (7 . 3) .
V3
U3
y
Fig. 7.12 2-D triangular elements.
CF-�--ir>-��<l-��o-�- x
1
L1
Fig. 7.13 Triangular mem brane element a n d cable elements.

where
[KE] is the elastic stiffness matrix,
[Kc] is the geometrical stiffness matrix,
{ � U} 1 is the increment of displacement of the nodes,
{ P0 } 1 is the initial nodal force,
{ P} t is the external loading force on the node, and
{ R} 0 is the residual force.
At the form-finding stage, there is no external loading, therefore,
(7 .4)
Eq. (7 . 4) is the basic governing equations for form finding of tensile cable
membrane structure using the nonlinear finite element method.
7 3 2 Force Density Meth od in Form Finding

. .
The force density method (FDM) was first introduced by Schek [24] . In this
method, the force/length ratios or force densities are defined for each branch
of the cable net and membrane structure. The associated node coordinates of
the structure are obtained by solving the topological branch-node matrix
[24] . This method makes a simple linear "analytical form finding" possible .
This method is used in tensile membrane structures to find the equilibrium
shape of a structure consisting of a network of cables and membrane.
7.3.2.1 Cable Net

For cable net, the form-finding equations can be analytically determined by
using the force density ratio for each cable element [25] . The basic principle
is introduced here.
For any joint i, its equilibrium in the x direction can be represented as .
n,
Xi - Xk .
L.::
k= 1 L;k
t; k = F' (7 . 5)
where
n; is the number of cables connected to joint i,
t;k is tensile force in the cable,
L;k is the length of cable, and
X - � is the coordinate difference ofjoint i and joint k for cable ik in the
X direction.
If q = ti L, where t and L are the cable force and length of a cable element,
respectively, therefore, for joint i.
(7 . 6)
If there are n nodes and m cables, the equilibrium equation in the X direction
for each node can be deduced:
(7 .7)
where
{ 1'.;} is the load vector,
[UJis the coordinate difference matrix,
[ C]
is the topology matrix of this network, and [ UJ and [ C] will be
explained in the following sections .
If we call Cs = [C Cfi branch-node matrix [24] , which gives the positions
of nodes (vertices) which connect the cables (edges) of a cable network. Cs is
constructed following the below rules:
C(i,;) = - 1 (when } is the smaller node number of element 1) .
C(i,;) = l (when j is the lager node number of element 1) .
C(i,;) = 0 (for other situation) .
where i and j are the j oint numbers, from 1 to n1 and
where
n is the number of free nodes, these nodes are not constrained, and
n1 is the number of fixed nodes, these nodes are supported.
Therefore, [Cs] can be further divided into [ C] and [ Cfi .
So the coordinate's difference of all the connected j oints in the cable net
can be obtained using the branch-node matrix C and CJ-
{ u} = [ Cj { x} + [CJ] { Xj }
{ v} = [ C] { y} + [CJ] { Yi }
{ w} = [ Cj { z} + [CJ] { Zj }
where
x, y, z are the vector for the coordinate of free j oints, and
xfi Yfi ZJ are the vector for the coordinate of fixed j oints.
In the X direction.
{ u} = [ Cj { x} + [ Cj] { Xj }
If the length of the element is [ij and the internal force of the element is { t} ,
external loading is { Fx } , and convert vector { u } into m x m matrix [ U] , [ U] is
the coordinate difference matrix:
(7 . 8)
The force density.
[L] can be worked out through { x} .

Therefore,
(7 .9)
Because.
[ U] { q } = [ Q] { u }
where [ Q] is the diagonal matrix for { q } .
Therefore,
(7 . 1 0)
So
If we let [D] = [ C] T[ Q] [ C] and [D] = [ C] T[ Q] [ C;) , [D] is the generalized

Gaussian transformation of [ C] .
So
(7 . 1 2)
Eq. (7 . 1 2) can be used to determine the node coordinate for all the free
nodes by using following equations:
(7 . 1 3)
Similarly, we can obtain.
[ D] {y} = { Fz} - [DJ J { YJ } (7 . 1 4)

[D] {z} = { Fz} - [D1] { Zj } (7 . 1 5)
Therefore .
232 Design and Analysis o f Tall and Complex Structures
The coordinate for the nodes in the y direction can be:
(7 . 1 6)
The coordinate for the nodes in the z direction can be:
(7 . 1 7)
Therefore, based on above procedures, the equilibrium shape of a cable net

can be determined.
7.3.2.2 Membrane Elements

The basic formulation of cable nets can be extended to the analysis of the
membrane structures . As it is described, membrane can be discretized into
a system of number of 2D triangular membrane elements. For each triangle
element the stress inside can be expressed as [25] .
{ a } = { ao , O"o , or (7 . 1 8)
As shown in Fig. 7 . 1 4, for any j oint i, of the triangular element, the pres
tressed force within the membrane element m produce a tensile force to that
j oint which can be expressed as .
Fig. 7.14 Eq u i l i bri u m of joi nts.

(7 . 1 9)
where
Hm is the length of the perpendicular bisector, and
t is the thickness of the membrane.
The area of the membrane element.
Therefore,
where q m is the force density of the membrane elements .
7.3.2.3 Equilibrium of Joints

As shown in Fig. 7 . 1 4, for any j oint i, the prestressed force in cable element c
produce a tensile force to that j oint which can be expressed as .
Therefore, the equilibrium of j oint i can be expressed as .

k j
L qmL;, ihm + L qcLc = 0. (7 .20)
m =l n=l
where K and j are numbers of membrane elements and cable elements
connected to j oint i.
Based on Eq. (7 . 20) , the equilibrium of all the j oints 0£
7.3.3 Dynamic Rel axation Analysis Meth od

The load analysis of cable-membrane structures is a geometrical nonlinear
problem due to their large deformation. The dynamic relaxation method
(DRM) is an iterative process that is used to find static equilibrium. The
theory of this method was first described by Day [26] . In this method, a
dynamic solution is used for a fictitious damped structure to achieve a static
solution. The stability of the method depends on the fictitious variables
(such as mass and damping) and time step .
Dynamic relaxation is based on the Newton's second law of motion and
stress-strain relations of the structural components under consideration.
For motion in the x direction:
F; = M;X; (7 . 2 1 )
I f a tensile structure i s not i n equilibrium, there will be some residual force R

acting on the node. The static configuration of an elastic system can be
treated as a consequence of a previous dynamic state, by presuming an
artificial dynamic system which could be expressed as .
R� = [MJ x'. + [cJ x '. (7 .22)
where
[M] is the artificial mass matrix, oscillating around their equilibrium
position,
[ C] is the artificial damping matrix, it will dissipate the energy until a
steady equilibrium state is reached, X is the displacement,
X; is the velocity,
X; is the acceleration, and
R; is the residual of internal and external forces.
(7 .23)
For a small time interval iJ1t, the equation can be rewritten m central
difference form.
For velocity:
t + !::. t /2 . 1-t::. 1 /2 ..
X. = X. + iJ1tX;
•
I I
(7 .24)
Substitute Eqs. (7 . 6) into (7 . 4) , therefore,

(xi + 1:::. 112
I
_
x
t-1:::. 1 12
I
) (xi + 1:::. 112 + x1-1:::.112 )
I I
I
R . = M;
I
+ C; ....;.------�
... (7 .25)
iJ1 t 2
Further, rearrange Eq. (7 . 7) , we get the nodal velocity that.
· t + t::. 1/2
X.I
= X.
I
{
· 1-t::. 1/2 M;/iJ1t - C;/2
+R.
1 } { I
I
} (7 .26)
M;/ iJ1t + C;/2 M;/ iJ1t + C;/2
Therefore, the displacement of nodal coordinates at time t + iJ1t can be
worked out as
xi + 1:::. 1 = xi + iJ1tX1 + 1:::. 1 12 (7 .27)

I I I
For the first iteration.

Therefore, the current nodal residuals R�+A t can be worked out, and a
new iteration starts .
Based on the above equations, the DRM can be divided into the follow
ing steps:
1. Setting the displacement of the node X and residual R at their initial
value at t = O
2. Using displacement X and Eq. (7 . 23) to work out .X'. at time t
3. Calculate the new velocities X; at time t + A t/2 usmg
x; + At/ 2 = x_;-a r/2 + A X; Eq. t (7 . 24)
4 . Calculate the residuals force R at time t + A t/2 usmg
( )
>C 1:i. 112 - x' -1:i. , 12 ( + )
x ' + 1:i. 11 2 .x1 -1:i. 1; 2
Ri = M; '
At ' + C; '
2 ' Eq. (7 . 25)

5. Calculate the new velocities X; at time t + A t/2
6 . Using the velocity X; to Calculate the new displacement X at time
t + A t/2
7. Go back to step 2
8 . Repeating the above steps unless the residual R close enough to zero
The iterations proceed until the required convergence, is determined by the
allowable residual forces are smaller than the required value, has been
achieved [27] .
7.4 MODELING EXAM PLES OF TE NSILE M EM BRAN E

STRUCTU RE
Owing to its flexibility, membrane structure is difficult to model with

out helping the advanced analysis software. In this section, the modeling
example of form finding for membrane structure will be shown using
two popular general purpose software ANSYS and Abaqus.
7.4.1 Modeling Exampl e of Form Finding for Membrane

Using ANSYS
We have introduced several form-finding theories, here, the form finding
will be performed using general purpose software ANSYS. There are several
steps to set up the membrane model in ANSYS [28]
1. Set up the geometrical model
2. Using link 1 0 element to model Cable
3 . Using shell4 1 element to model membrane, m the Option, choose
Tension Only
4. Meshing the membrane elements using triangular mesh

5 . Applying the constrain by
Load > Apply > Displacement > on Keypoints,
6. Apply the prestress force to the membrane through decreasing the
temperature by
Load > Apply > temperature > on area > then choose the membrane,
Choose temperature value -0.375°C
7 . Analysis using static large displacement analysis procedure
8. Checking the stress distribution of the membrane
7.4.2 Modeling Membrane El ements Using Abaq us

In Abaqus, the membrane can be modeled using several different elements
available in Abaqus :
M3D4 membrane element which is a four-node quadrilateral element,
M3D8R, an eight-node quadrilateral membrane, and
M3D3 membrane element which is a three-node triangular element.
These elements are surface elements that transmit in-plane forces only and
have no bending stiffness so they could not resist moments . Therefore, they
are ideal to model membrane .
It is necessary t o prestress these elements before any analysis is carried
out. The mesh for the square membrane consists of triangular or square
elements .
Uniform biaxial prestress force is applied to the membrane elements
directly using the.
*INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE = STRESS option.
This option should be used before applying any of the *STEP options, to
account for the geometric stiffness induced by the prestress .
The nonlinear calculation procedures should be used. Before the eigen
value extraction calculations, a nonlinear static analysis step is carried out by
using the * S TEP, NLGEOM option after the *INITIAL CONDITIONS
option.
In the above static analysis step , the applied initial prestress is maintained
by restraining the outer edges of the membrane. Then, in the next step
(frequency extraction step) , the boundary conditions are changed to the actual
ones, by using *BOUNDARY, OP = NEW option.
If vibration of the membrane is to be checked, frequency analysis
step needs to be defined, using linear analysis step , number of eigen
values can be extracted with the choice of eigensolver. There are two
solution methods for solving eigenvalues can be used in Abaqus: the
subspace iteration method and the Lanczos method. The Lanczos

eigensolver is faster and more effective for models with many degrees
of freedom.
7.5 I NTRODUCTION TO TENSEGRITY STRUCTU RES
Tensigrity is a structural system which was developed in the

past 50 years . The concept of 'tensegrity' was first invented by architect
B. Fuller [29] . The word tensegrity comes from two words "Tension +
Integrity = Tensegrity" . He came up with an idea of "nature relies on
continuous tension to embrace islanded compression elements. " In Fuller's
idea, for this type of structure, stresses are evenly distributed throughout
the entire structure rather than accumulating at certain points, therefore,
maintain the balance of tension members.
7.5. 1 Difference Between Tensegrity S tructure and Tensil e

Structure
Most of the tensegrity structures are covered with membrane material,
therefore, it sometimes is confused with tensile structures. The maj or dif
ference between tensegrity structure and tensile structure is that it is a
self-equilibrium structure, a system composed of continuous prestressed
cables (in tension) and individual compression struts, as shown in
Fig. 7 . 1 5 , with the cables attached to the compression struts . Therefore,
different to tensile structures, it consists tensional members as well as com
pression members, however, the compression member is part of the self
equilibrium system. On the contrast, for tensile structures, compression
member such as masts are primarily work as the support structures to
the entire tensile cable nets .
7.5.2 Application of Tensegrity S tructure in Construction

Projects
Tensegrity structure is widely used in long-span space structures in civil
engineering, this is due to its super lightweight features, making a clear span
of more than 200 m easily achievable which outperform other long-span
structures such as double-layer grid and single-layer lattice domes. As shown
in Fig. 7 . 1 6, the first long-span space structure using proj ect using Fuller's
tensegrity structure concept is a "cable dome" in the circular roof structures
of Gymnastic and Fencing Arenas for the Seoul Olympic Games in 1 986,
designed by Geiger [30] . However, many arguments have been made on this
Fig. 7.15 Unit ten seg rity structu re in Westfield Shopping Center, Stratford, London, U.K.
Fig. 7.16 Fencing Arena for Seoul Olympic Ga mes, Seoul, South Korea. (Photo taken by
the author.)
structure, as most engineers did not recognize it as an actual tensegrity

system, because the compression ring is not inside the set of cables . In
1 992, Levy [3 1 ,32] further improved the layout of the cable dome and built
the Georgia Dome in quasi-elliptical shape for Atlanta Olympic Games,
which is considered to be the first tensegrity dome built in the world.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Lämmin oli päivä tänäänkin niinkuin oli ollut koko viikon. Paksut
kinokset pihamaalta ja aitojen varsilta olivat alenneet puolta
matalammiksi, ja toivo oli, että tänä keväänä tulisivat teräskovat
hevoshanget.
Rovastin katse solui yli navetan korkeaan kuusikkoon, joka alkoi

harjun laidasta heti pappilan mäkipeltojen takaa ja yhtyi kirkkomaan
metsään. Kylläpä nyt näytti kauniin vihreältä tuo kuusikko ja koko
kyläntakainen harju, kun se etelätuulessa hiljaa huojui, kirkkaan
päiväpaisteen kullassa!
Ja ajatuksissaan vanha rovasti mietiskeli, mitä Martti oli

kirjoittanut. Oli hänkin monena kirkkaana kevätaamuna ajatellut sitä,
että täällä olisi ääretön aiheiden rikkaus taiteilijalle. Joskus muisti
hän kinkerimatkoilla ollessaan, kun auringon noustessa osui
semmoiseen korkeaan paikkaan, josta oli avara näköala,
miettineensä, että tässä oli kuvaamataiteilijalle näkemistä…
Kerrankin, kun palasi metsäkylästä ja sattui ihmeen kaunis aamu…
Se oli hurmaava näköala suureen, siintävään kiveliöön, jossa
valkopäisiä kukkuloita kohosi toinen toisensa vierestä… Niiden
huipuille osuivat nousevan päivän ensimmäiset kullat…
Semmoiset aamuhetket olivat varmaan Martinkin mieleen

johtuneet siellä, kun vieraan maan ihanuuksia katseli!
Hän tunsi sanomatonta iloa siitä, että hänen poikansa nyt oli
ymmärtänyt ja käsittänyt sen, joka hänen omassa rinnassaan oli
pysynyt vain unelmana. Ehkä olivat hänen unelmansa Martissa
monistuneet ja kirkastuneet!
Ja täynnä hyvää mieltä hän alkoi kävellä edestakaisin lattialla.

3.
Kirkonkylän ja Alakylän eroitti toisistaan kukkulainen vaara, jonka

notkoja, ahteita ja jyrkkiä kupeita tie kulki luikerrellen ikäänkuin
umpisilmin vaistollaan hakien loivempia rinteitä ja matalampia
laaksoja. Mutta keskellä kukkuloita se näytti rohkaisevan kulkuaan,
rynnistäen haravanlavan muotoisena kaarena ylös korkeimman
kukkulan huipulle. Sinne näkyivät molemmat kylät leveän virran
varrelta viettävälle jokitörmälle. Kirkonkylä uhkeine rakennuksineen
ja suurine puukirkkoineen pohotti etelästä päin kulkevan silmään
kuin suuren jättiläistaulun kehyksistä, jonka taustana oli
valkohankien peittämä kukkulainen kiveliö ja sen takana
kylmänsinertävä Lapin taivas.
Siihen, mistä tie nousi korkeimman kukkulan laelle Alakylästä päin

ja loivana kaarena alkoi laskeutua kirkonkylää kohden, saapui
kyydillä ajaja etelästä päin.
Martti Kavanto palasi siinä pitkästä aikaa takaisin eteläisistä

maista. Nuoren taiteilijan silmät tähtäsivät rävähtämättä eteensä
päin, ja sanomaton onnen ja ilon tunne täytti hänen sydämensä.
Tuntui omituisen viehkeältä tulla tänne valkoisten hankien keskelle
etelän lämpöisen kesän helmasta. Koti ja lapsuudenmuistot palasivat
elävinä mieleen, ja kun kukkulan huipulle oli saavuttu ja kirkonkylä ja
avara tuttu ₍maisema siinä silmään heijastuivat keväisen iltapäivän
loistossa, pulpahti nuoren miehen mielessä riemun ja onnen lämmin
laine…
Ja hänestä tuntui nyt siltä, että Pohjola ei ollut koskaan ennen

hänen silmäänsä näin suurelta näyttänyt. Hän näki täältä korkealta
kotikylän iltapäivän tyynessä päiväpaisteessa, valkoisten hankien
keskeltä viettävällä jokitörmällä. Siintävinä, sinervänvalkoisina
kukkuloina pohotti taivaanrannan tasalla avara, koskematon kiveliö,
molemmin puolin syvää jokiuomaa, joka korkeiden vaarojen välistä
luikerteli alas Lapin tuntureilta. Aukean kukkulan laella vastasi leuto
länsituuli tulijan kasvoihin. Taiteilijan herkässä mielessä tuntui, että
se oli tervehdys, koskettaessaan hipiään kuin silitellen.
»Kyllä tämä kuitenkin on suurenmoista, tämä Pohjola», sanoi hän

kyytimiehelleen ja paremmin vielä nähdäkseen nousi seisomaan
reessä.
»No, on tämä kesällä, vaan talvi on pitkä…» arveli kyytimies,

Alakylän isäntä.
Itäpohjoisesta pohotti laaja, luminen vaaranlaki, aivan metsätön ja

kaikkia muita korkeampi.
»Tuohan on Kontiovaaran laki, joka tuolta näkyy?» kysyi hän

varmuuden vuoksi.
»Kontiovaara se on. Vaikka en minä ole siellä sattunut koskaan

käymään.»
Mutta Martti ei enää kuullut, mitä Alakylän isäntä puheli. Hän vain
katseli ympärilleen ja eteensä. Hänen silmänsä sädehtivät, ja sydän
sykki riemusta, sillä hänestä näytti, kuin hän näkisi Pohjolan nyt
aivan erilaisena kuin ennen. Samahan oli tuttu joki ja kotoinen
kirkonkylä kuin ennenkin, samat olivat kaukaiset vaarat ja etäiset
kiveliöt! Ja kuitenkin erilaiset! Olivatko hänen silmänsä nyt vasta
auenneet näkemään tämän kaukaisen perukan ihanuuksia?
Ja nuoren taitelijan sielussa syttyi ajatus, uusi ja outo. Täällähän
olikin se maailma, jota muualta oli hakenut! Täällähän olikin luonnon
suuri syli avoimena — suuri maailma, koskematon ja alkuperäinen.
Tänne ei kukaan uskaltanut eikä kenenkään rakkaus ulottunut
tänne… Mutta hänessä oli nuorta voimaa ja kulumatonta kykyä.
Tänne hän uhraisi elämänsä… ja jos voisi palasen tästä luonnosta
kankaalle kiinnittää, olisi hän onnellinen…
Kumma ja käskevä oli ollut se halu, joka veti häntä takaisin

Pohjolaan. Keskellä Firenzen kukkivaa kesää, tummansinisen
taivaan alla, tuli hillitön ikävä, ja ääni rinnassa huusi yötä päivää:
Takaisin Pohjolaan!… takaisin Pohjolaan! Valkoisten hankien
keskelle… kesäyön kirkkauteen… valon maahan…
Hän oli Pohjolan poika, ja hänen verensä janosi takaisin! Taika oli
veriin tarttunut, omakseen oli Pohjola hänet ottanut eikä leikin
laskenut poikaansa.
Ja hänestä tuntui, että hän nyt oli herännyt, nyt käsittänyt

tehtävänsä! Ja riemu niin suuri täytti hänen sydämensä, ettei hän
mitään muuta muistanet.
Valkopäinen Kontiovaaran kukkula paistoi vieläkin itäpohjoisesta,

vaikka hevonen jo oli laskeutumassa alas laaksoon päin.
»Uskotteko tulevan kestäviä hankia tänä keväänä?» kysyi hän.
»Semmoiset toiveet kuuluvat olevan kaikilla», vastasi kyytimies, ja

hetken perästä, kun tie nousi matalammalle kukkulalle, hän virkkoi:
»Vai maalari! No kumma, kun ette papiksi ruvennut niinkuin

pappakin…»
Näin on hauskempaa…»
»Vaan ovatpahan toiset veljet viroissa… Kuka niitä tauluja

ostaakaan!»
Alakylän isäntä tuntui pitävän Martin taidetta varsin joutavana.
Mutta Martti mietti mielessään: — Jospa sinä ukon rähjä tietäisit,

kuinka minä tätä Pohjolaa rakastan ja kuinka aion tämän tehdä
tunnetuksi niillekin, jotka eivät muuta tästä ole kuulleet kuin ehkä
nimen!
Hevonen juoksi eteenpäin ja Martti vaipui omiin ajatuksiinsa.
Hänen iloaan häiritsi eräs seikka. Hän oli ulkomaanmatkalla

tutustunut laulajatar Elli Merikariin, joka samoin kuin hänkin oli
opintomatkoilla. Oli sattunut, että joutuivat pitemmän aikaa olemaan
yhdessä, ja niin heidän suhteensa muuttuivat…
He menivät kihloihin.
Martti oli kertonut Ellille kaukaisesta kodistaan Lapin tunturien

partaalla, selittänyt ja kuvaillut Pohjolan ihmeellisiä kesäöitä ja paljon
outoja asioita puhunut revontulien ja porojen maasta. Elli ei niistä
mitään tiennyt, sillä hän oli Helsingin lapsi eikä ollut koskaan
pohjoisessa käynyt…
Mutta nyt hän oli aikonut käydä Martin maailmaa katsomassa…
Nyt, kun hän tuota kihlaustaan järkevämmin ajatteli, tuntui

hänestä, että se oli ollut lapsellinen teko, jonka oli
molemminpuolisesti aiheuttanut koti-ikävä. Hän oli kyllä uskonut
tunteittensa lujuuteen ja pysyväisyyteen, mutta erottuaan Ellistä, joka
vielä jäi ulkomaille, oli häntä alkanut kaduttaa. Se häiritsi nyt hänen
iloaan, varsinkin kun muisti, että Elli oli juhannukseksi tulossa
tänne…
Ja vaikka hän nyt, kun näki tutun Pohjolansa edes sään, hetkeksi
unohtikin rakkausseikkailunsa, johtui se sittenkin mieleen ja oli kuin
painajaisena siinä vapaudessa, jota hän povessaan tunsi.
Mutta kun kylien välinen vaara jäi taaksepäin ja kirkonkylän

ensimmäisiä mökkejä alkoi näkyä tiepuolessa, unohti Martti taas
»ulkomaisen rakkautensa». Hänestä näytti kuin kaikki mitä hänen
silmäänsä sattui hymyilisi hänelle. Korkea kuusikkoharju, joka juoksi
kylän taitse, joen mukaan selkärankaansa notkistellen, näytti
viittovan ja huutavan hänelle: Tervetuloa takaisin!… tervetuloa
takaisin! Jopahan saavuit! Olemme sinua ikävöineet.
Jo näkyi pappila korkean niemen nenästä ja pappilan takaa

kirkkomaan kuusien yli tapulin ja kirkon mustat ristit ja palanen
jyrkkää kattoa. Tie kulki luikerrellen talojen ohitse ja pihojen poikki,
joskus aivan joen korkean törmän kamaraa, joskus poiketen
vainioille ja peltojen poikki mutkitellen.
Länsituuli puhalteli lauhasti, mutta pohjoinen taivaanranta kimalteli

kirkkaan kylmästi, ja lumiset vaaran laet kuin vaalensivat jo
ennestään vaaleaa silkinhienoa taivaankantta. Jo eroitti silmä pitkän
viiritangon, joka kohosi tallin eteläpäästä, puutarhan nuoret puut ja
ullakkokamarin suuren, valkopuitteisen ikkunan…
Ja nyt ei enää ollut matkasta jälellä kuin lyhyt talonväli…
Martti näki jo pihalle, jossa joku lakaisi roskia karjaladon luona.

Tuvan puolelta juoksi joku nuori tyttö hirveää kyytiä pihan poikki
isolle kuistille, jonka molemmat ovet olivat auki. Martti näki
vilahdukselta vain jonkun siekaleen pukua ja vaaleat hiukset, jotka
pitkänä palmikkona hulmusivat hartioilla, kun tyttö vauhdissa vilahti
kuistille…
Se oli Anna!
Martti ei ollut koko taipaleella muistanut Annaa, mutta nyt, kun hän
tunsi tytön, tulvahti hänen mieleensä kuin padon takaa muistoja
lapsuusvuosilta. Ja vaikka pappilan pihaan oli enää vain lyhyt matka,
ehti hän muistaa monta hauskaa tapausta kesäisiltä retkiltä
karjakartanolle ja monta valoisaa yötä, kun Annan kanssa kävivät
harrinongella nivoissa ja rantapatojen korvissa…
Anna oli näinä vuosina varmaan varttunut ja viisastunut!
Nyt kääntyi hevonen pihaan.
Martti näki isänsä tulevan kuistille avopäin ja äidin rientävän hänen

jälessään pihalle kuistin eteen… näki isän hymyilevän ja äidin
viittovan…
Mutta äidin takaa hän näki Annan suuret siniset silmät, joiden ilme
oli ilon ja pelon välillä. Hän irtautui äidin syleilystä ja riensi Annaa
vastaan ja riemullisessa onnessaan sulki Annan syliinsä niinkuin veli
kauan kaivatun sisarensa…
4.
Keväthuurteen peittämien lehtipuittensa keskellä pappila vielä
nukkui varhaisena huhtikuun aamuna. Yökylmä oli hopeaharsoon
peittänyt metsät ja maat, ja tyyni, liikkumaton rauha oli luonnossa,
kirkkaan päivän nousua odotellen.
Hyhmäinen lumi oli kovettunut heliseväksi hangeksi, joka vastasi

jalkaan kuin syysrouta ja karahti joka askeleella.
Lapsellinen, poikamainen ilo täytti nuoren taiteilijan rinnan, kun

hän raikasta aamuilmaa hengittäen lähti nousemaan pappilan
mäkikujasta Takaharjun kuusikkoa kohden. Tutun äänen päästi
kovan hangen routa, ja virkistävän kylmästi kosketteli tuulahdus
poskipäitä.
Mikä erinomainen hanki ja kumman valoisa kevätaamu!
Kuin häntä varten! Hänen suurta unelmaansa varten!
Hän käveli melkein hyppien. Kaikki herraslekkeet ja kankeat

suuren maailman kahleet oli hän riistänyt yltään ja pukeutunut
paulakenkiin ja vanhaan metsästystakkiinsa.
Vapaana kaikin puolin tahtoi hän uudistaa lapsuutensa muistoja ja

katsella kaivattua unelmainsa maailmaa.
Hän tunsi jäsenissään jäntevää notkeutta, mielessään niin pirteää

iloa, että jalka nousi kuin taikavoimalla ja koko olemuksen läpi virtasi
kuin kaikkein kaunein elämänjoki… Vainion päästä alkoi heti vanha
kuusikko, ja siitä alkoi harjukin kohota. Kuusikosta tuoksahti vastaan
tuttu pihkan haju ja kevätmetsän raitis lemu. Hän sukelsi kuusikkoon,
jossa päivän puolella taajaoksaisimpien puiden juurilla jo pilkisti
näkyviin kevään ujoa neitseellisyyttä. Hanki oli sakeassa
kuusikossakin kova ja kestävä, ja hän viuhtoi mennä mistä milloinkin
näytti somimmalta. Kuta korkeammalle hän ehti Takaharjun kuvetta
pitkin, sitä harvemmaksi kävi kuusikko ja muuttui vähitellen
männiköksi, jossa siellä täällä mäntyjen seassa kasvoi yksinäinen,
tuuheaoksainen, valkokylkinen koivu, nyt paksun keväthuurteen
peitossa…
Hän oikaisi suoraan harjun huippua kohden, pikemmin

nähdäkseen sekä eteensä että taakseen. Vilahdukselta vain sattui
hänen silmäänsä jättiläissuuri Haltiain kivi, joka luminen lakki päässä
ja tiirakylkisenä näkyi yksinäisenä möhkäleenä männikön keskeltä.
Ja siitä palasen matkaa notkoon päin kohosi Jäkälärovan Erkin,
pappilan torpparin, pienen pirtin harja ja kallellinen savutorvi.
Mutta Martti nousi nousemistaan korkeammalle, oikaisten yli

kalliokielekkeiden ikäänkuin peläten aamun loppuvan kesken.
Vielä oli varhainen aamu, ja sakeassa metsässä tuntui hienoa

hämärää. Mutta kuta korkeammalle hän ehti, sitä mukaa metsä
harveni ja hämy katosi. Harjun korkein huippu oli laaja kallio, joka oli
yksinään jäänyt aivan puuttomaksi. Martti nousi korkeimman huipun
nokkaan ja katseli ympärilleen sinne, josta oli tullut, ja sinne, johon
oli menossa.
Pappila ja leveä, valkoinen joki näkyivät siihen harjun alta ja

muutamia kylän taloja, jotka olivat likellä jokirantaa. Mutta suoraan
idästä päin, johon hän oli menossa, kohosi laaja-alustainen
Kontiovaara, jonka huippu näytti pilviä piirtävän, ja sen molemmin
puolin eroitti matalampia kukkuloita, pieniä järvensilmiä, metsäniittyjä
ja suuria soita…
Hänen täytyi ehtiä Kontiovaaralle auringon nousun ajaksi! Hän
seisahtui hetkeksi, pyyhki hikeä otsaltaan, ja ääretön onnen tunne
laajensi hänen rintaansa.
Jo näkyi muutamista kylän taloista savu nousevan, ja kyläläisten

metsätieltä otti korva jo ääniä. Hankiaamua hyväkseen käyttäen
olivat kyläläisetkin jo puolelta öin metsilleen menossa. Aivan harjun
alta helähteli kulkunen, ja etempänä metsän peitossa kuului joku
metsään menijä laulelevan.
Ne olivat niin tuttuja ja kotoisia nuo äänet! Martin herkkä mieli suli
yhteen heräävän aamun kanssa, ja entiset, lapsena tehdyt
hankiretket muistuivat mieleen…
Ja kun hän taas kiireesti läksi laskeutumaan harjun vastaista

kylkeä suurelle suolle päin, nousi hänen sydämestään kiitoksena
lämmin tunne siitä, että oli ymmärtänyt kääntyä takaisin, tulla
uudestaan tänne, jossa kaikki oli tuttua, mutta nyt kuin
suurennettuna, ihannoituna…
Mikä oli se kaipuu, joka tänne houkutteli?
Ei hän kysymykseensä vastausta saanut, mutta sen hän tunsi, että

nyt oli hän oikeilla jäljillä. Jalka vastasi siihen pohjaan, joka ei
pettänyt…
»Pohjolani, lapsuuteni ja unelmieni koti!» pääsi hänen huuliltaan,

kun hän suon laitaan tullen katseli suuren Kontiovaaran lumista
lakea kohti.
Ja taas sai hän kuin uusia voimia ja riensi puolijuoksua suon poikki
vastaista korpea kohti, josta Kontiovaaran kylki alkoi. Idän taivaalla
sarasteli vääräin välistä jo aamun ensimmäinen vinkka, ja eteläinen
taivaanranta näytti vaalenemistaan vaalenevan.
Ehtisikö hän Kontiovaaran laelle siksi kun päivä nousee?
Sillä sen hetken tahtoi hän mieleensä painaa, sen hetken nyt
nähdä, josta Italian ihanassa maassa oli unta nähnyt ja suurta
unelmaa uneksinut… Jättiläiskiveliö valkopääkukkuloineen, syvine
varjoisine laaksoineen, joiden pohjalla metsäniittyjä ja koukerojokia,
rannalla pieniä, vinoja heinälatoja… poroja kaltevan männikön
laidassa ja luppoisan korven reunalla… Kaiken yli keväisen
aamuauringon kultaloisto, sinervän kylmää pohjoista taivasta
vasten…
Semmoinen -oli se kuva, joka oli hitaasti, mutta varmasti kasvanut

sielun syvyydessä, kirkastunut ja suurennut ja tahtonut hänet
taikavoimallaan nujertaa…
Mutta nyt tunsi hän voimansa kymmenkertaisesti ₍ kasvaneen ja

kuvan kehittyneen piirteissään, ääriviivojen selvenneen ja laaksojen
varjojen tummenneen…
Hän oli ehtinyt suon poikki, kulkenut jo korvenkin halki ja nousi nyt
kuin Kontiovaaran rappusille, harvaan keltakylkiseen männikköön,
joka kaltevana kohosi huipulle päin.
Mutta kun hän oli ehtinyt jyrkän riutan alle, josta korkein kukkula
vasta alkoi kohota, silmäsi hän taakseen. Kaukana näkyi jo
tummametsäinen kyläharju; täältä se näytti peräti matalalta, mutta
suojaavalta selkärangalta, jonka takana kirkko ja kirkonkylä olivat
piilossa. Suon poikki kulki kaltaisena nauhana kyläläisten metsätie,
kadoten kahden matalamman vaaran välistä kiveliöön. Pieninä
pilkkuina liikkuivat metsäänmenijät ja kääntyivät mikä minnekin päin
laajaan ympäristöön.
Hänen edessään taasen kohosi valtava jättiläinen louhikkoinen,

komerokylkinen Kontiovaara, jonka kupeille sinne tänne jokunen
lahopää petäjä oli jäänyt kelottumaan. Mutta huipulle oli vielä huikea
vastale, syvärotkoinen vaaran laita taivallettava. Hän kierteli
syvimpiä rotkoja, joita koko talven lumi ei ollut jaksanut upottaa. Ja
kuta korkeammalle hän nousi, sitä laajemmaksi kävi näköala ja sitä
suurempaa riemua hän tunsi. Kotoinen kyläharju näytti nyt vihreältä
palteelta, joka oli kuin kehyksenä johonkin pienempään tauluun.
Mutta yli harjun näkyi lännen taivaan alta suurta, asumatonta
erämaata silmän kantamattomiin ja pohjoisesta lumisia tuntureita ja
mustia metsiä.
Korkeammalle! Huippua kohti!
Hän kiipesi nyt käsin ja jaloin jyrkkää rinnettä ylös ja ehti huipulle
juuri kun auringon suuri, kellertävä ympyrä alkoi kohota idän ilmojen
takaa…
Hän seisahtui, oli kuin lumoissa eikä tiennyt mihin ensiksi katsoisi.
Sillä halki suuren avaruuden levisi yhtäkkiä kultainen hohde,

kimallellen ensiksi korkeimpien vaarojen huipuilla, jättäen
lännenpuoliset kallioriutat varjoon…
Idän maailmalta päin, jonka helmasta päivä nousemistaan nousi,

välkkyi koko ääretön, asumaton erämaa kuin kultamerestä, jonka
pohjalta näkyi korkeampia ja matalampia kukkuloita, suuria jänkkiä,
korkearantaisia metsäjärviä, hongikkorinteisiä harjunkupeita,
metsikkösaajoja suurten soiden keskeltä ja metsäpalojen
kuivettumia, repaleisia saloja…
Etelän ilmoilta käsin otti silmä jo asuttuja seutuja vaaleankirkkaan

taivaanrannan tasalta. Näkyi leveän joen polvekkeita ja korkeilta
rannoilta vankkoja kyliä, kirkkojen torneja naapuripitäjistä ja niiden
takaa lientelevän pehmeä etelän taivas kapenevassa
kaukaisuudessa…
Lännen puoli välkkyi kukkulaisena kiveliönä, valkopäävuorten

huiput kimallellen ja sädehtien auringon kiillossa, syvien
rotkomaisten laaksojen vielä varjoisa ollen.
Mutta pohjoisille maailmoille päin oli näköala kaikkein

suurenmoisin ja kaunein. Vaarat olivat korkeampia ja
tunturimaisempia; lumisine, puuttomine lakineen ne heijastuivat
oudoissa väreissä tummansinervää, kylmänkankeaa ja melkein
riemutonta Lapin taivasta vasten…
Siellä näkyi suuria järviä ja yksinäisiä taloja järvien niemissä,

luikerteli mutkaisia metsäjokia järvestä toiseen, ja suuria, aukeita
jänkkiä yhdisti maisiin maihin kiemurtelevana palteena metsäinen
saajo…
Kahden korkean vaaran välitse heloitti kimaltelevana kenttänä

valtaväylän leveä suvanto ja näkyi kapeneva joen uoma, joka halkoi
ja jakoi vaarat molemmin puolin rantojaan, kun se Taka-Lapin
tuntureista virtaavana kulki myötälettään alavampiin maailmoihin…
Etualalla oli matalampain vaarojen keskellä laajarantainen

metsäniitty, jota halkaisi monipolvinen, pajukkorantainen joki.
Molemmilta rannoilta siinsi pieniä, sammalenharmaita, yksi-
ikkunaisia heinälatoja, niin joen rannoilta kuin metsän syrjästäkin.
Mutta siitä Kontiovaaraan päin kulki jänkkien ja soiden rantoja

pitkin honka- ja männikkösaajoja ja kuusikkoharjuja, joita toisiinsa
sitoivat levenevät levät ja heiluvat, pehmeät jänkät. Hongikkojen
harmaanpunertaviin pylvästöihin sopi päivä helakasti paistamaan, ja
keltakylkisessä, juoksevassa jouhimännikössä ilakoivat kevätmetsien
valkoiset hengettäret…
Martti seisoi kauan Lappiin päin katsellen, suuret tummansiniset

silmät sädehtien ja sydän oudoista tunteista sykähdellen. Siinä nyt
oli hänen edessään se jättiläistaulu, josta oli uneksinut ja jonka aikoi
kankaalle kiinnittää…
Ja kuta korkeammalle päivä idästä nousi, sitä loistavammaksi kävi

pohjoisessa kiveliö ja väririkkaammin sädehtivät palttinanvalkoiset
tunturien huiput…
Ja ikäänkuin täydennykseksi hänen miettimälleen aiheelle porhalsi

sarvipäinen porotokka honkasaajon viettävää rinnettä pitkin viistoon
niityn poikki kuusikkoharjulle, sen luppopartaisten puiden sekaan
hajaantuen. Se näytti juostessaan suurelta harmaansinervältä
laineelta, joka läksi liikkeelle honkasaajon rannasta ja yleten ja
aleten kulki lumista reittiään vastapäisen maan rantaan.
Yhä korkeammalle kohosi auringon kultainen kerä. Idän alla

olevan vuoteensa oli jo jättänyt ja kiikkui yhä ylemmäs vaaleaa
taivaan kantta pitkin. Yli Kontiovaaran huipun jo sen kilo levisi, ja
vaarojen kupeilta alkoivat varjot vähetä.
Nuoren taiteilijan mieli oli hartaissa unelmissa, ja syvältä sydämen
pohjalta nousi rukous ja avun pyyntö siihen työhön, jota oli
unelmoinut.
Kierrellen vaaran pohjoispuolista kylkeä läksi Martti verkalleen

laskeutumaan huipulta alas. Hänen mielensä oli täynnä omituista
riemullista tunnetta, joka uuvutti ihanasti, ja kuului kuin korvaan joku
kuiskaisi toiveita töistä, joiden muisto säilyy kauemmin kuin tämän
lyhyen elämän.
Mutta kuta alemmas vuoren rinnettä hän tuli, sitä mukaa tunsi hän
pienenevänsä ja voimiensa vähenevän.
Pystyisikö hän koskaan kuvaamaan näkemäänsä? Semmoisena

kuin se on tämän korkean vaaran päältä katsottuna?
Mutta vaikka hän käsittikin työnsä vaikeuden, pulpahti mielessä

rohkea tuuma, ja pitkä elämä oli vielä edessä. Ja hänen intonsa,
halunsa ja työkykynsä oli vielä kulumaton!
Hän saapui vaaran alle, laajan jänkän laitaan.
Kyläläiset palasivat jo metsämatkoiltaan, ja hän näki pitkiä

honkakuormia toisen toisensa perästä ilmestyvän metsän peitosta
aukealle jänkälle ja siitä nauhana juoksevaa metsätietä painuvan
kyläharjua kohti. Hänkin oikaisi suoraan jänkän poikki kyläharjulle
päin.
Aurinko oli noussut korkealle, ja aukealla jänkällä lämmitti jo niin,

että avoimeksi sulaneen suomättään juuressa hanki sosehti.
Etelästä tuntui käyvän leuto tuulenhenki, ja lämmin päivä kai tulisi
taas.
Saapuessaan kyläharjun laitaan hän kuuli metsästä päin
poronkellon kalkkaisevan niinkuin se tahtiinsa kalkkuu poron
kävellessä. Ja hetken päästä hän näki puiden välistä poromiehen
istuvan pienen honkakuorman päällä ja tasaista kulkua ajelevan
hankea pitkin harjun laitaa. Kun poromies ilmestyi aukeammalle
paikalle, tunsi Martti Jäkälärovan vanhan Erkin, joka porollaan palasi
honkametsästä.
Ukko istui allapäin ja antoi tasaisen elukkansa höllin hihnoin

kävellä somaa tien jälkeä, joita näinä hankiaamuina oli metsillä
kulkenut. Ei kuullut, vaikka Martti käveli aivan viereen. Poro silmäsi
Marttiin, mutta jatkoi matkaansa tasaisesti.
Omituinen ukko ja vanha kuin taivas. Parta oli aivan harmaja,

mutta mustissa hiuksissa ei näkynyt ainoatakaan harmaantunutta
karvaa. Martti muisti hänet varhaisimmasta lapsuudestaan. Monta
leikkiä olivat Annan kanssa leikkineet niin Jäkälärovan pirtillä kuin
sen lähellä olevan Haltiain kiven päällä. Ja samanlainen oli ukko
vieläkin. Ei näyttänyt näinä viimeisinä vuosinakaan muuttuneen.
Samat olivat teräväin silmien katse, ja otsan syvät rypyt, jotka
kulkivat kahtena suurena vakona poikki otsan ohimolta toiselle. Noita
vakoja oli Martti lapsena pelännytkin…
Martti asteli kuormallisen kelkan vieressä, Erkki istuen harareisin

sen päällä.
»Jo minä Annalta kuulin», kertoi Erkki. »Vaan jos sinä aiot taivaan
valkeutta maalata, niin sanon, että Herra yksin on valkeus… 'Sinä,
Jumala, puetat itses valkeudella niinkuin vaatteella'… sanoo pyhä
sana.»
Martti naurahti Erkin puheelle, mutta Erkki katsoi tiukasti häneen
terävillä silmillään.
»Niin se on», vakuutti hän.
»Mutta eikö tämmöinen kaunis aamu kuin nytkin herätä teissäkin

suloisia tunteita koko maailman Luojaa kohtaan, ja eikö tule Jumalan
kunniaksi se, jonka koettaa jäljentää Hänen suuresta luonnostaan?»
kysyi Martti.
Mutta nyt ei Erkki enää ymmärtänyt Martin puheita, ja he

saapuivatkin juuri kyläharjun laelle, jossa vastale loppui ja myötäle
kylään päin alkoi.
»Ei tullut Martistakaan papan pituista miestä, vaikka muoto

muuten on niinkuin papalla siihen aikaan kun tänne tuli, josta on
neljäkymmentä vuotta», jutteli ukko, pysähdytti poronsa ja nousi
kuormalta. »Laske sinä nyt menemään tämä myötäle, minä täällä
jälessä köpitän tulla… Näet… tuo 'Mustakoipi' on sellainen mäkimys,
että puhaltaa tuliseen laukkaan myötäleessä, enkä minä enää ole
niin ketterä kuormalla pysymään», tuumaili hän sitten.
Martti oli ennen ollut tottunut poromies, ja joululupien aikoina oli

hänellä aina ollut oma ajokas, jolla viiletti teitä ja metsiä, että
paukkui.
Hän tarttui hihnaan ja hyppäsi harareisin kuorman päälle.
»Mustakoipi» puhalsi paikalla tuliseen laukkaan myötälettä alle

pirtille päin. Ilma lauloi Martin korvissa, ja viima kiskoi vedet silmiin.
Kelkka kuormineen hyppeli perässä, ja Martti oli monta kertaa
keikahtaa taaksepäin ja sivulle. Hän ei ollutkaan enää niin varma
poromies kuin ennen, ja hänen täytyi molemmin käsin tarttua kiinni
köydestä, joka oli sidottu kuorman yli. Eikä tiennyt eikä ehtinyt
ajatella paljon mitään ennenkun aivan pirtin luona, missä kelkka
siipenä singahti rankaläjää vasten ja poro töksähti yhteen kohti…
Martti riisui poron aisoista ja talutti saunan seinälle, jossa sillä oli
vakituinen jäkäläin ja kortteiden peittämä, kovaksi tannerrettu siljo.
Vauhti oli häntä virkistänyt, ja häneen tarttui entinen ilo ja hurja

halu vieläkin päästä ajaa kaahottamaan tulisella porolla…
Ja kesken muun ilon johtui äkkiä hänen mieleensä, kun

päiväpaisteisen pienen saunan seinämällä katseli poron nopovan
jäkälää:
— Tämmöinen elämä sittenkin olisi hauskinta ja terveintä elämää!
Lapsellisen iloisella mielellä hän katseli siinä ympärilleen, pientä

matalaa, ruskeaksi paistunutta pirttiä, lammasläävää pirtin päässä ja
pientä saunaa, joka oli ihan kuutionmuotoinen musta tönö…
Kaikki näytti pysyneen ennallaan Jäkälärovassa, jossa kaikki oli

pienoiskokoa ollut ennenkin, mutta nyt näytti hänestä vielä
pienemmältä.
Johtuiko se siitä, että hän oli niin paljon matkoillaan nähnyt suurta
maailmaa?
Läävän edustalle oli Priita, Erkin ketterä eukko, laskenut lampaat

heleään päiväpaisteeseen. Siinä jyrsivät männynkelleksestä puun
pihkaista, makeaa mäihää, että hampaiden jäljet näkyivät…
Priita oli kuullut poron kellon vimmatusti karkaisevan ja kelkan
halkoranniolle singahtavan, mutta kun ei Erkkiä alkanut kuulua
pirttiin, läksi hän ulos ja sattui porrasten edessä vastakkain Martin
kanssa.
*****
Jäkälärovan vanhukset olivat Martin parhaita ystäviä, ja monet ja

monenlaiset olivat ne lapsuudenmuistot, jotka Marttia heihin
kiinnittivät. Lapsena oli hän Annan kanssa täällä kesäpäivinä
leikkinyt kaiket päivät, suuren, kirkkaan lähteen partaalla, joka oli
saunan takana kellertävässä hiekkatöyräässä. Sinne oli kokoontunut
kylän muitakin lapsia, ja silloin oli aina joukolla lähdetty Haltiain
kivelle, jossa oli poltettu nuotiota. Jäkälärova oli Annan syntymäkoti,
sillä hän oli vanhusten ainoan pojan Juhanin lapsi. Mutta Annan äiti
kuoli hänen ollessaan viikon vanhana, ja isä hukkui seuraavana
keväänä tukkijoelle. Siitä asti oli Anna ollut pappilassa, kasvatiksi oli
orpo lapsi otettu ja omana lapsena hoidettu.
Jutellessaan vanhusten kanssa ehti Martti muistella kuluneita

hauskoja vuosia, joiden muisto nyt vereksenä pulppusi mielessä. Ja
häneen tuli siinä kahden vanhan kanssa puhellessa semmoinen
kummallinen, raukaiseva onnen tunne, ettei hän koskaan muistanut
semmoista tunteneensa. Pienen pirtin sisustus, jossa kaikki kupuset
olivat paikoillaan, iloisen hilpeät vanhukset ja päiväpaisteinen
pihamaa, josta kuului lampaan määkimistä, — kaikki tuo vaikutti niin
kumman rauhoittavasti ja suloisen uuvuttavasti. Hän tuli ajatelleeksi,
että näin tämmöisenä oli ihmiselämä onnellisinta! Ei hukkuvia
unelmia! Ei repiviä tuskia kärsivässä sydämessä! Usko elämään,
usko kuolemaan ja Jumalaan…
Ja kun tuli puhe hänen maalauksestaan, puhkesi vanha Erkki
puhumaan:
»Jumalan valkeutta sinä et osaa maalata, mutta rukoile voimia

Herralta, niin hän ohjaa sinua. Jumalasi kanssa on sinun aina hyvä
olla, vaikka yksin maailmassa olisit, se aina muista ja siihen luota…
Sillä Jumala on valkeus, mutta me vaellamme pimeydessä…»
Vanhan Erkin ja Priitan usko oli luja, ja senvuoksi kai heidän

elämänsä näyttikin niin tyynen tasaiselta ja samalla iloisen
onnelliselta.
Ei laskenut Priita vierastaan pois ennenkuin oli pienellä pannullaan

kahvin keittänyt, ja Martin täytyi nyt, niinkuin ennen lapsenakin, istua
pöydän päähän sitä juomaan, Erkin aterioidessa toisessa päätä
pöytää.
»Aivan pappansa näköiseksi on tullut nyt näinä vuosina», puheli

ketterä Priita Marttia katsellen. »Mutta ei ole papan pituinen eikä
paksuinen…»
»En ole kuin olkapäähän…»
»Hyvä, että tuli semmoinenkaan…»
»Muistan päivän, kun synnyit, ja kun sitten minä pappilaan menin.

Viikon vanha olit ja pieni ja laiha kuin kissanpoika. 'Tulleeko eläjää
ollenkaan!' sanoin. 'Tästä juuri tuleekin papan oma poika!' vakuutti
rovasti, ja ruustinna nauroi. Vaan eipä tullutkaan pappia niinkuin
rovasti uskoi…»
Niin Martti vanhoja muistellen vanhusten kera jutteli, kunnes

muisti, että häntä odotettiin kotona.

(Download PDF) Feng Fu Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures Elsevier 2018 Desconocido Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

(Download PDF) Feng Fu Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures Elsevier 2018 Desconocido Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Feng Fu Design and Analysis of Tall

and Complex Structures Elsevier 2018

Reinforced Concrete Structures Analysis and Design (2nd

Single Skin and Double Skin Concrete Filled Tubular

Analysis and Design of Prestressed Concrete Di Hu

Design of Concrete Structures 15th Edition, (Ebook PDF)

Design and analysis of centrifugal compressors Van Den

Seismic Design and Analysis of Tanks Gian Michele Calvi

Integration with Complex Numbers : A Primer on Complex

Steel Structures Design for Lateral and Vertical

© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications

Publisher: Matthew Deans

Typeset by SPi Global, India

2. Fundamentals of Tall Building Design 5

3. Shear Wall, Core, Outrigger, Belt Truss, and Buttress

3.6 Buttressed Core System 98

4. Tube System in Tall Building 109

5. Bracing, Diagrid, 30 Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural

6. Design and Analysis of Complex Structures 177

of Wembley Stadium 203

Using Ansys 207

6.10 Case Study of Multiphysics Fire Analysis of Building in Cardington

7. Design and Analysis of Tensile Structures and Tensegrity

8. Design of Offshore Structures 251

Dr. Feng Fu is a Chartered Structural Engineer. He is a professional member

j ournals and 4 books of internationally renowned publishers . He has publi­

In the past decades, with the development of construction technology and

?> 1.1 AIMS A N D SCOPE

In the past decade, an increasing number of tall buildings and complex

1.2 THE MAI N DESIGN ISS U ES OF TALL AN D COM PLEX

?> 1.3 STRUCTU RE OF THE BOOK

Chapte' 1 is the introduction to the book.

method, force density method, dynamic relaxation method are introduced,

Design and Analysis of Tensile

Keywords: Tensile structures, Tensegrity structures, Form finding, Geometrical

7.1 I NTRODUCTION TO TENSI LE STRUCTURES

doubly curved forms are conventional in design as it provides greatest sta­

7.1 . 1 Type of Fabric Material

7.1.2.1 Supported by Hanging Cables

membrane structure with a similar support system. In this shape of structures,

7.1.2.2 Supported Directly by Mast

7.1.2.3 Supported by Steel Frames

7.1.2.4 Supported by Arches

be formed in between the support of arch, which allows adequate resistance

7.1.3 Introduction of Different Projects Using Membrane

7.1.3.1 Khan Shatyr Entertainment Center in Astana Kazakhstan

7.1.3.2 Eden Project (Cushion Membrane)

7.1.3.3 02 Arena Dome

According to Ref. [2], the arena provides 1 00,000 m2 of enclosed space.

7.1.3.4 Jeju World Cup Stadium

7.1.3.5 Birds Nest Stadium, Beijing

7.1.4 Pros and Cons of Using Tensil e S tructures

In term of structural design, the lightweight membrane is a cost-effective

7.1 .5 Design Code for Membrane S tructures

7.2 G E N E RAL CONSIDERATIONS IN STRUCTU RAL

7.2.1 Desig n Loading

7.2.2 Wind Loading

Quasi-static approach is to assume that the dynamic wind effects can be

7.2.3 Wrinkl ing

j ournals and 4 books of internationally renowned publishers . He has publi

doubly curved forms are conventional in design as it provides greatest sta

a simulation of a membrane element is deemed to be wrinkled, the geomet

Owing to its flexibility, membrane structure is difficult to model with