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Page i

Methods in Behavioural Research

Third Canadian Edition

Paul C. Cozby, Ph.D.

California State University, Fullerton

Raymond A. Mar, Ph.D.

York University

Catherine D. Rawn, Ph.D.

University of British Columbia

Page ii

Methods in Behavioural Research Third Canadian Edition

Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2012 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.

Copyright 2012, 2009, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1997, 1993, 1989, 1985, 1981,
1977 by McGraw-Hill Education LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this
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Page iii

Dedication
To my wife and family, For their unwavering support and trust. —R.A.M.

To Kathleen D. Vohs, For your mentorship and encouragement. —C.D.R.

For Ingrid and Pierre. —P.C.C.

About the Authors
Paul C. Cozby is emeritus professor of psychology at California State
University, Fullerton. Dr. Cozby was an undergraduate at the University of
California, Riverside, and received his Ph.D. in psychology from the
University of Minnesota. He is a fellow of the American Psychological
Association and a member of the Association for Psychological Science; he
has served as officer of the Society for Computers in Psychology. He is
executive officer of the Western Psychological Association. He is the
author of Using Computers in the Behavioral Sciences and co-editor with
Daniel Perlman of Social Psychology.

Raymond A. Mar is a professor of psychology at York University, where

he teaches research methods to undergraduates and graduate students. Dr.
Mar completed his undergraduate and graduate training at the University of
Toronto ultimately receiving his Ph.D. in social/personality psychology. His
lab conducts research on how imagined experiences affect real-world
cognition and behaviour, with a focus on experiences with fictional stories
(e.g., novels, television shows, graphic novels, video games). This work
has been published in journals such as the Annual Review of
Psychology and Discourse Processes (for details,
visit http://www.yorku.ca/mar/). Dr. Mar was awarded the Tom Trabasso
Young Investigator Award by the Society for Text and Discourse,
and the Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel Research Award by the Alexander von
Humboldt Foundation in Germany.

Catherine D. Rawn is a professor of teaching in the department of

psychology at the University of British Columbia. Dr. Rawn was an
undergraduate psychology major at the University of Waterloo and received
her master of arts in social/personality psychology at the University of
British Columbia. She continued at UBC and received her Ph.D. in
social/personality psychology with a minor in quantitative methods. Her
publications appear in journals such as Teaching of Psychology and
Personality and Social Psychology Review. She regularly teaches
undergraduates research methods, introductory statistics, and introductory
psychology. She also facilitates professional development in teaching for
graduate students and faculty.
Page iv

Brief Contents
1. Preface xii

2. 1 Scientific Understanding of Behaviour 1

3. 2 Where to Start 15

4. 3 Ethical Research 36

5. 4 Research Design Fundamentals 62

6. 5 Measurement 89

7. 6 Observational Methods 106

8. 7 Survey Research: Asking People about Themselves 124

9. 8 Experimental Design 149

10. 9 Conducting Studies 164

11. 10 Research Designs for Special Circumstances 184

12. 11 Complex Experimental Designs 209

13. 12 Descriptive Statistics: Describing Variables and the Relations

among Them 226

14. 13 Inferential Statistics: Making Inferences about Populations

Based on Our Samples 250

15. 14 Generalizing Results 276

16. Appendix A: Writing Research Reports in APA Style 294

17. Appendix B: Statistical Tests 334

18. Appendix C: Statistical Tables 353

19. Appendix D: How to Conduct a PsycINFO Search 359

20. Appendix E: Constructing a Latin Square 363

21. Glossary GL-1

22. References RE-1

23. Index IN-1

Page v

Contents
Preface xii

1. 1 Scientific Understanding of Behaviour 1

1. Why Study Research Methods? 2

2. Methods of Acquiring Knowledge 3

1. Intuition 3

2. Authority 4

3. The Scientific Method: Be Skeptical, Seek Empirical Data 4

4. Science as a Way to Ask and Answer Questions 6

3. Goals of Scientific Research in Psychology 8

1. Describing Behaviour 8

2. Predicting Behaviour 9

3. Determining the Causes of Behaviour 9

4. Explaining Behaviour 10

4. Basic and Applied Research 11

1. Basic Research 11

2. Applied Research 11

3. Integrating Basic and Applied Research 12

5. Study Terms 13

6. Review Questions 13

7. Deepen Your Understanding 14

1. 2 Where to Start 15

1. Where Do Research Ideas Come From? 16

1. Questioning Common Assumptions 16

2. Observation of the World around Us 16

3. Practical Problems 17

4. Theories 18

5. Past Research 19

2. How Do We Find Out What Is Already Known? 20

1. What to Expect in a Research Article 20

2. Other Types of Articles: Literature Reviews and Meta-Analyses

24

3. Reading Articles 25

4. Where Are These Articles Published? An Orientation to Journals

and Finding Articles 25

3. Developing Hypotheses and Predictions 30

4. Study Terms 34

5. Review Questions 34

6. Deepen Your Understanding 34

Page vi

1. 3 Ethical Research 36

1. Were Milgram’s Obedience Experiments Ethical? 37

2. Ethical Research in Canada 38

1. The Tri-Council and Its Policy Statement 38

2. Historical, Legal, and International Context 38

3. Core Principles Guiding Research with Human Participants 39

3. Designing Research to Uphold the Core Principles 39

1. Promote Concern for Welfare by Minimizing Risks and

Maximizing Benefits 40

2. Promote Respect for Persons through Informed Consent 43

3. Promote Justice by Involving People Equitably in Research 50

4. Evaluating the Ethics of Research with Human Participants 50

4. Monitoring Ethical Standards at Each Institution 51

1. Exempt Research 52

2. Minimal Risk Research 52

3. Greater Than Minimal Risk Research 52

5. Ethics and Animal Research 53

6. Professional Ethics in Academic Life 54

1. Ethics Codes of the APA and CPA 54

2. Scientific Misconduct and Publication Ethics 55

 3. Plagiarism and the Integrity of Academic Communication 57

7. Study Terms 60

8. Review Questions 60

9. Deepen Your Understanding 60

1. 4 Research Design Fundamentals 62

1. Introduction to Basic Research Design 63

1. Variables 63

2. Two Basic Research Designs 63

3. Operationally Defining Variables: Turning Hypotheses into

Predictions 65

2. Non-experimental Method 67

1. Relationships between Variables 67

2. Interpreting the Results of Non-experimental Designs 73

3. Experimental Method 76

1. Designing Experiments That Allow for Causal Inferences 77

4. Choosing a Method: Advantages of Multiple Methods 81

1. Artificiality of Experiments 81

2. Ethical and Practical Considerations 83

3. Describing Behaviour 83

4. Predicting Future Behaviour 84

5. Advantages of Multiple Methods 84

5. Study Terms 86

6. Review Questions 86

7. Deepen Your Understanding 87

1. 5 Measurement 89

1. Self-Report Measures 90

2. Reliability 90

1. Test-Retest Reliability 93

2. Internal Consistency Reliability 94

Page vii

3. Inter-rater Reliability 95

4. Reliability and Accuracy of Measures 95

3. Validity of Measures 95

1. Indicators of Construct Validity 96

4. Reactivity of Measures 99

5. Variables and Measurement Scales 100

1. Nominal Scales 101

2. Ordinal Scales 101

3. Interval Scales 101

4. Ratio Scales 102

5. The Importance of the Measurement Scales 102

6. Study Terms 104

7. Review Questions 104

8. Deepen Your Understanding 104

1. 6 Observational Methods 106

1. Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches 107

2. Naturalistic Observation 108

1. Issues in Naturalistic Observation 110

3. Systematic Observation 112

1. Coding Schemes 113

2. Issues in Systematic Observation 114

4. Case Studies 115

5. Archival Research 117

1. Census Data or Statistical Records 117

2. Survey Archives 118

3. Written Records and Mass Media 119

4. Working with Archival Data: Content Analysis and Interpretation

120

6. Study Terms 122

7. Review Questions 122

8. Deepen Your Understanding 123

1. 7 Survey Research: Asking People about Themselves 124

1. Why Conduct Surveys? 125

1. Response Bias in Survey Research 127

2. Constructing Good Questions 128

1. Defining the Research Objectives 128

2. Question Wording 129

3. Responses to Questions: What Kind of Data Are You Seeking? 132

1. Closed- versus Open-Ended Questions 132

2. Rating Scales for Closed-Ended Questions 132

4. Finalizing the Questionnaire 135

1. Formatting the Questionnaire 135

2. Refining Questions 136

5. Administering Surveys 136

1. Questionnaires 136

2. Interviews 138

6. Interpreting Survey Results: Consider the Sample 139

1. Population and Samples 140

2. For More Precise Estimates, Use a Larger Sample 141

3. To Describe a Specific Population, Sample Thoroughly 141

Page viii

7. Sampling Techniques 143

 1. Probability Sampling 143

2. Non-probability Sampling 145

3. Reasons for Using Convenience Samples 146

8. Study Terms 147

9. Review Questions 147

10. Deepen Your Understanding 148

1. 8 Experimental Design 149

1. Confounding and Internal Validity 150

2. Planning a Basic Experiment 151

3. Between-Subjects Experiments 153

1. Pretest-Posttest Design 154

2. Matched Pairs Design 155

4. Within-Subjects Experiments 156

1. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Within-Subjects Design

156

2. Counterbalancing 158

3. Time Interval between Treatments 160

4. Choosing between Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects

Designs 160

5. Study Terms 162

6. Review Questions 162

7. Deepen Your Understanding 162

1. 9 Conducting Studies 164

1. Finalizing a Study Design 165

1. Options for Manipulating the Independent Variable in

Experiments 165

2. Additional Considerations When Manipulating the Independent

Variable 167

3. Options for Measuring Variables 169

4. Additional Considerations When Measuring Variables 172

5. Setting the Stage 173

2. Advanced Considerations for Ensuring Control 174

1. Controlling for Participant Expectations 174

2. Controlling for Experimenter Expectations 175

3. Seeking Ethics Approval 177

1. Selecting Research Participants 177

2. Planning the Debriefing 178

4. Collecting Data 179

1. Pilot Studies 180

2. Researcher Commitments 180

5. What Comes Next? 180

1. Analyzing and Interpreting Results 180

 2. Communicating Research to Others 180

6. Study Terms 182

7. Review Questions 182

8. Deepen Your Understanding 183

1. 10 Research Designs for Special Circumstances 184

1. Program Evaluation 185

2. Quasi-Experimental Designs 187

1. One-Group Posttest-Only Design 189

2. One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design 190

Page ix

3. Threats to Internal Validity 190

4. Non-equivalent Control Group Design 195

5. Non-equivalent Control Group Pretest-Posttest Design 195

6. Interrupted Time Series Design 196

7. Control Series Design 197

8. Summing Up Quasi-Experimental Designs 198

3. Single Case Experimental Designs 199

1. Reversal Designs 199

2. Multiple Baseline Designs 200

3. Replications in Single Case Designs 202

4. Developmental Research Designs 202

1. Longitudinal Method 203

2. Cross-Sectional Method 204

3. Comparing Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Methods 204

4. Sequential Method 205

5. Study Terms 206

6. Review Questions 207

7. Deepen Your Understanding 207

1. 11 Complex Experimental Designs 209

1. An Independent Variable with More Than Two Levels 210

2. An Experiment with More Than One Independent Variable: Factorial

Designs 212

1. Interpreting Factorial Designs 213

2. Interactions Illuminate Moderator Variables 215

3. Depicting Possible Outcomes of a 2 × 2 Factorial Design Using

Tables and Graphs 215

4. Breaking Down Interactions into Simple Main Effects 218

3. Variations on 2 × 2 Factorial Designs 218

1. Factorial Designs with Manipulated and Non-manipulated

Variables 218

2. Assignment Procedures and Sample Size 219

4. Increasing the Complexity of Factorial Designs 221

1. Beyond Two Levels per Independent Variable 221

2. Beyond Two Independent Variables 222

5. Study Terms 224

6. Review Questions 224

7. Deepen Your Understanding 225

1. 12 Descriptive Statistics: Describing Variables and the Relations

among Them 226

1. Revisiting Scales of Measurement 227

2. Describing Each Variable 228

1. Graphing Frequency Distributions 228

2. Descriptive Statistics 231

3. Describing Relationships Involving Nominal Variables 234

1. Comparing Groups of Participants 234

2. Graphing Nominal Data 235

3. Describing Effect-Size between Two Groups 235

Page x

4. Describing Relationships among Continuous Variables: Correlating

Two Variables 237

1. Interpreting the Pearson r Correlation Coefficient 237

2. Scatterplots 238
 3. Important Considerations 240

4. Correlation Coefficients as Effect-Sizes 241

5. Describing Relationships among Continuous Variables: Increasing

Complexity 242

1. The Regression Equation 242

2. Multiple Correlation and Multiple Regression 243

3. Integrating Results from Different Analyses 245

4. Partial Correlation and the Third-Variable Problem 245

5. Advanced Modelling Techniques 246

6. Combining Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 247

7. Study Terms 247

8. Review Questions 248

9. Deepen Your Understanding 248

1. 13 Inferential Statistics: Making Inferences about Populations Based

on Our Samples 250

1. Inferential Statistics: Using Samples to Make Inferences about

Populations 251

1. Inferential Statistics: Ruling Out Chance 251

2. Statistical Significance: An Overview 252

2. Null and Research Hypotheses 253

3. Probability and Sampling Distributions 253

 1. Probability: The Case of Mind Reading 254

2. Sampling Distributions 254

3. Sample Size 256

4. How “Unlikely” Is Enough? Choosing a Statistical Significance

Level (Alpha) 256

4. Example Statistical Tests 257

1. The t-Test: Comparing Two Means 257

2. The F Test: Used When Comparing Three or More Group Means

259

3. Statistical Significance of a Pearson r Correlation Coefficient 259

5. We Made a Decision about the Null Hypothesis, but We Might Be

Wrong! Investigating Type I and Type II Errors 260

1. Correct Decisions 260

2. Type I Errors 260

3. Type II Errors 261

4. The Everyday Context of Type I and Type II Errors 261

5. Type I and Type II Errors in the Published Research Literature

263

6. Interpreting Statistically Non-significant Results 264

7. Choosing a Sample Size: Power Analysis 265

8. Analyzing Data Using Statistics Software 267

9. Selecting the Appropriate Statistical Test 269

 1. Research Studying Two Variables 269

2. Research with Multiple Independent or Predictor Variables 269

Page xi

10. Integrating Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 270

1. Effect-Size 271

2. Confidence Intervals and Statistical Significance 272

3. Conclusion Validity 273

11. The Importance of Replications 273

12. Study Terms 273

13. Review Questions 274

14. Deepen Your Understanding 274

1. 14 Generalizing Results 276

1. Challenges to Generalizing Results 277

1. Can Results Generalize to Other Populations? 277

2. Can Results Generalize Beyond the Specific Study Situation? 280

2. Solutions to Generalizing Results 281

1. Replicate the Study 281

2. Consider Different Populations 285

3. Rely on Multiple Studies to Draw Conclusions: Literature

Reviews and Meta-Analyses 288

3. Generalizing Your Knowledge beyond This Book 289

 1. Recognize and Use Your New Knowledge 290

2. Stay Connected to Building a Better Psychological Science 290

3. Use Research to Improve Lives 291

4. Study Terms 292

5. Review Questions 292

6. Deepen Your Understanding 293

Appendix A: Writing Research Reports in APA Style 294

Appendix B: Statistical Tests 334

Appendix C: Statistical Tables 353

Appendix D: How to Conduct a PsycINFO Search 359

Appendix E: Constructing a Latin Square 363

Glossary GL-1

References RE-1

Index IN-1
Page xii

Preface
Welcome to the third Canadian edition of Methods in Behavioural
Research! When I first began teaching research methods, I found it
immediately rewarding for two main reasons. The first reason is that it
expanded my horizons, adding nuance and breadth to my conception of
science, all of which I hope to pass on to the readers. The second reason is
that I know I am teaching a valuable skill that will take my students far in
life, no matter what direction they choose. Scientific thinking is not a strict
set of routine procedures that are useful only for those who become
scientists. It is a way of thinking about the world that acknowledges its
messy complexity and helps us reason about the best way to solve problems
and evaluate evidence, all in the service of making informed decisions. Just
like in many aspects of life, there is not one ultimate way of doing things;
there are many options, each with strengths and weaknesses in different
contexts, and our goal is to try to identify the best option given the
circumstances.

Features of This Canadian Edition

In this latest edition, I have focused on bolstering the Canadian content,
increasing the opportunity for interactive engagement with the material,
updating the treatment of statistical issues, and improving the clarity and
concision of communication throughout. Our text hopes to inspire the next
generation of Canadian researchers by highlighting the outstanding
research being done in this country. This research is being conducted by
individuals who were once undergraduates in a very similar position:
embarking on their journey as a scientist. In addition to incorporating
Canadian research to illustrate concepts and using culturally relevant
examples, I have added a new feature: Student Spotlights. These spotlights
introduce research conducted by Canadian undergraduate students, research
that has gone on to be published in a peer-reviewed academic journal.
Hopefully these examples not only help you to learn the content of this
book but also convince you that you too can become a successful scientist,
contributing to our shared understanding of the world.

In addition to including exemplars of successful Canadian scientists (both

faculty and students), I have increased the interactivity of this text in order
to help you engage with the content directly. Throughout, readers are
encouraged to actively engage with ideas via Think About It! boxes as well
as participate in Test Yourself! exercises to evaluate current understanding.
At the end of many chapters, Illustrative Articles are now featured, in
which students learn to acquire and read relevant articles, then answer
questions that help to illustrate the main concepts of the chapter.

All of these changes build upon the very solid foundation established in the
many previous editions of this text (both Canadian and American). What
has made this text a favourite of instructors and students alike is its clarity
of expression, its concision, and the reinforcement of key constructs. To the
best of my abilities, I have tried to preserve and improve on these positive
qualities throughout. For example, glossary definitions in the print edition
now appear in the margins, helping students to access the definitions of
major ideas quickly and easily. Revisions to the writing have been made
throughout with a focus on brevity and clarity. In addition, language has
been updated to be more inclusive (e.g., removing mention of gender as a
binary construct). The strengths of previous editions—in the form of
structured and explicit learning objectives and end-of-chapter review
questions—remain.Page xiii

With respect to content, I have tried to reinforce the idea that the numerous
approaches to research are not better or worse than one another: merely
different. Each has unique strengths and weaknesses, with different
research questions and contexts calling for separate approaches.

Organization & Other changes

The largest organizational change to this edition is that what was formerly
Chapter 11, Research Designs for Special Circumstances, has now been
moved to Chapter 10 (and the former Chapter 10, Complex Experimental
Designs, is now moved to Chapter 11). The rationale for this decision is
that quasi-experimental designs serve as great illustrations of potential
weaknesses in studies that purport to be true experiments. The fundamental
issue of validity for an experiment is necessary to grasp before moving on
to more complex experimental designs. Importantly, we have now made it
clear that these quasi-experiments are not “bad” experiments; they are
simply different designs that are often necessary when a true experiment is
not possible. However, when a true experiment is possible (and, often, is
claimed), one can often identify threats to the validity of this experiment by
identifying qualities of quasi-experiments. Otherwise, the organization has
largely been kept intact in this edition. What follows is a brief overview of
the content for each chapter, along with the changes in this edition.

Chapter 1. The goals and methods of the scientific method, basic

versus applied research.

Added 5 Student Spotlights, 2 Think About It! boxes, and 1

Research Spotlight. Removed dated examples. Updated Figure
1.1.

Chapter 2. Generating research ideas, finding and reading past

research, developing hypotheses.

Added 3 Student Spotlights and an Illustrative Article. Extended

discussion of how to approach abstracts. Removed dated
examples. Emphasized importance of reading articles critically.
Updated table of major journals. Expanded discussion of cited
reference searches.

Chapter 3. Research ethics in Canada, for human and animal

research; scientific misconduct.

Added 2 Student Spotlights, 5 Think About It! boxes, and an

Illustrative Article. Removed dated examples and discussion.

Chapter 4. Introducing experimental and non-experimental methods,

operationalization, choosing a method, and using multiple methods.
 Added 3 Student Spotlights, 3 Think About It! boxes, 2 Try it
Out! boxes, 3 Test Yourself! boxes, and an Illustrative Article.
Expanded on the strengths and weakness of both experimental
and non-experimental designs. Clarified and expanded the
discussion of lab-field correspondence.

Chapter 5. Self-report measures, reliability and validity, participant

reactivity, different measurement scales.

Added 1 Student Spotlight, 3 Think About It! boxes, and an

Illustrative Article. Expanded and clarified the concept of
measurement error and its relationship to true scores and
reliability. Elaborated on participant reactivity.

Chapter 6. Quantitative and qualitative approaches to observational

methods, case studies and archival research.

Added 3 Student Spotlights, 1 Think About It! box, 1 Try it Out!

box, 1 Test Yourself! box, and an Illustrative Article. Clarified
how qualitative and quantitative approaches map onto the goals
of science and different research questions. Updated discussion of
technology, including tools for analyzing different forms of
archival data.Page xiv

Chapter 7. Correlational survey research, constructing items and

response scales, sampling.

Added 2 Student Spotlights, 1 Think About It! box, and 1 Try it

Out! box. Updated and expanded discussion of inaccurate
responding and socially desirable responding, including mention
of tools for catching inattentive responders. Introduced the term
acquiescence bias, and discussion of how samples may or may
not generalize to populations. Expanded on participant fatigue.
Included the practical definition of a confidence interval,
distinguishing this from the theoretical or statistical definition,
and removing prior incorrect definition. Defined science as a
process of accumulating knowledge, with no single study being
authoritative.
Chapter 8. Between-subjects and within-subjects experiments,
internal validity and confounds.

Added 1 Student Spotlight, 1 Think About It! box, and an

Illustrative Article. Changed key terminology to between-
subjects and within-subjects designs (from independent-groups
and repeated-measures designs). The matched pairs design is now
discussed within the between-subjects designs section. Updated
examples and discussion of sample size recommendations for
random assignment to conditions. Changed the term mortality to
selective attrition. Removed discussion of a Solomon four-group
design.

Chapter 9. Manipulating and measuring variables, controls for

participant and experimenter variables, conducting studies.

Added 2 Student Spotlights, 1 Think About It! box, and an

Illustrative Article. Clarified the difference between experimental
realism and mundane realism. Added mention of the risks of
manipulation checks. Clarified discussion of fMRI. Elaborated on
diagnosing ceiling and floor effects. Added discussion of
selective reporting as an unethical practice. Clarified that placebo
effects can occur without drug administration. Elaborated on the
importance of debriefings.

Chapter 10. Quasi-experiments, case-studies, developmental designs,

program evaluation.

Formerly Chapter 11. Added 4 Think About It! boxes and an

Illustrative Article. Moved discussion of quasi-experiments
closer to the beginning of this chapter. Clarified that quasi-
experiments are not true experiments that lack internal validity,
but rather unique designs that are sometimes necessary. Added an
exercise to consider situations in which quasi-experiments are
necessary. Used quasi-experiments to illustrate flaws in designs
that claim to be true experiments. Clarified why regression to the
mean is related to reliability and measurement error.
Chapter 11. Multi-level independent variables, factorial experimental
designs, IV × PV designs.

Formerly Chapter 10. Added 2 Try it Out! boxes, 2 Think About

It! boxes, and an Illustrative Article. Clarified the example for the
utility of additional control conditions and the meaning of
statistical significance.

Chapter 12. Descriptive statistics, effect-sizes, graphing data,

describing relationships between variables.

Added 2 Student Spotlights, 1 Think About It! box, 3 Try it Out!

boxes, and 2 Test Yourself! Boxes. Added explanation of the
normal distribution and its importance for parametric statistics.
Added formula for calculating Cohen’s d and practice exercises.
Expanded on when you use each measure of central tendency and
why. Updated guidelines for interpreting effect-size magnitude.
Clarified the relationship between effect-size, practical
significance, and statistical significance. Removed discussion of
how regressions are framed as predictions whereas correlations
are not, since both can be used for prediction. Expanded on
common misinterpretations of Pearson r.Page xv

Chapter 13. Inferential statistics, statistical significance, Type I and

Type II errors, alternatives to null-hypothesis significance testing
(NHST).

Added 2 Think About It! boxes and 3 Try it Out! boxes. Clarified
that NHST is just one option for inferential statistics, clarified
common misconceptions of NHST, and expanded discussion of
the controversy surrounding this approach. Removed manual
calculation of the t-value in favour of emphasizing conceptual
understanding. Removed discussion of one-tailed tests, as this
procedure is now known to be inappropriate. Greatly truncated
the discussion of looking up critical values, as this is an outdated
practice, replacing this with discussion of p-values and
comparison to alpha instead. Introduced Bayesian statistics as an
appropriate way to evaluate evidence in favour of the null. Added
 references to introductory articles on Bayesian statistics, and
introduced free software for performing Bayesian analyses.
Included the fact that the parametric statistics discussed rely on
an assumption of sampling from normally distributed
populations. Added list of resources for learning the statistical
software R.

Chapter 14. Challenges of generalizing results, importance of

replication, literature reviews and meta-analyses, applying your
knowledge.

Added 2 Student Spotlights and an Illustrative Article. Expanded

and clarified how samples relate to the populations from which
they were drawn, and generalizing to other populations.
Expanded discussion of whether laboratory studies and field
experiments converge on similar results. Clarified when
replication failures can be informative and how conceptual
replications can be problematic.

Award-Winning Technology

McGraw-Hill Connect® is an award-winning digital teaching and learning

solution that empowers students to achieve better outcomes and enables
instructors to improve efficiency with course management.

Within Connect, students have access to SmartBook®, McGraw-Hill’s

adaptive learning and reading resource. SmartBook prompts students with
questions based on the material they are studying. By assessing individual
answers, SmartBook learns what each student knows and identifies which
topics they need to practise, giving each student a personalized learning
experience and path to success.
Connect’s key features also include analytics and reporting, simple
assignment management, smart grading, the opportunity to post your own
resources, and the Connect Instructor Library, a repository for additional
resources to improve student engagement in and out of the classroom.

Instructor Resources for Methods in Behavioural Research,

Third Canadian Edition

Instructors Manual. This in-depth Instructors Manual offers

numerous student activities and assignment suggestions as well as
demonstrations, discussions topics, reference articles, and sample
answers for questions in the text.

Test Bank. Within Connect, instructors can easily create automatically

graded assessments from a comprehensive test bank featuring multiple
question types and randomized question order.Page xvi

Connect Assignments. The assignable resources, such as NewsFlash

articles and Test questions, can be used to create assignments.

Power of Process. New to the third edition, Power of Process for

Methods in Behavioural Research helps students improve critical-
thinking skills and allows instructors to assess these skills efficiently
and effectively in an online environment. Available through Connect,
preloaded journal articles are available for instructors to assign. Using
a scaffolded framework such as understanding, synthesizing, and
analyzing, Power of Process moves students toward higher-level
thinking and analysis.

Microsoft® PowerPoint® Presentations. The customizable

PowerPoint presentations represent the key concepts in each chapter.

Acknowledgments
There are a great many people who deserve thanks for helping to produce
this third Canadian edition. I am, first and foremost, deeply indebted to the
previous authors: Paul C. Cozby, the original author of the American
edition; all others who worked on those editions; and especially Catherine
D. Rawn, who did an absolutely fantastic job of preparing the previous two
Canadian editions. I would also like to thank all at McGraw-Hill Education
who worked on this book, especially portfolio manager, Alex Campbell,
content developer, Shalini Khanna, and supervising editor, Jack Whelan.
Michael Kelly (Good Eye Editorial Services) provided invaluable copy
editing, and Steve Rouben (Photo Affairs) excelled at the necessary photo
research. My undergraduate research assistant, Alma Rahimi, deserves
special thanks for helping to compile the database of student publications
that was used to prepare the Student Spotlights.

The following people are also thanked for generously providing reviews for
this book:

1. Craig Blatz Grant MacEwan University

2. Connie Boudens University of Toronto, Scarborough

3. Patrick Brown University of Western Ontario

4. Keith Busby University of Ottawa

5. Laura Dane Douglas College

6. Lucie Kocum Saint Mary’s University

7. Guy Lacroix Carleton University

8. Chris Montoya Thompson Rivers University

9. Margarete Wolfram York University

Nothing I do would be possible without my wife, for whom I am ever

grateful. My family and friends have always supported me and are also
deserving of much thanks. Over my career, I have learned so much from
my students, both undergraduate and graduate students, as well as many of
my colleagues, and much of this knowledge has found its way into this
book. Lastly, I would like to thank you, the reader, for reading this book
and considering its lessons, and for bothering to read this lengthy preface!
—Raymond A. Mar
Page xvii
Chapter 1

Page 1

Scientific Understanding of Behaviour

©Mark Bridger/Shutterstock

We think of owls as wise and intelligent, but in fact they’re not particularly quick
learners. This is why we need science: to question our assumptions and pursue
truth through systematic observation.

Learning Objectives

Keep these learning objectives in mind as you read to help you identify the most
critical information in this chapter.

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

 1. LO1 Explain reasons why understanding research methods is important.

2. LO2 Describe the scientific approach to learning about behaviour and

contrast it with pseudoscience.

3. LO3 Define and give examples of the four goals of scientific research in
psychology.

4. LO4 Compare and contrast basic and applied research.

Page 2What makes people happy? How do we remember things, what causes us
to forget, and how can memory be improved? What are the effects of stress on
physical health and relationships? How do early childhood experiences affect
later development? What are the best ways to treat depression? How can we
reduce prejudice and conflict? Curiosity about questions like these is probably the
most important reason many students decide to take courses in the behavioural
sciences. Scientific research provides us with a way to gather evidence that can
shape our beliefs about the answers to such questions. Throughout this book, we
will examine the methods employed for scientific research in the behavioural
sciences. In this introductory chapter, we will focus on the ways in which
knowledge of research methods can be useful for understanding the world around
us. Further, we will review the characteristics of a scientific approach to the study
of behaviour and the general types of research questions that concern behavioural
scientists.
 LO1 Why Study
Research Methods?
Understanding research methods can help you become an informed
consumer of news, health care, products, and services. Scientific research
is frequently reported by news organizations, popular magazines, bloggers,
and advertisers. Headlines for these stories may make bold claims and ask
provocative questions, such as “Study finds that lonely people use
Facebook all the time,” “Will getting a dog help you live longer?” and
“When drugs and therapy don’t cure depression, running will.” In addition,
we often hear about survey results that draw conclusions about a group’s
beliefs and attitudes. How do you evaluate such reports? Do you simply
accept the findings because they seem scientific? Can you detect
pseudoscientific claims (as we will explore later in this chapter)? A
background in research methods will help you to read these reports
critically, evaluate the methods, and decide whether the conclusions and
assertions being made are appropriate and justifiable.

Understanding research methods can give you a competitive edge for

various careers. Many occupations require the ability to interpret,
appropriately apply, and conduct solid research. For example, mental health
professionals must make decisions about treatment methods, medications,
and testing procedures; this requires the ability to read the relevant research
literature and apply it effectively. Similarly, people who work in business
frequently rely on research to make decisions about marketing strategies,
ways of improving employee productivity or morale, and methods of
selecting and training new employees. Educators must also keep up with
research, for topics such as the effectiveness of different teaching strategies
or programs for students with special challenges. Others are engaged with
program evaluation, conducting research to evaluate the efficacy of
government and other programs to ensure that funding is well-spent
(elaborated on later in this chapter). Knowledge of research methods and
the ability to evaluate research reports are essential for these and other
careers.Page 3

Understanding research methods can help you be an informed and engaged

citizen and participate in debates regarding public policy. Legislators and
political leaders at all levels of government often take political positions
and propose legislation based on research findings. Research can also
influence legal practices and decisions. For example, numerous wrongful
convictions triggered the use of psychological research to inform police
investigation and courtroom procedures (Public Prosecution Service of
Canada [PPSC], 2011; U.S. Department of Justice, 1999; Wells, 2001;
Yarmey, 2003). In one case, Thomas Sophonow was wrongfully convicted
of murder by a Manitoba jury in 1983. After serving four years of his life
sentence, his conviction was overturned. In the inquiry that followed (Cory,
2001), a retired Supreme Court of Canada judge used psychological science
as the basis for numerous recommendations to prevent future wrongful
convictions. One of the studies that influenced these recommendations was
conducted at Queen’s University and showed that people make fewer false
identifications of suspects when they are presented with a set of
photographs one at a time, rather than simultaneously (Lindsay & Wells,
1985; see also Steblay, Dysart, Fulero, & Lindsay, 2001). Since this inquiry,
police have been required to present photographs sequentially when asking
eyewitnesses to identify a suspect (PPSC, 2011). Another way that
psychologists influence judicial decisions is by providing expert testimony
and consultation on a variety of issues, including domestic violence (e.g.,
R. v. Lavallee, 1990), risk for violence (e.g., R. v. Berikoff, 2000), and
memories retrieved through hypnosis (e.g., R. v. Trochym, 2007).
Understanding research methods can help you evaluate programs in your
community that you might want to participate in or even implement. There
exist many different programs to provide assistance to different groups. For
example, there are programs to enhance parenting skills for parents of
aggressive and antisocial youth (Moretti & Obsuth, 2009), to help reduce
behaviours that raise your risk of contracting HIV, and to teach employees
and students how to reduce the effects of stress. We need to be able to
determine whether these programs are successfully meeting their goals, and
the application of research methods helps us do just that.
Methods of Acquiring Knowledge
We opened this chapter with several questions about human behaviour and
suggested that scientific research is a valuable means of gathering information
about the answers to these questions. How does the scientific approach differ
from other ways of learning about behaviour? People have always observed the
world around them and sought explanations for what they see and experience. In
this quest, humans often rely solely on intuition and authority, but these can lead
to biased conclusions. Science offers a way to try to avoid some of these biases
by systematically seeking high-quality evidence.

Intuition
Many of us have heard about someone who, after years of actively looking for a
long-term romantic partner, stops looking for love. Then, soon after, this same
person happens to find the love of their life! Anecdotes like this contribute to a
common belief that love arrives when one is not looking for it. This seems
intuitively reasonable, and people can easily create an explanation for why this is
the case (see Gilovich, 1991). Perhaps stopping the hunt reduces a major source
of stress, this reduction in stress increases our confidence in social interactions,
which in turn makes us more desirable to potential partners.

This example illustrates the use of intuition based on anecdotal evidence to draw
general conclusions. When you rely on intuition, you accept unquestioningly
what your personal judgment or a single story about one person’s experience tells
you about the world. The intuitive approach takes many forms. Often, it involves
finding an explanation for our own or others’ behaviours. For example, you
might develop an explanation for why you keep having conflict with a fellow
student, such as “that other person is jealous of my intelligence.” Other times,
intuition is used to explain intriguing events that you simply observe in the world,
as in the case of love arriving when you stop looking for it.Page 4

One problem with intuition is that many cognitive and motivational biases affect
our perceptions, which means we can arrive at mistaken conclusions (cf.,
Gilovich, 1991; Nisbett & Ross, 1980; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). So why do we
believe that no longer looking for love leads to finding it? Most likely it is
because of a cognitive bias called illusory correlation: When two events occur
closely in time, this draws our attention, and we often conclude that one must
cause the other. In this example, when a decision to stop looking for love is
followed closely by finding a long-term mate, our attention is drawn to the
situation, and we see them as being causally related. This is true even when it
might just be a coincidence. But when a decision to stop looking is not closely
followed by finding a long-term mate, we don’t notice this non-event. Therefore,
we are biased to conclude that there must be a causal connection between these
things, when in fact no such relationship exists. Illusory correlations are also
likely to occur when we are highly motivated to believe that a certain causal
relationship is true. If we already believe that not looking for love is the key to
finding it, these examples are going to jump out at us even more. Although this
way of thinking comes naturally to us as humans, it can lead us to make
inaccurate conclusions. A scientific approach tries to overcome this biased way
of thinking, and requires much more rigorous evidence before drawing
conclusions.

Authority
Other sources of knowledge about the world are various forms of authority. When
we make a decision based on authority, we place our trust in someone else who
we think knows more than we do. When we were young, we likely trusted our
parents to know what we should do and what was true about the world. As adults,
people tend to trust other authorities such as doctors, especially if they view that
doctor as a specialist in the area (Barnoy, Ofra, & Bar-Tal, 2012). Such blind trust
in medical authority can be problematic because many health care workers (and
patients alike) are prone to drawing incorrect conclusions from statistics
regarding health (Gigerenzer, Gaissmaier, Kurz-Milcke, Schwartz, & Woloshin,
2007). Similarly, many people readily accept anything they encounter from the
news media, books, government officials, or religious figures. They believe that
the statements of such authorities must be true. Advertisers know this and
therefore use authority figures to sell products. The problem, of course, is that the
statements by any particular authority may not be true. The scientific approach
rejects the notion that one can accept on faith the statements of any authority. The
scientific approach is to require lots of evidence, and good quality evidence,
before coming to any conclusion.
 LO2 The Scientific Method: Be
Skeptical, Seek Empirical Data
The scientific method of acquiring knowledge acknowledges that both intuition
and authority can be useful sources of initial ideas about behaviour. However, the
scientific approach does not accept these ideas as truth without further evidence.
Being a scientist means not accepting anyone else’s intuitions or conclusions
without first evaluating the evidence. And this includes our own intuitions and
ideas as well. Ideas must be evaluated on the basis of results from structured
investigations. Throughout this book, we invite you to try out a mindset of
scientific skepticism (if you haven’t already!). Recognize that our own ideas are
just as likely to be as wrong as anyone else’s, and question any pronouncements
of truth, regardless of the prestige or authority associated with the source.Page 5

If scientific skepticism involves rejecting intuition and the blind acceptance of

authority as ways of knowing about the world, how do we gain knowledge about
the world? The fundamental characteristic of the scientific method is empiricism:
gaining knowledge based on structured, systematic observations of the world.
Although it sounds simple, the process of making systematic observations (i.e.,
conducting research) is complex and involves many steps. In its basic form, a
scientist develops a hypothesis (an idea that might be true; see Chapter 2), then
carefully collects data relevant to this hypothesis, and then evaluates whether the
data is consistent or inconsistent with this hypothesis. If the data match the
hypothesis, then we have acquired some evidence that the hypothesis might
accurately reflect the nature of the world. See Figure 1.1 for an overview of the
many steps involved in conducting research. Although all these steps may seem
daunting, this book will help you learn how to develop theories and hypotheses,
design studies, collect and evaluate data, and write up the results for publication.

Figure 1.1 Overview of the process of conducting research, scientist’s

perspective

︎Think about It!

What step in this process sounds like the most fun for you?

Thousands of individual scientists worldwide—in disciplines as varied as

psychology and physics—use the scientific method to understand the world.
Regardless of the topic being studied and the specific procedures used, there are
some broad characteristics that guide the ideal process of scientific inquiry
(Goodstein, 2011; Merton, 1973). It is important to note at the outset, however,
that scientists are still human and science is an imperfect enterprise. As a result,
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imminentem cōnscendere, unde longē lātēque circumspicere
posset ; atque ibi in genua prōstrātus precēs mātūtīnās piē fundere,
Deumque ōrāre prō cārissimīs parentibus, quōs dēseruerat quidem,
numquam vērō oblītus est. Tum lamās mulgēre, quārum gregem
[111]nōn ita contemnendum paulātim ēducāverat ; deinde aliquam
lactis partem haurīre. In quibus peragendīs prīma diēī hōra
efflūxerat.

Tum omnibus rēbus īnstrūctus quae seu ad tūtēlam suī, seu ad

labōrem pertinērent, ībat vel ad lītus, sī mare recēderet, ostreās in
prandium collēctūrus, vel ad arborem ex quā nāvem fabricāre
statuerat.

Sub hōram decimam, cum diēī fervidissimum tempus esset,

labōrem Rōbinson intermittēbat : tum ille lītus repetēbat, aut ostreās
conquīsītūrus, sī modo māne nōn invēnisset, aut membra lavātūrus ;
quod bis quotīdiē facere in mōrem eī abierat.

Deinde iterum lamās mulgēre, cāseōs ex lacte coāgulātō

premere, prandiumque mediocre īnstruere, quod ferē lacte, et cāseō
recentī, nōnnūllīs ostreīs, dīmidiāque nuce cocossae cōnstābat. Nec
illī querendī locus erat quod in fervidīs istīs regiōnibus cibōrum
appetītus multō minor [112]sibi esset quam sub caelō frīgidiōrī.
Attamen solitus ā pueritiā carnem edere, illam tundendō ēmollīre
dēnuō cōnātus est, ut aviditātem explēret ; sed frūstrā. Inter
prandendum cum psittacō suō cōnfābulārī solēbat, quem nōnnūlla
verba prōnūntiāre docuerat. Scīlicet audiēbat discipulus, et reddēbat
sonōs, vicibus reticēns, quasi intellegeret ēmendantem. Hunc
quoque assuēfēcerat sē vocantem audīre et euntem sequī.
 Post prandium, hōram quiētī sub umbrā aut in spēluncā dabat,
stante ad latus psittacō et lamīs circā dominum recubantibus. Tum
ille interdum sedēns, animālia ista, in quae dēfīxōs tenēbat oculōs,
alloquēbātur, verba sua intellegī ratus. Adeō ille gestiēbat cum
animante quōdam mentis cōgitātiōnēs sēnsūsque commūnicāre, ut
saepius oblīvīscerētur sē cum animālibus ratiōnis expertibus
sermōnem habēre. Quotiēs autem psittacus vōcem distīnctē
ēmittēbat, tanta erat Rōbinsōnis laetitia, ut [113]hūmānam vōcem
audīre sibi vidērētur, atque adeō īnsulae, lamārum, psittacīque
oblītus, sē inter hominēs versārī sibi cōgitātiōne fingeret. Sed cum
brevī ēvānēsceret error ille blandissimus, tum ad memoriam
sōlitūdinis revolūtus, ingemīscēbat : « Miser Rōbinson ! »

Sub hōram ā merīdiē secundam ad arborem reversus, rūrsus

īnstābat magnō operī. In quō labōre dūrissimō quotīdiē duās hōrās
cōnsūmere sibi praecēperat : quibus ēlāpsīs redībat ad lītus, cum ad
corpus dēnuō abluendum, tum ad ostreās conquīrendās. Reliquam
diem variīs operibus hortēnsibus impendēbat : et nunc zēam aut
sōlāna plantāre, spērāns fore ut ōlim, igne recuperātō, magnam inde
ūtilitātem caperet ; nunc tenerās stirpēs īnsertās irrigāre ; nunc
saepēs serere, quibus hortum clauderet ; nunc arborēs circumcīdere,
rāmōsque flectere, quī sibi umbram hospitālem ministrārent.

Nunc autem Rōbinson aegrē tulit vel [114]longissimum diem in

hāc īnsulā tredecim ad summum hōrās dūrāre, adeō ut mediā
aestāte, hōrā septimā post merīdiem tenebrae jam ingruerent. Itaque
quidquid lūcem diēī requīrēbat, ante hoc tempus perficiendum erat.
Sub hōram igitur sextam, sī modo nihil majōris mōmentī agendum
superesset, sēsē in bellicīs artibus exercēre, arcum tendere, sagittās
ēmittere, ut, sī quandō incideret in barbarum hominem aut ferum
animal, cujus timōrem nōndum dēposuerat, satis sē dēfenderet.
Quārum quidem artium tantam paulātim perītiam adeptus est, ut
rārō, quamvīs longō interpositō intervallō ā scopō nummī
magnitūdinem aequante aberrāret. Vesperāscente caelō, lamās
tertium mulgēre, cēnamque frūgālem sūmere, stēllīs aut lūnā
lūcentibus.

Ultimam diēī hōram rērum nātūrae contemplātiōnī dabat.

Nīmīrum in ēditiōre locō sedēns, intuēbātur caelī convexa stēllīs
undique distīncta, aut signa ex mediā caelī parte vergentia,
rūrsusque alia ex occultō [115]surgentia ; aut lūnam modo
crēscentem, modo senēscentem, et nunc curvātam, nunc aequā
portiōne dīvīsam, maculōsam interdum, eamdemque subitō
renīdentem. Nōnnumquam in lītore ambulāns auram vespertīnō
ventō temperātam spīrābat. Quam pulchrum, quam admīrābile
spectāculum mare exhibēbat ōceanī immēnsitātem ē lītore
prōspicientī ! ut varium, ut suī semper dissimile ! Modo placidum et
quasi sōpītum, polītissimī mentītur speculī plānitiem ; modo
tamquam ōtiī pertaesum, crispātur leviter, fertur ultrā citrāque per
lūdibrium, cum subitō, lūdōrum impatiēns, conturbātur, turgēscit,
flūctūsque spūmantēs volvit ad pedēs Rōbinsōnis sēcūrē minās
contemplantis.

Cum sīc ille in admīrātiōne nunc rērum nātūrae, nunc maris

diūtius haesisset, tum ad sē ipsum conversus animum ad ratiōnem
reddendam vocābat. Scīlicet diem tōtam excutiēns, sēcum
anquīrēbat, quōmodo hanc diem ēgisset, quod malum [116]sānāsset,
quānam parte factus esset melior ? Quotiēs haec et tālia ā sē ipsō
percontantī praeclārum cōnscientia testimōnium praebēbat, ut ipse
sibi grātulābātur ! Ut ille laudēs Deī optimī māximī canēbat, quō
favente aliquid hāc diē in virtūtis viā prōfēcerat ! Sī vērō post
recognitiōnem suī aliquid peccāsse sibi vidērētur, ō quam ille tunc
dolēbat āmissum in vītā diem ! Āmissum enim interpretābātur diem
illum quō commīserat quidquam aut cōgitāverat, cujus diē exāctō
ipsum paenitēret. Hunc quoque solēbat signō notāre, prope līneolam
quā quotīdiē in arbore ratiōnem temporis exarābat, ut praeteritae
culpae memor in posterum tantō magis ab eā sibi cavēret.
[117]
 Caput decimum quārtum.

Rōbinson īnsulam peragrat. — Vestīgia hominum reperit. —

Summus terror. — Prōspicit crānia, ossa, manūs, pedēs. — Quod
territō et fugientī accidit.

R ōbinson assiduam per trēs annōs nāvī cōnficiendae operam

dederat, truncō vix dīmidiā quidem parte excīsō. Incertum
quoque vidēbātur an illud, etsī eādem assiduitāte operī īnstāret,
trium aut quattuor annōrum spatiō perfectūrus esset. Nec tamen in
suō studiō atque opere cessāvit : quid enim aliud susciperet ? neque
vērō illī placuit, nec licuit esse ōtiōsō.

Quādam diē in mentem eī vēnit sē, quamvīs jam diū in īnsulā

istā habitāret, nōn nisi minimam partem adhūc explōrāsse. Objēcit
sibi, ut animī vitium, timō [118]rem istum quō impedītus īnsulam tōtam
nōndum peragrārat. « Forsan, sī minus ego timidus fuissem, multa
invēnissem, quae nunc mihi māximae essent ūtilitātī. »

Quae quidem cōgitātiō animum Rōbinsōnis impulit ut īlicō

statueret proximō māne in viam sē cōnferre ; eōque ipsō diē omnia
ad iter faciendum parāvit.

Postrīdiē, ortō sōle, ūnō ē lamīs quattuor diērum vīctū onerātō,

armīs ipse indūtus, postquam sē Deī tūtēlae commendāvisset,
fīdentī animō viam ingressus est. Cōnstituit, quantum fierī posset,
lītus sequī, nec silvestribus locīs sē committere, nē in ferās incideret.

Ac prīmō diē nihil eī in itinere accidit memorandum. Sex mīliāria

circiter eō diē cōnfēcit ; et quō longius prōgrediēbātur, eō certius
comperit sē in sterilissimā īnsulae parte sēdem posuisse. Multīs
nīmīrum in locīs arborēs invēnit variō frūctuum genere abundantēs,
unde vīctum nōn salūbrem minus quam jūcundum petere
[119]potuisset. Hōrum posteā ūsūs nōminaque didicit.

Prīmam noctem Rōbinson in arbore ēgit, ut tūtus ā ferīs esset ;

et posterā diē iter persecūtus est. Nec multum viae cōnfēcerat, cum
extrēmam īnsulae partem versus merīdiem attigit. Solum nōnnūllīs in
locīs erat harēnōsum. Dum autem tendit ad tractum terrae in mare
prōcurrentem, ecce pedem fert retrō ; tum pallēscere, contremīscere,
oculōs circumferre, et subitō haerēre quasi fulmine repentīnō ictus.
Videt nīmīrum quod hīc vīsūrum sē numquam spērāverat, vestīgia
hominum harēnae impressa...!

Tum ille territus undique circumspicit : audītō vel levissimō

foliōrum strepitū stupet, sēnsūsque adeō perturbantur, ut stet inops
cōnsiliī ; tandem collēctīs vīribus, fugam corripit, quasi īnstārent ā
tergō, nec prae terrōre respicere ausus est. At ecce repente substitit.
Metus in horrōrem vertitur. Videt nīmīrum fossam rotundam,
[120]atque in mediō ignis exstīnctī focum. Quem circā, horrēscō
referēns, crānia, manūs, pedēs, aliaque corporis ossa adspicit,
exsecrandās reliquiās convīviī ā quō nātūra abhorret. Scīlicet tunc
temporis in īnsulīs Caraibicīs ferī hominēs dēgēbant, canibālēs
vocātī aut anthrōpophagī : quibus sollemnis erat cōnsuētūdō captīvīs
mactātīs assātīsque immānēs epulās celebrāre, in quibus laetitiā
atrōcius dēbacchābantur, saltantēs, canentēs, aut potius, satiātā
feritāte, ululantēs.

Rōbinson oculōs ab horribilī spectāculō āvertit. Nausea etiam

correptus, animī dēliquiō labōrātūrus fuisset, nisi stomachum vomitū
levāsset. Ubi prīmum paululum refectus est, fūgit tantā vēlōcitāte, ut
vix fugientem fidēlis lama sequī potuerit. Tantopere vērō mentem
Rōbinsōnis timor aliēnāverat, ut lamae suī plānē oblītus, audītō
sequentis sociī gressū, īnstantem ā tergō sibi canibālem fingeret,
omnibusque vīribus effugere cōnārētur.
[121]

Ac nē cursum morārentur, hastam, arcum, sagittās, secūrim

abjicit : quam sibi videt expedītiōrem, viam potiōrem habet ;
iterātīsque per tōtam hōram ambāgibus sīc efficit, ut circumeundō ad
locum eumdem, unde aufūgerat, redierit. Tunc novus horror animum
ejus attonitum occupat. Quō in locō versētur nōn agnōscit, nec
animadvertit eumdem esse, quem anteā vīderat ; sed putat invēnisse
sē novum immānitātis eōrum quōs fugit monumentum. Itaque
violentissimō impetū sē prōripit, neque prius currere dēsiit quam
fessum cursū corpus vīrēs dēsererent. Tunc omnīnō exhaustus
sēnsūque orbātus prōcidit. Hūc quoque lama advenit, nec fessus
minus jūxtā dominum prōcumbit. Forte is ipse erat locus ubi anteā
Rōbinson arma abjēcerat. Oculīs itaque nōn multō post apertīs, haec
prīma in grāmine cōnspexit. Quod quidem somnium ipsī omnīnō
vīsum est, nec intellegēbat quōmodo et arma sīc jacērent, et ipse in
eum locum vēnisset : [122]tantopere formīdō animum ejus
perturbāverat !

Ac brevī surrēxit, ut locum istum quam celerrimē linqueret. Sed

tunc paululum ad sē reversus, nec tam imprūdēns ut arma
oblīvīscerētur, statuit ea jam nōn exuere quibus sōlīs vītam poterat
dēfendere. Tantopere autem erat dēbilitātus, ut, licet īnstante metū,
jam nōn eādem, quā anteā, pernīcitāte fugeret. Per tōtum reliquum
diem cibī appetītum plānē āmīsit, semelque tantummodo substitit, ut
sitim fontis aquā restingueret.

Frūstrā spērāvit sē eōdem diē ad sēdem suam perventūrum.

Obscūrā jam lūce, dīmidiae circiter hōrae spatiō aberat ā domiciliō,
eō scīlicet in locō quem rūsculum suum vocāverat. Quippe spatium
erat clausum, et satis amplum, in quō partem gregis coercēbat, quia
nempe pinguiōra ibi quam prope habitāculum suum crēscēbant
grāmina. Ibi nōnnūllās noctēs superiōrī aestāte dēgerat, nē ab
īnsectīs, quae eum [123]domī fodiēbant, īnfestārētur. Sed vīribus
plānē exhaustīs longius prōgredī nōn poterat. Etsī perīculōsissimum
eī vidēbātur pernoctāre in locō nūllīs praesidiīs mūnītō, attamen
necessitās illud postulābat. Vix autem humī sē prōstrāverat, cum
neque omnīnō sōpītus, neque omnīnō vigil, in ambiguā somnī
exspectātiōne, ecce subitō terrōre perhorruit.

Vōcem audīvit velutī caelō dēmissam, haec verba articulātē

prōferentem : « Avē, Rōbinson. »

Rōbinson perterritus exsilit, tōtō corpore contremīscēns, et

plānē inops cōnsiliī. Ac iīsdem iterum audītīs, oculōs in eum locum
timidē convertit, unde vōx profecta erat. Tum vīdit, quod sānē ignāvō
cuique in prōmptū esset, sī rem, priusquam animus perturbārētur,
paulō attentius cōnsīderāret ; vīdit sē vānō metū territum fuisse :
quippe vōx illa profecta erat, nōn dē caelō, sed dē rāmō in quō
cārissimus sibi īnsidēbat psittacus. Tum vērō [124]metus in laetitiam
vertitur quod causam reī invēnisset. Manum porrigit psittacō. Ille
dēvolat ; dumque mūtuīs alter alterum blanditiīs excipit, psittacus
pergit prōferre dictātam salūtātiōnem.

Hic autem tōtam ferē noctem īnsomnem trādūxit, tum cibī, tum
quiētis immemor, fremitum quemque auribus captāns. Ferī hominēs
semper occurrēbant oculīs ; frūstrā vērō animum ā foedā cōgitātiōne
abdūcere tentāvit. Tum ut sē tūtiōrem in futūrum praestāret, coepit
plūrima animō cōnsilia agitāre, eaque stultissima : ex quibus ūnum,
quod incrēdibile vidēbitur, hoc erat, ut diē obortō omnia adaequāret
solō quae tantā dīligentiā, tantō labōre exstrūxerat, nē vel minimum
quidem hūmānae industriae vestīgium dēprehendī posset.
[125]
 Caput decimum quīntum.

Epulae atrōcēs. — Proelium. — Fortitūdō Rōbinsōnis. —

Vendredi servātus.

V ix alma diēī lūx umbrās noctis dispulerat, cum Rōbinson rēs

vīdit in aliō lūmine collocātās. Quod heri prūdentia, quod
necessitās suādēbat, tunc stultum atque inūtile jūdicāvit. Cōnsilia
dēmum minus cōnsīderāta quae timor ipsī suggesserat, nunc
reprobat, et ad meliōra ratiōnīque magis cōnsentānea animum
convertit. Nunc enim, nocte interpositā, intellegit timōrem hesternum
fuisse nimium. « Dūdum, ait ille sēcum, hīc ego commorātus sum,
nec ūllus umquam homō ferus in vīcīnitātem habitāculī meī vēnit : ex
quō satis patet suum eōs in hāc īnsulā domicilium nōn habēre.
Vērisimile est, [126]aliam eōs incolere regiōnem, unde nōnnūllī hūc
veniunt, ut victōriās atrōcibus epulīs concelebrent, eōsque ad eam
īnsulae partem quae vergit ad merīdiem, appellere, atque inde
discēdere, cēterīs īnsulae partibus neglēctīs. Singulārī igitur ac
dīvīnō mūnere, ego in hanc steriliōrem īnsulae partem compulsus
fuī, hōc ipsō tūtior. » Tum animō et vīribus cōnfirmātus, domum sē
contulit, ut nova, quae inierat, cōnsilia persequerētur.

Placuit inter cētera plantāre nōn procul ab arboreō quō

habitāculum mūnierat saeptō nemus ita dēnsum, ut sēdēs ā
longinquō cōnspicī nōn posset. Hāc mente duo circiter mīlia ejus
generis salicum plantāvit quās jam facile rādīcēs agere atque brevī
crēscere animadverterat. Sed māximē cavendum jūdicāvit nē eās
ōrdine aliquō dispōneret, ut silvula nātūrā potius quam arte cōnsita
vidērētur. Tum statuit viam subterrāneam per cunīculum agere, ab
īmā spēluncā ad alterum montis [127]latus, ut, urgente necessitāte,
habēret effugium, Quod quidem opus fuit magnī et diuturnī labōris,
adeō ut ā cymbae fabricātiōne ad tempus omnīnō dēsisteret.

Sīc ille quidem satis tūtus sibi vidēbātur ab impetū repentīnō.

Quid vērō ? sī hostis īnstet, obsidiōneque cīnctum teneat ? Neque
hoc vānum prōrsus erat aut fūtile ; quippe quod aliquandō fierī
posset. Itaque necesse esse jūdicāvit ut sē adversus hunc cāsum
mūnīret, nē famē aut perīret, aut ad dēditiōnem compellerētur.
Quamobrem statuit ūnam certē lamam quae lacte abundāret in ātriō
domiciliī servāre, atque ad hanc alendam fēnī acervum sēpositum
habēre, ex quō nihil, nisi necessitāte coāctus, dētraheret. Dēcrētum
est quoque cāseī, pōmōrum et ostreārum cōpiam parāre, quam dē
diē in diem renovāret.

Quibus ita dispositīs, Rōbinson aliquot annōs vītam vīxit adeō

tranquillam, ut nihil memorātū dignum eī acciderit. Igitur ad [128]rem
illam properō, quae ad commūtandam ejus condiciōnem plūs valuit
quam quidquid hūc ūsque eī contigerat.

Cum Rōbinson māne quōdam serēnō in cymbā fabricandā esset

occupātus, magnum ē longinquō fūmum adscendentem subitō
cōnspexit. Prīmō quidem adspectū obstupuit, mox autem ad montem
spēluncae imminentem quam celerrimē cucurrit, causam reī inde
speculātūrus. Ubi prīmum montem cōnscendit, majōrī etiam cum
terrōre cōnspexit quīnque scaphulās in lītore religātās, trīgintā autem
barbarōs ingentem apud focum, trucī gestū, atque inconditō clāmōre
chorum agentēs. Saltābant ūnicō tantum pede ; nam alterum
ērēctum et in āere lībrātum habēbant.

Etsī ad spectāculum hujusmodī videndum Rōbinson nōn

imparātus erat, parum tamen āfuit quīn rūrsus terrōre exanimārētur.
Vērumtamen fortitūdinem et fīdūciam celeriter in animum
revocā [129]vit : tum ē colle properē dēscendit, omnia dispositūrus
quibus sē tuērētur ; cūnctīsque armīs īnstrūctus, et auxilium precātus
ā Deō, cōnstituit vītam suam, quoad posset, dēfendere. Tunc iterum
ad summum collem cōnscendit, hostēs explōrātūrus.

Mox vērō cohorruit atque indignātus est, cum satis distīnctē vīdit
duōs hominēs ē scaphīs trahī ad ignem. Ac prīmō suspicātus est eōs
necī addictōs, brevīque comperit sē nōn errāsse. Aliquot enim ex
barbarīs alterum captīvum prōsternunt, prōstrātumque duo aliī adortī
corpus laniant, ad epulās atrōcēs īnstruendās. Interim stābat alter
captīvus, dōnec ipse quoque mactārētur. Dum vērō intentōs quisque
oculōs in cruciātum et lacerātiōnem tenet, ille, tempore arreptō, fugit
atque citātissimō cursū in eam regiōnis partem contendit quam
Rōbinson incolēbat.

Tunc noster ērēctus suspēnsusque tum [130]spē et laetitiā, tum

timōre atque horrōre vicissim perstringitur. Hinc exsultat, cum videt
captīvum aliquō spatiō persequentēs superantem ; inde tōtō corpore
contremīscit, cum animadvertit cūnctōs ad habitāculum suum, anteā
ignōtum, cursum dīrigere. Erat autem sinus mediocris profugō
trājiciendus, nē in manūs hostium caderet. In quem statim prōsiliit,
eādemque quam hūc ūsque adhibuerat celeritāte trānāvit ad lītus
oppositum. Dum iī quī propius urgēbant in aquam sē quoque
prōjiciunt, cēterī ad convīvium horribile revertuntur. Quantō autem
gaudiō Rōbinson animadvertit, hōs illī natandō parēs nōn esse !
Miser enim jam ex aquā ēmerserat, cum cēterī nōndum ēmēnsī
erant dīmidiam sinūs partem.

Tunc Rōbinson īnsolitā fortitūdine atque audāciā animātum sē

sēnsit ; hastā correptā ē monte dēcurrit. Et continuō ēgressus silvā,
terribilī vōce exclāmat : « Siste gradum ! » At ille, adspectū
Rōbin [131]sōnis pellibus horridī, obstupuit ; ratus esse aliquem suprā
hūmānam condiciōnem, incertusque utrum sē ad pedēs ejus
prōjiceret, an vērō fugam persequerētur. Rōbinson eī manū significat
adesse sē dēfēnsōrem, et subitō conversus it obviam hostibus.
Priōrem, cum jam propius esset, hastā percussum vī magnā dējicit.
Alter, quī centum circiter passūs aberat, attonitus stupet ; tum arcum
sagittā īnstruit, quam in Rōbinsōnem jam proximē accēdentem
intorquet. Illa pectus ejus ferit ; sed adeō leviter pellem, quā indūtus
erat, strīnxit, ut corpus ferrō esset intāctum. Tum Rōbinson priōrī
victōriā ferōx, vehementī impetū ēlātus, barbarum prōstrāvit. Deinde
hominem respicit, cujus vītam servāverat : hic autem timōrem inter et
spem dubius eōdem in locō haerēbat, incertus utrum haec omnia
suae salūtis causā agerentur, an sibi ignōtā victōris manū foret
quoque pereundum. Ille autem [132]barbarum ad sē vocat,
significatque ut propius accēdat. Hic pāruit, mox autem prae metū
cōnstitit ; et nunc pedem prōfert, nunc retrahit ; dēmumque lentē
prōgreditur, nōn sine magnā significātiōne terrōris, supplicisque
habitū.

Cum Rōbinson amīcitiam suam omnī modō dēmōnstrāsset,

tandem ille fōrmam ignōtam adīre ausus est ; sed decimō quōque
passū supplex in genua prōcidit, quasi grātiās ageret simul et
honōrem praestāret.
 Tum Rōbinson sublātā lārvā vultum hūmānum et benignum
ostendit. Quō vīsō, barbarus cōnfīdentius servātōrem suum adit,
tōtōque corpore sē prōjiciēns terram ōsculātur. Noster autem, quī
amīcum habēre māllet quam servum, blandē hominem manū
allevāns, eī quācumque potuit ratiōne persuādēre studet sē velle
cum ipsō amīcitiam jungere. Multa vērō facienda supererant.

Barbarus quī prior fuerat prōstrātus, [133]vulnus lētāle nōn

accēperat : itaque cum animum sēnsim recēpisset, herbīs ēvulsīs ad
sēdandum sanguinem vulnus obtūrāre coepit. Rōbinson barbarō suō
hoc dēmōnstrat. Tum Indus nunc secūrim lapideam Rōbinsōnī
ostendit, nunc sē ipsum, significāns sē illīus ope vītam hostī
ēreptūrum. Rōbinson autem, quī ab hūmānō sanguine effundendō
abhorrēbat, tunc necesse ratus ut hostis dē mediō tollerētur, secūrim
porrigit, āvertēns oculōs. Indus in hostem vulnerātum irruit, illum ūnō
ictū obtruncat : tum ovāns revertitur ; et secūrim, caesīque hominis
cruentum caput, victōriae pignora, ad pedēs Rōbinsōnis dēpōnit.

Tum Rōbinson eī signīs quibusdam dedit intellegendum, ut,

collēctīs caesōrum arcubus et sagittīs, sē prōsequerētur ; barbarus
autem innuit Rōbinsōnī, prius quam recēderent, corpora dēfūnctōrum
esse humī condenda, nē sociī ūlla aliquandō eōrum vestīgia
reperīrent.
[134]

Cum Rōbinson indicāsset se hoc probāre, Indus sōlīs manibus

magnā cum celeritāte brevī utrumque cadāver harēnā obruit. Tum
ambō ad habitāculum Rōbinsōnis sē cōnferunt.
[135]
 Caput decimum sextum.

Rōbinson parātus ad obsidiōnem ferendam. — Vendredi

dēscrībitur. — Quārē sīc appellātus.

I ncerta adhūc ancepsque erat fortūna Rōbinsōnis. Nōnne

vērisimile erat barbarōs, epulīs inhūmānīs satiātōs, vestīgia
sociōrum secūtūrōs esse, ut eōs, et captīvum quī ēvāserat,
quaererent. Tunc vērō dubium nōn erat quīn illī, dētēctō semel
Rōbinsōnis habitāculō, expugnātōque, eum simul et novum comitem
occīderent. Quae cōgitātiō Rōbinsōnis animum agitābat, dum ē
summō colle post arborem latēns foedam epulātiōnem chorōsque
barbarōrum intuētur. Tunc dēlīberat, quid sibi in hōc rērum articulō
faciendum sit, utrum fugiat, an in arce suā inclūsum [136]sē teneat.
Cum vērō mentem suam ad potentissimum illud nūmen innocentiae
praesidium ērēxisset, sēsē adeō cōnfirmātum animō sēnsit, ut
posterius facere cōnstituerit. Itaque inter dūmēta ūsque ad
domicilium prōrēpit, sociō significāns ut idem agat ; sīcque ambō ad
spēluncam perveniunt.

Tunc barbarus, domicilium līberātōris commodē dispositum

intuēns, obstupuit ; quippe quī nihil umquam vīdisset sīc ōrdinātum.

Rōbinson barbarō significat, quid sit ab hostium multitūdine

metuendum ; sē autem parātum esse ad vītam strēnuē
dēfendendam. Quō quidem ille intellēctō trucī vultū secūrim vibrat,
gestūque terribilī versus eum locum sē convertit, ubi hostēs erant,
quasi illōs prōvocāret, patrōnōque dēclārāret sē ad ācerrimam
dēfēnsiōnem parātissimum. Rōbinson, hāc ejus fortitūdine probātā,
hastam, arcum et sagittās eī trādit, eumque ad forāmen
[137]mūnīmentī arboreī velut in excubiīs collocat, unde prōspiceret,
quid in spatiō inter parietem et nemus ā sē cōnsitum interjectō
agerētur. Sīc cum fortī sociō ūsque ad vesperam armātus stetit. Cum
vērō post aliquot hōrās nihil usquam hostīle cernerent,
exīstimāvērunt barbarōs, postquam frūstrā investīgāverant, in
scaphīs domum reversōs esse. Igitur armīs dēpositīs, Rōbinson
cēnam īnstruit.

Cum autem haec diēs in vītā Rōbinsōnis māximē memoranda,

diēs esset Veneris, gallicē Vendredi, memoriam ejus cōnsecrāre
voluit ; itaque barbarum, quem servāverat, eō nōmine appellāvit.

Nōndum hūc ūsque Rōbinsōnī vacāverat eum attentius

cōnsīderāre. Juvenis erat ēgregiae fōrmae, vīgintī circiter annōrum ;
colōre fuscō, cute nitidā ; crīnibus nigrīs, nōn autem lāneīs, sīcut
Aethiopum, sed rēctīs ; nāsō brevī, nec eō dēpressō ; labiīs parvīs ;
dentibus ita albīs, ut ebur aequārent. Aurēs ejus variīs conchīs et
pennīs [138]ōrnātae erant, quibus ille nōn mediocriter superbīre
vidēbātur : nūdus cēterum ā capite ad pedēs.

Itaque Rōbinson amiculō cōnsūtīs ē pellibus cōnfectō socium

induit. Tum eī significāvit, ut laterī assīderet ad cēnandum.

Vendredi magnā cum reverentiae atque grātī animī

significātiōne ad Rōbinsōnem accessit ; tum in genua sē prōstrāvit,
capite in terram dēmissō.
 Rōbinson, autem sociō atque amīcō diū exoptātō mīrificē
laetātus, blanditiīs potius illum sibi dēvincīre cupiēbat ; nīmīrum
exīstimābat duplicem nōn esse generis hūmānī orīginem, nec fictōs
meliōre lutō hōs quī vocantur albī, cum eōdem patre atque nigrī
hominēs nātī sint. Attamen, cum putāret prūdentius esse hospitem
nōndum satis sibi cognitum intrā obsequiī et venerātiōnis fīnēs
continēre, honōremque ab eō velut sibi dēbitum accipere, aliquamdiū
rēgis persōnam ergā hominem gerere cōnstituit.
[139]
 Caput decimum septimum.

Orīgō rēgiae potestātis. — Rōbinson abundat opibus. — Habet

subditōs. — Vendredi novō vīvendī genere dēlectātur.

I taque Rōbinson signīs gestūque sociō intellegendum dedit, sē

illum quidem in tūtēlam suam recēpisse, eā tamen lēge ut
summam ipsī oboedientiam praestāret, atque omnibus sēdulō
vacāret quaecumque dominus et rēx novus jussisset. Ideō casicum
sē ipse appellāvit, quoniam eō nōmine barbarōrum in Americā
prīncipēs ab istīs vocārī meminerat. Quā vōce, melius quam signīs
adhibitīs, Vendredi id intellēxit quod suus eī domibus dēclārābat ; et
ut patēret sē dominō in servitūtem sēmetipsum dicāre, iterum
iterumque nōmen illud clārā [140]vōce prōnūntiāvit, Rōbinsōnem
manū dēmōnstrāns, pedibusque ejus advolūtus est. Quīn, ut
significāret sē satis intellegere quanta esset vīs rēgiae potestātis,
hastam arreptam dominō porrēxit, cuspide ad pectus suum dīrēctā,
atque hōc ipsō dēclārāvit Rōbinsōnem vītae necisque habēre
potestātem. Tum Rōbinson, assurgēns in rēgiam majestātem,
dextram subditō porrēxit, jussitque sēcum cēnāre. Vendredi dictō
audiēns fuit, ita tamen ut ipse ad pedēs Rōbinsōnis humī, ille vērō in
suggestū grāminis sedēret.

Haud absimilī ratiōne prīmī rēgēs apud mortālēs exstitēre. Virī

nempe fuērunt sapientiā, fortitūdine atque corporis rōbore cēterīs
praestantiōrēs. Itaque īnfirmiōrēs, ut sē ab impetū ferārum, quibus
initiō terrae plūrimum īnfestābantur, aut ab injūriā vīque hominum sē
dēfenderent, cōnfugere ad potentiōris auxilium. Prō quō praesidiō,
sē ea quae imperāsset factūrōs pollicitī sunt, datūrōsque quotannīs
certam dē frūctibus [141]agrōrum partem, ut patrōnī, quibus nōn
esset quaerendum unde ipsī vīctitārent, tōtī essent in salūte
subditōrum prōpugnandā. Quae quidem dōnāria rēgī ā subditīs
quotannīs tribuenda, tribūta vocāta sunt. Hinc rēgum potestās, et
opēs ; hinc obsequia dēbitaque subditōrum.

Jam vērē Rōbinson rēx fuit. Quippe īnsula erat prō rēgnō, lamae
frūctūsque prō aerāriō, Vendredi prō subditō, ūnicō quidem, sed
cārissimō, psittacusque prō aulicō, sed ferē inūtilī. Placuit saepe rēgī
ad subditum ūsque dēscendere, quantum rēgia dignitās paterētur.

Cēnā cōnfectā, rēx novus dē cubiculīs rīte dispōnendīs mandāta

dedit. Parum sānē Rōbinson cōnsīderātē ēgisset, sī sociō, quī tam
brevī tempore tot mūnera adeptus erat (quippe quī esset subditus
īdem et minister, lēgātus et mīles, praefectus cōpiārum et aedium),
sī, inquam, hominī novō, nec satis probātō, sēcum in eādem
spēluncā recubandī licentiam dedisset. Ete [142]nim nōn satis tūtum
habuit vītam suam caecumque subterrāneae viae exitum crēdere
externō et aliēnigenae, dē cujus fidēlitāte nōndum adhūc spectātā
nōn satis cōnstābat. Itaque jubētur Vendredi ut idōneam fēnī cōpiam
in caveam trānsportet, sibique inde paret cubīle : novus intereā rēx,
ut sēcūritātī suae cōnsulat, arma omnia in cubiculum suum cōnfert.

Tum Rōbinsōnem nōn puduit in cōnspectū tōtīus populī humilī

ac prōrsus agrestī ministeriō fungī. Quī ūniversae, quāquā patēbat,
īnsulae imperitābat, quī in suōs omnēs subditōs vītae necisque jūs
habēbat, ille nōn ērubuit, servīlem in modum, rēgiīs manibus lamās
ipse mulgēre, ut rīte docēret ministrum, cui hanc prōvinciam posteā
mandāre in animō habēbat. Hic vērō, quamvīs rem attentē
cōnsīderāret, quō tamen spectāret minimē intellēxit. Quippe nec ille,
nec ejus populārēs, ut hebetī prōrsus erant ingeniō, umquam
suspicātī fuerant lac animālium [143]salūbre aequē ac nūtriendō
corporī esse accommodātissimum : numquam hoc genus alimentī
labrīs attigerat. Itaque singulārem cēpit voluptātem, cum paululum
lactis ā Rōbinsōne oblātum hausit.

Variīs autem hujus diēī molestiīs perīculīsque fessī ambō somnī

quiētisque erant appetentissimī. Rōbinson igitur subditō mandāvit, ut
ad lectum sē cōnferret ; tum ipse quoque eō sē contulit. Prius tamen
quam cubitum īret, noster nōn oblītus est grātiās Deō agere, quod
ūnō eōdemque diē tantīs perīculīs dēfūnctus fuisset, sibique similem
suī, socium et, ut spērābat, amīcum ille mīsisset.
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