THE ST.

MICHAEL SCHOOL
THIRD FORM
BIOLOGY
MANUAL

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction to Biology…………………………………………………… 3
Life Processes…………………………………………………………….. 6
Classification……………………………………………………………… 7
Cell Structure and Specialization ……………………………… ………..11
Diffusion and Osmosis …………………………………………………...14
The Amoeba ……………………………………………………………...17
Nutrition in Plants………………………………………………………...18
Nutrition in Humans……………………………………………………... 30
The Digestive System………………………………………………….…37

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 THIRD FORM
INTRODUCTION TO THE CXC BIOLOGY COURSE
WHAT IS BIOLOGY?

Biology is the Science that deals with living organisms. The knowledge of Biology explains how your
body works and thus is useful for everyday living. It can also be used to study medicine,
environmental studies, marine biology, nursing, pharmacology, dentistry, veterinarian science,
immunology, physiology, botany and teaching – just to name a few areas! The CXC syllabus for all
the Sciences begins in third form. With third form Biology, you may do Biology or Integrated Science
in fourth form. If you want to do Biology at a higher level (A level or CAPE), you must also do
Chemistry at (O level or CSEC).

Biology is definitely a practical subject. You must be able to describe how various processes occur in
living organisms, draw and label diagrams of structures. Biology has its own vocabulary and you must
learn the meaning of these new words. In your notebook you need to have a vocabulary section. It
should be full of diagrams you have to learn, definitions and descriptions.

STUDY METHODS

METHOD 1 – A TOPIC WITH NO DIAGRAMS

Read your notes (learning as you go); read your text book; test yourself

METHOD 2 – A TOPIC WITH NEW WORDS AND DIAGRAMS

Read your notes; learn the meanings of all the new words; practice labelling different versions of
the diagrams; read your text book; test yourself

METHOD 3 – STUDY CARDS

1. Write over your notes but in short points on index cards

2. Draw your diagrams on separate index cards, labelled and annotated or with letters, write the
labels and annotations on the back of the card (so you can test yourself)
3. Write all your new words on the back of your notebook to create a vocabulary section
METHOD 4 – FOR LEARNING NEW WORDS

1. Use a marker to write your new words on a piece of coloured paper or card
2. Write the definitions on another piece of coloured paper or card
3. Cut out the words and definitions, mix them up and match words with definitions

1. THE KEYS TO SUCCESS

In order to gain a grade I or II pass in Biology you must
I. Read over your notes and textbook regularly.*
II. Study thoroughly for all tests.
III. Complete all homework assignments.
IV. Practice as many questions as possible.
V. Practice drawing diagrams.
VI. Complete and pass SBA with a good grade.

*It cannot be emphasized enough just how important reading is to your success as a Biology
student. How do you read effectively?
 When
 you read your notes, use a highlighter to highlight important points.
 When you read your text book, have a note book or study cards next to you to write down
important
 points.
 Always read the notes that were covered in the previous class before you get to the next
class.

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2. THE CXC EXAM
The CXC exam is made up of four papers as shown below.
Percentage Paper Time
25 1 1 hour 15 minutes - 60 multiple choice questions
2 hours 30 minutes - 6 compulsory questions: 1 compulsory data analysis
55 2 question, 2 structured questions and 3 extended response questions.
School Based Assessment (SBA) – practical reports completed in 4th and
20 3 5th form.

3. SBAs AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

School based assessments or SBAs are practicals that assess experimental skills, analysis
and interpretation. SBAs are done throughout fourth form and the first two terms of fifth form as
shown below in the table.

YEAR 1 YEAR 2
TERMS 1 - 3 TERM 1,2
SKILLS Abbreviation POINT I POINT II, III
Observation/Recording/Reporting ORR  
Drawing DR 
Manipulation/ Measurement M/M  
Planning/Design PD  
Analysis and Interpretation AI  

The five practical skills assessed in biology SBAs are described below.
ORR – make observations, record observations, methods and techniques; presenting data, drawing
or graphs
DR – making large, clear, labelled, line representations of specimens.
MM - following a sequence of instructions, setting up and using apparatus, make observations and
take measurements with precision and accuracy.
PD – develop a hypothesis, plan and design an experiment to test the hypothesis
AI – use experimental data and theoretical knowledge to draw conclusions, explain results.

The INVESTIGATIVE PROJECT

This will be assessed for PD and Analysis and Interpretation. It will be done in two parts:
Part A - The Proposal (Planning and Design)
Part B - The Implementation (Analysis and Interpretation)

4. HOW TO OPTIMIZE YOUR SBA MARKS

i. Always write up your lab using the correct format: Title, Aim, Materials/Apparatus, Method,
Observations, Discussion, Conclusion and Limitation.
ii. Methods should be written in past tense using passive voice.
iii. Underline all sub-titles.
iv. All tables and graphs should have a descriptive title.
v. Discussion should include descriptions of trends seen in the results and possible scientific
explanations for the results, along with any relevant theory.
vi. Conclusions are simple statements related to your initial aim.
vii. Limitations are aspects of the design of the experiment, which could not be avoided, that
makes the results less likely to be accurate. Suggested limitations must be explained.
viii. Check the skill being assessed and ensure that you satisfy all of the criteria. Criteria for each
practical is given at the end of the practical.

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GLOSSARY OF WORDS COMMONLY USED IN QUESTIONS
Draw - make a line representation from specimens or apparatus which shows an accurate relation
between the parts. (KC, XS)
Annotate - add a brief note to a label this may include a description and/or function of the part being
labelled. (KC)
Identify – name or point out specific components or features. (KC)
Define – state concisely the meaning of a word or term. (KC)
State – provide factual information in concise terms, omitting explanation. (KC)
List – itemize without detail. (KC)
Describe – provide detailed factual information of the appearance or arrangement of structures or a
process. (KC)
Compare – state similarities and differences (KC, UK)
Differentiate – state of explain briefly differences between or among items. (UK)
Discuss – present reasoned arguments; consider points both for and against. (UK)
Explain – give reasons based on recall. (KC, UK)
Relate – show connections between. (UK)
Calculate – arrive at a solution to a numerical problem (UK)
Appraise – to judge the quality or worth of (UK)
Evaluate – weight evidence and make judgements based on given criteria. (UK)

See the CSEC Biology Syllabus for a complete list.

Key to abbreviations
KC - Knowledge and Comprehension
UK - Use of Knowledge
XS - Experimental Skills

MATERIALS YOU WILL NEED

A blue or black pen, a HB pencil, a good ruler with a straight edge, a clean eraser, a sharpener
and a simple calculator.

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 LIFE PROCESSES
All living things carry out certain life processes. You should be able to define each process and
state its importance to living organisms. An easy way to remember the life processes is
“MRS GREN”. Each letter represents a life process.

Movement
Definition: a change in the position of a whole organism or of parts of an organism
Importance: Movement is important in growth, in fact most movement in plants is growth
movement. Most plants are unable to move from place to place but animals can. Movement is
also important for reproduction, protection from unfavourable conditions and predators and
feeding.

Respiration
Definition: The breakdown of food to release energy.
Importance: To provide the energy to carry out the life
processes e.g. movement and growth.

Sensitivity (irritability)
Definition: The ability to detect and respond to changes in
the internal and external environment.
Importance: Sensitivity is important for reproduction (e.g. animals on heat); to maintain
internal environments (e.g. when an organism becomes overheated); for protection from
predators and unfavourable conditions; for feeding.

Growth and development

Definition: A permanent increase in size and complexity of an organism.
Importance: To reach maturity, in order to carry out all the life processes e.g. reproduction
cannot occur unless an organism has reached a certain level of maturity.

Reproduction
Definition: The ability of organisms to make new organisms of the same kind as themselves.
Importance: To carry on the species.

Asexual reproduction: one individual is involved and there is no exchange of gametes e.g. a
potato budding into a new plant, a banana sucker. The offspring is identical to the original.

Sexual reproduction: two individuals are involved there is an exchange of gametes (sex
cells). Hermaphrodites are organisms with both male and female sex organs e.g. an
earthworm, but they still need two to reproduce. Some plants can reproduce both asexually
and sexually. Some animals can reproduce asexually, but most complex animals reproduce
sexually.

Excretion
Definition: The removal of metabolic waste products.
Importance: Metabolic waste products are produced by chemical reactions. They are dangerous
if allowed to accumulate in the body. Examples of metabolic waste products are carbon dioxide
(from respiration) and urea (from excess proteins).
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Nutrition
Definition: The making or use of food.
Importance: Food is used for energy, growth, development and repair.

Two types of nutrition are:

1. Autotrophic nutrition where the organism makes its own food e.g. photosynthesis
carried out by plants.
2. Heterotrophic nutrition where the organism feeds on other organisms e.g. holozoic
nutrition carried out by animals.

CLASSIFICATION
Classification is a way of dividing a large group of anything into smaller groups where all the
members of the group share certain characteristics. It makes it easier for scientists to study
organisms.

Organisms may be made up of two basic types of cells.

1. Prokaryotes - Chromosomes not enclosed in a nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles,
simple unicellular organisms like bacteria.
2. Eukaryotes - Chromosomes enclosed in a nucleus, membrane-bound organelles, may be
unicellular but most are multicellular organisms like plants, animals, yeast and fungi.

Simple classifications can be done based on visible characteristics such as hairiness, colour,
shape, venation (arrangement of veins), number of legs and wings, and body segmentation or
organs found. The classification system has 7 levels. You can remember them using the
acronym shown below.

A species is a group of organisms of common ancestry that closely resemble each other and are
normally capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring. The scientific name of an
organism is based on the genus and species of an organism e.g. Homo sapien is the scientific
name for humans.

Viruses are acellular particles (meaning they aren't made up of living cells), consisting instead of
a central core of either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a coating of protein. Viruses cannot carry
out all the life processes. They do not respire, grow, excrete, and they do not respond to
stimuli. They also don't reproduce independently but must replicate by invading living cells.

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 Flowcharts from CSEC Biology by Anne Tindale
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 DICHOTOMOUS KEYS

A dichotomous key is a set paired statements that act as clues leading to the identification of
an organism. The word dichotomous means branching into two. A single observable
characteristic is considered at a time but two contrasting statements are put forward to
describe each characteristic in such a way as to separate the organisms. This continues until all
the organisms have been identified.

Rules Used to Construct a Dichotomous Key

- Use visible characteristics, e.g. type of leaf or number of legs.
- Select a single characteristic at a time and use two contrasting statements, e.g.
- simple leaves versus compound leaves.
- 2 pairs of legs versus more than 2 pairs of legs.
- Start with a major characteristic that divides the organisms into two large groups then
proceed to less noticeable characteristics that would separate the organisms further
into smaller groups.
- Avoid generalizations e.g. long body versus short body. Be specific in your description,
e.g. body more than 10 cm long versus body less than 10cm long.
- Avoid repeating the same characteristic.
- Place all of the names or groups of organisms identified at the bottom of the key.
- Give the key a title.
- Use pencil.

Please note that, in this course, you should not use where an organism lives or what it does.

Example
Construct a dichotomous key that may be used to identify the following animals found in a
garden. (bee, lizard, snake, spider)

Animals

no
backbone
backbone

wings no wings no legs legs

bee spider snake lizard

A DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR ANIMALS FOUND IN A GARDEN

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 CELL STRUCTURE AND SPECIALIZATION

Cells are the basic units of all living organisms. Bacteria, protists, fungi, animals and plants are
all made up of cells.

CELL STRUCTURE

A DIAGRAM OF A GENERALIZED ANIMAL CELL

A DIAGRAM OF A GENERALIZED PLANT CELL

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Functions of Cell Structures
Cell membrane – surrounds cell, controls what enters and leaves the cell
Cytoplasm – gel-like substance that fills the cell and contains cell organelles
Cell wall – made of cellulose, it surrounds plant cells and gives them their shapes

Cell Organelles – these are membrane-enclosed structures with specific functions.

The following are cell organelles.

Nucleus – control centre of the cell, it is responsible for the production of proteins and cell
division
Mitochondria – respiration occurs in them.
Chloroplast – contains chlorophyll, photosynthesis occurs in it
Large permanent vacuole – a fluid filled structure, the fluid is called cell sap, it contains sugars
and other substances and it helps maintain the firmness of the cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum – responsible for making large molecules in a cell
Ribosome – production of proteins

Cell Organization
Cell specialization helps efficiency and divides labour in organisms.

Examples of specialized Animal Cells

(i) Ciliated epithelial cell – lines respiratory tract, helps trap dust particles
(ii) Red blood cells – carry oxygen in blood
(iii) Phagocytes – kills pathogens (disease causing organisms)

Examples of Specialized Plant Cells

(i) Palisade cell – photosynthesis
(ii) Xylem cell – transports water and minerals
(iii) Phloem cell – Transports sugars and other foods

Tissue – identical cells that work together to perform a specific function.

Examples: Animal tissues – muscle, nerve
Plant tissues – palisade layer, xylem vessel

Organ – different tissues that work together to perform a specific function

Examples: Animal organs – heart, lung, kidney
Plant organs – leaf, root, stem

Organ System – a number of organs which are coordinated to perform specific functions
Examples: Animal organ systems – digestive system, transport system
Plant organ systems – leaves on a tree, root system

Organism – complex organisms are made up of a number of organ systems e.g. human or a
mango tree

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 VIRUSES, BACTERIA AND FUNGI

A DIAGRAMOF A VIRUS A DIAGRAM OF A BACTERIUM

Diagrams from CSEC

Biology Study Guide
A DIAGRAM OF A MOULD FUNGUS

Many of mould fungi do not have separate cells at all but long thin threads, known as hyphae
which are not sub-divided into cells but contain all the structures in one long 'tube' .

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 DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS

Particles always move along a concentration gradient from a high concentration to a low
concentration. Atoms, molecules and ions which are always moving thus tend to spread
themselves evenly over a given area.

DIFFUSION

Definition: Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration.

Importance in Living Organisms

1. Food (sugars and amino acids) diffuses from inside the intestines into blood capillaries.
2. Gases for respiration diffuse across cell membranes into mitochondria.
3. Oxygen diffuses from the lungs into capillaries and red blood cells.
4. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood capillaries into the lungs.

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING DIFFUSION TAKEN FROM THE LIVING WORLD

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OSMOSIS

Definition: Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a dilute solution to a

concentrated solution, through a semi-permeable membrane.

NB There are more water molecules in a dilute solution than a concentrated solution hence
water is moving from a high concentration to a low concentration across a concentration
gradient. The concentration gradient is the difference in concentration of molecules i.e.
high and low. The bigger the difference the faster the movement of the molecules.

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING OSMOSIS TAKEN FROM CSEC BIOLOGY BY ANNE TINDALE

Importance in Living Organisms

1. All cells are kept hydrated by water moving into them by osmosis. Water is a solvent for
many chemical reactions within the body.
2. Plant cells are kept turgid by water moving into them by osmosis. This causes non-
woody stems to stand upright and keeps leaves firm.
3. The size of stomatal pores is regulated by osmosis occurring in the guard cells. This
controls the loss of water from the leaves of plants.
4. Water is reabsorbed into the blood from the filtrate in the kidney tubules by osmosis.
This prevents the body from losing too much water.

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Osmosis in Animal Cells

An animal cell in concentrated

solutions will shrink/be crenated
because there is more water
inside the cell than outside i.e.
water will leave the cell.

An animal cell in a dilute solution

will swell and eventually burst as
it takes in water.

Osmosis in Plant Cells

A plant becomes
plasmolysed in a
concentrated solution i.e.
it becomes flaccid. If a cells
of a plant become flaccid,
the plant loses its firmness
and begins to wilt.

A plant cell becomes turgid

in dilute solutions. The cell
wall prevents the plant cell
from bursting. Some plants
rely on the turgidity of
their cells to keep them
upright.

Plasmolysis – the process by which a cell loses water, this will happen in a concentrated
solution.
Flaccid – a cell which has become soft because of water loss. If a plant loses its firmness, it will
begin to wilt.
Turgid – a cell which is firm due to gaining water.

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 OSMOREGULATION IN AN AMOEBA

The Amoeba is an example of an animal-like protist. They are made up of a single cell and they
grow to about 0.25 mm in length. They live in fresh water e.g. in ponds and ditches. Some
species are harmless. However, Naegleria fowleri, a rare, brain-eating amoeba can cause death.
While Entamoeba histolytica, which lives in the alimentary canal of humans can invade the wall
of the intestine or the rectum and cause cause amoebic dysentery.

Osmoregulation

Osmoregulation is the control of the amount of water in an organism. Amoebae are constantly
absorbing water by osmosis because they are surrounded by fresh water. In order to prevent
themselves from bursting open, this water is sent to a contractile vacuole. When the contractile
vacuole is full, it moves to the cell membrane and releases the water to the outside by bursting.

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING OSMOREGULATION IN AMOEBA

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 NUTRITION

Types of Nutrition
Autotrophic nutrition – Organisms (e.g. plants and some bacteria) use simple inorganic
substances (e.g water, carbon dioxide and minerals) to make complex organic food
substances (e.g. glucose, proteins, oils). Organisms that feed in this way are called
autotrophs.
Heterotrophic nutrition - Organisms (e.g. animals, most bacteria and fungi) use complex
organic food substances (e.g. glucose, proteins, oils) obtained from other organisms.
Organisms that feed in this way are called heterotrophs.
Saprophytic/Saprotrophic nutrition – is a form of heterotrophic nutrition where
organisms (e.g. bacteria and fungi) use complex organic substances obtained from dead
or decaying organisms. These organisms are known as saprotrophs or decomposers.

Questions
1. How does a tree differ from a human being in the way it feeds?

2. “When you eat a chunk of beef, you are able to do so only because the cow ate grass.”
Explain the reason for this.

NUTRITION IN PLANTS

Photosynthesis - the process by which green plants make complex organic substances
(food) from simple inorganic substances using light energy.

Equation for photosynthesis

light
6CO + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
chlorophyll
light
carbon + water glucose + oxygen
dioxide chlorophyll

raw materials – water and carbon dioxide

conditions – light and chlorophyll
products - glucose and oxygen

Do you understand where everything comes from?

CO2?
Light/energy?
Water?

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The Light and Dark Reactions
There are two main stages in photosynthesis.

Stage1 – the light reaction, this reaction requires light to provide energy for the reaction and
chlorophyll to absorb that energy. Light energy splits water into oxygen. This occurs in the
chloroplasts.

Stage 2 – the dark reaction, this reaction needs neither light or chlorophyll, it can occur
during night or day. Hydrogen is added to carbon dioxide (i.e. CO2 is reduced) to form
glucose.

- The oxygen produced is either released from the leaves of the plant or used in
respiration.
- A plant looks green because it absorbs red and blue light and reflects green light.
- A leaf may have pigments other than chlorophyll e.g. carotene and xanthophylls
which hide the green colour. The leaf may appear red, brown or orange.

The Fate of Glucose

1. It may be used for respiration. Glucose is broken down to release energy for all the
cells of the plant.

2. It may be used to make other substances. Glucose is very reactive therefore it is not
stored in the plant. It is converted to sucrose which may be converted into other
substances like starch, fats, proteins, vitamins and other compounds. For several of
these substances, minerals must be incorporated into the molecules.

3. Some of the by-products may be transported away from the leaf. Sugars are often
transported in the form of sucrose. Sucrose may end up in the growing points in the
plant, in fruit or seeds and may be converted into glucose to be used for respiration.

4. Storage. Sucrose, starch and other by-products of glucose may be stored in the leaves,
stems, roots or fruits of the plant. *Monocotyledonous plants do not produce starch.

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Questions
1. Why is glucose not stored in the leaf as it is?
2. Mr. Smith plants his onions in a shady place, where as Mr. Jones, plants his in the
sun. Whose onions would you expect to do best and why?
3. Fruits cannot make their own food, yet sugar is found in them. Explain why.

The Structure of the Leaf

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE INTERNAL STRUCTIRE OF A LEAF

Stomata are tiny pores in the leaf, found

mainly in the lower epidermis. When open,
the stomata allow the diffusion of CO 2 into
the leaf for use in photosynthesis and the
loss of water from the plant during
transpiration.

Each stoma (singular) is surrounded by a

guard cell which changes shape to open or
close the stomata.

Adaptations of the Leaf for Photosynthesis

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  Chlorophyll in chloroplasts absorb light energy.
 Palisade cells located close to upper epidermis, stand on end, are tightly packed and
contain many chloroplasts to absorb maximum amount of light.
 Spongy mesophyll cells and guard cells also contain chloroplasts.
 Lamina is broad to absorb a maximum amount of light,
 Lamina is thin so that carbon dioxide can diffuse quickly throughout the leaf.
 Veins supply leaf cells with the water needed for photosynthesis (in xylem) and to
transport the food made to other parts of the plant (in phloem).
 Cuticle prevents excessive water loss from the leaf.
 Stomata allow carbon dioxide to enter for photosynthesis while controlling the loss of
water.
 Air spaces in the spongy mesophyll allow more rapid diffusion of gases.

Mineral Requirements of Plants

Even though plants can make their own food in terms of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and
vitamins, they need certain inorganic minerals to make some of these complex molecules.
These minerals are found in the soil of terrestrial plants.

TABLE SUMMARIZING MINERAL REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS

The Importance of Photosynthesis

To The Plant
 This is the way plants make foods for themselves
 The glucose and oxygen made by photosynthesis can be used for respiration.
Remember all plants respire 24 hours a day.
 The glucose may be converted into other substances.

To Animals
 Animals depend of plants for food. Herbivores depend directly on plants on food since
they only eat plants. Carnivores depend indirectly on plants since they only eat other
animals. Omnivores are both indirectly and directly dependent of plants since they eat
both plants and animals.
 All animals breathe in oxygen that has been produced by plants.
 Many plants are used by animals as habitats.
 Humans are plants as medicines, for paper, furniture and decoration.

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Testing for the Products of Photosynthesis

Testing a Leaf for Starch

1. Boil the leaf for five minutes.
2. Put the leaf in a boiling tube with alcohol, turn off the Bunsen burner.
3. Place the boiling tube into the beaker of hot water. Leave until the leaf has lost most of
its colour.
4. Remove the leaf from the alcohol and rinse it in hot water.
5. Place the leaf in a watch glass and cover it with iodine solution.

Test for Oxygen

1. Collect the gas produced in a test-tube. Cover/seal the test tube to prevent the gas from
escaping.
2. Light a wooden splint and then blow out the flame. The tip should continue to glow.
3. Uncover the test-tube and place the glowing splint half-way into it.

Testing a Leaf for Glucose (also known as the Reducing Sugar Test)
This is dealt with under Nutrition in Humans

Questions
1. (a) Match the correct words from column A A B
to column B. stomata carbon dioxide
(b) What do the four words in column B have xylem vessels light
in common? chloroplasts water
air spaces chlorophyll

2. Describe how a carbon atom in carbon dioxide and a hydrogen atom in water could
become part of a starch molecule in a cassava root. Mention all the structures it
would pass through and what would happen to it at each stage.

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 GRAPH QUESTIONS

Drawing Graphs
Step 1 Determine the manipulated variable (also known as independent variable) and the
responding variable (also known as dependent variable).
Manipulated variable – the variable on the x-axis is under control of the experimenter.
Responding variable – the variable on the y-axis is dependent on the independent
variable. These are the readings taken during the experiment, the experimenter has no
control over them.

e.g. Light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis

manipulated variable responding variable

Question
In the following statement which variable is independent and which one is dependent?
‘The rate of photosynthesis is affected temperature.’

Step 2
- Choose a scale. First work out the range of values you have by subtracting the smallest
value from the largest value.
- Count the number of squares on the axis.
- Divide the range of values by the number of squares to get an idea of the scale you can
use.
Look at the example below.

TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE MASS OF A GROUP OF RATS OVER TIME

Time/Days 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Mass/g 45 55 65 73 80 85 87 87
- The manipulated variable is time.
- The range of values is 35 – 0 = 35.
- If there are 25 squares available, divide 35 by 25. This comes to 1.4.
- Round up to 2, this will ensure that the data points are less than the number of
squares. Thus the scale would be 1 square represents 2 days.
- This is a good scale because it is easy to use. Multiples of 2, 5, 10, 20 are easy to
use.

Question
If you had 18 squares available for the mass what scale would you use?
N.B. You do not have to start from zero, so start this axis with 45.

Step 3 Label your axes and do not forget to write your units.
Step 4 With a sharp HB pencil, plot your points carefully using a dot for the point, do not use a
cross.
Step 5 Join one point to another using a ruler. On some occasions you may be expected to draw
a line of best it or smooth curve through the points.

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Step 6 If you have more than one line on the graph label the lines or use a key to distinguish the
lines e.g. one could be a continuous line, the other could be a dotted line.

Step 7 Write the title of the graph at the top, in capital letters, underline it. Your title should
describe in detail, what the graph is showing.

Question
Draw the graph for the data given in the table above.

Describing a graph
- When describing a graph look at the shape of the graph, can it be divided into
sections?
- Describe how the manipulated variable affects the responding variable. In order to
do this you must look at the shape of the graph.
- Always refer to data on the graph when describing the graph.

Try describing the following graphs.

1 2 3

4 5 6

Explaining Graphs
You must give reasons why a graph has the shape it does, i.e. use relevant scientific
knowledge to explain why the manipulated variable affects the responding variable.

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 NUTRITION IN PLANTS Cont’d

Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis

The rate of photosynthesis can be measured by the amount of oxygen a plant gives off or
the amount of carbon dioxide it uses. To determine how different conditions affect the
rate of photosynthesis, a plant is placed under different conditions and the rate of
photosynthesis is measured.

Limiting Factor – A factor that prevents a process from proceeding at a fast rate
because it is absent or there is not enough of it.

Light Intensity
The brightness of light is called light CO2 limiting
intensity. Increasing the light intensity of a Rate of
plant will Speed up its photosynthesis but photo-
only up to a certain point. Beyond this, extra synthesis
light makes No difference whatsoever,
usually because the plant cannot absorb
carbon dioxide fast enough. We say that
Light Intensity
carbon dioxide is limiting the process.

Carbon Dioxide Light Intensity limiting

As the concentration of carbon dioxide Rate of
around a plant goes up, so does its rate of photo-
photosynthesis but only up to a certain synthesis
point. Beyond this, more carbon dioxide
makes no difference, usually because there is
not enough light to cope with it. Light is said
to be the limiting factor. Concentration of CO2

Temperature Affects Photosynthesis

As the temperature increases, so does the rate
Rate of
of photosynthesis, up to about 30 oC. Above this
photo-
it stops. This is because the enzymes which synthesis
control the process have become denatured.

Most plants grow best between 20 oC and 30 oC.

In hot climates or in warm greenhouses, plants 5 10 20 25 30 35 40
can grow very fast. Temperature in oC

Water is essential for photosynthesis. However, lack of water is itself seldom a problem. If a
plant is short of water, the first effect is to close the stomata of the leaf. This stops carbon
dioxide getting into the leaf. So, it is really lack of carbon dioxide, not lack of water, which
cuts down photosynthesis.

25
Questions
Describe and explain the graph shown below.

1.

2.
Table showing the effect of light
intensity on the production of CO2 in
pond weed
3. The following results were obtained when CO2 concentration Rate of photosynthesis/
pondweed was left with different light (% of NaHCO3) Bubbles per minute
intensities and in different concentrations of Low light High light
intensity intensity
carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide was
0.01 12 12
produced from different amounts of sodium 0.02 21 21
hydrogen carbonate added to the water. 0.03 29 34
0.04 33 47
0.06 37 66
0.08 41 82
0.10 44 88
0.12 44 90
0.14 44 90
0.16 44 90

26
a) Draw a graph with carbon dioxide concentration on the horizontal axis and the rate
of photosynthesis on the vertical axis. Two different lines for low and high light
intensity.
b) What process is being measured by the amount of carbon dioxide being used?
c) What is the effect of increase in light intensity at carbon dioxide concentrations of 0.01
to 0.02 %? What is the limiting factor at this point?
d) At low light intensity what is the effect of increase of carbon dioxide? At what
concentration is the rate of photosynthesis at its maximum? What is the limiting factor
at this point?
e) Describe the differences between the effects of low and high light intensity.
f) At a carbon dioxide concentration of 0.12 %, what is the limiting factor for
photosynthesis? What would be the effect of increasing (i) the carbon dioxide
concentration, (ii) the light intensity even further?

PHOTOSYNTHESIS EXPERIMENTS
Photosynthesis experiments investigate one of three things, the …
- raw materials are needed for photosynthesis
- conditions necessary for photosynthesis
- products of photosynthesis

How do we know that photosynthesis has taken place in a leaf?

Since the first product of photosynthesis, glucose, is converted into sucrose and starch, if
either sucrose or starch is found in the leaf, it indicates that photosynthesis has occurred.

Hypothesis - a hypothesis is a testable, suggested explanation for observation. It is often stated

as an ‘If … then…’ statement.

Aim - an aim is a single statement that describe the purpose of an experiment. It is basically the
hypothesis restated, it usually starts with, “To determine...” or “To investigate…”

Apparatus/Materials - this is an accurate and detailed list of all specimen, materials or

equipment needed for or used in the experiment.

Variables - a variable is a factor which affects or is affected by the experiment. Manipulated

and responding variables have been discussed already. Controlled variables are kept the same.

Control- Every experiment should have a control. A control represents what usually happens
when the manipulated variable is absent or set to the normal value.
Example: A plant usually grows in sunlight. If you deprive a plant of sunlight you have
changed the normal conditions. The experimental plant is the one grown in the dark. The
control is the plant growing in the light.

Method- this is a detailed, sequential description of how the experiment should be/was
carried out.

Expected/Actual results – observations made during or at the end of the experiment.

27
Discussion - this section of the report, identifies related scientific knowledge, identifies trends
in data and explains trends in the experiment.

Conclusion – this is a brief statement that directly addresses the aim of the experiment.

Precautions - These are done to prevent errors from occurring during the experiment, errors
which would make your conclusion invalid. Destarching a leaf is an example of a precaution in a
photosynthesis experiment. Why?

Limitations - These are things which may go wrong in an experiment over which you have no
control.

What was being investigated?

Which plant was the control?

(Taken from Biology for CXC)

28
Investigation 2

A hibiscus plant and a chive plant were exposed to adequate sunlight water and air.
Leaves from both plants were picked and tested for starch.

Results: The hibiscus leaf turned blue-black. The chive leaf turned brown.

1. What was the aim of the expt.?

2. What variable was being tested?
3. Explain the results.
4. How would you test your explanation?

(Taken from Biology for CXC)

What variable was being tested?

Which beaker was the control?

29
 NUTRITION IN HUMANS

What kind of nutrition do humans carry out?

Humans eat foods made by other organisms, this is called heterotrophic nutrition. We
digest the food that we eat internally, this is holozoic nutrition. Since we also eat both
plants and animals we are omnivores.

What is a balanced diet?

A balanced diet includes foods from all the food nutrients in the correct proportions needed
to maintain good health. This included fibre and water.

All of the food available to man may be grouped into the ‘six Caribbean food groups’.

TABLE SHOWING EXAMPLES OF THE SIX FOOD GROUPS AND THE MAIN NUTRIENTS CONTAINED
IN EACH
FOOD GROUP EXAMPLE MAIN NUTRIENT
Staples Bread, pasta, potatoes, yams Starch
Fruits Oranges, mangoes, apples Sugars and vitamins
Dark green, leafy and
coloured non-starchy
vegetables Lettuce, spinach, pumpkin Vitamins
Legumes (peas and beans) Beans and peas Proteins, fats, vitamins
Chicken, beef, pork, lamb and
Foods from animals fish Proteins, fats, minerals
Fats Butter, shortening, oil fats

What determines the dietary needs of an individual?

Nutritional requirements vary depending on the age, sex and level of activity of the individual.
For example:
- Men need more energy than women because they have a higher metabolic rate.
- Pregnant and nursing mothers need the same amount of energy as an active man. They
also need more vitamins and minerals especially calcium and iron.
- Growing children need more energy relative to adults.
- People with active jobs require more energy than those with sedentary jobs.

Is a vegetarian diet healthy?

Vegetarianism is the practice of not eating the flesh of animals. Strict vegetarians (vegans) do
not consume any foods of animal origin, e.g. milk, eggs, cheese.

Plant based foods do not contain Vitamin B12 and most plant foods do not contain all of the
essential amino acids. Therefore, a vegetarian diet needs to be carefully planned to ensure it is
balanced. Once planned properly, a vegetarian diet has the advantage of being, low in
saturated fats and cholesterol and high in dietary fibre.

30
 FOOD NUTRIENTS

The macronutrients include carbohydrates, fats and proteins. These are required in larger
quantities in the diet. The micronutrients include vitamins and minerals which are only
needed in smaller quantities. Water and roughage are not nutrients but they are important
parts of a balanced diet.

The organic nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats/lipids and vitamins, all contain
the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). However, proteins also contain
nitrogen (N) and small amounts of sulphur (S) and phosphorus (P). Vitamins also contain
other elements. Minerals such as calcium, iron, potassium, sodium, iodine and phosphorus
are inorganic nutrients.

The macronutrients are made from building blocks, called monomers. The monomers combine
with each other to form larger molecules known as polymers. In doing so, monomers release
water molecules as byproducts. This type of reaction is known as a condensation reaction or
dehydration synthesis, which means “to put together while losing water.” Polymers can be
broken down into monomers, by adding water molecules, in a process known as hydrolysis,
which means “to split water”.

Carbohydrates
What are carbohydrates made of?
The basic building blocks (monomers) of carbohydrates are monosaccharides (simple sugars).
Two monosaccharides joined together as a result of a condensation reaction form a
disaccharide, while more than two monosaccharides joined, form a polysaccharide.
Polysaccharides can be broken down by hydrolysis.

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

TABLE SHOWING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES

GROUP CHARACTERISTIC EXAMPLES
Monosaccharides Sweet and soluble Glucose, fructose and galactose
Disaccharides Sweet and soluble Maltose, sucrose and lactose
Polysaccharides Not sweet and insoluble Starch, glycogen and cellulose

What are carbohydrates used for?

Carbohydrates (monosaccharides and disaccharides) are used for energy. Starch is used for
food storage in plants while glycogen is used for food storage in animals. Cellulose is found
in the cell walls of plants. Good sources of carbohydrates include potatoes (especially sweet
potatoes), rice (brown), fruit and some vegetables like pumpkin and carrots which have
sugars. The diseases associated with excess carbohydrate intake are obesity and diabetes.

31
Proteins
What are proteins made of?
The basic building blocks (monomers) of proteins are amino acids. Amino acids link up as a
result of condensation reactions to form peptide chains. Polypeptide chains link up and
become folded into specific shapes to form proteins. Polypeptide chains may be split up by
hydrolysis.

There are millions of proteins, some are soluble (e.g. haemoglobin – the red pigment in
blood) and some are insoluble (e.g. keratin – found in hair and nails).

What are proteins used for?

Growth and repair, metabolism, cell membrane formation, they are found in skin, hair,
fingernails, blood, muscle, tendons and cartilage. Enzymes, hormones and antibodies are
made of proteins. If a person is suffering from starvation, protein in the body may be used
for energy. This leaves the person looking ‘skeletal’. A lack of protein in young children can
lead to kwashiorkor.

What are good sources of proteins?

Meat, cheese, fish, eggs, dried peas and beans and nuts.

Fats/Lipids
What are fats made of?
The basic building blocks of fats are fatty acids and glycerol. There are two kind of fatty
acids. Saturated fatty acids (e.g. butter) are solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fatty
acids (e.g. oils) are liquid at room temperature. The fatty acids are joined to the glycerol by a
condensation reaction and they can be removed from the glycerol by hydrolysis.

Lipids are not soluble in water but they are soluble in ethanol.

What are fats used for?

Fats/lipids are used as a secondary source of energy after all carbohydrates have been used up,
insulation (i.e. fat under the skin in animals), the formation of (the phospholipid bilayer of) cell
membranes and storage.

32
What are sources of fats?
Saturated – fatty parts of red meats, milk, cheese, coconut oil *
(Diets high in saturated fats are believed to increase cholesterol levels and
therefore increase the risk of heart disease. * This is believed to be an exception.)

Unsaturated fats – olive oil, avocados, most nuts, fish oils, soybeans, ground flaxseeds (linseed)

DIET RELATED DISEASES

Obesity - excessive body fat or weight far in excess of recommended body mass index.

Obesity is caused when excess carbohydrates are either stored as glycogen or converted to fat.
Obesity can also be caused by too much fat in the diet, too little exercise or physical activity,
hormonal problems and some medicines. Obese persons are more likely to suffer from
diabetes, hypertension and heart disease, they also have problems breathing. They tend to
have a low self-esteem because they are made fun of by other persons.

Hyperglycemia – when the blood sugar level rises above 160 mg/100 cm 3.
Symptoms include excess thirst and urination and a fruity breath odor.

Hypoglycemia – when the blood sugar becomes lower than 80 mg/100 cm 3.

Symptoms include dizziness. Either condition may lead to a coma.

Diabetes Mellitus – a deficiency in insulin production which results in blood glucose levels
above 90 mg per 100 cm3 of blood.

Insulin is a hormone which is produced in the pancreas. It converts excess glucose into
glycogen in the liver, i.e. it lowers the blood sugar level. Insulin also opens passages in the
cells for the glucose to enter. If there is no insulin, sugar remains in the blood and is unable to
enter into the cells. The cells become starved for energy and a number of complications
occur.

Type 1 – Insulin dependent Diabetes – body does not produce enough insulin or does not
produce it at all.

Type 2 – Non insulin dependent – insulin is produced but is rendered useless usually because
of obesity.

What are the symptoms of diabetes?

Hunger, loss of weight, slow healing of skin infections, itching, especially between the toes,
excess thirst and urination, weakened eye sight, blurred vision, weakness, tiredness and sexual
dysfunction. Eventually the person may develop high blood pressure, heart disease, kidney
damage and blindness caused by nerve damage. Diabetics are also more likely to get limb
amputations because of gangrene.

33
How do you treat diabetes?
Type 1 - blood sugar level checks, regular injections with insulin, no consumption of ‘added’
sugar.

Type 2 – reduce carbohydrate intake, exercise, diabetes medicine and insulin shots if the
disease is not controlled.

High Blood Pressure or Hypertension – when the pressure caused by the blood pushing against
the walls of the main arteries is high, it is called high blood pressure. Persistent, high blood
pressure is called hypertension.

High blood pressure causes narrowing of the arteries. It may affect the heart, brain and kidneys.

Heart
If fat or cholesterol becomes deposited in the walls of the arteries atherosclerosis is said to
have occurred. This leads to the narrowing of the arteries. The heart works harder to get blood
through narrow arteries. This can lead to an enlargement of the heart which then does not get
enough blood. If the blood supply is cut off, a heart attack occurs.

Brain
A rupture of the blood vessels in the brain causes strokes. Strokes can cause partial paralysis
where one side of the body is paralysed or dead.

Kidneys
Narrowing of arteries in the kidneys prevents proper filtering of fluid and thus waste
products build up in the body.

What causes high blood pressure?

Stress, smoking, diets high in carbohydrates, fats and salt.

How is blood pressure treated?

Exercise, reduction in salt intake, reduction in fat intake.

Kwashiorkor
Cause
Children weaned and fed on starch porridge with little or no protein

Symptoms
Failure to grow in weight or height, swelling of hands and feet because of fluid retention,
Weak or wasted muscles, Irritability, Loss of appetite, diarrhoea, vomiting, flaky skin, Hair
drops out easily

Treatment
Feed child on foods rich in essential amino acids.
34
Marasmus
Cause
This is due to general starvation.

Symptoms
Ravenous appetite, fretfulness, shrunken appearance, dehydration of body, failure to grow,
particularly in weight and wastage of muscles.

Treatment
Feed individual with energy rich foods and foods rich in proteins.

FOOD NUTRIENTS CONT’D

Vitamins

Vitamins are needed in small quantities in the diet. They prevent certain deficiency diseases.

TABLE SHOWING FIVE IMPORTANT VITAMINS REQUIRED BY HUMANS.

VITAMIN SOURCES SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
A – retinol Liver, egg-yolk, green Sore eyes, reduced night vision, colds and
vegetables, carrots, bronchitis, unhealthy skin
butter, cod liver oil.
B1 Thiamine Unpolished cereals, Retarded growth, lack of appetite in children,
beans, lean meat, egg nervous inflammation and weakness,
yolks paralysis – the disease called beri-beri
B2 Riboflavin Same as B1 Skin disorders, eye and mouth membrane
sores – dermatitis
C Ascorbic Fresh fruit especially Bleeding from guns and other membranes,
acid citrus fruit, raw tooth disorders, reduced resistance to
vegetables infection – scurvy
D Calciferol Liver, fat, fish, egg yolk, Weak bones, particularly leg
formed in skin by bones, poor teeth - rickets
sunlight.

35
Minerals

Minerals are required in small quantities. They are usually taken in the form of salts. They are
needed to make some complex compounds in the body.

ELEMENT SOURCES IMPORTANCE TO THE MAMMALIAN BODY

Nitrogen – N Lean meats, fish, For synthesis of protein and other complex
eggs, milk chemicals, formation of muscle, hair, skin and
nails
Iron – Fe Liver, green Forms haemoglobin in red blood cells. Absence
vegetables, yeast, causes anaemia which leaves the person weak
eggs, kidney and tired.
Calcium – Milk, cheese, green Formation of bones and teeth, necessary for
Ca vegetables. muscle contraction and blood clotting. Absence
causes rickets.
Iodine – I Sea fish and other sea Formation of hormone in thyroid gland, absence
foods, cheese, iodised causes goitre and reduced growth
table salt
Sodium - Na Table salt, green Maintenance of tissue fluids, blood and lymph,
vegetables transmission of nerve impulses.

Roughage
This ensures regular bowel movement.

Water
This is the major component of living organisms. It is a solvent and thus helps transport
substances. It plays a part in many cellular reactions and it can absorb heat and thus prevent
organisms from overheating.

36
 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IN HUMANS

This topic is about how food is taken in (ingested), broken down (digested) and
used (assimilated).

Key terms
Ingestion is the taking in of food into the alimentary canal
Digestion is the process by which food is broken down from complex insoluble food into simple
soluble substances that can be used by the body.
Mechanical digestion is the breaking up large pieces of food into smaller pieces.
This is important because:
 It gives the pieces of food a larger surface area for digestive enzymes to act on, making
chemical digestion quicker and easier.
 It makes food easier to swallow. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth where it is
carried out mainly by the teeth.
 Mastication is the grinding of food into smaller pieces in the mouth.
Chemical digestion is the breaking up of insoluble food molecules into soluble food molecules.
 This is catalyzed (controlled) by the action of digestive enzymes.
 This is important because it breaks down food into a form that can be absorbed by the
body.
 Enzymes are biological catalysts. They speed up chemical reactions in all living things.
Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction of the muscles in the walls of tubes.
Absorption is the uptake of a substance into the cells of an organism’s body.
Assimilation is the incorporation and use of absorbed food into various parts of the body.
Egestion is the removal of indigestible food from the body.

37
 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

DIAGRAM SHOWING THEALIMENTARY CANAL IN HUMANS t

Mouth
The lips, tongue and teeth are used to ingest food. The teeth are used in mechanical digestion.
Salivary amylase produced by the salivary glands converts starch into maltose i.e. chemical
digestion. After the food is chewed thoroughly, it is sent to the back of the throat by the tongue
where it forms a small ball called a bolus. The bolus moves down the pharynx past the glottis (a
hole which leads to the larynx or voice box) to the oesophagus. The epiglottis is a small flap
which covers the glottis and prevents food from entering into it.

Oesophagus
The long muscular tube which connects the pharynx
to the stomach. Food is passed to the stomach by
peristalsis.

DIAGRAM SHOWING PERISTALSIS IN THE OESOPHAGUS

Stomach
Mechanical and chemical digestion occur here. The food is churned by the peristaltic activity of
the stomach muscles. Gastric juice is produced by special cells that line the stomach. Pepsin and
rennin are the enzymes found in the stomach. Hydrochloric acid creates an optimum pH
environment for these enzymes.

38
Duodenum
This organ receives pancreatic juice from the pancreas and bile from the liver. Pancreatic juice
contains three enzymes, pancreatic amylase, trypsin and lipase. Bile is an alkaline green liquid
secreted from the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Colour is due to the pigment of old red
blood cells. Its alkaline nature is due to sodium hydrogen carbonate. Salts in it emulsify fat,
breaking them into small globules thus increasing the surface area.

Ileum
Two processes occur in the ileum, chemical digestion and absorption. There are five enzymes
here, peptidase, maltase, sucrose, lactase and lipase.

The small intestines are adapted for absorption in the following ways.
- Villi – increase the internal
surface area.
- Micro villi – on each villus
further increase the
surface area.
- They are well supplied
with blood capillaries, to
provide them with oxygen
and take away amino
acids and glucose.
- The epithelium is only one
cell thick to allow soluble
material to pass through
rapidly.
- It is long (5 m).

DIAGRAM SHOWING LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A VILLUS

Absorption occurs by diffusion and by active transport. Active transport literally pumps
substances across a membrane – against a concentration gradient - it therefore requires
energy.

The Colon (also referred to as the large intestine)

After most of the nutrients have been absorbed into the blood in the ileum, the remaining
intestinal contents form faeces. Faeces contains indigestible food (roughage), bacteria, dead
cells from the gut and secretion from the liver. The colon absorbs water from the faeces to
minimize the loss of water from the body.

The Rectum
Faeces is temporarily stored in the rectum. As faeces accumulates, the pressure increases in the
rectum. This eventually leads to the expulsion of faeces from the body through the anus.

39
 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE TEETH

There are four types of teeth are found in the human mouth, incisors, canines premolars and
molars. The first set of teeth a human has are called milk teeth or baby teeth. These are lost
and replaced by a total of 32, larger, adult teeth.

TABLE SHOWING TYPES OF TEETH AND THEIR FUNCTION

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A TOOTH taken from Concise Revision
Course for CSEC Biology
40
NB: - Enamel is the hardest substance made by animals. It is harder than bone.
- Dentine is found under the enamel, it is hard but not as hard as enamel. Cells of the
dentine can add more enamel to the inside of the tooth.

Tooth Care
The bacteria which cause tooth decay eat food left on and between the teeth. The acids they
produce as a result, eat away at the enamel and dentine until a hole reaches the pulp cavity and
nerves causing pain. Any method which reduces bacteria will prevent dental caries or cavities.
- Brushing removes food particles from the surface of the teeth.
- Flossing removes food particles from between the teeth.
- Rinsing removes loose food.
- Diet, foods rich in vitamin D and minerals calcium and phosphorous contribute to
healthy teeth as well as crunchy foods like apples and raw carrots.
- Two visits to the dentist a year are recommended.

A Comparison of Teeth in Herbivores and Carnivores

Carnivores
Carnivores have teeth which are adapted for holding prey and tearing off flesh.

41
For example, the incisors of a dog meet at the front of the mouth so that they can tear off meat
near to the bone. They are very sharp. The canines are long and pointed and found near the
front of the mouth to hold and kill prey. Four of the molars are called carnassial teeth. They
have sharp cutting edges and can slice off flesh and crack bones. The other molars have more
flattened surface for crushing food before swallowing. Just like humans, the teeth of carnivores
stop growing at some point.

Herbivores
The permanent teeth of herbivores continue to grow throughout the animal’s life because they
are constantly being worn down.

Incisors are long and chisel shaped to cut vegetation. No canines, the space formed is called
a diastema – it helps hold food. Some herbivores do have canine teeth but they usually look
like incisors. The molar and premolar teeth of the upper and lower jaw fit each other
exactly. They grind food with sharp ridges. The jaw can move from side to side as well as up
and down.
Herbivores have very long intestines because the digestion of cellulose takes a long time.
They have a large caecum and appendix that contains bacteria which break down cellulose.
Some herbivores have a stomach with extra chambers. The food is swallowed and goes into
the first chamber. The food is regurgitated, chewed, and then goes into the other chambers.

42
ACTIVITY - Complete the questions below in your biology notebook.
1. Match the words below with their definitions.

2. Copy the diagram below, of the digestive system,in your notebooks and label a – q.

3. Match the structures/process below with their functions.

a. liver b. colon c. gall bladder d. oesophagus
e. mouth f. pancreas g. tongue h. peristalsis
i. stomach j. large intestine k. villi l. teeth

____ (i) Stores a substance called bile, which physically breaks down fat droplets
____ (ii) Digestion begins when salivary gland secretions enter this
____ (iii) Minute projection extending from the walls of the small intestine and involved in
absorbing products of digestion
____ (iv) Used to cut, tear, and grind food; adult has 32
____ (v) When you swallow food, muscular movements carry the food along this structure to
the stomach
____ (vi) This organ absorbs excess water form undigested food prior to its release from the
body as a solid waste
____ (vii) Muscular movement involving the walls of the digestive tract that serve to mix
materials and move them along the tract
____(viii) It pushes food to the back of the mouth prior to swallowing
____ (ix) This organ produces bile and detoxifies a variety of substances
____ (x) Produces digestive juices that are released into the small intestine
____ (xi) another name for the large intestine
____ (xii) Functions include mixing food and serving as a reservoir prior to the food being
passed on to the small Intestine

43
4. In which segment(s) of the alimentary canal (mouth, stomach, small intestine, colon/large
intestine) does chemical digestion occur for each macromolecule type?
a. carbohydrates ______________ b. proteins _____________ c. lipids _____________

5. What are enzymes? Why are they important?

6. How do the types of teeth found in herbivores differ from the types of teeth found in
carnivores?

7. Label the diagram of the digestive system shown below and draw in the missing parts.

44
 THE PROPERTIES ENZYMES AND THEIR ROLE IN CHEMICAL DIGESTION

Enzymes lower the amount of energy needed to ‘kick start’

chemical reactions. This energy is known as the activation
energy. The lower the activation energy for a reaction, the
faster the rate. Thus enzymes speed up reactions by
lowering activation energy.

The hydrolysis of food molecules is catalysed by digestive

enzymes.

Enzymes have active sites. The enzyme active site is the location on the enzyme surface where
substrates bind, and where the chemical reaction catalyzed by the enzyme occurs. The shape of
the active site is specific to the substrate.

DIAGRAM SHOWING ACTION OF AN ENZYME

Substrate – substance enzyme acts on.
Products – substances made as a result of the enzyme reaction.

Properties of Enzymes
1. They are all proteins
2. They are specific i.e. they can only fit one substrate.
3. They are not destroyed by the reaction they catalyse so they are reusable and therefore only
required in small amounts.
4. They work best at a specific temperature called the optimum temperature.
5. They work best at a specific pH called the optimum pH.
6. They are denatured by high temperatures and extreme pH values.
Denatured – the shape of the active site of the enzyme changes, making it incapable of binding
to the substrate.

45
Taken from A Concise Revision Course for CSEC Biology

46
 ASSIMILATION
The body uses the products of digestion in a variety of ways.

Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are taken by the blood to the liver and then to the rest of the body. Note:
- the liver converts any non-glucose monosaccharides to glucose.
- glucose is used by all body cells in respiration to produce energy.
- excess glucose is condensed to
glycogen by cells in the liver and
muscles. These cells then store
the glycogen, or
- excess glycogen is converted to
fat by cells in the liver and adipose
tissue found under the skin and
around organs. Fat made in
adipose tissue is stored, and fat
made in the liver is transported by
the blood to adipose tissue and
stored.
Glucose levels in the blood are controlled
using mechanism shown here (Taken from
A Concise Revision Course for CSEC Biology)

Amino acids
Amino acids are taken by the blood to the liver and then the rest of the body. Note:
- amino acids are used by body cells to make proteins which are used for cell growth and
repair.
- amino acids are also used by: body cells to make enzymes; cells of endocrine glands to
make hormones; white blood cells to make antibodies.
- Excess amino acids are deaminated by the liver because they cannot be stored. This
involves the removal of the nitrogen-containing amine groups (NH2) which is then
converted to urea (CO(NH2)). Urea is excreted by the kidneys while the remaining parts
are converted to glucose. The glucose is used in respiration, or are converted to
glycogen or fat and stored.

Fatty acids and glycerol

Fatty acids and glycerol are carried by the lymph to the rest of the body. Note:
- fatty acids and glycerol are used to make cell membranes of newly forming cells.
- they are also used by body cells in respiration under some circumstances (e.g.
starvation).
- excess fatty acids and glycerol are converted to fat and stored in adipose tissue under
the skin and around organs.

Vitamins and Minerals

- Many vitamins are stored in the liver and released if deficient in the diet.
- Some essential minerals such as iron and potassium are stored in the liver and released
if the diet is inadequate.
47
Questions
1. Draw a graph using the table below.
TABLE SHOWING THE EFFECT OF PH ON THE ACTIVITY OF A PARTICULAR ENZYME

2. Draw a graph using the table below.

TABLE SHOWING THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE ACTIVITY OF A PARTICULAR ENZYME

Explain the results as fully as possible.

3. (a) Why are enzymes important? (b) List the characteristics of enzymes.

4. Plan and design an experiment that can be used to demonstrate two properties of enzymes.

5. List the functions of the Liver in digestion and assimilation.

48