Technical Mathematics
Technical Mathematics
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viii
Contents Borrowing 26 Subtracting with larger numbers 27 Subtracting cash 28 Making change 29 Subtracting weights 30 Using a balance 31 Subtracting liquid and dry measures 32 Questions andproblems 33
3. Multiplication 34
A short cut for repeated addition 34 Use of tables 35 Patterns in numbers 35 How calculators multiply 37 Putting together how people did it 37 Carrying in multiplication 39 A matter of order 40 Using your pocket calculator to verify this process 40 Skipping zeros 41 Either number can be the multiplier 41 Using subtraction in multiplication 42 Multiplying by factors 44 Multiplying with weights 44 Multiplying lengths 45 Multiplying measures 45 Questions andproblems 48
4. Division 50
Division began as counting out 50 How a calculator does it 51 Division is multiplication in reverse 52 Dividing into longer numbers 52 Multiplication checks division 53 More about how a calculator does it 54 Dividing by larger numbers (the people way) 54 Multiplication as a "check again" 56 Division by factors 56 Which method is best? 57 When a remainder is left 57 What does the remainder mean? 59 How a calculator handles fractions 61 Fractions that have multiple parts 62 Decimal equivalents of fractions 62 More difficult fractions 63
Contents ix Where more figures repeat 64 Decimal for one eleventh and others 64 Converting recurring decimals to fractions 65 Where more than one digit recurs 66 Questions andproblems 67
5. Fractions 69
Different fractions with the same value 69 Factors help find the simplest form+ancellation Spotting the factors 70 Rules for finding factors 71 How far to try 72 Squares and primes 72 Factoring with a calculator 73 Adding and subtracting fractions 74 Finding the common denominator 75 Calculators that "do" fractions 76 Significant figures 77 Approximate long division: why use it 78 Longhand procedure 79 Using a calculator to find significance 79 Approximate long multiplication 81 Questions andproblems 81 69
Contents
Part 2. Introducing algebra, geometry, and trigonometry as ways of thinking in mathematics 8. First notions leading into algebra 123
Shorter methods for longer problems 123 Graphs check arithmetic and find solutions 125 Algebra: a more direct way 125 Writing it as algebra 126 Different ways of writing in arithmetic and algebra 127 Brackets or parentheses 127 Using more than one set 128 A problem expressed by algebra 129 Removing parentheses to solve it 130 Putting a problem into algebra 130 Solving it by removing the parentheses 131 Checking your answer and your work 131 Magic by algebra 132 Minus times a minus makes a plus 135 Solving the problem 135 Arithmetic numbers in algebra 136 Number problems 136 Questions andproblems 137
Contents
xi
Dimension in algebra 142 Expressions, equations, etc. 142 An equation as an action statement 143 Using an equation to solve a problem 144 Simultaneous equations 145 Simultaneous equations solve a fraction problem 146 Solving the problem 147 Solving by substitution 148 Solving for reciprocals 149 Long division clarifies how algebra works 150 Long division finds factors in algebra 151 Questions and problems 152
xii
Contents
Always check! 184 Questions and problems
184
Contents
xiii
Finding tan(A + B) 232 Ratios for 75 degrees 233 Ratios of angles greater than 90 degrees 234 Ratios for difference angles 235 Sum and difference formulas 236 Ratios through the four quadrants 237 Pythagoras in trigonometry 238 Multiple angles 239 Properties of the isosceles triangle 240 Angles in a circle 242 Definitions 243 Questions and problems 244
Part 3. Developing algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and calculus 15. Systems of counting 249
Degrees of accuracy 249 Fractions in extended system counting 250 Orders of magnitude 251 Systems of counting 253 Duodecimal system 254 Conversion from decimal to duodecimal 255 Conversion from duodecimal to decimal 256 Binary counting 256 Converting decimal to binary 257 Binary multiplicatiion 258 Alternative binary conversion 260 Binary division 260 Special calculator binary 262 Indices 262 Roots: inverse of powers 264 Surds and indices 265 Questions andproblems 265
xiv
Contents
Rate of convergence 276 Permutations 277 Factorial notation! 278 Combinations 279 Powers of a binomial 280 Binomial expansion 281 Binomial series 282 Completing some patterns 283 Using binomial to find roots 284 Making a series converge 285 Questions andproblems 286
Contents
Checking the formula 328 Using the product formula 329 One function divided by another 329 Checking quotient functions 330 Using the quotient formula 330 Function of a function derivative 332 Equation of a circle 333 Successive derivatives of tangent function 334 Integration is the reverse of differentiation 335 Patterns in calculations 336 The constant of integration 336 Definite integrals 337 Finding area by integration 338 Area of a circle 339 Curved areas of cylinders and cones 340 Surface area of sphere 341 Finding volume by integration 341 Volume of a pyramid 341 Volume of cone 343 Volume of sphere 344 Questions and problems 344
xv
xvi
Contents
Part 4. Developing algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and calculus as analytical methods in mathematics 22. Complex quantities 377
Imaginary quantities 377 The complex plane 379 Complex quantities 379 Multiplying complex quantities 382 Reciprocal of complex quantities 382 Division of complex quantities 383 Rationalization 384 Checking results and summarizing 385 Use of a complex plane 386 Quadratic roots with complex quantities 388 Roots by complex quantities 389 Questions andproblems 389
Contents Complex frequency plane 404 Hyperbolic functions 404 Questions and problems 406
xvii
xviii
Contents
Construction for the complex resolution graph 447 Modified linear representation 448 Other possibilities 448 Another concept in chart design 450 Duality between types of calculators 451 Waveform synthesis 451 Fourier series 453 A triangular waveform 453 A square wave 454 Relationship between square and triangular 454 An offset square wave 456 The square wave as a "switching" function 456 Series for quadratic curve 459 The finite approach to the infinite 461 Questions and problems 463
Appendix. Answers to questions and problems 479 Index 559 About the Authors 569
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xx
Introduction
Most people are "strong" in certain areas of mathematics, and "weak" in others. In your job, you probably need knowledge of some fields far more than others. If you're lucky, your strongest knowledge will correspond to the field you use or need the most. But if you're like most people, there will be differences. For example, I'm pretty good at calculus and analysis, and not so good at probability and statistics. But in my current work, I need to have a functional knowledge of statistics more than I need to differentiate or integrate functions. As a result, I found myself working harder, as I revised this book, on the probability and statistics sections than on the calculus sections. When you use this book as a "refresher" course, keep in mind that you might need intensive work on subjects you don't like or are not good at. The material here is presented in a "fast-and-furious" format.There's a lot of information in a small space. You'll sometimes find your progress must be measured in hours per page, rather than pages per hour. If you get stuck someplace, don't worry. Just skip ahead or go back, work on something else for a while, and then come back to the hard stuff. And of course, you can always refer to more basic texts to reinforce your knowledge of subjects where you are weak.
Stan Gibilisco
- - -
- - -
- - -
Q~OQQQQQQQ<TI
It is easier to count Big Numbers in TENS
aaaaaaaQa
TEN
TWELVE
dozen
ELEVEN
0000e800C000<~~ dozen
El
dozen
or in DOZENS
WHEN THERE AREN'T ANY ONES LEFT OVER, WRITE ZERO (0) IN THE ONES PLACE.
tt
TENS ONES
NOW WHAT?
By tens and hundreds to thousands
The abacus represents numbers well. A better way to visualize numbers is to think of packing many things into boxes. This box holds 10 things (apples, for example) each direction. So, each layer (this box would be rather large) contains 100 apples. If you have 10 of these layers, with 100 in each layer, the box contains 1,000 apples. Just imagining packing in this manner helps us to understand numbers. Thus, the 2 full boxes each contains 1000.The one part-filled box contains 5 full layers (500), 6 full rows on the next layer (60), and 3 ones in an incomplete row. The whole number adds up to two thousand, five hundred and sixty three (2,563).
COUNTING IN THOUSANDS
TEN ROWS OF TEN IN EACH LAYER IS
1 HUNDRED
TEN LAYERS OF ONE HUNDRED IS TEN HUNDRED OR
1 THOUSAND
1 thousand
2 thousand-
6 tens
5 hundreds
1 3 ones and
A 3 complete thousands
WRITE IT SAY IT
4 complete thousands
Four thousand three hundred seventy
2 complete thousands
Two thousand five hundred and four
3 complete thousands
ones
No tens or hundreds
11
BILLIONS
OF MILLION
OF THOUSAND
OF ONES
Addition is counting on
Now that a method of counting is established, a method of calculating can be developed. The first step is addition. Suppose you've already counted 5 in one group and 3 in another group. You put them together or add them and what do you have? The easiest way to picture this situation is to count on. People count on their fingers all the time if they don't have their "addition facts" memorized. If you memorize your addition facts, that's fine. But nothing is wrong with counting on: it just takes longer. Some make an addition table, like a multiplication table (such as in chapter 3) and use that till they remember all the addition facts. Do what's best for you.
To Add
and
FIVE
THREE
continued
Count On
SIX
+
SEVEN
EIGHT
add together
three
five
and
seven
OQOQQOQQ
QQQQQQQ
~ ~ ~ ~ O ~ Q O Q a o Q
three, five, and seven are fifteen no matter which two you add first!
fifteen
13
seven
seven and five are
five
and
three
QQQQQQQ QQQQQ
QQQ
fifteen
QQOQQQQOQQQQQQQ
BIG NUMBERS ARE ADDED IN THE SAME WAY
HUNDREDS TENS ONES
1
3
2
2
5
4
ONES
TENS
HUNDREDS
Carrying
In that example, we deliberately chose numbers in each place that did not add up to over 10, to make it easy. If any number group or place adds to over 10, you must "carry" it to the next higher group or place. Suppose you had to add 27 and 35.Takethe ones first: 7 and 5 are 12.Thatis, 1 ten and 2 ones. The 1 belongs in the tens' place. Now, instead of just 2 and 3 to add in the tens' place, you have the extra 1 that resulted as ten "carried" from adding 7 and 5.The 1 is said to be carried from the ones' place. This carrying goes on any time the total at a certain place goes over ten. For example, add 7,358 and 2,763. Starting with the ones: 8 and 3 are 11: we write 1 in the ones' place and carry 1 to the tens' place. Now, the tens: 5 and 6 are 11, and the 1 carried from the ones makes 12.Write 2 in the tens' place and carry 1 to the hundreds' place. Now, the hundreds: 7 and 3 are 10, and 1 carried from the tens' makes 11 hundreds. Again, write 1 in the hundreds' place and carry 1 to the thousands' place. Now, the thousands: 7 and 2 are 9, and 1 carried from the hundreds make 10 thousands. Since neither of the original numbers had any ten thousands, write 10 thousands and finish, because nothing is left to add to the 1 carried this time.The answer is 10,121. Another example: suppose you now have to add 7,196 and 15,273.Start with the ones: 6 and 3 are 9. Write nine in the ones' place and nothing is left to carry to the tens'. Next, 9 and 7 are 16.Write the 6 and carry the one to the hundreds. Now, the hundreds: 1 and 2 are 3, and the 1 carried makes 4. Again, none to carry to the thousands. So, in the thousands: 7 and 5 are 12. Now, carry 1 to ten thousands, where only one number already has 1. 1 and 1 are 2 for the ten thousands' place.The answer is 22,469.
15
step 1. ones
TENS ONES
2. tens
ONES
CARRYING
Successive addition
A calculator performs addition by adding each number by counting on, like this book showed you how to do. But it does it ever so much more quickly than people can.Trace it through to see how it does it, then do it on your own calculator.
17
ADD TOGETHER
Ten thousands Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones
1
2
3 5
5
5 3
7 2 4 4 7
6 3 3 2 6
Step 1
step 2
Qare and
Step 3
Step 4
care
@are
carried
and carried
carried
Checking answers
Already, the same five numbers have been added in two different ways. Before calculators made it so easy, bookkeepers would use two methods, usually those shown here as the 2nd and 3rd, to check themselves. First, they would add the numbers by columns, starting at the top and working down, as you did in the last section.Then,they would add the same numbers starting at the bottom and working up. In the units' column that would go 6 and 2 make 8; 8 and 3 are 11; 11 and 3 are 14; 14 and 6 are 20. Each column should have the same answer, whether you add from the top or bottom. Now, calculators are used so much more, but that is no guarantee that you won't make a mistake. A good plan is to add up with the calculator as well as to add down. 376 and 6,542 are 6,918; 6,918 and 43 are 6,961; 6,961 and 25,523 are 32,484; and 32,484 and 13,476 are 45,960. You see the advantage of using more than one method.The partial sums that you move through on the way are different. You only reach the same answer at the end. The likelihood that you would enter the same wrong number twice under these conditions is much reduced. If you get different answers, work each one again until you find where you made your mistake.
19
Weights
Modern scales read weight digitally. You might have seen another kind of scale in a doctor's office.The old-fashioned grocer's scales are now antique items, but knowing how they worked helps understand math. Those scales had two pans supported from a beam pivoted across a point (fulcrum) at an equal distance on either side of the fulcrum.When the weight in both pans was equal, the scales balanced: the pans were level with one another. When the weights were unequal, the pan with the heavier weight dropped and the other rose. To use such scales, the grocer needed a set of standard weights, shown here. Standard (avoirdupois) weight, still used in English speaking countries, does not follow the metric or " 10 times" scale. Instead, it has 16 drams to an ounce, 16 ounces to a pound, 28 pounds to a quarter, and 4 quarters (112 pounds) to a hundredweight, 20 hundredweights (or 2240 pounds) to the ton, often called the long ton because a ton of 2000 pounds is used more today. A set of weights consisted of those shown at the top of the diagram overleaf-just 12 of them, unless the grocer wanted to measure more than 15 pounds. With these weights, if the scale was sensitive enough, he could weigh anything to the nearest dram. Suppose you have to weigh a parcel. First, put the parcel in the pan on the left. Then, put standard weights on the other pan until the scale tips the other way.
20
If a 1-poundweight doesn't tip it, a 2-pound weight is tried. It still doesn't tip. But the 2 and 1 together, making 3 pounds, does tip it. So, the parcel weighs more than 2 pounds, but less than 3. He leaves the 2-pound weight in the pan and starts using the ounce weights. 8 ounces doesn't tip the scale. If 4 ounces are added, to make 12 ounces, it doesn't tip. But the 2-ounce weight, which brings the weight up to 2 pounds 14 ounces, tips it. If the 1-ounce weight is used instead of the 2-ounce weight, the scale still doesn't tip. So, the parcel is more than 2 pounds 13 ounces and less than 2 pounds 14 ounces. If you want to be more accurate, follow this method until it balances with 2 pounds, 13 ounces and 3 drams.
" a
0
Drams
@ ~ WSET OF A U
Ounces
WEIGHTS
oa
D O
Pounds
1 ounce = 16 drarns
2 ounces
1 pound = 16 ounces
80
3 ounces
00
a 0 0
6 drarns
7 drarns
4 ounces
5 ounces
8 drarns
6 ounces
7 ounces
ETC. - UP TO 15 DRAMS
8 ounces
ETC. - UP TO 15 OUNCES
ni80 !
6 I
2 pounds
3 pounds
4 pounds
pounds
8 0
6 pounds
8 pounds
21
PARCEL WEIGHS..
BALANCES AT 2 POUNDS
13 OUNCES AND 3 DRAMS
WEIGHING A PARCEL
1 Pint
1 Quart
1 Gallon
3. The figure zero (0) means none.Why then should we bother to write down this number?
4. What are (a) 10 tens and (b) 12 twelves? 5. What are (a) 10 hundreds, (b) 10 thousands, and (c) 1,000 thousands?
6. By counting on, add the following groups of numbers, then check your results by adding the same numbers together in reverse order. Finally, use your pocket calculator:
(a) (d) (g) 3+6+9 6+4+8 5+8+8 (b) (e) (h) 4+5+7 1+3+2 9+8+7 (c)
(0
(i)
23
7. Add together the following groups of numbers: in each use a manual method (without using a calculator) first, then verify your answer with a calculator. Practice using different methods: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 35,759 23,574 29,123 14,285 28,171 4 + 85,714 + 71,428 235 + 5,742 + 1 2 10,950 + 423 + 6,129 + 12,567 + 35,742 + 150 + 90,909 + 18,181 1,000 + 74+ 359 + 9,091 +81,818
8. How does adding money differ from adding numbers? 9. Add together the following weights: 1 pound, 6 ounces, and 14 drams; 2 pounds, 13 ounces, and 11 drams; 5 pounds, 11 ounces, and 7 drams. Check your result by adding them in at least three ways. If you get different answers, find your mistakes. 10. What weights would you use to weigh out each of the quantities in question 9, using the system of weights. Check your answers by adding up the weights you name for each object weighed. 11. In weighing a parcel, the 4-pound weight tips the pan down, but the 2- and 1-pound weights do not raise the parcel pan. What would you do next to find the weight of the parcel (a) if you want it to the nearest dram; (b) if you have to pay postage on the number of ounces or fractions of an ounce? 12. How many inches are in 2 yards? (First, add the number of inches in 3 feet to make 1 yard, then add the inches in another yard to make 2 yards.) 13. A fleet of cars needs oil changes.Three of the cars require 5 quarts each, two require 6 quarts each, four require one gallon each. How many gallons of oil does the owner need? Write down the number of quarts for each car (4 for the ones that use a gallon), add them up, and count off 4 quarts for each gallon. 14. If the owner can buy quarts at 90 cents and gallons at $3.50, to be economical, how will he buy the oil? 15. A woman buys three dresses at $12.98 each, spends $3.57 on train fare to get to town, and $5.00 on a meal while she is there. How much did she spend altogether?
- - -
Subtraction
25
SUBTRACTION
TOTAL NUMBER
EIGHT
NUMBER SUBTRACTED
five
and -three
EIGHT
CHECK
26 Subtraction
Borrowing
In addition, if the one's figures added to ten or over, it carried into the tens' figure, and so on. In subtraction, this process is reversed. Suppose you must subtract 17 from 43. First, subtract the ones. But 7 is larger than 3. You could subtract 7 from 13. So, "borrow" a ten to make that 3 into 13. 7 from 13 leaves 6.Taking away the 1 that was borrowed from the ten's column leaves only 3 from which we can take the 1. So, 17 from 43 is 26.
BORROWING
tens
ones
FROM
TAKE
1
tens
tens
ones
3
1 3
from
And
tens
ones
carried
Subtraction
27
Now, check the result by adding 26 and 17. In the ones, 6 and 7 are 13.Write the 3 and carry the 1 to the ten's column. In the ten's column, 1 carried and 2 are 3, and 1 is 4. So, 26 and 17 are 43, which checks back with the number you began with. Your answer should be right because you would have to make two very special mistakes to return to the correct original figure. Usually, if you make two mistakes, the final result would be even further from the correct answer than if you only made one.
TAKE
1 1
1
1 1
4 borrowed
28
Subtraction
cHEcKING
ADD
Subtracting cash
Cash is no more difficult to subtract than other numbers are.The only difference is in the dollars and cents. Start at the cents and work back. If you take a larger number of cents from a smaller number, you have to borrow a dollar.
from
subtracting cash
take
Subtraction
29
Making change
This idea of counting on, or using addition to check subtraction, is often used by sales clerks when making change. Suppose you bought something for $3.27 and use a $5 bill for payment. Subtraction will show that you should get $1.73 in change. The clerk figures the bill (or maybe the cash register does it-most new ones do), then "proves" it by giving you change, as shown.
Making Change
,/'r' CUSTOMER
30
Subtraction
Putting 3 pennies in your hand, he says, "$3.27, 28, 29, 30." Then, he puts 2 dimes in your hand, saying "$3.40, 50 ." Next 2 quarters, saying "$3.75, $4.00" Finally, he gives you a dollar bill, saying "$5," which was the amount you tended. What he did was check the change by adding it to the cost of what you bought, to come to the amount you tended in payment.
Subtracting weights
Suppose a mother wants to weigh her baby, who is too big for baby scales and too wriggly to get a reading on ordinary scales. The mother weighs herself holding the baby in her arms, then weighs herself without the baby. The difference, obtained by subtraction, is the baby's weight. If she weighs 156 pounds holding the baby and 121 pounds without the baby, then the baby weighs 156 - 121, or 35 pounds. That minus (-) sign is the sign used to indicate subtraction,just as a plus (+) sign indicates addition.
WEIGHING BY SUBTRACTION
Mother and baby weigh 156 pounds Mother only weighs 121 pounds So baby weighs 35 pounds
check
Mother weighs 121 pounds Baby weighs 35 pounds So mother and baby weigh 156 pounds
Subtraction
31
Using a balance
You might not see the balance used often today. If you can get some old-fashioned scales, it's a good exercise. If not, you must imagine it. Suppose you are weighing something that eventually you find weighs 3 pounds 14 ounces. In the traditional method, you would put the parcel in one pan and a selection of weights in the other pan. You'll have 1- and 2-pound weights, and 8-, 4-, and 2-ounce weights. The other method uses subtraction (backwards addition, however you want to view it). The parcel weighs just under 4 pounds. So, put small weights in the pan with the parcel and find that it balances with the 2-ounce weight in the parcel pan, and the 4-pound weight in the weight pan. So, the parcel weighs 2 ounces less than 4 pounds or the weight of the parcel plus 2 ounces equals 4 pounds.
METHOD 1
METHOD 2
32
Subtraction
XTRA GAS
11 gallons 9 gallons
20 gallons
Subtraction
33
(a)
69
- 46
(b)
-
123 81
(c)
(h)
543 37
(d)
-
762 371
(e)
509 -410
(f)
263 - 74
(g)
4,321 - 1,234
6,532 -2,356
(i)
11,507 - 8,618
2. A refrigerator's list price is $659.95. A local discount store offers a $160 discount on this item. How much would you pay at this store? Check your result by addition.
3. A lady purchased items priced at $2.95, $4.95, $3.98, $10.98, and $12.98. After adding up the bill, the store clerk offers to knock off the extra cents, so she would pay only the dollar amount.The lady has a better idea.Why not knock the extra cents off each item? How much more would she save if the store clerk accepted this suggestion.?
4. A child wants to weigh her pet cat.The cat won't stay on the scales long enough to get a reading. So she weighs herself with the cat, then without it. With the cat, she weighs 9 3 pounds.Without it, 85 pounds. How much does the cat weigh? 5. A recipe calls for 1 pound 12 ounces of rice.You have an old fashioned scale to measure it with. All the pound weights are there, but the only ounce weights that have not been lost are the 1- and 4-ounce weights. How can you weigh the 1 pound 12 ounces?Prove it by showing that the scale balances. 6. You are studying a road map on which town B is between towns A and C.The map shows only selected distances. Between A and B, it shows 147 miles. Between A and C, it shows 293 miles. If you want to go from B to C, how far is it? 7. A freight company charges partly on weight and partly on mileage. The distance charge is based on direct distance-even if the company's handling might necessitate taking it further. A package addressed to town B had to travel from A to C, which is 1,200 miles, and back to B, on the direct route between A and C, which is 250 miles. What distance is the charge based on? 8. A man has a parcel of land along a 1-mile frontage of highway. He has sold pieces with frontages of 300 yards, 450 yards, 210 yards, and 500 yards. How much frontage does he have left to sell?
- - -
Multiplication
35
This problem leads to the next step in calculating.This short cut remembers what so many counts of any particular number add up to. At one time, children learning arithmetic would spend hours memorizing printed multiplication tables, often without knowing why they'd need such things. If you were lucky enough to remember that 7 times 3 equal 2 1, you got the answer more quickly. However, many people who "knew" that answer could not tell you why 7 times three are 2 1.
Use of tables
The multiplication table was one of man's earliest computers: a ready way of getting answers without having to do all that adding. So to understand it, and see more about how numbers "work," make you own multiplication table, such as the one shown here. Start with the numbers along the top and down the left side. Now, count in twos, and write the results in the next column, under "2 times." Each next figure down the column is 2 more than the one above it. Now, do the same thing with the "3 times" column, adding 3 for each next figure down the column. Continue until you have done the "9 times" column.
MULTIPLICATION TABLE
Patterns in numbers
If you counted carefully enough, your table should be right. The idea of making your own is so you know that the table is true. That way, using it will not be "cheating," which is what some teachers say about students who use printed
36 Multiplication
tables.You will be using what you have already done and verified. So, how do you verify it? The simplest check is odds and evens. An even number is one whose one's figure is 2,4, 6, 8, or 0. An odd number has a one's figure of 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9. Notice that the only places where you have odd numbers are where both the number at the top of the column and the beginning of the line are odd. If either of them are even, the number in that space is even. Now notice the column and line opposite 5. These are shown by themselves in Part A. All the numbers have a one's figure of either 0 or 5. Another thing you might notice is that any multiplication can be found in two places, except where the number is multiplied by itself. Thus, 3 times 7 is the same as 7 times 3. This rule is true for every combination of two different numbers. Another interesting set is the column or line against 9. Notice that each successive number has one more in the tens and one less in the ones, and also that adding the two digits together always makes 9.
Multiplication
37
Now take the diagonal where numbers are multiplied by themselves. These numbers are called 'squares." We'll see why later. Complete the box of figures by writing a " 1" at top left. Now, notice the difference between successive places down the "square" diagonal. 1 and 3 are 4.4 and 5 are 9. 9 and 7 are 16. 16 and 9 are 25 and 11 are 36. 36 and 13 are 49. 49 and 15 are 64. 64 and 17 are 81. Each step adds the next odd number from the one you added last. Now, take diagonals the other way. 1 either way from 9 finds 8. 1 either way from 16 finds 15, and so on. Moving away from the "square" diagonal along the other diagonal always drops by 1. If you pursue this direction, you would find that the next answer drops by 3, and so on.This information is very useful later on.
38
Multiplication
PRODUCT
MULTIPLIER
Multiplication
39
Carrying in multiplication
In addition, carrying is used as a way of saving what had to be written down. Multiplication can do the same thing. It also helps us to be systematic.
These are what you really do. However you can save space and check on the
You can save time by not writing this zero 7 X 3,542 =>24,794 20 X 3,542 7 0 , 8 4 0 ~ remember to ' leave space for it. 95,634
3,542 X 27
= >
'
40 Multiplication
Here's another example that will show this rule better: 3,542 multiplied by 27. First the ones: 7 times 2 are 14; write 4, carry 1.The tens: 7 times 4 are 28, with 1 carried makes 29; write 9 carry 2. The hundreds: 7 times 5 are 35, with 2 carried is 37; write 7, carry 3. The thousands: 7 times 3 are 21, with 3 carried is 24.That finishes 3,542 x 7: 24,794. Now do the tens part, which equals 70,840, in the same way. Sometimes you don't write the zero, just space the last digit (4) over, so it's in the tens column. The whole thing is written down in one "piece" or algorithm, as the professional mathematicians call it. This is essentially how people performed multiplication before we had computers.
A matter of order
As the Introduction showed, at one time "new math" consisted in multiplying from the other direction. Here, the same multiplication has been performed in the reverse order: first the 20, then the 7 where, on the previous page, the 7 was multiplied first, then the 20. The answer is the same either way, provided no mistakes are made. The importance thing in long multiplication by hand is to do it systematically. If the multiplier has three or more digits, work consistently, either from left to right or from right to left.
3,542 X 27 70,840 24,794
20 X 3,542 7 X 3,542 I
= >
>
SAME ANSWER
95,634+4'
IT DOESN'T MATTER WHICH YOU DO FIRST YOU'LL GET THE SAME ANSWER
Multiplication
41
Now, you can go on multiplying by 20. With a single memory, you don't see the "times 20" part separately, as you did in longhand. The final answer is the same. If you have a calculator with more than one memory, you can store each part in a separate memory and then add the contents of the two memories.
Skipping zeros
When you multiply longhand, don't forget the zeros, if your multiplier has a zero in it. When you pass zero, there is no point in writing a line of zeros, because zero times anything is still zero. But don't forget that, in this case, after multiplying by 20 (the tens figure), the next one is the thousand figure, which moves to the left two places instead of one, because the multiplier has no hundreds figure.
23,056 1,024
I
carried
2 e
23,056 1,024 9 , 2 v i e d
92,224
461,120
THREE LINES
23,609,344
42 Multiplication
numbers are multiplied together, swapping places for multiplicand and multiplier. Of course, you can verify this very easily with your pocket calculator. Whichever way you punch in the numbers, e.g., 3542 x 27 or 27 x 2542, you will get the same answer, 95634.This principle is given a fancy name in one version of the so-called "new math." Don't bother with it, just remember that it's true.
CHECKING
original work check work
+
1,08@
70,840 95,634
ANSWER
13,5a
81,W
95,634
Multiplication
43
Here are two examples of using subtraction, instead of addition, in multiplication.When I show some people this "trick," they say "I didn't know you could do that!" The multiplier 29 is 1 less than 30. So, multiply by 30, which is much easier than multiplying by 29. Then, subtract once times the original number, which is itself Check it in the usual way; you will find the same answer. In the second example, 98 is 2 less than 100.This example is even easier. Multiplying by 100 just puts two zeros to the right of the original number. Subtract twice the original number, to represent -2 in the multiplier, and you have the answer. Multiplying by 2 is much less work than multiplying by 8 and then 9 and adding them together,which is what has been done to verify the result. If you don't like all that work longhand, do it on your pocket calculator.
By subtraction
By addition
1 1,421,760 ) 1 )
47,392
1 426,528 ) 1 947,840 )
SAME ANSWER
98
8 X 63,257 plus
1 6,325,700 )
1 506,056 )
SAME ANSWER
44
Multiplication
Multiplying by factors
Here's another way that works very well with certain numbers. Suppose the multiplier is 35. That happens to be 5 x 7. Instead of multiplying the whole original number by 5 and by 30 and adding the results, you can multiply first by 5, then multiply that result by 7. As is shown here, both ways give the same answer.You can verify this answer on your pocket calculator, too.
BY ADDITION
BY FACTORS
SAME ANSWER
Multiplication
45
Your calculator will convert 75 ounces to 4.6875 pounds. If you subtract the 4, that leaves 0.6875 as the part over 4 pounds. Multiply that by 16 to convert back to ounces, and you have 11.
3 ounces is
75 ounces
-16 -
or 2 pounds 43 ounces
25 pounds
Multiplying lengths
Multiplying lengths is similar, except that the English system uses 12 inches to the foot, 3 feet to the yard, etc., instead of the decimal or metric system.Where necessary, we have to make the same kind of conversions between inches, feet, and yards. See the example on page 46.
Multiplying measures
In the same way, if you multiply a measure by a fairly large number, it is usually convenient to change the unit of measure in which we express it. See example at the bottom of page 46 and top of page 47. Suppose you multiply 3 pints by 250. The answer is quite easily found to be 750 pints. But quantities this large are usually given in gallons, not in pints. Remembering that 8 pints are in a gallon, you can proceed to count off in eights. This procedure is quite long (unless your calculator does it). From 750, 8 can be subtracted 93 times and 6 pints are left over. If you divide 750 by 8, you have 9 3 3/4 gallons.The calculator would read 9 3.75.
46 Multiplication
MULTIPLYING LENGTHS
to cut off 5 pieces 10 in
5 times 10 is
-1 2 -
50 inches
or or or or
1 foot 2 feet
38 inches
26 inches -12
-12
3 feet 4 feet
14 inches -1 2 2 inches
1st piece
3rd piece
4th piece
+
1
5th piece
50
20 inches 2 ft.
301 inches
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
40 inches
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 ft.
3 ft.
4 ft.
Multiplication
47
MIJLTIPLYING MEASURES
One motor crankcase takes 3 pints of oil
-8
750 pints
AFTER SUBTRACTING 8 FROM PINTS AND ADDING 1 T O GALLONS 93 TIMES (IF YOU DIDN'T MAKE A MISTAKE) . . .
or 93 gallons or 6 pints
3 quarts
93 gallons
There MUST be an easier way!
48 Multiplication
x 246
x 891
x 36
x 74
x 764
x 263
2. Multiply the following pairs by using subtraction to make the working simpler. Verify your results by the more usual method. (a) 2,573 x 19 (b) 7,693 x 28 (c) 4,497 x 18 (d) 5,396 x 59 (e) 7,109 x 89
3. Multiply the following pairs by using factors of the second number. Check your results by long multiplication.
(a) 1,762 x 45 (b) 7,456 x 32 (c) 8,384 x 21 (d) 9,123 x 63 (e) 1,024 x 28
4. An airline runs 4 flights per day between two cities, every day except Sunday, when it runs 2. How many flights a week is this? 5. The same flight (question 4) is also made only twice on the 12 public holidays of the year. How many flights are made per year (based on 52 weeks)? 6. A mass-produced item costs 25 cents each to make, and $2 to package.The package cost is the same for a packet of one or of many thousand. What is the cost for packets of: (a) 1 (b) 10 (c)25 (d) 100 (e)250 (f) 1,000 (g) 5,000 (h) 10,000? 7. If you ignore the manufacturing cost, how much is saved by packaging the items of question 6 in packets of 250 instead of 1O ? (Assume a total quantity of O 500 .) 8. On a commuter train, single tickets sell for $1.75.You can buy a 10-trip ticket for $15.75. How much does this save over the single-ticket rate? 9. On the same train, a monthly ticket costs $55. If a commuter makes an average of 22 round trips a month, how much will he save by buying a monthly ticket? 10. An employer offered an employment contract beginning at $500 a month, with a raise of $50 a month every year for 5 years. The contract expired after the 6th year. Employees bargained for a starting figure of $550 a month, with a raise of $20 a month every 6 months. Which rate of pay was higher at the beginning of the sixth year? Which rate resulted in the greatest total earnings per employee for 6 years? By how much?
Multiplication
49
11. A manufacturer prices parts according to how many are bought at once. The price is quoted per hundred pieces in each case, but the customer must take the quantity stated to get a particular rate. The rates are $7.50 apiece for 100, $6.75 apiece for 500, $6.25 apiece for 1,000, $5.75 apiece for 5,000 and $5.50 apiece for quantities over 10,000.The rate for any in between quantity is based on the next lower number. What is the difference in total cost for quantities of 4,500 and 5,000? 12. Small parts are counted by weighing. Suppose 100 of a particular part weigh 2 ounces and you need 3,000 of the parts. What is the weight?
13. A bucket that is used to fill a tank with water holds 4 gallons and 350 bucketfulls are required to fill the tank. What is the tank's capacity? 14.A freight train has 182 cars each loaded to the maximum which, including the weight of the car, is 38 tons. What is the total weight that the locomotive has to haul? 15.A car runs 260 miles on one tankful of gas. It has an alarm that lets the driver know when it needs refilling. If the journey requires 27 fillings and at the end, the tank is ready for another, how long was the journey? 16.Two railroads connect the same two cities. One charges 10 cents per mile, the other 15 cents per mile. The distance between the cities is 450 miles by the first railroad, but 320 miles by the second.Which company offers the cheaper fare? By how much? 17.One airline offers rates based on 14 cents per mile for first-class passengers. Its distance between two cities is 2,400 miles. Another airline offers 10 cents a mile for coach, but uses a different route, marking the distance at 3,200 miles. Which fare is cheaper? By how much? 18.The first airline (question 17) offers a family plan. Each member of a family, after the first, pays a rate that is based on 9 cents per mile. Which way will be cheaper for a family (a) of 2? (b) of 3? and by how much? 19. A health specialist recommends chewing every mouthful of food 50 times. One ounce of one food can be eaten in 7 mouthfuls. A helping of this food consists of 3 ounces. How many times will a person have to chew this helping to fulfill the recommendation? 20. An intricate pattern on an earthenware plate repeats 9 times around the edge of the plate. Each pattern has 7 flowers in the repetition. How many flowers are around the edge of the plate?
- - -
Division
51
Second Method
00 SEVEN
00 SEVEN
@ @
SEVEN
@ @
SEVEN
QUOTIENT 2 3 5
52
Division
Addition
4+7=11
four plus seven equals eleven four and seven are eleven
Subtraction 11-4=7
eleven minus four equals seven four from eleven leaves seven
4 X7=28
four times seven equals twenty-eight four sevens are twenty-eight
28
4
=7
or
7 4/28
Division
53
IN DIVISION WE START WITH THE LARGEST FIGURE AND WORK TOWARD THE SMALLEST
+ 7 =1
times
4 are
5 are 6 are
exactly 42
8 are 9 are
I
I
56 1 1 6 3 1
49 ~.
I
Answer
(2X 7 )
(4 x 7)
(9X 7)
-3
6
1 4
34 28 63 4 63
54
Division
DIVISION
divided into d
11
II
times
Since
7 divides
MULTIPLICATION
249 736
carried
1,743 7
Division
55
DIVIDEND
DIVISOR
QUOTIENT ACCUMULATOR
56
Division
In Long Division
.. .
652 ANSWER
...Long Multiplication
is the Check
CHECK
I I
Division by factors
In multiplication, you used multiplication by factors. It also works in division, if the divisor has factors. For example, 28 is 4 times 7. So you can divide the dividend by 4, then by 7.You can also multiply by factors to check the answer.
Division
57
DIVIDING BY FACTORS
Divide 37,996 by 28 4 X 7=28 so...
58
Division
Division 59
too big
2 @g
37
74
d Qmm
27 1
37
37 110,050
3 111
37 8 296 37 2 74
1 259
37
37
What does this number mean? 37 divides into 10,050 271 times, with a REMAINDER of 23
Divide 25 by 6
continued
60 Division
four
four
four
four
four
four
Each part is one-sixth of the whole. The fraction one-sixth is written 25+6=4+
Division
61
62 Division
DIVIDE 30 BY 7
@ @ @@ @@ @@ @@ @@ @@ @ @ @@ @@ @@ @@ 00
(J T@
FOUR
I
FOUR
FOUR
FOUR
FOUR
FOUR
FOUR
------
--- - ---_-7 J
' =,-J I
I
- - -J - ,
\ \
\ I . --I-
0 c 0 , r J , d d( r C
'
4 -
**
30+7=47
Division
63
0.3333333 3/ 1.0000000
.. .
' '
1st Method
6
0.8i33
1 5 X 6
64 Division
i-i.
1.
ii/-i%EK
0.%9@
1 - = 0.09 11
..
Division
65
~ , ~ , ~ , f i
These numbers used for 2 5 6 1 & 1 _ 1 13,13, 13, 13, 13, 13 , ~ , ~ (sixteen numbers for seventeenths) and (eighteen numbers for nineteenths)
1 - = 0.6588235294 117647 17
1 - = 0.05263 157894736842i
19
continued
66 Division
WHEN THERE ARE MORE THAN ONE RECURRING DECIMALS, USE A 9 FOR EACH IN ITS PROPER PLACE!
Check 99 4 396
99 7 693
FIGURE REPEATS
470
Division
67
Check your answers by multiplication. 2. Make the following divisions by successive (divisionby factors) and long division; if your answers do not agree, check them with long multiplication: (a) 15)3600 (b) 21)15813 (c) 25)73625 (d) 2 8 m
3. Make the following divisions and write the remainder as a fraction, using whichever method of conversion you like best:
(a) 7 )3459 (b) 8 )23431 (c) 9 )13263 (d) 3)14373 (h) 29)92929
4. A profit of $14,000,000 has to be shared among holders of 2,800,000 shares of stock.What is the profit per share? 5. Total operating cost for an airline flight between two cities is estimated as $8,415. What fare should be charged so that a flight with 55 passengers just meets operating cost? 6. A part needs a special tool that costs $5,000. With this tool, the machine makes parts for 25 cents each. But the price must also pay for the tool. If the tool cost is to be paid for out of the first 10,000 parts made, what will be the cost of each part?
68 Division
7. A freight car carries 58 tons (1 ton = 2000 pounds), including its own weight, and runs on 8 wheels. Its suspension distributes the weight equally among the wheels.What is the weight on each wheel? 8. A man makes 1,200 of a certain part in 8 hours. How much time is spent for making each part? 9. A package of 10,000 small parts weighs 1,565 pounds. The empty package weighs 2.5 pounds. How much does each part weigh (hint, convert the pounds to ounces)? 10. Another package weighs 2,960 pounds full and 5 pounds empty. One part weighs 3 ounces. How many parts are in the full package? 11. A narrow strip of land, 1mile long, is to be divided into 33 lots of equal width. How wide is each lot? 12. On a test run, a car travels 462 miles on 22 gallons of gas. Assuming performance is uniform, how far does it go on each gallon of gas? 13. A particular mixture is usually made up 160 gallons at a time. It uses 75 gallons of ingredient 1, 50 gallons of ingredient 2, 25 gallons of ingredient 3, and 10 gallons of ingredient 4. If only 1 gallon is required, what amounts of each ingredient should be used? 14. Find the simplest fractional equivalent of the following decimals:
15. In the following decimals, all the digits after the decimal point repeat. Find their fractional equivalents.
- - -
70
Fractions
64
Simplest Form
by canceling 7's
If the numerator and denominator both end in zeros, you can strike off the same number of zeros from each. If both are even, divide both by 2. Sometimesthe factors aren't so obvious. Here, for the fraction 4551462, is one way. After checking the factors of each, they both contain a 7. If 7 is a factor of both the numerator and denominator, divide both by 7.
FINDING FACTORS
51,756
IF THESE TWO FIGURES DIVIDE EXACTLY BY 4, THE WHOLE NUMBER DOES BY 8, THE WHOLE NUMBER DOES
12 3
138
1+3+8=12 - =4
46 exactly
3 f i
CHECK FOR 3
Fractions 71
15 exactly 9l-z
CHECK FOR 9
738
7+3+8=18
- =2
18 9
82 exactly
9 f i
11 b 8 + 9 = 1 7 869 1 7 - 6 = 11 4 6
2,577 exactly
CHECK FOR 11
79 exactly 11 E 9
19 7 2: 3: 1 + 3 + 9 = 1 3 11: 1 + 9 = 1 0
5: 7 l - F
11 x ? 12 X 1 2 = 144-toobig
Factors of 493?
2 X ?
3 X ?
70 7
5 x ? 7 X ?
5: 7 12
11 X ? 13 X ?
37 ,3 13 / 493
72 Fractions
I
THESE ARE IMPORTANT NUMBERS TO TRY
= > >
5 Prime number
6 =2X3
7 Prime number
1 L>
y > 1
1 > 1
I I P r i m number
12 = 2 X 2 X 3
Prime number
14 = 2 X 7
Prime number
1= >
Squares and primes
18 = 2 X 3 X 3
19 Prime number
20 = 2 X 2 X 5
Suppose you want the factors of 8,249.The table of squares show that the square of 91 is 8,28 1.Try primes up to 89, the last one before 91. You will find that 73 and 113 are factors. If you had reached 89 with no factor, the original number (8,249) would have been prime.
Fractions
73
When making a table of squares, look for patterns, like you did with the much simpler multiplication table. Look at the middle column.The last two digits run the squares of 9 down to 0 and then up to 9 again for the square of 59.This occurs because the square of 50 ends in double zero and twice 5 (the first digit) is 10. A similar sequence begins at 9 1 and runs up to 109. PRIME
1-100
74
Fractions
Enter 8249 Press M in or M+ (making sure that the memory is empty) Enter divide by 7 and = reads 1178.428571 Press MR and It N It 11 It 749.9090909 ' It It N It 13 634.5384615 ' It It It N It 17 485.2352941 It N It 19 It 434.1578947 ' It N It 23 It 358.6521739 ' It It N It 29 It 284.4482759 It N It 31 It 266.0967742 ' It N It 37 It 222.9459459 ' It N It 41 It 201.1951220 ' It N It 43 It 191.8372093 ' It N It 47 It 175.5106383 ' It N It 53 It 155.6415094 ' If If N I' 59 I' 139.8135593 It N It 61 It 135.2295082 ' It It N It 67 It 123.1194030 It N It 71 It 116.1830986 ' It It 73 It 113 That's it!
+ +
---- -
l2 8
12
Fractions
75
Suppose you must subtract 3 315 from 7 5/ 12.60 is the common denominator. 315 is 36/60 and 5/12 is 25/60. You cannot subtract 36 from 25. So you borrow 1, converting it to 60th~. Now, subtract 3 36/60 from 6 85/60. 36 from 85 is 49.3 from 6 is 3 and the complete answer is 3 49/60.
5 Subtract 3 2 from 7 5 12
1.
Common denominator = 60
3.
Find the factors of each denominator: 4 = 2 x 2; 3 and 5 are both prime; 6 is 2x3;12is2x2x3;lOis2x5;30is2x3x5;and15is3x5. Our common denominator must contain every factor that is in any denominator. The factors are 2, 3, and 5. The common denominator is 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 = 60. Now convert all the fractions to 60th~. numerators are: The 15 + 20 + 24 + 10 + 25 + 18 + 14 + 16, which adds up to 142. Reduce the final form, because both divide by 2, yielding 71/30. Taking out 30130 for a whole 1,twice, the answer is 2 11/30.
76 Fractions
Add together
*
-1
'.I
1 1 2 1 5 -+-+-+-+-+-+-+-
_ _ _1
2x2
_- - 1 1 6
2x3
5 5 12-2~2x3
--10 2x5
-=
30
7
2X3X5 x2 3x5
4 - - -2 15
15 +20+(2 X12=24)
+ 10+(5 X5 =25) + ( 3 X 6 =
1 8 ) + ( 7 X 2 = 1 4 ) + ( 4 X 4 = 16)
same answer
Fractions
77
ENTER
READ
Significant figures
Just how accurate is the figure you look at? Ask yourself how reliable the number is that you look at. Devices that give you numerical information might be either analog or digital. Some think that digital is much more accurate. However, numbers can be deceptive. Suppose you talk about a 150-pound man. Does he weigh exactly 150 pounds-not an ounce more or less? Is he between 149.5 and 150.5 pounds, or is he between 145 and 155 pounds? The answer depends on what figures in that number 150 are "significant." If the 0 is just a placeholder, then if he weighed less than 145 or more than 155,the number would be stated as 140 or 160. If the 0 is "significant," then 150 means that he weighs from 149.5to 150.5 pounds. If he weighed less than 149.5 or more than 150.5,the number would be 149 or 151.
78
Fractions
For it to mean not an ounce more or less than 150 pounds, the weight should be written as 150 pounds, 0 ounces. The word signiJicant should tell you that other figures are not significant.The following pages will show why this point can be important.
Fractions
79
154
'TPOSSIBLE
"SPREAD"
21.7H5714i(857... ) 7 / 152.5000000
NOT LESS THAN 21.7 POUNDS OR 22 POUNDS TO THE NEAREST WHOLE POUND
Longhand procedure
Suppose that you have to divide 23,500 by 291 and you believe those end zeros in the dividend aren't significant. You could assume it was between 23,450 and 23,550, perform both divisions, and then decide what was significant. But longhand, that's a lot of work! The practice was to draw a vertical line where figures begin to be progressively more doubtful. You could divide between the "limiting values" as the possible errors, because only so many figures are significant, then you could guess at the most probable value.This procedure is illustrated at the top of page 80.
80 Fractions
APPROXIMATE METHOD:
23,28 220 203 -
7 X 29
-----+
O X 291 8 X 29 -232 9 X 3 -7 2
26 0 28
0 X 292 6 X 29 -7 14 9 X 36-
180
0 X 292 4 X 29
->m
130 14 1 5 (nearest)
5X 3
Fractions
81
division, both numbers (the dividend and the divisor) can have a number of significant figures. An answer cannot have more significant figures than the number with the least number of significant figures used as "input" for the problem.
2.91
582 15.4812
> >
3. Without actually performing the divisions, indicate which of the following numbers divide exactly by 3,4,8, 9, or 11: (a) 10,452 (e) 64,572 (b) 2,088 (f) 37,848 (c) 5,841 (d) 41,613
82 Fractions
4. Find the factors of the following: (a) 1,829 (d) 7,031 (b) 1,517 (e) 2,059 (c) 7,387 (f) 2,491
5. Add together the following groups of fractions: (a) (b) (c) (d) 115 116 +4/15 3/10 213 118 113 5/18 7/12 419 114 115 116 1/10 1/12 417 314 7/12 8/21 516
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
and reduce each to its simplest form. 6. Find the simplest fractional equivalent for the following decimals: (a10.875 (b)O.6 (c)O.5625 (d)O.741 (e)O.128
7. Find the decimal equivalent of the following fractions: (a) 213 (e) 617 (b) 314 (f) 718 (c) 415 (g) 819 (d) 516
8. Find the decimal equivalent of the following fractions: (a) 113 (e) 117 (b) 114 (f) 118 (c) 115 (g) 119 (d) 116
9. Find the fraction equivalent to the following recurring decimals: (a) 0.416 (e) 0.571428 (b) 0.21 (e) 0.909 (c) 0.189 (f) 0.090
10. What is meant by significant figures? To illustrate, show the limits of possible meaning for measurements given as 158 feet and 857 feet. 11. Using the approximate method, divide 9 32 by 173.Thenby dividing (a) 9 32.5 by 172.5 and (b) 9 3 1.5 by 173.5, show how many of your figures are justified. Noting that 932 and 173 have three significant figures, what conclusion would you draw from these calculations? 12. Divide 9 3,700 by 857 using an approximate method.Then by dividing 9 3,750 by 856.5 and 93,650 by 857.5, show how many of your figures are justified. Can you shorten your method still further to avoid writing down meaningless figures? 13. (a) List all of the prime numbers less than 60. (b) Using this list, how can you test a given number to determine whether or not it is prime? (c) What is the largest number you can test in this way, using this list?
Fractions
83
14. Find the differences of the following pairs of fractions. Reduce the result to standard form with the lowest possible denominator.
(a) 3/4- 1/16 (d) 2551100 - 1/10 (b) 11/13 - 1 (e) 23117 - 1/34 (c) 16/20
-
318
- - -
85
can multiply 17 by 23. But the answer is 391 what? It doesn't make sense! However, multiplying a length by a length can make sense.The second dimension is a result of these multiplications, as you shall see.
27
What is square?
We are used to the shape we call square, that we've probably never bothered to define it. Counting those square inches, you probably thought of them as measuring 1 inch "each way." But if you measure 1 inch along four edges, you might not end up with a square.What makes it a square? The fourth side must end where the first side began. Also, opposite sides must be parallel. Even then, the figure still might not be square. The angles must be what we call "right" angles. See the example at the top of page 86.
What is Square?
EQUAL SIDES
Fo,.lFJ
87
continued
Square measure
In linear measure-measuring along a line in a single direction+ach foot has 12 inches and each yard has 3 feet. But how many square inches are in a square foot or square feet are in a square yard? That's easy to figure out.When we were counting, 10 rows of 10 is 100,which is 10 times 10. So, 12 times 12 or 144 square inches are in a square foot. Notice one more thing: 6 square inches are different from a 6-inch square. A 6-inch square is a square, each side of which is 6 inches long, so it contains 6 times 6, or 36 square inches. 6 square inches could be an area 6 inches long by 1 inch wide, or 3 inches long by 2 inches wide, or even 4 inches long by 1 112 inches wide, each of which multiplies out to 6 square inches.
12 inches = 1 foot
6 square inches
6-inch square
89
OBLONG
AREA = LENGTH TIMES BREADTH = 8 inches X 6 inches = 48 Square Inches
SQUARE-CORNERED TRIANGLE
AREA = HALF LENGTH TIMES BREADTH 1 = - X 8 inches X 6 inches
2
= 24 Square Inches
Parallelograms
So far, squares and rectangles have been covered. What about other four-sided shapes that have parallel sides, but not right angles? Geometry distinguishes two kinds, just as squares and rectangles have right-angle corners. If the four sides are equal, it's called a rhombus, or in common terms, a diamond. If the sides are unequal, it can be called a rhomboid or aparallelogram. The illustration at the top of the next page shows that, if the sides of a rectangle are kept the same, but the angles are changed (it's now a parallelogram) its area decreases, until eventually it disappears, when it "squashes" into a straight line.
90
PARALLELOGRAMS
square
oblong (rectangle)
diamond (rhombus)
(rhomboid)
Area of parallelograms
One way to find the area of a parallelogram is to take it from a different rectangle-one that has one pair of sides the same as the parallelogram, but the other two sides are shorter. The straight-across distance between the first two sides is the same as the distance between those two sides in the parallelogram.
1.
Sides 10" and 15" Distance squarely between 15" sides is 8"
2.
Same parallelogram Sides 10" and 15" Distance between 10" sides is 12"
8 / .$
/
/jQ%
.,<2
*
\c *4
'9
AREA OF PARALLELOGRAM = area of oblong = length X breadth = 15 inches X 8 inches = 120 SQUARE INCHES
15 inches
AREA = 10 INCHES X 12 INCHES = 120 SQUARE INCHES
I
SAME ANSWERS J CHE
91
Away of seeing that the rectangle has the same area as the parallelogram is to note that the parallelogram turns into the rectangle by moving the same size of triangle from one end to the other.
acuteangled triangle
obtuseangled triangle
&
14 inches base Area of Left Oblong = 5" X 12"
= 60 Square Inches
b
Area of Right Oblong = 9" X 12"
SquareCornered 1 Triangle = - X 60 2
= 30 Square Inches
1 Triangle = - X 168 2
= 84 Square Inches
HALF 1 BASE
TIMES
VERTICAL HEIGHT
92
7 inches
base 32 inches
7 inches
X 168
Inches
Inches
93
Area of triangles
You can turn that same triangle around, using its longest side as base, instead of one of the shorter sides. Now, find its area in the same way that you did for the acute triangle. Notice that so long as you take the vertical height from the base to the remaining angle (corner), the formula is true and gives the same answer for the same triangle.
AREA OF A TRIANGLE The answer is the same whichever side is used as Base.
base 40 inches
II
Inches
>
Inches
94
Metric measure
For many years, inconsistency in systems of measurement made learning arithmetic difficult. 12 inches to the foot, 3 feet to the yard, 220 yards to the furlong, and 8 furlongs to the mile. Then, 4 gills to the pint, 2 pints to the quart, and 4 quarts to the gallon in liquid measure. Several measures of weight are used. The common one is avoirdupois: 16 drams to the ounce, 16 ounces to the pound, 14 pounds to the stone, 2 stones to the quarter, 4 quarters to the hundredweight, and 20 hundredweights to the ton. Some of these measures have not been used in recent years. Troy weight, used for jewelry, has 24 grains to the pennyweight, 20 pennyweights to the ounce, and 12 ounces to the pound. Isn't it confusing? Some countries have adopted the metric system, in which every measure is based on 10s. This system is certainly easier to learn. The problem is that so many people already learned to use the old systems, so the new ones, though simpler to learn, are strange to them. Such a change involves making practical changes. For example, plywood is made in sheets 4 feet by 8 feet.What is that in meters? It comes out to an awkward fraction.What do we do? Change the standard size for plywood sheets or describe the present size with rather awkward numbers?
Metric Measure
,'
L
I / -
LINEAR MEASURE
1,000 meters = 1= 1 meter 1 0 centimeters kilometer 0
/I
,-.1 I
T V UIUII I
1,000 grams = 1 ~
95
I0
20
30
1 12
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
I l l l l l l l l l l l
/ /
, 12 inches = , ,. 1 foot -,
\
2 3 24 36 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
)lllllllll~~lll~~~I~~lI~~l
2.54 cm 1 inch
I
1 square inch
Area problems
Simple area problems are concerned with an amount of area, using whatever square units are appropriate. However, sometimes these problems are a matter of "fitting" something into a space of stated dimensions. Areas are not always simple in shape. So, you need ways to figure more complicated shapes. If the shapes are square-cornered, but more than a simple rectangle, several ways might be used to figure them. Shapes other than rectilinear (having straight sides) are covered later in this book. Problems, such as papering a wall can, in turn be complicated by a pattern, which must be matched on adjoining strips.Tilesor material that comes in standard square or oblong pieces give another kind of "matching" problem: how do you cut pieces to fill the space so as to minimize wasted pieces? Many of these problems can be worked out by making detailed trial calculations. Examples are shown on the next two pages.
I X h
9 ft
I
1 ft
I-- --..
piece piece piece piece piece
II
piece -
1sx9 ; 135 sq ft
ft
@ 135 @ 6 @ 9 @ 32 @ 15
8X4= f1 ( 1
area = 197
1
METHOD 2 k i
pi&e
f4 t 8 ft
>
@ 12 @ 15 @ 28
@ 1 2 1=12sqft ~
I I I I
11
5X 3= 15 sqft
piece @ I 7X4= 28 sq ft L-------I
I
I =
1I
97
f)
14"
vi
Papering a Wall
...
86..
s t panel
2nd panel
3rd panel
4th panel
!$
a
Five panels must be allowed. Each 86" long. Total 430" or 35 feet 10 inches Avoid joins in panels. If 30-ft rolls are used (36OU), will do 4 panels: 344". this Last panel must start new roll.
IT-
1 2
3
4
Tiling a Floor
1st wayt'
L -3k1 04
kt 3 l4 -f o
2nd way
5
f
d12"k
98
2. What is a right angle? Why is it so named? 3. How many square feet are in (a) 5 square feet, (b) a 5-foot square? 4. Find the area of square-cornered triangles, where the sides by the square corner have the following dimensions: (a) (c) (e) 5 inches by 6 inches 20 yards by 30 yards 20 inches by 2 feet (b) (d) (f) 12 feet by 13 feet 3 miles by 4 miles 750 yards by 1 mile
5. A field was thought to have four straight sides. Opposite pairs of sides measure 220 yards and 150 yards respectively.But the field does not have square corners. A measurement between the opposite 220-yard sides finds that the straight-across distance is 110 yards. Find the area of the field in acres (an acre is 4,840 square yards). 6. A parallelogram has sides 20 inches and 15 inches long. The straight-across distance between the 20-inch sides is 12 inches. Calculate the straight-across distance between the 15-inch sides. (HINT: use the fact that the area can be calculated in two ways.) 7. Find the area of the following triangles: (a) (b) (c) base 11 inches, height 16 inches base 31 inches, height 43 inches base 27 inches, height 37 inches
8. Two sides of a triangle are 39 inches and 52 inches. When the 39-inch side is used as the base, the vertical height is 48 inches.What is the vertical height when the 52-inch side is used as the base? 9. A piece of property has two square corners. The side that joins these square corners is 200 yards long. Measuring from each square corner, the two adjoining sides are 106.5 yards and 265.5 yards. The fourth side, joining the ends of these sides is 250 yards long. What is the acreage of this property? (HINT: treat this area in two parts, an oblong and a square-cornered triangle.)
99
10. A piece of property measures 300 yards by 440 yards. The owner wants to keep a smaller piece inside that piece that measures 110 yards by 44 yards and sell the rest.What is the area he wants to sell? 11. Find the area of the floor in the drawing.
ROOM DIMENSIONS
T'
4'0"
2'0"
2'0"
J L
5'0"
U/
A
4'6"
\I
/\
\'
3'0"
A
DOOR
\j
WINDOW
9'0"
6 "4 9'
A
7'0"
1. ;;
2'3"
WINDOW
6'0"
t , h /.
1
4'6"
2'3"
12. The walls of the room in question 11 are 7-feet high. Doors and windows at the positions shown, run from floor to ceiling.What is the total surface area of the walls?
- - -
101
Later, volume is related to measure and weight. For now, the fourth dimension needs our attention: time.
PERIOD - - A MEASUREMENT OF
h
TIME
o"(i
Speed
1 mile every
IS minutes
2 miles
3 milts
3 milcs
S p e d X Time = Distance
60 MILES
103
Average speed
In the last section, it was assumed that speed was steady. It isn't always. On a 300mile journey, you might go 30 miles the first hour, 45 miles the second, 60 miles the third, 55 miles the fourth, fifth and sixth hours. A total of 300 miles are travelled in 6 hours. So,the average speed is 300/6 = 50 miles an hour.You probably didn't travel at a steady speed all the way. Sometimes you went faster, sometimes slower.This measure is called average speed. It is the steady speed necessary to cover the distance in the same time.
300 miles
uuuuuu
30 Mph
45 Mph
60 Mph
55 Mph
55 Mph
55 Mph
Start
1 mile in 1 minute
1 mile in 40 seconds
(i
60 + 2 3
= 90 mph
minute)
1 mile
Lap is 3 miles;
1
time is 2 minutes
Speed is 3 i - = 90 mph 30
104
Watch your car's speedometer. You will find that you can seldom go at a steady speed for a whole hour, or even for a few minutes. Measuring the distance covered every hour shows the average speed during that hour. Instead of noting the distance travelled every hour, you might notice your speed on the speedometer every few minutes. The speedometer will show how your speed varies during each hour. Perhaps you have to brake to a stop during the hour. What does that do to the average? Later, calculus will help you answer that problem. A racing driver watches his speed closely. Each lap of track might be 1 mile long. Speed for the lap can be figured by timing that lap. If the lap is made in exactly 1 minute, the speed is 60 miles per hour. If a mile requires 40 seconds, he would drive 1 112 miles in 60 seconds,which would be 90 miles per hour.
Time
6 5 4 3.5 4 3.5 5.5 4.5 4
d
Miles
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Average of speeds
5 6 7.5 8.57 7.5 8.57 5.45 6.67
5
50
Complete run
l l 68.17 ?
WHICH IS THE RIGHT AVERAGE?
105
A lap is 3 miles and the time is 2 minutes (1130 of an hour). Dividing 3 miles by 1/30,which is the same as multiply by 30, gives the speed as 90 miles per hour. Suppose you time a 50-mile race, made by driving 10 laps on a 5-mile course. The times made by one driver for the 10 laps were 6, 5,4, 3.5,4, 3.5, 5.5,4.5,4 and 4 minutes. The total time for 50 miles was 44 minutes, an average speed of 68.17 mph. You could calculate the average speed for each lap and then average the speed over 10 laps. Each represents the speed for 1110 of the total distance. So, shouldn't the average be found by adding together the speed for each lap and dividing by lo? Doing that gives an average of 70.26 mph, a different figure. Which is right?
MINUTES
Lap number
1
Time
6 5 4 3.5
4
Miles
5
PER MILE
1.2
+ 10=
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 5 5
5
3.5
5.5 4.5 4
4
5 5 5 5 5
Complete Run
44
50
0.88 minutes per mile = 0.88 X50 = 44 minutes for 50 miles.
0.88
106
In the previous section, distance was the reference used: time was measured every 5 miles, rather than distance every so many minutes. That is why the discrepancy occurs. Look at slowness instead of speed: minutes per mile, instead of miles per minute.We don't usually measure in minutes per mile. The figures would be 1.2, 1,O.8,0.7,0.8,0.7,1.1,0.9,0.8, and 0.8 minutes per mile. Adding the figures produces 8.8 minutes. As each was taken over 5 miles, not 1, 50 miles will require 5 times 8.8 (44 minutes), an average of 68.17 miles per hour.
%s 50 m e per hour
30 rnph for 30 rnin 15 miles 60 mph for 30 min %miles 45 miles per hour 30 mph for 40 min 20 miles 60 mph for 20 min 20 miles
40 miles per hour
30 mph for 50 min 25 miles 60 mph for 10 min 10 miles 35 miles per hour 60 rnph for 1 hour 60 miles
107
Making up time
Now suppose you have 45 miles to go and an hour to do it in. At a steady speed that would be 45 mph. But suppose you go at 30 rnph for 10 minutes-that's 5 miles travelled. Now you need to go 40 miles in 50 minutes-48 mph. That's just 3 rnph faster than going steady all the way.
50 minutes. Needs
20 minutes. Needs
10 minutes. Needs
BUT NO TIME!
108
Rate of growth
Speed and rate ofgrowth are similar ideas, rather like comparing the hare and the tortoise method of travel. In terms of minutes or hours, growth might be imperceptible. You can measure time in days or weeks. You can measure growth in inches or feet. The rate of growth raises another question of reference quantity. If a seedling is 2 inches high today, and tomorrow it's 10 inches high, that sounds like fast growth. However, if a 30-foot tree grows to 30 feet 8 inches by tomorrow, you'd have to look twice to see if it had grown overnight at all. When you add 8 inches to 2 inches, that's a big growth. But added to 30 feet, 8 inches doesn't seem like much.
BOTH GROW 8 INCHES, BUT ONE DOESN'T SEEM AS SIGNIFICANT AS THE OTHER
109
Fractional increase
The seedling grew from 2 inches to 10 inches, increasing 4 times yesterday's height. The 30-foot tree added 213 foot (8 inches), which is only 213 divided by 30, as a fraction of the height of the tree: 2/90 or 1/45. Considered as a fractional increase, the seedling adds 4 times its height, the tree only 1/45, although both actual measurements are 8 inches. Using fractional increase as a reference, the seedling grows 180 times as fast as the tree.
Percentages
Percentages are a standard way to express things as a fractional reference. Percentages were developed before decimals to make working in fractions easier. Decimals might be easier to understand directly, but percentages were used so long that they became a habit for many purposes. Percentages began because fractions are clumsy. If you were asked which is the bigger fraction, 215 or 318, could you answer just by looking at them? Converting to decimals makes it easy: 2/5 is 0.4 and 3/8 is 0.375. So, 2/5 is larger.
110
2. BY DECIMALS
3. BY PERCENTAGES
FOOT)
2 1 30 = - - 90 45
2
3
111
Percentages use 100 as the denominator, so the numerator can often be a simple number. You can see that percentages, like decimals, make it easier to compare fractions at a glance. 40% is obviously more than 37.5%. Another reason for using percentages is that they always refer to the starting size or number. If you say something grew 8 inches, you don't know whether to think if that's fast or slow,unless you know how big it was at the beginning. For the seedling,it is 400%. For the tree, it is 2/45 x 100 =200/45 = 2 2/9% or 2.222%. A percentage is a number divided by 100,taken as a fraction of the number that you started with.
5 cents
goes
Percentage increase:
Everybody pays 10%
5 cents
( 6
goes up to
112
A railway company has to raise fares because costs have increased. It would not be fair to charge everyone $1 more. That would raise a 5-cent fare to $1.05 and a $30 fare to only $3 1. If the profits for a company are $10,000, $50 would be given to each of the 200 stockholders. One stockholder might have invested $1, another $100,000. Would it be fair for each of them to get $50 of the profit? Such things are worked out on a percentage basis. If the railway's costs rise from $100,000,000 to $110,000,000, that is a 10% increase. To get this money back in fares charged, each should increase by 10%.Thus, the 5-cent fare would then only increase to 5.5 cents (probably 6 cents), and the $30 fare would go to $33. Similarly, if profits are $10,000 on a total investment of $2,000,000, the rate is 5%. The stockholder who invested $1 gets 5 cents. The one who invested $100,000 gets $5,000 dividend.
FIRST MAN
Buys
for $100,000
113
SECON
for $125,000
96 e g g
110
114
or blocks to represent the number of members for each year. If you draw each member at 1/16 inch, 100 members are 6 7 / 8 " high. Having drawn the lines, equally spaced,to represent 1-year intervals,you have avisual picture of membership growth.You can place the lines either horizontally or vertically.
Graphs
Visual presentations can help in many ways. A club might want to show how many members belong to certain groups: engineers, doctors, lawyers, salesmen, factory workers, shop assistants, truck drivers, musicians, etc. They could list these occupations as percentages or a number of lines could be placed side by side, as on the previous page. But here, the idea is to show how much each is, of the whole. So, a square of suitable width is marked off in 100 units and each group is given a space, which represents that percentage of the total. Since the total is loo%, all the widths together must fill the box.
MEMBERSHIP COMPOSITION
SALESMEN 3%
GRAPHS
How a Graph is Made
Each tenth divides by ten again making 100 parts
MUSICIANS
ENGINEERS
'51
115
Another way that is sometimes favored, is to divide a circle up in the same way. Its circumference is divided into 100 parts (10 are shown here to make it clearer). Then, divide the circumference according to the percentages in the groups and draw lines from each marker to the center. Graphs are also used to help make calculations.Suppose tests on an electric motor relate electrical wattage input to horsepower output. Results are tabulated-from electrical power running "light" with no mechanical output, to electrical power inputs for various horsepower outputs. Suppose you have a job that requires an unlisted amount of horsepower.How do you calculate the electrical power it needs? A graph makes the job easier. Mark points on squared paper to show all the figures in the table, then join the dots made.You need not know anything about electricity to do this graph. Find the amount of electrical power that is needed for the new job by reading it on your graph.T h s process is called interpolation. Graphs can show a lot of things that are not obvious from the figures used to make them. They also are useful to check figures. In making the tests tabulated, you read meters to write down numbers. A meter might have numbers on its scale at 20 and 30, with 9 unmarked lines in between. The reading should be 23, but maybe you wrote 27 by mistake. All the other readings are correct.
Power supply
Electrical Wattmeter
Electric Motor
Mechanical Hosepower
INTERPOLATION
I 0 2 !
0!4
016
d.8
110
112
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
116
QUANTITY A
QUANTITY B
QUANTITY A QUANTITY
R
2.75
when rechecked
2
E
50 40
2 30 $ 20
810
y l I I I I I I I I I
Overall Average
9
V1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
z 2
w '
F:
a
6
4
2 2
0171!1;1:1!1:1~1~~1:~
LAPS
117
You plot your graph using your figures. All the points line up nicely, except the one that you wrongly copied as 27. This point immediately gives you a clue where you made the mistake. So, you take that reading again and find that you misread the meter. Modern meters have digital readings. You could copy the numbers down wrong. Nobody is exempt from making occasional mistakes. The same basic information can often be presented in a variety of different ways. Going back to the race track situation from earlier in this chapter, here are some ways to show the driver's performance visually. Here visual can have two meanings: watching him go around the track or using graphs that analyze his performance visually.
8. During early weeks of growth, a tree's height is recorded every week. For 5 successive weeks, the heights are 16It, 24 ", 36 ", 54", and 8 1It.what is the percentage growth per week for each of the 4 weeks? What is the percentage for the whole month?
118
9. Make a graph of the tree's growth for the month. From the graph, estimate the height of the tree in the middle of the second week. 10. A race track has an 8-mile lap that consists of 5 miles with many hairpins, corners, and grades.The remaining 3 miles has straights and banked curves.The best time any car can make over the 5-mile part is 6 minutes, but the 3-mile section lets drivers "open up." Two drivers tie for the best on the 5-mile part, but one averages 90 mph on the 3-mile part, and the other averages 120 mph. Find the average speed for each on the whole lap. 11. A car is checked for mileage per gallon and is found to give 32 mpg on straight turnpike driving. How far will it go on a tankful if the tank holds 18 gallons? 12. A company needs printed circuit boards for which two processes are available. The first needs a tool that costs $2,000, then makes boards for 15 cents apiece. The other uses a procedure that initially costs $200, then makes boards for 65 cents each. Find the cost per board, assuming the total quantity ordered is: 100, 500, 1,000,2,000, 5,000, and 10,000units, by each process. 13. Plot a graph of the cost per board by the two processes (question 12) for quantities from 1,000 to 10,000 boards. For how many boards would the cost of both processes be the same? 14. Driving a car at a steady 40 mph produces a mileage of 28 mpg. Driving the same car at 60 mph reduces the mileage to 24 mpg. On a journey of 594 miles, how much gas will be saved by driving at the slower speed and how much longer will the journey take? 15. A man pays $200,000 for some property. After a year its value rises 25%, but he does not sell. During the next year its value drops lo%, after which he sells. What profit did he make on his original investment (a) in cash? (b) percent? Why was it not 25 - 10 = 15% profit? 16. After all allowances and deductions have been made, a man's taxable income is $120,000. How much tax will he pay at 20% on the first $30,000 and 22% on the rest? 17. A square-cornered triangle with 12-foot and 16-foot sides against the square corner has the same area as a parallelogram with opposite pairs of sides that are 10 feet and 16 feet long.What is the distance between the 16-foot sides? 18. An aircraft gains altitude at 1,000 feet per minute. How long does it take to climb to its flying altitude of 22,000 feet? If its forward speed while climbing is 360 mph, how far does it travel while climbing?
119
19. An aircraft in level flight has a speed of 420 mph, but it consumes fuel at half the rate (per minute) compared with climbing. How far can the plane fly level, using the same amount of fuel used in climbing to 22,000 feet?
- - -
- - -
J/
space
20
125
+ 24 feet.
The words on either side of the equals sign have the same value; they are different ways of naming the same amount. Next, if you subtract 24 feet from each side of that equals sign, the statement or equation will still be true. Each side will be 24 feet less. Now you have: Total length of fencing - 24 feet = 16 widths. Divide both sides by 16 and it will still be true. Each side will be 1116 what it was before. Length of fencing - 24 feet, all divided by 16 = width.
pieces each -long
= -
=piaq
long = a n d v l
pieces each
long =I 6 widths
a n d 1 -
Total length of fencing =d an Total length of fencing is 16 X 25, then add 24 feet
250 400
@
I
Total fencing length is 456 ft: find width and length of enclosure
I
Reverse Process
-1
456 Subtract 24 ft +24
II
II
Answer 2
Writing it as algebra
Writing problems of this kind can be shortened by using the first, or some convenient letter, to stand for each original measurement or quantity in the problem. You could write w for width. Length is specified as 3 times the width, so write length as 3w,meaning 3 times w. Finally, write f for the total length of fencing. When using algebra, as in arithmetic, always be careful that units are consistent. Here they are all in feet. Do not use some in inches or yards, and others in feet.
idths
feet
The single letter can stand for these Since the whole problem is stated in
feet
Standard Letters
The same problem, using standard letters, is y = 16x+24 where: x = width of enclosure in feet y = total length of fencing in feet
127
When you start in algebra, a lot of questions arise that many teachers don't answer, so most people eventually give up. Through this book, I try to answer questions as they logically arise.
ARITHMETIC
163
means plus plus
ALGEBRA
means all multiplied by
100 60 3
18
30
48
6x lox 16x
Brackets or parentheses
When many older folks learned algebra, the use of brackets or parentheses, was standardized. Some uses that you will see today were considered unnecessary.
In algebra
ab means a times b If a is 2 and b is 3; ab=2X3=6
=12(w+6)11+p1
+ 12 + 12
16w+
as before
129
Vinculum
+( w + 6 )
+ 61 { w +6 ) w +6
YOU
3[x+4(x+5)+2(x-3)]=210
A A A A
A
A A
0Take x
@ Take x, add 5
multiply by 4
@ Take x, subtract 3
multiply by 2
his makes
Multiply each part of what's inside the parentheses by what's outside it. Then, collect the pieces inside the big parentheses. Add the three x terms: 1 (don't write the 1 in algebra), 4, and 2. That makes 7x. Add two plain numbers, 20 and -6. 20 - 6 = 14.Now, you can multiply the whole thing by 3 more easily: 21x 42. An easier, more direct way exists in this case. If 3 times what's in the big parentheses is 210, then each must be 113 of 2 10 (70). 7x + 14 = 70. If you subtract 14 from both, the new numbers will still be equal. 14 - 14 is 0. So, 7x + 14 - 14 = 70 - 14. 70 - 14 = 56. So 7x = 56. Divide both sides by 7: x = 8. That's the number you wanted to know. Check it. First, you have 8. Then, multiply 5 more than 8 (which is 13) by 4. That makes 52. Finally, multiply 3 less than 8 (which is 5) by 2. That makes 10. Adding together: 8 52 10 = 70. 3 x 70 = 210, which is what the problem said to start with.
+ +
I
1
21x + 42 = 210
Same answer
131
One way of writing the problem is shown. Each price was written as a number of nickels. You could also write it in dollars, but that would involve decimals. Whatever units you use, stick to them throughout the problem.
ap?jJmm
to boys and girls
aam
How manv bovs?
Cost of boys' meals Q -5 x Cost of girls' meals -3(1 42 1 Total cost
nickels x) nickels
4 boys 11 - 4 = 7 girls
Each boy pays $16.20 i or $4 05 4
Magic by algebra
This trick is good to use at a party. Ask each person to think of a number (not say what it is) and write it on a piece of paper. Then, tell them to: Add 5. Multiply by 2. Subtract 4. Multiply by 3. Add 24. Divide by 6. Subtract the number you first thought of. Give them time to do each, before you give the next instruction. Finally you announce that their answer is 7.
133
The fact that they all thought of different numbers, but all have the same answer (if they didn't make a mistake) seems like magic. However, you can prove that it works by using x to stand for any number.The fact that x disappears at the end shows that the answer will work for any number.
8 a
a
8 1
1 Think of a number x 2 Add5 x + ~ Multiply by 2 2(x + 5 ) = 2x + 10 @ Subtract 4 2x + 6 Multiply by 3 3(2x + 6) = 6x + 18 6 Add 24 6x + 42 7 Divide by 6 x + ~ 7
1 Think of a number x 2 Add5 x + ~ Multiply by 2 2(x + 5) @ Subtract 4 2(x + 5 ) - 4 Multiply by 3 3 [2(x + 5) - 41 6 Add 24 3[2(x + 5 ) - 41 + 24 7 Divide by 6 3[2(x + 5 ) - 41 + 24 6 @ Subtract x 3[2(x + 5 ) - 41 + 24 -X 6 Simplify: 3[2(x + 5 ) - 41 + 24 - x = 3 [ 2 ~ 10-41 + 24 +
-xl
a -
a=?===/
t Water x mph
\
~~~-~
- , -
Water moves downstream at x mph. Boat's speed downstream is (30 + x) mph. In 10 minutes, he goes 1 6 (30 + x) miles. He drifts for 30 minutes - mph. Totalisdistance at x downstream 1 1
g(30+x)+y~.
<
1 1 - (30 + x) + - x miles&
He drives upstream at (30 - x) rnph for 20 minutes. This brings 1 him back - (30 - x) miles. 1 3 1 1 Hefini~hes~(30+x)+yx-~(30-~) miles downstream from starting point.
Floating log
w
4
5 miles
(+>
In 10 minutes drive
1 5 x miles.
In next 30 minutes, boat stays 5 miles from log. Both drift 1 - x downstream. Log is now
., -
from start.
<
5 miles
( 6 )
>
Downstream is + Upstream is Boat going upstream travels Speed is boat's water- speed less speed of water - (-) = + because water is still going downstream
135
5 miles
--
I
NWIIIWWVCLCX
Water flows at 5 mph. Boat finishes 5 miles above log, which is 5 miles downstream. So boat is back at starting point.
= 4 miles
5 miles
1 mile
ab means a times b
Number problems
Suppose someone notices that a certain number's ones' digit is twice the tens' digit, but adding 18 to the first number reverses its digits.What number have you got? You could try a few numbers until you find the one that "works." Algebra gives you a more direct route. Assume that the ten's digit is x, then the tens' digit means 1Ox.The ones' digit is twice x (2x). So, the whole number is 12x.Now, add 18.that's 12x + 18.What was the units' digit is now the tens' digit.The tens' digit in the new number is 20x instead of 1Ox. The unit's digit is just x instead of 2x, so the new number is 21x. Write an equation putting these two descriptions together.
Subtract 12x from both sides or move the 12x to the other side by changing its sign (however you prefer to think of that), and get 9x = 18 (or 18 = 9x). x is 2 and the original ones' digit is twice that (4). The numbers are 24 and 42. Check: 42 - 24 = 18. That problem was easy. They're not all that easy, but the same method works.Working with them helps you to understand the differences.
137
1st Number is - i
vm
g 2
Add 18 But this makes the
A Number Problem
number is lox + 2x = 12x This makes 12x + 18
2nd Number
whichis2Ox+x=2~x
First number is 24 Add 18 Total is 42, which is the original number reversed
4. Suppose x = 5 and y = 7.Then what is the value of xy? Why isn't it 57? How can 57 be expressed in terms of x and y
+ +
6. Write down and simplify an expression for the following: a number has 5 added, then is multiplied by 3; the same number has 6 added, then is multiplied
9. The ones' digit of a number is 2 more than its tens' digit. Multiplied by 3, the tens' digit is what the ones' digit is. What is the number? (HINT: use x for the tens' digit.)
10. A two-figure number has a one's digit that is 1more than the tens' digit.When the number is multiplied by 4, the ones' digit is what the tens' digit was, and the tens' digit is 3 times the first ones' digit. What was the original number? (HINT: use x for the original tens' digit.) 11. Use algebra to show that in any number where the ones' digit is 1 more than the tens' digit, adding 9 will reverse the digits. 12. Use algebra to show that in any number where the one's digit is greater than the tens' digit, adding 9 times the difference between the digits reverses them. (HINT: use a for the tens' digit, a + x for the units' digit.) 13. By substituting various values of x into the following two expressions, say what is different about them. Show why the second is unique:
14. In each of the following expressions, y is on one side and an expression containing x is on the other. In each case, make a transpositionthat will put x by itself on one side, with the correct expression containing y on the other.
(e) y = 3x- 7
(0 = Y
5x+4
139
16. Make a graph showing several x and y values for each of the following equations.By doing this, you will see that equations (a) and (c) are fundamentally different than equations (b) and (d).What is the difference? (a) (b) (c) (dl y=x+2 y + 1 = x ( 3 x - 1) 5+x=2-2y x = ~ Y ( Y 1) -
17. Choose any number. Add 6 to this number. Multiply the resulting sum by 3. Then from this, subtract 12. Divide the result by 3. Finally, subtract the number you chose to begin with. The answer will always be 2. Write down a series of expressions showing how this "magic number" problem works.
- - -
141
Dimension in algebra
Different places, according to the power of x involved, also correspond to successive dimensions. When you multiply a length by a length, the result is an area. Multiply the area by another length and the result is a volume. That is why x times x is called x squared, and x times x times x is called x cubed. A cube is the simplest form of volume. On this page, you have multiplied mixed numbers (something times x times a simple number), one of which stands for a square (this one has an x2 in it) and the other represents a simple dimension, to get a cube. First, use numbers times x, x squared, and x cubed. Then, use letters instead of numbers, a, b, c, d, e. Here, a, b, c, d, e represent numbers, which you can fill in, if you know them. If you substitute a = 3, b = 5, c = 4, d = 7, and e = 6, this is the same as the numbers you used first. The letters allow you to fill in any other numbers, and the general form as it is called, gives you the answer in terms of powers of x. When such letters are used, x, y, and z are variables, but a, b, c, etc., are called constants. Constants can have different values, but these values remain constant in a particular problem.
aex2 + bex + ce adx3 + bdx2 + cdx adx3 + (ae + bd)x2 + (be + cd) x + ce
143
cch 0
"
" Y
60 50
40
30 20 10
0
\i4
3x+5 3x + 5 = y 3x + 5 = 65
the middle. For the problem being worked, the quantities on either side of the equals sign are equal. That sounds obvious?Well, later came inequations and more. An inequation is like an equation, except that two expressions are not equal, which school algebra shows with an #. Some statements use the signs > meaning "is greater than," and < meaning "is less than," to be more specific. Next came "truth" statements,which simply tell whether such equations or inequations are true or false. Computers use such statements with similar signs, except that they use > < or < > (take your pick, they both mean the same) instead of #.
> <
>
d:
EQUATION INEQUATIONS >< or <> GREATER THAN > LESS THAN < NOTGREATERTHAN = < NOT LESS THAN => TRUTH TABLE
Here is a simple example. In school algebra, the equation x + 2 = 9 can be true only if x is 7. If true, it is equally true written the other way around: 9 = x 2.Complicate it a little with an equation, such as, x 2 = 2x - 3.You can still find a value for x for which the equation is true. Try 5. No other value "works" in that equation. It's a good school equation. Now look at this: x = x + 2.In school algebra it's impossible. It cannot be "true." No value of x can make it 2 more than itself. But to a computer that, written exactly like an equation in school algebra, is an "action statement." After the computer "reads" the statement, it means x is 2 more than it was before. It would go like this. Maybe x has a value of 7. The computer reads x = x 2.Now, x has a value of 9-2 more than it was before. In school algebra, x = 7 and 7 = x both mean the same thing. A computer could read x = x + 2, but not x + 2 = x. However, it could read x = x - 2. Confusing? Start thinking about it now, you will understand it better when you get to use it.
145
x+l 3 x+2 4
12
{ 6x + 4(x
+ 1 ) + 3(x +2)
--
{6x+4x+4+3x+6)
ee consecutive numbers. But the three we want give a fourth consecutive number, x + 3; so:
CHECK
E + Z +28
2 3 4
=13+9+7=29
As required
Simultaneous equations
Often a problem can be solved with only one variable. Sometimes it is easier to use two or more variables. If you know that 4 times one number plus 5 times another number add up to 47, and 5 times the first number plus 4 times the second number add up to 43: how would you find the answers? The numbers can be found in several ways. Don't think that one way is the only right way. Sometimes you can even spot a way that's easier than the "textbook" way. Here the textbook way "eliminates" one variable.To do so, multiply one equation, both sides, by 4, and the other one by 5, then subtract one product from the other. That gets rid of one variable: 4 times the 1st is 16x + 20y = 188. Five times the 2nd is 25x + 20y = 21 5. Subtracting the 1st from the 2nd is 9 x = 27. So x = 3. From either equation you can then get y = 7. Check it for yourself.
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
@ 4x+5y=47 @ 5x+4y=43
10
cc
h
0
5y=47-4x 4y=43-5x
y=
1 (47 - 4x) 5
cn
QI
c .
@4x3+5~7=12+35=47 @5~3+4~7=15+28=43
The previous method is graphical. However, one student who couldn't do algebra saw 9 "miscellaneous unknowns" in both equations, but one had 5 x's and 4 y's, and the other had the other combination.He concluded that y must be 4 more than x. Putting y = x 4 into either one produced the equation 9x = 27. From that point, the method was the same.
147
2x-y=1
5(x + 1) = 3(y + 1)
5x+5 =3y+3
5x-3y=-2
Here are a few examples, the first of which is the fraction problem from the previous section that shows how to eliminate one variable. First, multiply one or both equations by numbers that will make the variable to be eliminated have the same coeficient (a fancy word for the number in front of the variable). Then, either add or subtract the two equations in that form. If the signs are the same, subtract. If they are opposite, add. Here is a third problem, reduced to two equations so that you can concentrate on the algebraic method. Study each of the three examples on these pages, so you understand how to use this method, called eliminating one variable. Always check your results.
PROBLEM 1
EIl
y = 10-1 = 9
5 =4 - ---1 --
Multiply @ by
Signs are the
=5
Substitutein @ 2 x 5 - y = I
CHECK
Fraction is 5 : 9
9-1
1 8 2
continued
PROBLEM 2
@
@
n
To eliminate y
7x
= 91
@ 13 + y = 30
CHECK
3y = 40 @
TOeliminate y
Multiply Multiply
@ by 7
@ by 3
43x
= 301
CHECK
7 + 3 x 11=7+33=40
12 X 7 - 7 X 11 = 8 4 - 7 7 = 7
Solving by substitution
In the three sets of equations so far, you used the first method, eliminating one variable. The following method can often be a short cut. The section of simultaneous equations introduced it at the end. Interestingly, the student who "discovered" it was having problems with algebra! The method is demonstrated here more formally. Again, don't forget to check your result.
149
Most teachers came to rely on published answers to check their results. This led to students doing the same thing-if they could get the answer book. Checking your own result not only avoids such "cheating": In life, when you use mathematics, you don't have an "answer book." In recent years, many engineering projects have failed because the designers didn't know how to check their work.The Golden Gate bridge is still going strong. Many more recent bridges have plunged people into the drink below because they failed. The habit of checking your work could save lives when you get into the work world!
Rearrange
@ to give
Value for y:
Substitute in
y=8x-1
7x
+ 2 (8x - 1) = 90
Substitute in
y = 8 X 4 - 1 = 31
CHECK
l'O 30
To eliminate Y
Multiply Multiply
@ by 4
@
by 3
30
10
Substitute in
2 0
y
4 - - 24-- 4 s o -
y=5
Alternative
Multiply Multiply
0 by l5xy
@
by 30xy
CHECK
6+3=3
1 + -3= - - -+ 9 14 5 5 15 - 15
151
Algebra
Arithmetic
79
Algebra
x-5
lGF -%
237
559
370
1 3x3 - 16x2 - 8x + 45
3x3 - 15x2
3x2- x
13
553
x2-8x x2+5x
-
13x + 4 5 13x + 65
3x + 5 and x
*- 7 x + 9 ARE FACTORS
2. Perform the following divisions. In each case, check your result by multiplication.
3. Use long division to find the factors of: (a) x2 + 2x- 35 (b) x3 + x2 - 5x - 5 (c) x3 + x2 - 7x - 3
NOTE: each of the above has two factors.
4. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations. If there is no solution, explain. (a) (b) (c) (d) 4x - 8y = 2 and -3x + 5y = -5 2x+3y=Oand7~-2~=2 y = 2 x + 4 a n d y = -2x-6 y = 4x+2andy = 4x-2
5. A rectangle has certain dimension. Making it 2 feet wider and 5 feet longer increases its area by 133 square feet. Making it 3 feet wider and 8 feet longer increases its area by 2 17 square feet.What were its original dimensions? A good question for simultaneous equations. 6. Divide the number c into two parts, such that a times one part is equal to b times the other part. If c is 28, a is 3 and b is 4, what are the parts? It might be easiest to find the second part first. 7. A fraction is somewhere between 314 and 415. Adding 3 to both the numerator and the denominator makes the fraction equal to 415, but 4 subtracted from each makes the fraction equal to 314.What is the fraction? 8. In another fraction, adding 1 to both the numerator and the denominator makes the fraction equal to 417, but 1 subtracted from each makes the fraction equal to 519.What is the fraction?
153
9. Adding 1 to the numerator and denominator of another fraction makes it equal 7/12, but 1 subtracted from each makes it equal to 9/16. What is the fraction? 10. The highest two of four consecutive numbers, multiplied together, produce a product that is 90 more than the lowest two multiplied together. What are the numbers? 11. Work with five consecutive numbers yields the fact that if the middle three numbers are multiplied together, they are 15 more than the first, middle, and last numbers multiplied together.What are the numbers? 12. A man has an option on a piece of land. He was told that the measurements were 50 feet longer than it is wide.The survey shows that it is 10 feet less in width than he was told. The seller offers him an extra 10 feet in length. Does he get the same total area? If not, how much does he lose on the deal? Does it depend on the actual dimensions?
- - -
Quadratics
155
1 1
0
175 1300
1 1 1 1 1 1 I
375
400
375
300
175
Method
5
35
10 30
30
35
5
40 0
40
156
Quadratics
Values of x
Quadratics
157
FACTORS
7 ' x2
Values of x
158
Quadratics
Quadratics
159
Make sure you understand the points these diagrams show: 1. How the solutions are derived from the points where the graphs cross the zero line 2. How the root (answer) that corresponds to the factor has the opposite sign.
3. Its value is the numerical part of the factor, divided by the coefficient of x (or whatever variable you use).
If factor is x
has-
OPPOSITE SIGN
160 Quadratics
EXPRESSION
FACTORS
Quadratics
161
Expression
Rearranged
I JI is
1 @ 1 x 2 - 6 : l j ~ 2 - 6 ~ ~ = - 1
I
I = 10%
Both sides need to be changed so that the left side has the number 10 1/36. Then, 1/36 is on the right side, which is the square of 116.The other side isn't so easy, although it looked easier at first. The square is 3, so the root must be the square root of 3.
162 Quadratics
(FIRST EQUATION)
1 1 I So ( x - 3 -6) = + - o r - - 6 6
1 If x - 3 - 6 + - 6 -- 1
x = 3 - + -6 = 6
Two Answers
0
(SECOND EQUATION)
So ( x - 3 ) = + a o r - &
1f x - 3 = + h
Two Answers
If x - 3 = - A
or x = 3
1
x2=9
19
63x = 3 X 7 = 19 ~ * - 6 7 ~ = 91-9 ~ - 1 0
1
Quadratics
163
x=3-& 6x=6(3-&)=
x 2 = 3 2 - 2 ~ 3x 18-6&
f i +K 2 = 9 - 6 & + 3 = 1 2 - 6 h
answers check
= 12-6t./?-18+6&=-6
= 33
36 when x
164 Quadratics
Comparing methods
If a problem can be solved in two or more ways, making a comparison can help in two ways: you can pick the best method for a particular problem, and you can gain a better overall understanding of the methods. What the factor method means, when looked at as geometry, is shown below. Writing an equation with zero on one side, if it factors, can represent a rectangle where each factor represents one of its dimensions. When either of its sides is zero, its area is zero. Factors find what those values are. Look at the completing the square method in steps.You start with a similar general form: x2 + bx + c = 0. The coefficient of x is optional, but eliminating ' it makes the equations easier to solve. First, rearrange it so that the number is on the other side with the sign changed. Now, the left side has an incomplete square. The third step is to complete the square, and the fourth is to add the same to both sides. Now, you have a complete square on the left, so the fifth step is to take the square root of both sides. Finally, transpose the roots so that you have a statement that lists the two values of x (or whatever variable your equation uses).
What it Means
dx + e
2. Find Factors
(dx + e)(fx
Such that
+ g) = 0
df = a
ef+dg=b
eg = c &
3. Solutions are
x=- e d
Quadratics
165
The geometry shows what it means. This method is more involved than just finding the factors, but it always gets an answer, which finding the factors cannot do so easily.
1. Expression
x2+bx+c=0
2. Rearranged
x2+bx=-c
x-
'f>
2 -2 2
0
--
0 .%
0 u
> c 0 a
6. Transpose
Formula method
Theformula method really applies the completing the square method to derive a formula, into which you substitute the constants if the problem can be expressed in that general form.Theform of the answer shown on this page might look different from the one that is generally given in textbooks. This example is to relate it better to the geometric way of visualizing it.The more common form is:
166 Quadratics
@ @
@ @ @
@
b x 2+ - x = - - C a a
b Complete the Square: n is - n 2 = 2 b 2a 4a2
2-a
Solving by formula
Once you reduce the problem to the standard form, the formula method is just a matter of substituting the numbers. Work through the same equations solved by factors. Pay particular attention to the signs, since you should have already learned to do them by factors. Here are some more quadratics that are solved by formula. No. 5 (on page 168) follows the same method of examples 1 through 4. You might not immediately spot the square root of 169, but you can check it by multiplying 13 by 13. No. 6 (on page 168) needs to be rearranged before the formula can be used, by multiplying through by x and then transposing. No. 7 (on page 168) is the first of a kind where the final result on the right doesn't have a simple root. You need the square root of 8, which is something less than 3. So, one answer is a small fraction (an unending decimal) and the other is slightly less than 6. That sign (which you'll find on a calculator button) means the square root of, and it is called a surd.
Quadratics
167
SOLVING BY FORMULA
Watch
Signs
168 Quadratics
Rearrange: 6x2- 5x - 6 = 0
Multiply by x: x *+ 1 = 6x
Rearrange: x2- 6x + 1 = 0
Quadratics
169
Checking results
Always check your results, by substituting back into the original equation or the original problem. In quadratics, you have two solutions to check.
Both Check d
~+1=3+ 0
X
+ 3 - 0 = 6
Both Check d
170 Quadratics
A quadratic problem
Sometimes a problem leading to a quadratic equation seems to have only one real answer. Being realistic people, we naturally ask what the other answer means. If we don't, we should. For example, a picture to be framed is twice as long as it is high. The frame provides a 3-inch margin around all sides. The total area, frame and picture, is 260 square inches.What are the dimensions of the picture? Making x the height and 2 x the length of the picture, the dimensions of the frame will be x + 6 and 2 x + 6 , which multiply to ( x + 6 ) ( 2 x + 6 ) = 2x2 + 18x + 36 as the area.The question lists the area as 260 square inches. So, the equation can be reduced to x2 + 9 x - 1 1 2 = 0. Solving it, you find the two answers that are characteristic of quadratics, 7 or - 16. The positive answer is easy. The picture is 7" x 14". The frame is 13 " x 20 ",which multiplies to 260 square inches.
By formula
CHECK
Picture
.Frame
POSITIVE ANSWER
NEGATIVE ANSWER
Quadratics
171
Obviously a picture with negative dimensions has no practical meaning. However, it could have a mathematical meaning. The picture dimensions are -16" x -32". By adding twice 3' each way, the frame dimensions are - 16 " + 6 " x -32" + 6 " , or -10 'I x -26 " , which also multiplies to +260 square inches.
2. Solve the following by completing the square: (a) x2 - 4 x = 45 (c)x2-7x+7=O (b) x 2 - 6 = x (d)x2-12x=4
X - y - - y
2x - 7 = 0 1 - 24
(b) 7 x (d) x +
2
-
4x - 3 = 0 = 10
4. Solve the following quadratics and explain anything unusual you observe about the solutions: (a) 5 x2
-
3x - 2 = 0
(b) 5~2
3~ = 0
(c) 5 x2 - 3 x + & = 0
5. A quantity is required, such that adding twice its reciprocal will produce a sum of 4. What is the quantity? Leave surds in your answer and check both results. 6. An enclosure's length is 10 feet less than twice its width. Its area is 2800 square feet. Find its dimensions. Explain the negative answer as well as checking the positive answer. 7. Extending each side of a square area by 6 feet makes its area 4 times as big. Find the original side length and explain the negative answer. 8. Find three successive numbers whose sum is 318 the product of the lower two numbers. (HINT: take x as the middle number.) Explain the less obvious solution.
9. In mowing a lawn 60 x 80 feet, how wide a strip around the edge must be mowed for half the grass to be cut? Explain the second answer.
172 Quadratics
10. At a party someone tried to run a "think of a number" game and gave the instructions: think of a number, double it, subtract 22, multiply it by the number your first thought of, divide it by 2, add 70, and subtract the number you first thought of.The answer (he said) was 35. Only two people, who had used different numbers, had that answer.What two numbers did those two use? 11. The height of a small box is 1inch less than its width and the length is 2 inches more than its width. If the total area of its sides is 108 square inches, what are its dimensions? 12. The negative solution to question 11 leads to another set of dimensions whose total surface area is also 108 square inches.What are these dimensions?
- - -
Same Answer
175
+ +
+ +
+ +
Factorize: x 4 + x
+I
so:
Factors are: (x
+ I + X ) (X + 1
X)
x2-X-t 1
CHECK
x4
+x*
+1
SQUARES
Arithmetic
Square of 32
Algebra
Square of (a + b)
Geometry
Area = a2 + 2ab + b2
Square is 1002
+ 20ab + b2
177
c 0i2 a 1 0
I I I I
I -I
1-
100
100
lOa l0a
a2
I 1 I -___I
4 I
10a
- - - - II
L---L---L---l----
II
2 times 30 is 60 7 60 42 -
302 = 900
2 X 30 X 7 = 420
a=:'] a* = 49
In hundreds place
place
/
.
CHECK
37
37
<v~e
b* s@ *
179
NOTE: Zero
is added to complete a pair
SQUARE
it
a3 a
- a3
CUBE
-a
FOURTH
Fourth Square
a4
+ ,2
/ \ ,2 -
Imaginary numbers
Studying this problem led to a concept that is now called imaginary numbers. Once negative numbers weren't "allowed: they didn't represent real things. Then, it was found that they could be used in calculation to get valid answers.
181
The roots on the previous page are "real" roots-roots that mean something physical (even the negative ones). So you can handle these imaginary numbers, but you need a sign to separate them from real numbers, just as the minus sign separates negative numbers from positive numbers. The symbol mathematicians picked to do this was the letter i. They write an i in front of the number.Thus, just as "-" "times" "-" is a positive, i times i is a negative. Just as a negative times a negative is a positive, and 3 negatives multiplied together is another negative, i times i is a negative. 3 i's multiplied together is -i; 4 i's multiplied together is another positive again, and so on.
IMAGINARY NUMBERS
+ 1 or - 1 1 = + i or - i
i2=-2
Fourth Roots
Fourth Power Squares Roots
+a
-a
=1
+ la
- ia
a+ib x a+ib = a2 + 2 iab + i2 b2 x a+ib = a3 + 3 ia2b + 3i2 ab2 + i3 b3 +a3+ 3i a2b - 3 ab2- ib3
This can = 1, if
I 0
Real parts = 1 a3-3ab2=1
and
183
Simultaneous quadratics
Sometimes a problem with two variables has two possible solutions that are given by quadratic equations. Suppose a rectangular area is enclosed on only three sides.Those three sides require 20 feet of fencing to enclose an area of 48 square feet.What are the dimensions of the fence? From this problem, you get the equations shown, using dimensions a and b: a for the two sides and b for the one side. Equation 1: 2a + b = 20 Equation 2: ab = 48
This problem looks difficult, compared with what you have done before. One way to eliminate work here is to square equation 1. (2a + b)' = 400, multiplies to:
Now, taking the square root, you get 2a - b = 4, but that answer can be f4. This equation leads to 2 sets of answers. The square root of 4 h + 4ab + b2 = 400 can only be +20, because that was in our original equation. Now, you have two sets of answers: 8 by 6 or 12 by 4.
@:
by 8:
Multiply Subtract:
4a2-4ab+b2 = 16
When 2a - b = + 4, adding
2 00
1 and
gives 4a = 24 a= 6 b= 8
)
1,",
Always check!
I can never stress checking enough. Again, don't use the answer book; it doesn't check your work. Go back over your work yourself. Verify it by using the two sets of answers in the original problem. Two sides 6 feet andone side 8 feet add up to 20 feet of fencing,which enclosed 48 square feet.Twosides 4 feet and one side 12feet also addup to 20 feet offencing and it also encloses 48 square feet.Thistime, because the problem is not symmetrical, you find two answers that are not reversals of one another.
CHECK
Solution 1
2X6+8=20 6X8=48
Solution 2
2 ~ 4 12=20 + 4 X 12=48
'
Using long multiplication (or a calculator) to check your results. 2. Find the square root of the following numbers: (a) 179,776 (c) 456,976 (e) 12,769 (b) 20,164 (d) 9,920.16
185
3. Find the square root of the following numbers (correct to three decimal places:
4. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations. (a)x+y=20andxy=96 (c) 3 x + y = 3 4 a n d x y = 6 3 (b)x-y=5andx (d) x - y = 6 a n d x
2 2
+ y2 =53 + y2 =26
5. The force exerted by wind is proportional to the square of the wind speed. Suppose a wind blows at 30 miles per hour, and exerts x amount of relative force on objects in the physical environment.Then how much relative force is exerted by a wind blowing at the following speeds? Calculate your answer to two significant digits.
(a) 10 miles per hour (c) 40 miles per hour (e) 100 miles per hour (b) 20 miles per hour (d) 60 miles per hour
6. The intensity of a light beam varies according to the inverse of the square of the distance. Suppose that, at a distance of 10.00 feet, a light beam has a relative brilliance of x "light units." Then how bright will the beam be at the following distances? Calculate your answers to four significant digits. (a) 2.000 feet (c) 15.00 feet (e) 100.0 feet (b) 5.000 feet (d) 25.00 feet
7. A box has avolume of 480 cubic inches and a surface area (all six rectangular sides added together) of 376 square inches. It is 6 inches high. Find the other two dimensions. 8. A rectangular area has to be enclosed with fencing. It is known to have an area of 10 acres (435,600 square feet). Assuming that the area is square, with 660 feet on each side, 2460 feet of fencing are bought. Since the area is rectangular, the fencing covers only three sides and exactly half the fourth side.What are the dimensions of the area? 9. Suppose, in the previous question that the fencing was 110 feet short of completing the enclosure.What are the dimensions? Why do the alternative answers in question 8 differ, but for this question, the dimensions are the same in opposite order?
+ +
(b) -2 (d) -2
12. In each of the following pairs of complex numbers, subtract the second from the first. (Hint: Multiply the second number by - 1 and then add.) (a)7+j7andl+j4 (c) 6 j6 and 6 -j6
13. Find the products of the following pairs of complex numbers. (a)8+j2andl-j2 (c) 0 +j2 and 7 -j2 (b)-3-jOand3-j2 (d) 6 -j3 and 6 +j3
- - -
Force
I+ I
10
pounds
Movement
--b
Force
Movement
Force
1-
((
Force is needed to start and stop movement But very little force is needed to maintain steady speed
1 11
11 I
pounds
Dimension of Force
In poundal units:
pounds X feet seconds Mass X length (or distance) time In metric units: Dyne is grams X centimeters seconds
Speed
1 MIN
Time
I ) I
60 = 50 rnph
5
20
4 5 80
125
Curve is Quadratic
Time in seconds
General Formula
Total time from start Speed at start Speed at end of time Average speed Total distance from start t 0 at 1
Specific Example
5 seconds
0
50 feetlsecond
2 at
25 feetlsecond
125 feet
5 at2
Algebraic Symbol
a
Note on Dimension
Acceleration Speed (Velocity) Distance
Quantities
is is is length (distance) time2 length (distance) time length (distance)
Units
feet second feet second feet
at or v
5 at2 or
Units
J.
w = mad
lengthL time2
grams
centimeters2
seconds or ergs
Mechanical mathematics
193
Examples
Force used
... 5000 poundals 80 160 Distance moved ............................... feet.................... feet Time required ................................. 4 seconds................8 seconds
10,000 poundals
Work done
I t
Final speed
Units of work are the foot-poundal, (the work done by a force of 1 poundal moving through 1 foot), and the erg, the work done by 1 dyne moving through 1 centimeter. The formula mv2/2 represents the work of bringing a specific weight to a certain velocity, regardless of the acceleration. If the acceleration is 10 ft/sec2, 80 feet and 4 seconds are required to reach a velocity of 40 ft/sec. If the acceleration is 5 ft/sec2, it requires 8 seconds and 160 feet. Either way, 800,000 footpoundals will move 1000 pounds from standstill to 40 ft/sec, although time and distance differ. Work is given directly by the formula mv2/2.YOU not have to do know time or distance-only the mass and final speed.
ENERGY
is a capacity for doing work
WORK
is the transfer of ENERGY from one form to another
WORK or ENERGY is FORCE applied for a DISTANCE POWER is FORCE applied for a DISTANCE within a TIME
1 w = -mv2
footmass X length2 poundals time* or ergs mass X length2 time3 footpoundals per second or ergs per second
p = -mv 2t
Examples
Power (foot-poundals/sec) Weight (mass) pounds Time to 30 mph [ 44 ft/sec] 60 mph [ 88 ft/sec] 90 mph [I32 ft/sec] 290,400 1,500 5 sec 20 sec 45 sec 290,400 3,000 10 sec 40 sec 90 sec 580,800 3,000 5 sec 20 sec 45 sec
If you want to, you can complete the set by taking the greater power with the smaller weight! Tabulate the time needed in each case to reach 44, 88, and 132 ft/sec, which are the speeds that correspond to 30, 60, and 90 miles/hour. Notice that the time needed is related to the square of the speed to be reached. At constant acceleration, speed is proportional to time. At constant power, acceleration must diminish as speed increases.
Loosing weight, gravity speeds weight down. Energy drives the pile
Moving twice the distance requires twice the work, stores twice the energy. Velocity is not involved. . .yet. Less power requires more time to do the same amount of work. When the weight reaches the top, it is released to drop on the pile. Gravity is a mutual pull between earth and any mass. Doubling the mass doubles the pull (weight). So, in freefall, any object will drop at the same acceleration-approximately 32 ft/ sec2. As the object accelerates downwards, it stores energy at the rate of mu2/2, as a result of its motion.When it hits the pile, this stored energy is concentrated for a very short time, thrusting the pile downward. The momentary force is many times the weight caused by the steady force of gravity on that mass. In metric units, the force of gravity is equivalent to an acceleration by a force of about 98 1 dynes per gram.
Weight as force
From that illustration, you can see that weight provides a steady force acting downwards as a result of the gravitational pull between the earth and any mass. The force is found from the mass on which gravity acts, multiplied by the acceleration of gravity, which produces 32 feet/sec2 or 98 1 centimeters/sec2.The force that is needed to prevent the weight from falling is equal to the pull of gravity on the weight. As the pull of gravity accelerates the weight downwards at 32 ft/sec2, the force of gravity on a mass of 1 pound must be 32 poundals. On a 2-pound weight, the force will be 64 poundals, and so on.
Mechanical mathematics
197
A weight falls, pulled by gravity, with an acceleration of 32 feet per second per second
Force needed to prevent weight falling is equal to gravity's pull on the weight
On a 1-pound weight, the force of gravity is 32 poundals On a 2-pound weight, the force of gravity is 64 poundals
To lift a weight against the pull of gravity requires work. One pound requires a force of one pound. To lift it 1 foot requires 1 foot-pound of work.
2 feet
3 seconds
1 2
4 seconds
times
u
distance = - at2
3 set 4 set
Time in seconds
So if power p and mass m are both constant, velocity must increase with the square root of time. Assume that constant power enables the accelerated mass to reach 100ft/ sec in 20 seconds.You can calculate the velocity at any time during the 20 seconds. It has been calculated here for 4-second intervals.You can do it without knowing the mass or power involved. For the full 20 seconds, velocity reaches 100 ft/sec. 100 squared is 10,000. Divide this number in proportion to time: 2000 for 4 seconds, 4000 for 8 seconds, 6000 for 12 seconds, and 8000 for 16 seconds.Then, take the square root to find the velocity at each of these times in ft / sec.
8 12 I6 Time in seconds
20
20 sec
10,000
100
192916
Notice that acceleration is much faster at the beginning. Then, as velocity builds, acceleration drops. That particular figure was not included, but half the final speed is reached in only a quarter of the time. The faster an object goes, the slower its speed increases.
v2 must be 2 x 96 = 192.So, vis the square root of 192 (13.856 ft/sec).When the spring is fully decompressed, all the energy is kinetic, so now v2 = 256 (v = 16 ft / sec).
TRANSFER of ENERGY
fi
I pound
l pound
13.85 ftlsec
SPRING HALF DECOMPRESSED Force = 4 pounds or 128 pdls Average force: 64 pdls
1 Distance compressed: - ft
v = a 6 = 16 ft/sec
1 6.
2156
114 potential
Resonance cycle
The transfer of energy from potential to kinetic in the spring and weight arrangement forms the first part of a resonance cycle.The weight moves upwards at 16 ft/sec. The spring now starts to decelerate the weight because the spring is going into tension (pulling down, instead of pushing up). For each 3 inches upward about the neutral position, it will apply a tension of 2 pounds until it reaches a foot, where the tension becomes 8 pounds.
Force 8 pounds
1 pound
1 pound
As with the compression, the average force of tension over the foot of movement is 4 pounds, so the potential energy will again be 4 pounds (128 footpoundals). All of the energy is again potential and the weight is momentarily stationary. Having reached this extreme, an equal acceleration downward starts the second half of the cycle. A similar interchange of energy continues until the neutral position is again reached. At this point, all the energy is again kinetic and the velocity will be 16 ftlsec downward, steady (for the moment)-neither accelerating nor decelerating.Then, as it continues downward, compression starts again, until the weight comes to rest fully compressed, 1 foot down, with an 8-pound force pushing it back up. This process would go on forever, but the energy gradually transfers to other forms. Friction will absorb some of the energy.The excursion and velocity slowly diminish and the weight eventually stops.
When the weight passes through the neutral position, all this energy will become kinetic; v2will now be 64, so v is 8 ft/ sec. Notice that halving the travel also halves the maximum velocity reached.The object travels half the distance at half the speed, so it performs the entire cycle in the same time. Interestingly, regardless of the magnitude of the oscillation, resonance still requires the same time. This principle is used in the balance wheel of clocks or watches, the pendulum of grandfather clocks, and many similar devices-not just mechanical, but also electrical, electronic, and atomic.
a
ftlsec 1 pound
a
1 pound
Y
Max. Travel: 12 inches Max. force: 8 pounds Energy stored: 4 ft-pounds, 128 ft-pdls Max. velocity: v 2 = 256 v = 16 f t l s e c
Y
Maximum Travel: 6 inches Max. force: 4 pounds Energy stored: 1 ft-pound, 32 ft-pdls Max, velocity: v2 = 64
v = 8 ftlsec
Half the travel, half the speed Twice the travel. twice the speed
/z: E
9. Find the power developed by the motor and transmission of the same car in foot-poundals per second.
10. A spring and weight resonance system can be changed, either by altering the weight or the spring. By figuring the effect of such change on maximum velocity reached from a given starting deflection, deduce the effect of (I) doubling the weight, (2) halving it.
11. Using the accompanying graph of distance versus time (see following drawing), make rough estimates of the speed of the object, in meters per second, for the instants of time corresponding to 1, 2, 3, and 4 seconds. Explain how you deduced these results.
2 3 Time, seconds
12. Using the accompanying graph of speed versus time (see following drawing), determine the approximate acceleration of the object, in meters per second per second, for the instants of time corresponding to 1,2, 3, and 4 seconds. Explain how you deduced these values.
speed, meters per second
2 3 Time, seconds
208 Mechanical mathematics 13. Assuming the object described by the above drawing has a constant mass, and there is no friction, tension, nor gravitational influence, how does the applied force vary qualitatively with time? Explain how you know this. (Think of a mass in outer space, propelled by a small rocket.)
14. The accompanying graph (see following drawing) shows speed versus time for an object that moves faster and faster for a while, and then slows down.Thus, the curve appears somewhat "bell-shaped." Qualitatively, how does the acceleration vary with time? When is the acceleration greatest? When is it smallest? What is the acceleration when the elapsed time is 2 seconds?
Speed, meters per second For Problem 14, Chapter 12
lo{
Time, seconds
- - -
PROPORTION or RATIO
Ratio in mathematics
211
Extremes
Example
3 4= 5 x
Means
w
3x=4X6
or 3:4 = 6:x
= 24 24 X =
3
c = -ad
a = -bc d
Cross-Multiplying
b = -ad c
d=bc a
Substituting into the statements,they receive $31,800, $28,200, and $18,000. To check, add these amounts. They add to $78,000 and prove that the answer is correct.
53
47
Money.. .
$78,000.
CHECK-
add up
Three triangles the same Shfirn use the same three angles Size is fixed by length of sides Each has three sides
1I II
II
Any triangle can be divided into two square-cornered ones - three ways
-U
Ratio in mathematics 215 If all the angles are acute, all three ways of dividing into two square-cornered triangles are additive, so the original triangle is the two square-cornered ones added together. However, if one angle of a triangle is obtuse (wider than a square corner) two of the possible divisions require a difference, rather than a sum. The original triangle is the larger square-cornered triangle minus the smaller one. An interesting fact about these divisions, which I will not prove here, is that the three dividing lines from the corners of the original triangle, formed by making them perpendicular to the opposite side, always intersect at a single point. Perpendicular means the two lines create two square-cornered angles. In an acute-angled triangle, the point of intersection is inside the triangle. In an obtuse-angled triangle, the point is found only by extending all three perpendiculars (dotted lines). This exercise begins to show the importance of squarecornered (right) triangles as building blocks.
The greater the angle (UP to a square corner, the larger the ratio
'
216
Ratio in mathematics
If you begin with a small angle and gradually increase it toward a right angle, the fraction that represents the ratio (side opposite/hypotenuse) is always greater for greater angles.
ConventionalPythagorasproof Let A B r be a right-angled trianglehaving the angle BAr right; Isay that the square on B r is equal to thesquares on BA, Ar. For let there be described on B r the square BAEr, and on BA A r the squares HB O r (Eucl. i. 46/, and through A let A h be drawn parallel to either BA or TI$ and let AA Z r bejoined. Then, since each ofthe angles B A r BAH is right, itfbllows that with a straight line BA and at the point A on it, two straight lines A r AH, not lying on the same side, make the adjacent angles equal to two right angles; therefore r A is in a straight line with AH (Eucl. i 14). For the same reasons, BA is also in a straight line with AO. And since the angle A B r is equal to the angle ABA, for each is right, let the angle A B r be added to each; the whole angle ABA is therefore equal to the whole angle ZBr. Andsince AB is equalto B c and Z A t o BG the two A B BAare equal to the two B r ZB respectively;and theangle ABAis equal to the angle ABr. The base AA is therefire equal to the base Zr, and the triangle ABA is equal to the triangle ZBr (Eucl. i.4). Now theparallelogram BA isdouble the triangle A B L for theyhave thesame base BAand are in thesameparallels, BA. A h (Eucl. i 41). And the square HB is double the triangle ZBr, for theyhave the same base A h and are in the sameparallels ZB, Hr. Therefbre, theparallelogram BA is the equal to the square HB. Similarly, f AE BK arejoined, it can also beproved that the 0 parallelogram r A is equal to the square Or. Therefbre the whole square BAEr is equal to the two squares HB Or. And thesquare BAEr is described on Br, while thesquares HB O r are described on BA. Ar. Therefore the square on the side B r is equal to the squares on the sides BA Ar. Therefbre in right-angled triangles the square on the side subtending the right angle is equal to the squares on the sides containing the right angle.-Quad Erat Demonstrandum.
Ratio in mathematics
217
equal, their doubles must be equal (i.e., the shaded square is equal to the shaded rectangular part of the big square). Now, do the same thing in steps 4 and 5 to show that the other shaded square (5) is equal to the other part of the big square.Finally (6), since the smaller squares are equal to their respective rectangular parts of the big square, the total area of the smaller square must equal the area of the big square. Taken slowly in steps like that, it is not difficult to see, but you might need to read it twice. Fundamentally, this principle in geometry and trigonometry has the name of the famous Greek mathematician-Pythagoras.
riangles are the same: &Ano L U ~ have two 3 ~ u c . atho. D a l l l c . , same angle; same triangle is turned a quarter-tum.
rnmo.
and
half square, the other half is a rectangle. So the square equals the rectangle.
side adjacent
Name
sine
Definition
side opposite longest side
Written sin A
Ratio in mathematics
219
Identifying
.4
SINE
COSINE
TANGENT
I; a a
0
b)
9 V1
side adjacent
y k f / b
Angle
/ a 1
*\bG 9 V1
b)
longest s ~ d e
side opposite
1/43
Full circle
900800
kiik ago
Half circle Quarter circle
1 10~1000900
150"
Acute angles
Obtuse angles
fit
angle)
Ratio in mathematics
221
27
12 = 1
&
1.732 3.00
1 I Equilateral Triangle
343 3462
E
176
SINE
COSINE
TANGENT
30"
%
0.5
0.866
8
0.866
Ad
0.5
fi
0.5773
60"
RATIO
DECIMAL
1.732
ANGLE
SINE
COSINE TANGENT
tan = 100
Ratio in mathematics
223
Other angles
That selection is rather limited.Until recently, this book had used tables (a sample of which is on the next page). Now, it's easier to use a pocket calculator (many have these functions included). To understand mathematics, you should learn where such tables come from. A calculator works out the value for the angle you enter, but with tables, you must find the number (in the table) and perhaps interpolate between the values (listed in the tables). Even using a calculator, you can make mistakes with the data you enter. Knowing what to expect can help. Study the following diagram and table.
. ,
0"
90"
Angle 0" 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" 6" 7" 8" 9" 10" 11" 12" 13" 14" 15" 16" 17" 18" 19" 20" 21" 22" 23" 24" 25" 26" 27" 28" 29" 30" 31" 32" 33" 34" 35" 36" 37" 38" 39" 40" 41" 42" 43" 44" 45"
Sine
Cosine
[ Cosine
Sine
Angle
Tangent
Ratio in mathematics
225
ight? 20 miles = 20 X 5280 ft = 105.600 ft height tangent 5" = 105,600 From table: tangent 5" = 0.0875
O
0.0875
50 ft
sine 70" =
47 length
226
Ratio in mathematics
table or from your calculator, tangent 5 degrees is 0.0875.The calculator on my desk gives 0.0874887-a little more accurate than the table! The height is 0.0875 times the 20-mile distance. Convert the figure to feet by multiplying by 5280 and you have the peak height, 9240 feet. How accurate was that 20 miles or the 5-degree elevation do you suppose?
Example 2 A high building is viewed from 50 feet away, from its vertical wall. The angle to the horizontal line of sight is 84 degrees. How high is the building? This problem again involves the tangent.The table gives tan 84 as 9.5144.My desk calculator says 9.514364.The table is correct to 4 decimal places. By multiplying this figure by 50 feet, the height of the building is 475.7; round it off to 476 feet. Example 3 A ladder must reach the roof of a building 47 feet high.The slope of the ladder, when rested against the building, should be 70 degrees.What ladder length is necessary? The solution involves ratio of opposite side to hypotenuse, which is sine, but it's the inverse. Sine 70 degrees is 0.9397 in the table, near enough. Dividing 47 by 0.9 397 gives the needed ladder length as a very small fraction over 50 feet.
These three examples use two of the ratios. Any problem like this involves ascertaining which ratio you need and writing and solving the equation to find the answer.
3. A man wills his estate to his 5 children-3 boys and 2 girls. It calls for each to get an amount proportional to his or her age at the time of his death; however, the boys get twice the rate for their ages that the girls do. When the will is made, the boys' ages are 40, 34 and 26, while the girls are aged 37 and 23. If the father dies the same year, what will each receive from an estate of $22,1O ? O
4. If the father of question 3 lives 10 years after making the will, the estate has not changed in value, and all 5 are still living, how much will each get?
Ratio in mathematics
227
5. The two sides of a right triangle that adjoin the right angle are 5 inches and 12 inches long.What is the length of the hypotenuse (opposite the right angle)? Find the length by calculation, not by construction and measurement. 6. A highway gradient is measured as the rise in altitude divided by the distance along the pavement surface. An 8000-foot length of straight highway maintains a gradient of 1 in 8 (118). Find the altitude gained in this distance, and the amount by which the distance measured horizontally falls short of 8000 feet. Use the Pythagorean theorem, not tables. 7. At a distance of 8 miles, the elevation of a mountain peak, viewed from sea level, is 9 degrees. Some distance further away, still at sea level, the elevation is 5 degrees.What is the height of the peak, and the distance of the second viewpoint? 8. A railroad track stretches for 3 miles at a gradient of 1 in 42 up; then, 5 miles of 1 in 100 up; then, 2 miles level; followed by 6 miles of 1 in 250 down; 4 miles level, and finally 5 miles at 1 in 125 up. How much higher is the finish point than the starting point? 9. A house is to have a roof slope of 30 degrees that is gabled in the middle.The width of the house is 40 feet and the roof is to extend 2 feet horizontally beyond the wall to provide snow protection.What distance-from the ridge of the gable to the guttering-is needed for rafters? 10. By how much could the rafter length be reduced in the house (question 9) by making the roof slope 20 degrees? 11. A house wall is 50 feet high and a ladder used to scale it is 60 feet long. How far from the base of the wall must the ladder be placed for its top to just reach the top of the house wall? Finish this question two ways: first, calculate it with the tables (or a trig calculator) to four significant digits; second, calculate it directly by the Pythagorean theorem. 12. In the drawing overleaf, all length units are in centimeters (cm). Assume the lengths and angle measures to be exact; for example, the angle is 45.00000. . . degrees and the base length is 88.00000. . . cm. From the data given, use the Pythagorean theorem to derive the length of side x to four significant digits. 13. Use trigonometry, not the Pythagorean theorem, to derive the length of side y in the drawing to four significant digits. 14. Use trigonometry to derive the measure, in degrees, of angle q in the drawing to the nearest tenth of a degree. 15. Use trigonometry to derive the measure, in degrees, of angle r in the drawing to the nearest tenth of a degree.
44 cm
16. Find the measure of angle r in the drawing to the nearest tenth of a degree by using a method that does not involve trigonometry.
- - -
230
The easiest way to find sin(A + B), uses the geometricalconstruction shown here. The big angle, (A + B), consists of two smaller ones, A and B. The construction (I) shows that the opposite side is made of two parts. The lower part, divided by the line between the angles (2), is sin A. The line between the two angles divided by the hypotenuse (3) is cos B. Multiply the two together. The middle line is in both the numerator and denominator, so each cancels and leaves the lower part of the opposite over the hypotenuse (4).
Finding sin(A
+ B)
sin (A + B)
sin A
cos A
sin B
cosAsinB
231
Notice the little right triangle (5).The shaded angle is A, because the line on its top side is parallel to the base line. Similar right triangles with an angle A show that the top angle, marked A, also equals the original A. The top part of the opposite (6), over the longest of that shaded triangle, is cos A. The opposite over the main hypotenuse (7) is sin B. Since the side marked "opposite" (7) is in both the numerator and denominator when cos A and sin B are multiplied together, cos A sin B is the top part of the original opposite-for (A + B)-divided by the main hypotenuse (8). Now, put it all together (9). Sin(A + B) is the two parts of the opposite-all divided by the hypotenuse (9). Putting that into its trig form: sin(A + B) = sinAcosB fcosAsinB.
Finding cos(A
+ B)
A very similar construction finds the formula for the cosine of an angle made with two angles added together.
232
Using the same construction (I), notice that the adjacent side is the full base line (for cos A), with part of it subtracted at the right. Each part must use the same denominator,the hypotenuse of the (A B) triangle. The full base line, divided by the dividing line between angles A and B, is cos A (2). This dividing line, divided by the hypotenuse of (A B) triangle, is cos B (3). So, the full base line divided by the hypotenuse is the product cos Acos B (4). Now, for the little part that has to be subtracted. The shaded part (5) represents sin A, which multiplied by the shaded part (6) is sin B, which produces the other piece you need (7). The subtraction produces cos(A + B) (8) so that the formula we need is:
A complete geometric derivation of the formula for tan(A + B) is complicated. An easy way is to derive it from the two formulas that you have already done. In any angle, the tangent is equal to the sine divided by the cosine. Using that fact, tan(A B) = sin(A B)/ cos(A B). In a way that does it, but you can expand that to:
Finding tan(A
+ B)
tan(A + B) = [sinA cos B + cos A sin B]/[cos A cos B - sin A sin B] Divide through top and bottom by cos A cos B, which turns all the terms into tangents, giving: tan(A + B) = [tan A + tan B]/[l
-
tan A tan B]
Angle cosine
Angle tangent
opposite bnge$
adjacent
- opposite adjacent
-
233
tan (A
B,
sin (A + B) cos (A + B)
sin A - cos A -
toss$
sin A sin B
zA +
sin B s A cos B
sin 75"
= sin (30" + 45") = sin 30" cos 45" + cos 30" sin 45"
cos 75"
= cos (30" + 45") = cos 30" cos 45" - sin 30" sin 45"
tan 75"
= tan
(30" + 45") = tan 30" + tan 45" 1 -tan 30" tan 45"
234
If you use your pocket calculator for evaluation, it will probably make no difference whether you simplify the expressions first or just plow through it! Everything depends on the calculator: some do make a difference, some don't!
I adjacent
Third Quadrant
Fourth Quadrant
360"
235
and
sin(A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B cos(A - B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
Geometrical Construction
continued
236
sin B cos B
cos(A - B)
sin (A + [-B])
sinAcos [-B]
+ cosAsin [-B]
cos (A + [-B])
tan (A + [-B])
8
237
-z
+ -
A+l
= 2 -A = 0.268
fi
238
The tangent starts out like the sine curve, but quickly it sweeps up to reach infinity at 90 degrees. Going "offscale" in the positive direction, it "comes on" from the negative direction on the other side of 90 degrees. Going through the 180-degree point, the tangent curve duplicates what it does going through 0 or 360 (whichever you view it as). At 270 degrees, it repeats what it did at 90 degrees.
Pythagoras in trigonometry
A formula can often be simplified, as was found by deriving the tangent formulas from the sine and cosine formulas, and changing it from terms using one ratio to terms using another ratio. In doing this, the Pythagorean theorem, expressed in trigonometry ratios, is very handy. Assume that a right triangle has a hypotenuse of 1 unit long.Then one of the other sides will have a length of sin A and the other of cos A. From that, the Pythagorean theorem shows that: cos2A sin2A = 1. This statement is always true, for any value of A. . A little thing here about the way it's written. COS'A means (cos A ) ~If you wrote it cos A', the equation would mean something else. A is a number in some angular notation that represents an angle. A' would be the same number squared. Its value would depend on the angular notation used, so it's not a good term to use. What is meant is the angle's sine or cosine squared, not the angle itself. The Pythagoras formula can be transposed. For instance, two other forms are: cos2 A = 1 - sin2 A, and sin2 = 1 - cos2 A.
239
Multiple angles
The sum formulas, along with the Pythagorean theorem, are used for angles that are 2, 3, or a greater exact multiple of any original angle. Here, give formulas for 2A and 3A.The same method is pursued further in Parts 3 and 4 of this book. The sum formula works whether both angles are the same or different: sin(A + B) or sin(A + A). However, sin(A + A) is really sin 2A. So, sin 2A is sin A cos A + cos A sin A. They are both the same product, in opposite order, so this statement can be simplified to sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A. Similarly, cos 2A = cos Acos A - sin Asin A, which also can be written: cos 2A = cos2A - sin2A. Using the Pythagorean theorem, change that to: cos 2A = 2 cos2A - 1. Finally, tan 2A = 2 tan A/[1 - tan2 A]. Now, the triple angle (3A) is used just to show how further multiples are obtained. Basically, it's as simple as writing 3A = 2A + A and reapplying the sum formulas. But then, to get the resulting formula in workable form, you need to substitute for the 2A part to get everything into terms of ratios for the simple angle A. Work your way through the three derivations shown here. You can see that it will get more complicated for 4A and more (in Parts 3 and 4 of this book).
MULTIPLE ANGLES
= sin (A + A)
= sinAcosA + cosAsinA
= cos (A
+ A)
= cosAcosA - sinAsinA
= cos2A - s i n 2 ~ cos 2~ - (1 - cos 2 ~ ) =
=tan (A + A) =
2tanA 1
tar?^
n
or
-- sin 2A cos 2A
2 tanA 1 - tan2A
240
MULTIPLE ANGLES
= sin
Ratios for 3A
(A + 2A)
= sinAcos2A = =
+ cosAsin2A sinA(cos2A - sin2A) + 2cosAsinAcosA sinA(1 - 2sin2A) + 2(1 - sin 2A) sinA
(A + 2A)
= cosAcos2A - sinAsin2A
= cosA(2cos2A - 1 ) - 2sin 2 ~ c o s ~
= c o s ~ ( 2 c o - 1)~ 2(1 - cos *A)COSA s~ -
= 4cos3A
3cosA
=tan (A + 2A)
2tanA tan2 A
- 3tanA - tan 3A -
1 - 3tan2 A
241
What does a right triangle do? Perpendiculars from the mid-point of the hypotenuse to the other two sides will bisect those two sides-you get two out of three! The meeting point happens to sit on the hypotenuse.
242
Angles in a circle
A basic property of a circle is that its center is at an equal distance from every point on its circumference.This equal distance is the radius of the circle. If you draw any triangle inside a circle, the perpendiculars from the mid points of its side will meet at the circle's center and radii from the corners of the triangle will divide it into three isosceles triangles. Now, if you name the equal pairs of angles in each isosceles triangle, A, A, B, B, C, C, you find that the original triangle has one angle A + B, one angle B + C, and one angle A + C. The three angles total 2A + 2B + 2C. This, you know, adds up to 180 degrees. In any isosceles triangle, the angle at the apex is 180 degrees minus twice the base angle. Because of the fact deduced in the previous paragraph, 180 - 2A must be the same as 2B + 2C, for example. Consider the angles that are opposite from the part of the circle, against which the top left side of the triangle sits. The angle at the centre is 2B + 2C, as just deduced.The angle at the circumference is B + C. You will find that, for any segment of a circle, the angle at the center is always twice the angle at the circumference. The proof on the previous page leads to an interesting fact about angles in circles. Instead of identifying the angles with a side of a triangle, use an arc (portion of the circumference) of the circle. The important thing is the angle that corresponds to the arc at the center. A part of the circumference of a circle that is identified by the angle at the center is called the chord of the circle.
2A + 2B + 2C = 180" (main triangle) Angle at center on base: 180" - 2C = 2A + 2B Angle at apex (on circle) on same base
243
Any angle drawn touching the circumference, using this chord as termination for the lines bounding the angle, must be just half the angle at the center. Thus, all the angles in a circle, based on the same chord, must be equal. Suppose that the chord has an angle of 120 degrees. The angles at the circumference will all be exactly 60 degrees. A special case is the semicircle (an exact half circle).The angle at the center is a straight line (180 degrees). Every angle at the circumference of a semicircle is exactly 90 degrees (a right angle). Any triangle in a semicircle is a right triangle.
Every angle on the same chord is equal Every angle in a semicircle is a right angle
I
right angles
Definitions
The previous pages have often used angles that add up to either a right angle (90 degrees) or to two right angles (180 degrees). When two angles add up to 180 degrees (two right angles), they are called supplementary. When two angles add up to 90 degrees (one right angle), they are called complementary.
244
Two angles that make up 180, or two right angles, are supplementary
245
7. The sine of a certain angle is 0.6. Find the sine of twice this angle and three times this angle. 8. Find the sine and cosine of an angle exactly twice that of question 7. 9. Using 15 degrees as a unit angle, and the formulas for ratios of 2A and 3A, find the values of the sines of 30 and 45 degrees. 10. Using 30 degrees as a unit angle, find the values for the sines of 60 and 90 degrees. 11. Using 45 degrees as a unit angle, find values for the tangents of 90 and 135 degrees. Confirm your results from the quadrant information on page 237. 12. Using 60 degrees as a unit angle, find values for the cosines of 120 and 180 degrees. Confirm your results from the quadrant information on page 237. 13. Using 90 degrees as a unit angle, find values for the cosines of 180 and 270 degrees. Check your results from the quadrant boundary information on page 237. 14. Using the tangent formulas for multiple angles and the tables, find the tangents for three times 29, 31,59, and 61 degrees. Account for the changes in sign between three times 29 and 31 degrees and between 59 and 61 degrees. 15. The sine of an angle is 0.96. Find the sine and cosine for twice the angle. 16. A problem leads to an algebraic expression of the form 8cos2A + cos A = 3. Solve for cos A, and state in which quadrant the angle representing each solution will come. Give approximate values from tables or your calculator.
- - -
- - -
250
Systems of counting
Notice how each "place" in the decimal system, yields a closer approximation to the square root of 3. To test it, see how close squaring the root brings you to the square you started with: 3. The first place is 1, which squared is only 1-an error of 2 from the true square of 3. Had 2 been used, the answer would have been closer: a square of 4-an error of 1. But our rule is to stay below the true value. Another method could use the closest value before going to the next step. The second place comes closer quickly. 1.7 squared is 2.89, reducing the error to 0.11.the third place, 1.73 yields a square of 2.9929-an error of 0.007 1. The fourth place, 1.732 comes a lot closer, making a square of 2.999824-an error of 0.000176.
3 10
50
1 -
3 500
1 2500
1 20000 1 1000000
Systems of counting
251
These problems should make you ask how accurate or reliable the figures are. What does an error of 1 part in 1 million mean? whether you happen (which is very unlikely) to be using a septimal system instead of a decimal one, just how precise is 1/7?
Orders of magnitude
The orders of magnitude begin another whole new concept in mathematics. To show another angle of this concept, suppose you are approaching an area that consists of a perfect square.To get the area you need more accurately, you add or subtract a little bit to or from both dimensions. Starting with a square of dimension Leach way, you either add or subtract small pieces S to or from each dimension. The change in area consists of two small, long slices (dimensions L by S) and one very much smaller piece that measures S both ways. The smaller S is, relative to L, the smaller S squared, relative to SL. You could extend this concept to a similar adjustment on a cubic volume. Now, starting with a big cube, L each way, you add or subtract 3 slabs that are L square and S thick, three sticks that are L long by S square, and one very tiny cube that is S cubed. If S is 1110 of L (and it might be much smaller), then S cubed is I/ 1000 of L cubed.
VOLUME
3 'pieces LXLXS
252
Systems of counting
ORDERS of MAGNITUDE
You can show the same progression algebraically. To do this, if a is a small fraction, then powers of a, a2,a3 ,a4 ,etc., consist of a descending series of orders of magnitude. Notice that successive powers of a have a series of coefficients which, if you take the fourth power, are l,4,6,4, and 1. Still lingering in our familiar decimal system, you substitute different values for a, and show how changing it changes the successive powers of (1 + a). If a is 0.1, successive powers begin to "spill over" into earlier "places." Up to the 4th power, the first two digits are 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, but at the 4th power, 1.5 would be nearer. If a is 0.01, higher powers of a do not interfere with the first term, which is now in the second decimal place. Drop what follows the second place, the first two places are now 1.01, 1.02, 1.03, and 1.04. Further terms in that 4th power only make it 1.0406in the 4th place. However if a is 0.2, the later terms much sooner intrude into earlier ones.The blocked figures show this intrusion.
Systems of counting
253
Systems of counting
Before electronic digital devices were invented,we used counters with little wheels that carried numbers. The numbers that showed through the front window were like those that electronic digital devices display. If you took the cover off the rest of the wheel, you could see how it work, which helped you understand number systems. The right-most wheel counted from 0 to 9 on a decimal system.When it came to 9, it would move from 9 to 0, and move the next wheel from 0 to 1. Every time the first wheel passed from 9 to 0, the next wheel would advance 1 more, until it returned to 9. Then, two wheels would read 99. As the first wheel moved from 9 to 0 this time, the next one would also move from 9 to 0, and the third wheel would move from 0 to 1, making it read 100.
DECIMAL IN TENS
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
254
Systems o counting f
Duodecimal system
The decimal (base ten) system is not the only system that you could use.Years ago, some cultures used the duodecimal system-counting to twelve instead of ten. To use a wheel-counter system, you would need two more numbers on each wheel. In the wheels shown here, the extra symbols are t and e for ten and eleven. Modern digital systems more often use base 16, called the hexadecimal system.
nine
ten
eleven
twelve
nine twelves ten twelves ten twelves and eleven and one
In the DECIMAL system successive places to the left represent successively higher powers of ten: 10 is ten; 100 is 1 hundred; 1000 is 1 thousand.
In the DUODECIMAL system 10 represents twelve; 100 is twelve twelves or 1 gross; 1000 is twelve gross, and so on.
Systems of counting
255
The first six letters of the alphabet complete the single digit numbers up to what would be called 15. Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F In the decimal system, " 10" (one zero) means ten. In the duodecimal system,
" 10" means twelve. In hexadecimal, " 10" means sixteen.To get some exercise in
different systems, use duodecimal for a bit.You will see why calculators or computers use hexadecimal on the inside-they usually read out in decimal.
993
2 / 108 112 108 47
12/x ~ 1 2 m
9 6
33
82
12 23 12 111 108 33 24 91 84 -
24 9
or t
36 11 ore
7 I
256
Systems of counting
12 92 t -
1 4 1 4 3 1 3 1
t I
93 92 1
le 4 18 3 C
Check
76,
I
1I
Binary counting
The difficulty about working in binary is that each place has only two "states," which are 0 and 1.You don't count "up to" something and then move to the next place. If you already have 1,the next 1 puts it back to 0 and passes a 1 to the next
Systems of counting
257
place. If you have a row of 1s, then adding another 1 shifts them all back to 0, and passes a 1 to the next place (from right to left). In the window panel here, the decimal number equivalent replaces the binary numbers. In the binary system, every place would be either a 1 or a 0.
BINARY COUNTING
258
Systems of counting
Column Value
DECIMAL NUMBER
Contains column 11 column 10 column 4 column 2 5 22 512 10
o+
J. J. J. 11 lolololololl
1 2 , -
BINARY NUMBER
11
1011 101
Binary multiplication
Although you enter data into your calculator or computer in the familiar decimal notation, they all use binary to perform all of the mathematical functions that they perform. Try running a sample multiplication, basically as your calculator does it. Suppose you multiply 37 by 27. First, it must convert each number to binary, which it does as you enter the numbers. I'll simplify it a bit by converting it to true binary, instead of one of the biquinary conversions that make it easier for the calculator, but more difficult for you to understand.That comes later. On the facing page are the conversions of 37 and 27 to pure binary. Here is multiplication in binary, set out as you would set out ordinary long multiplication, but in a system where no numbers above 1 are "allowed." Every digit must be either 1 or 0. What it really amounts to is adding together the sequence of digits that represent 37 at every "place" where a 1-digit is in 27. Four 1-digits are in 27, so the three 1-digits in 37 (with 0s interspersed) are entered 4 times in the proper places (to represent "27 times") and added. You
Systems of counting
259
can show them all added at once. However, the calculator does it. Every two 1s return that place to 0 and pass a 1 to the next place to the left. Working from the right, the first three places each have only one 1, which appears in the sum. The fourth place has two Is, which make a 0 in that place and pass 1 to the fifth place, which already has a 1 of its own, so it becomes 0 and passes a 1 to the sixth place. This place already has two Is, so that place goes to 1 again and passes a 1 to the seventh place, where again two 1s are. This place now has a 1 and it passes a 1 to the eighth place. The eighth place has no 1s, so the 1 passed is entered and that's the end of the "passing left." The remaining two places each have a single 1,which gets "brought down." The product, in binary,is 1111100111. Convert the binary number back to decimal, by putting the decimal equivalent of each binary place where a 1 is. Adding the decimal equivalents comes to 999. To check, multiply 37 by 27, the old fashioned long way. "Which is the long way?" you might ask. The binary way seems long to you. The only reason a calculator does it so quickly is that it performs millions of "operations" per second.It goes the long way around and calculates more quickly than you can via the short way that you are familiar with.
Multiply 37 X 27 by Binary
Convert to binary: 6th place
37 1 32 -
3rd place
1st place
5th place
v
V
5 4 1 1 -
1 0 0 1 0 1
16
BINARY MULTIPLICATION
I Convert to decimal
999
answer
Binary division
Binary division shows what you learned in part 1 of this book in a rather dramatic way: division is really repetitive subtraction. Subtracting the binary for 37, which is 100101, in the top places of the dividend is exact with no remainder. What is left is the binary for 37 in the last place. So, the quotient, in binary, is I00000 1. To interpret the binary number back to decimal, use some more subtraction in binary and apply the table from the previous section.The first subtraction is the binary for 100,which leaves 11101. For the binary of 20, which leaves 1001, subtract the binary for 9. So working through binary, dividing 4773 by 37 leaves 129 as the quotient.
Systems of counting
261
4000 700
70
Check
Indices
In any system of numbers, binary, octal, decimal, or hexadecimal (or even some others that are not in common use), the place of a number indicates a power of the number on which the system is based. In the binary system, according to where the 1 appears, it represents some power of 2. In the 4th place, it is the 3rd power of 2, which is 8. Here is a comparison between powers of 2 and powers of 10. From this example, you can see some rules for using indices that help us take further short cuts in multiplication and division. First, remember that multiplication and division are short-cut methods for performing repeated addition and subtraction. Now, indices are short-cut methods for repeated multiplication and division.
Systems of counting
263
110241
2x
v
n times
any quantity is 1
a times
b times
2 "
8
X
x2 = 25
4 =32
X x X.... X x X x X x X . . . . x x x
Total a + b times I
x5x2=x3
(a - b) X-...times
x 2
.= X
+x.S X - 3 =
~ x ~ x ~ x . x ' x ~ 3x7'
i)
b times
2 +2 =2
x x x - 1 5 ~2 + 2 = 2 - ~ x x x x x & x x - $ x
4 + 3 2 = -1 8
32+4=8
325 = 16
Systems of counting
265
3. Using the binary system, divide 1922 by 31 and convert back to the decimal system. Check your result by directly dividing the decimal numbers.
266
Systems of counting
4. Find the values of the following expressions: ( a ) 1 6 ~ / ~ (b)243.8 (d) 64':' (e) 343413 (~)25l.~
5. Convert the following numbers from decimal to binary. As a check, convert them back. (a) 62 ( 4 49 (8) 650 (b) 81 (4 98 (h) 999 (c) 111 (f) 222 (i) 2000
6. Convert the following numbers from binary to decimal. As a check, convert them back. (a) 101 (d) 111100 (b) 1111 (c) 10101 (e) 110111000110
7. Multiply 129 by 3 1 in the decimal system. Multiply the binary equivalents of these numbers. Suppose an error is made in the second digit from the right in the second number in the decimal product, so 129 is multiplied by 41 instead of by 3 1. Suppose a similar error occurs in the binary system, so the second digit from the right in the second number is reversed. Compare the relative error in the decimal system with the error in the binary system.
+ 8. Evaluate the expression (2 b2)'12for the following values: (b) a = 1 2 a n d b = 5 (a) a = 4 and b = 3 (c) a = 2 4 a n d b = 7 (d) a = 4 0 a n d b = 9 (f) a = 8 4 a n d b = 13 (e) a = 6 0 a n d b = l l (g) a = 112andb = 15
What does each pair have in common? 9. Evaluate the expression (h+ b2)'12 for the following values: (a) a = 8 andb = 6 (c) a = 24andb = 10 (e) a = 48 andb = 14 (b) a = 1 5 a n d b = 8 (d) a = 35andb = 12 (f) a = 63andb = 16
What does each pair have in common? 10. Write as simple decimal numbers, without fractions, the following expressions: (a)1oo2 (c) loop2 (b)100~/~ (d)
Systems of counting
267
From these four values, find the values of the following expressions by the method of adding and subtracting indices: (f) 10o5l2 (e) 10o3I2 (g) 1oo3l2 (h) 1 0 0 ~ ~ 1 ~
11. Using a calculator's square root function button only, evaluate the following to at least three decimal places:
(a) 10o1I4 (c) ioo1/16 (b) 1 0 0 ~ 1 ~ (d) 10o1I3*
12. As the value of the exponent in the previous problem is repeatedly cut in half, that is, 1/64, 11128, 11256, 11512, and so on, what number will the expression approach? Why? 13. Find values, correct to three decimal places, for the following:
(a) 32O.l (d) 32.4 (g) 32.7 (b) 32.2 (e) 32O.j (h) 32.8 (c) 32.3
( 32O.' 0
(i) 32.9
14. Evaluate the following expressions, using a calculator if you wish. Where applicable, render expressions to at least three decimal places:
(a) (4 (g) (j)
- - -
Progressions
269
The algebraic series gives the general form of an arithmetic progression, or series of numbers, where a is the first term and each term is d more than the previous one. If the numbers diminish, instead of increase, d would have a minus sign. The geometric construction shows the relationship of a series of terms that are represented by a series of equally spaced vertical lines. Each line is longer than its neighbor to the left by the same amount.
Geometric progression
On the previous page, each term differs from the previous term by the same amount, added or subtracted. In geometric progression, each term is multiplied by the same amount to get the next term. Just as the difference in arithmetic progression can either add or subtract, so the ratio of one term to the next in geometric progression can either expand or contract successive terms. Here are some samples of geometric progression. In the first one, each term is twice the previous one. In the second, it is 3 times the previous one. In the third, each term is 1.5 times the previous one. In the fourth, the process is reversed: each term is half of the previous one. In the fifth, each term is 213 of the previous one.
1 , 2 , 4 , 8 , 1 6 ....
1, 3, 9 , 2 7 , 8 1
....
4 st term+
-n 2d -4th -6th
tr e m
+8th term +
termterm+
270 Progressions
The algebra gives the general form for all geometric progressions. a is the first term and r is the ratio by which each term is multiplied to find the next term. The geometric construction shows the two types. At the left is an expanding series. At the right is a contracting, or as mathematicians call it, a converging series. Notice that the expanding series quickly "runs away" (goes off scale), while the converging series gets smaller and smaller, indefinitely.The construction in each case uses similar right triangles to represent the changing ratio.
Harmonic progression
A third kind of progression has been taught in schools. It is not used as often as arithmetic and geometric progressions. Other progressions are none of these three. You can learn something about progression in general by studying these three types. The easy way to understand harmonic progression is as reciprocal of arithmetic progression. Instead of each term increasing by d (a constant amount), it is diminished by being divided by an arithmetic series. If the first term is a, the second term is a divided by 1 + d, the third divided by 1 + 24 and so on. In the first numerical example, d is 1.In the second, d is 112.In the third, d is 1 again, but the first term is 1, not 60 (as in the first series). These patterns in numbers serve a variety of purposes that will be developed as you study them. They form basis for series that calculate trig ratios for any angle and many other things.
Patterns in Numbers
will help
such as ARITHMETIC
GEOMETRIC @ Check working HARMONIC @ Find more direct methods @ Find answers that eluded other methods
Progressions
271
First term: a Second " a + d Third " a + 2d Fourth " a + 3d Nth " a+(n-l)d
last termt = a + (n - 1) d
I means
(Greek capital
sigma
( 2 a + (n- 1) d) 2
I
272 Progressions
.... to 12 terms
Pheck B
2 5 8
11 14 17
7 4 -1 -12
-
2 ;
na +
n ( n - 1)d 2
Progressions
273
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
First term: a Ratio: r The nthterm: a r n
Subtract original
= a [I
+r+r2+ri +r4
....+ r n I
= a [rn- 11
0 1
274 Progressions
4,12,36,108
....
n=7
Check
12
Here, you sum a couple of geometric series, one to 10 terms, the other to 7 terms. In each case, verify the result by doing it "the long way." Actually, you probably won't have to use this formula very often, but it's worth hanging on to for those few occasions when it is useful. Look on the checking as a sort of reversible process. If you haven't used the formula for some time, you might not feel sure about it. Do it "the long way," then by formula, which will prove two things: that you didn't make a mistake in doing it the long way and that the formula "works!"
Converging series
The series you have considered so far have been expanding or diverging: each term is larger than the one before it. This occurs because r is greater than 1. In a converging series, each term is smaller than the one before it. A story exists about an Eastern potentate who offered a philosopher a reward for some work. He offered him a chess board with grains of wheat on each of its 64 squares. He would put 1 grain on the first, 2 grains on the second, 4 on the third, 8 on the fourth, and so on, until he got to the 64th square. It didn't sound like much, until he figured it. The grand total is P4- 1, which is 18,446,744,073,709,55 15 grains! That was more wheat than he expected! 1,6 When r is less than 1, rn is less than 1. If n is large-especially if you sum the series to infinity, f is zero. So, the sum of the series reduces to a very simple expression.
When
<T~.:.I
r is greater than 1 every term is greater than the one before it.
Progressions
For example: r = 2 1 , 2 , 4 , 8 , 16,32,64 .... This is a DIVERGING SERIES
275
When
F k - 4,
every term is smaller than the one before it.
r z l =a[
2;
=aD
r + r 2 + r 3 +.....+r n - ' + r n ]
0
n is infinity
<1
.
2;
--a
1 -r
276 Progressions
Rate of convergence
You can see how the use of different series for the same calculation can often make the work easier.The sum of three different series produces a value of 4 at infinity. The first one is 1, 314, 9116, 27/64, etc. Notice that the sum to 6 terms is 3 29511024: still quite far from 4, although it seems logical that it will eventually get there. The second one is 2, 1, 112, 114, etc. Notice that the sum to 6 terms now is 3 15116. It's already only I/ 16 short of its ultimate value of 4. The third one is 3,314,3116,3164, etc. Notice that the sum to 6 terms is now 3 102311024-only 111024 short of its ultimate value. Each of these series has a successively greater rate of convergence than the one before it.
Sum of series 1, 3 , 9 , 27 .... to infinity - - 4 1664 a=1 1 =- =4 1 r= 1 3 1 4 n=00
reaches 4
.... to infinity
4
1 r= -
r = - =2- = 2 1 1
n=oo
I-2
I
5
PROGRESSIVE TOTALS
1 2 + 1 + 1- + - + - 1+
; 3'?1
B 16
1
1 -+ 16
z= ;
3 +3 - + 3- + 3- + -3 + + 3
4
16
64
256
1024
PROGRESSIVE TOTALS
15
63
255
1023
i la M
TT~ i i ~
reaches 4
Progressions
277
Permutations
Permutations have many practical applications.If gamblers used it, they'd realize how great the real odds are and probably quit gambling. With 10 horses in a race, basically each one has a 1 in 10 chance of winning. If one or two are better runners than the others, the others have less than 1 in 10 chance of winning. But why waste time? Gamblers will keep losing more money than they win! In this example, 7 horses can pass the winning post. Any one of the 7 can come in first. For each winner, 6 are left that can come in second. So, the possible first and second place are 7 times 6 (42). For each first two, 5 choices are left for third place. This makes 2 10 possibilities for the first three places. To find the order of the rest, the possibilities are: 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1. Maybe that 1 is redundant: he's the only one left! However, it means that 5040 orders are possible.
In how many orders can 7 articles be placed?
99Q9QOQ
For each 1st, there are 6 choices for 2nd place This makes 7 X 6 = 42 choices for 1st and 2nd place
@ @ @
@ @
For each of the 42 1st and 2nd choices, there are 5 choices for 3rd place.42X5 =210 choices for places 1, 2, and 3
@@0@
''
For each of the 2 10 1 st, 2nd, and 3rd choices, there are 4 choices for 4th place. 210X 4 = 840 choices for places I , 2, 3, and 4
9 9 @ 9 9 0 @ @
For each of the 840 lst, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th choices, @ @ @there are 3 choices for 5th place. 840X 3 = 2520 choices for places 1,2, 3,4, and 5
For each of the 2520 lst, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th @ @ @ choices, there are 2 choices for 6th place. 2520X 2 = 5040 choices for places I , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , and 6
When 6 places are filled, only one is left for the remaining place
278
Progressions
Factorial notation!
How many ways can so many be taken from so many? The usual symbols for expressing this are k articles chosen from an available n. Examining the figures used so far, you could write that n(n - l)(n - 2) . . . (n - k + 1). Mathematicians use a shortened way of writing these equations and calculators use the same method to make the calculation, factorial notation. The accepted symbol is an exclamation point after the number. Factorialnotation is defined as the product of every integral number from 1 up to the number marked. The permutation of k articles taken from an available n is the product of all the numbers from n, down to the number: n - k + 1.That seems to be the simplest form. But calculators use another way to arrive at the answer. If you divide
Progressions
279
factorial n (written n!) by factorial (n - k) (written (n - k)!), by canceling the shorter string of numbers from the longer, you are left with a product of all the numbers from (n - k + 1) to n. Pocket calculators provide an x! button that will factorially read out whatever number was entered when that button was pressed. It won't work if you enter a fractional number or if you enter a number whose factorial expansion is too big for the calculator to handle.
Combinations
Calculating permutations considers the order in which the articles were chosen. In combinations, order is not important. If you must pick 3 letters from the first 10 letters of the alphabet, A though J, you have 10 choices for your first pick, 9 choices for second, and 8 for third. That multiplies out to 720 possible choices. Suppose your choice picks the first 3 letters, A, B, and C. These could have been picked in any order. 6 different orders exist for which you could pick just the first 3 letters. So, permutations take order into account. Combinations deal only with which ones are picked, in any order. Pursuing the 10-letter choice from which you picked 3: 720 possible choices exist (taking sequence into account). However, if you only want to know which 3, any order, divide 720 by 6, which is 120.
ABC
How many COMBINATIONS of 7 taken from lo? Each 3 taken leaves 7, so it should be the same answer
280 Progressions
n! (n - k)!
n! (n-k)!k!
The symbol for permutations is P, with two subscripts, one in front of the P and one after it. The one before it says how many the choice is from. The one after it says how many are chosen. The formula for permutations of k taken from n is: n!/(n - k)! The symbol for combinations is C, written in the same style. The formula for combinations of k taken from n is: n!/(n - k)!k! Notice that the same formula also gives the number of combinations of (k - n) taken from n. What this says is that the number of ways that a certain number, k, can be taken from a bigger number, n, is equal to the combinations of those left in the same case. This fact might seem obvious if you think about it. Still, it is a useful fact when calculating.
Powers of a binomial
A binomial is any expression that consists of two terms, with either a plus or a minus sign between them. For a general form of binomial, write: (a + b). When such an expression is raised to successive powers (squared, cubed, fourth, etc.), it generates a successively more complicated series of terms, each of which consists of a power of a, of b, or a product of both powers. You can multiply successive expressions of the general binomial (a + b) to get the pattern of terms that form. In any of the powers of the binomial, start with a raised to that power, followed by terms that consist of successively lower
Progressions
281
powers a, multiplied by successively higher powers of b, until you get to the last term, which is b raised to the same power. Each of the product terms, with powers of both a and b, has a numerical coefficient. First, investigate the pattern of these coefficients by forming a pyramid, as is shown here.
multiply by .....................a + b a2 + 2ab + b2
+
bhis
a binomial
is (a + b)
again
is ( a + b)3
Power Index
Coefficients
Write out the expansion: (a + b)". It is: (a + b) (a + b) (a + b) (a + b) . . . n times. Now, multiply all those terms together. First, is simple: the first term of each is an.Next, is almost as easy: take n - 1 of a's and 1 b. You have n of those. Now, it begins to get involved: the combinations in which you take n - 2 a's and 2 b's. After going through this step, write the general term in the whole expansion. It has 3 parts: the coefficient, which is the combination of k [you are at the (k + 1)th term] a's taken with n - k 8s; then, C k ; and finally bk; all multiplied together.
Binomial expansion
282 Progressions
(a + b)" is
(a+b)(a+b)(a+b)(a+b)(a+b)
.... ntimes
Coefficeint of a" is 1. All first terns multiplied together. Terms in an- 'b are each (n - 1) terms a, multiplied by one term b. There are n combinations like this. Terms in an- 2b2are each (n - 2) terms a, multiplied by two terms b. Combinations are .C2
The coefficient Exponent of the first term Exponent of the second term (a+b)" =an + n a n ' b + nC2 a
+ ....+ n a b n - ' + b n
GENERAL TERM
This is the (k + I ) ' ~ term
Binomial series
Notice something here about the writing. Up till now, to indicate multiplication, the "times" sign has been used. Now, use a dot, like a period. To avoid making it look like a decimal point, keep the dot above the line. This measure saves space when you have a lot to write.
Progressions
283
BINOMIAL SERIES
Expand (a + b)7
( a + b ) " = a n + n a n ' b + ,C2a
n-2
1o5
lo4-3
>
CHECK
284 Progressions
Progressions
285
286 Progressions
+ 113
1 2
1
8
1
1 16
a=b
s=9b
a2=l
l 3 a2=i
a'=?
(it)!
(%+&)$
5
3
7
m m a=4Pb 0 0
1 7
Next coefficients
12.1544
+ + + + +
Progressions
287
5 + 1 0 + 2 0 + 4 0 + 8 0 + . . . (throughthe llthterm) 5 - 10 + 20 - 40 + 80 - . . . (through the 10th term) 100 + 50 + 25 + 12.5 + . . . (through the sixth term) 100 - 50 + 25 - 12.5 + . . . (through the sixthterm) 100 - 50 + 25 - 12.5 + . . . (through the seventh term) 6 + 17 + 28 + 39 + 50 + . . . (through the 19th term)
3. Sum the following infinite series, if the series converges to a finite sum. If the series does not converge, so indicate:
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (0 (g) (h)
1 112 114 118 1/16 . . . 1 + 112 113 114 1/5 . . . 900 + 90 + 9 0.9 0.09 . . . 10 - 6 3.6 - 2.16 1.296 - . . . 700 + 210 + 63 + 18.9 + 5.67 + . . . 1 0 + 9 + 8 . 1 +7.29+6.561 + . . . 180 - 144 + 115.2 - 92.16 .. 256+128+64+32+16+ ...
+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
+.
6. A new telephone area code is created. This opens up a new block of sevendigit telephone numbers. The only numbers that cannot be assigned are those whose first digit is a zero. How many different seven-digit telephone numbers can be assigned in the new area code?
7. Suppose that an additional restriction is placed on the telephone numbers in the previous problem: the first digit cannot be a zero, one, or nine. How many different seven-digit telephone numbers can be assigned in this system?
8. Twelve horses run in a race. If all the horses have equal ability:
(a) What are the odds that you can name the correct winner? (b) What are the odds that you can name the horses that come in first and second, but not necessarily in order? (c) What are the odds that you can name the horses that come in first and second in the correct order?
288 Progressions 9. In the same race as the one in the previous problem, what are the odds that a particular horse will come in among the first three?
10. Assume the following: There are 200 billion (2 x 1o1l ) stars in our galaxy besides our sun. To support life as we know it, a star must resemble our sun and have at least one earthlike planet. The chance of an earthlike planet evolving life as we know it is one in five. Six percent of stars resemble our sun. Of these, three percent have at least one earthlike planet. Given these premises, how many planets in our galaxy can be expected to evolve life as we know it? 11. You have read the following statistics: (a) One out of every five males over the age of 18 has had a speeding ticket within the past 12 months. (b) One out of every 10 females over the age of 18 has had a speeding ticket within the past 12 months. (c) Men and women frequent singles bars in equal numbers. You choose a person at random in a singles bar where, presumably, everyone is over 18 years of age. What is the probability that you will choose a person who has had a speeding ticket within the past 12 months? 12. Suppose you choose one man and one woman at random, in the same bar as in the above problem. What is the probability that you will choose a man and a woman who have both had speeding tickets in the past 12 months? 13. A tossed coin is equally likely to land heads or tails. For two tosses, the probability of the coin landing heads both times is one in 2? or 114. For three tosses, the probability of the coin landing heads in every case is one in 23 or 118. For four tosses, the probability of the coin landing heads in every case is one in 24 or 1/16. In general, if the coin is tossed n times, the chances of it landing heads every time is 112". Based on these facts, suppose you toss a coin 14 times and it comes up heads every single time. What is the probability that it will come up heads on the 15thtoss?
- - -
The weight and spring resonance system, also described in chapter 12, shows how velocity and acceleration change during its movement. How do you check those facts? Infinitesimal calculus, which is really quite easy, despite its imposing name, helps study all these problems.
Infinitesimal Changes
Relationship between quantities x and y of form Infinitesimal increase in x: y + dy = (x + dx)"
x + dx
Corresponding increase in y: y
+ dy
Binomial
( x f d x ) " = x n + n x "-'dx+ Because
dx
- = 0 -= 0 X x2
(dx12
2
-
n x n - ' d x or
The rate of change of y with respect change in x at instant y = xn is: nxn- '
291
Infinitesimal changes
Any relationship can be plotted as a graph. Any graph can have an algebraic equation to express the relationship that was plotted. Some equations are simple, some are complex.Those that relate to the real world have two types of variables: independent and dependent. In an equation, such as y = xn,x is the independent variable, on which the value of y depends, so the dependent is also variable. Increasing x causes y to increase. Looking at one point on a graph doesn't tell you the rate of y's increase. A stretch of the graph, like timing the car over a distance, can tell you the average rate of y 's increase. Infinitesimal calculus lets you calculate speed at a point, like the radar gun measures it. The idea is simple. To measure slope at a point, measure change over an infinitesimally small "piece" of the graph. The very small change in y, divided by the very small change in x that caused it, gives the slope at that point. Use the symbols dx and dy to represent infinitesimally small changes. Compared to x and y, they are too small to be measurable.
Here is the general solution for the slope of a graph for y = xn.The binomial expansion is used to expand (x dx)". Then y = xn is subtracted from the expression for y + dy = (x + dx)", to leave an equation for dy in terms of dx. The smaller you make a change, the smaller the higher powers become. If dxlx = 0 (but is comparable with dy), (dx)2 l x2 completely vanishes. Now apply these principles to a few cases and see how it "works."Apply it to the simplest possible equation, y = x. Dividing dy by dq after subtracting y = x, we have dyldx = 1. This statement is easily seen to be correct, because for every change of 1 in x, y also changes by 1. Take the next power of x, y = x2. From the formula in this section, dyldx = 2x.Plotting the curve for y = x2,for values of x from -5 to +5, draw a smooth curve through the 11 points. If your curve represents the true curve for y = x2, you can draw triangles under the curve with a base length of 1, and a slanting side that just touches the curve at the same slope as the curve. In each case, the vertical height of the triangle is 2x for the particular point.
293
Values of dyldx can be plotted as another graph (this time a straight line), which shows the slope of the first curve at every point. This time, try the graph of y = x3. From the formula, dyldx = 3 2 . For higher powers of x, the scale for y has to be changed to get the graph on the page. Draw tangent triangles for the unit horizontal base and measure the height to verify the formula.Then, plot a graph for dyldx. Notice that the cubic curve, unlike the square curve or parabola, curves upward for positive values of x, and downward for negative values of x. Its slope is always upwards, except when x = 0, where it is momentarily horizontal, the zero slope. The slope is equally positive for the same values of x, positive and negative. Take one more power of x for the time being: y = x4.Changing scales again, plot from x = -5 to x = +5. This curve is similar to that for y = x2, in that values of y are positive for both positive and negative values of x. Of course, the curvature is quite different. Correspondingly, the curve for dyldx is again negative when x is negative, because the y = x4 slope is downward (from left to right). Once again, the triangle constructions verify the formula result.
Successive differentiation
In the preceding pages, the slope of the curve was found by a single differentiation, dyldx. Some problems require successive dzflerentiation. For example, velocity is a rate of change of position. Acceleration is a rate of change of velocity. So, acceleration is a second differentiation of position; the first gives velocity, the second gives acceleration (or deceleration), and the third gives the rate of change of acceleration. Because acceleration changes, it must have a rate of change.
295
Starting with y = x4, successively differentiate to find these successive derivatives (as mathematicians call them). Previously the simplest equation, y = x" was used. It seems obvious that a constant will transfer to the derivative. The work here confirms it:
If y = axn, then dy/dr = anxn-'
296
Subtracting the parts that correspond to y, the parts that correspond with dy are left:
Dividing through by d x gives an expression for d y l d x that shows that d y l d x is equal to the sum of differentiations of individual terms in the original expression. Put in sample numbers: y = x5 - 50x3 + 5 2 0 ~ .The derivative is: d y l d x = 5x4 - 150x2 + 520. Notice that where the original term has a minus sign (as does 50x3)the term in the derivative also has a minus sign. Work through the example in the previous section with tabulated values of y and dyldx, term by term, from x = -6 to x = +6. Study the curves. Where the curve for y reaches a maximum or minimum, the curve for d y l d x passes through zero value. Momentarily, y is neither increasing nor decreasing. Where the curve for y crosses the zero line, except at the ends, where both curves go "off scale," the d y l d x curve is at a maximum positive or negative. At those points, the slope of y reaches a maximum, either up or down.
dx]
Example
2 1
-6
-4
-2
TIME: Independent variable DISTANCE: Dependent variable VELOCITY: Rate of change of distance ACCELERATION: Rate of change of velocity CHANGE OF ACCELERATION
Acceleration
zero
299
convenient numbers. Many parts of mathematics define an angle as the ratio of the arc length around the circumference, divided by the radius. The circular measure of angles, as this is called, fits with definitions of trigonometric ratios. Sine, cosine, and tangent are all ratios that identify an angle. None of them is conveniently proportional to all angles. Sine and tangent begin at small angles, in direct proportion to the angle, but this proportionality breaks down long before the first right angle.Thecosine begins at 1 and decreases, slowly at first, reaching zero at the first right angle. Arc length, measured along the circumference and divided by radius, is always proportional to the angle that the ratio identifies.The circular measure of an angle is stated in radians. Measuring distance around the circumference, the first semicircle (180 degrees) accommodates a little over 3 radii. A whole circle accommodates twice as many, a little over 6 radii. The ratio of the length of a semicircular arc to its radius has the universal symbol n (the Greek letter pi). For the present, use its approximate value of 3.14. On this basis, a right angle is half of n radians. Using this equivalent, assign radian values to angles to correspond to degree measure for 60,45,30, and 15 degrees.
MEASURES of ANGLES
270
@ Dividing a revolution or
circle into 100 parts
@ BY RADIANS
Angle in radians =
3
@ By quadrants: 4 to a circle
sine =
opposite radius
cosine =
adjacent radius
tangent =
opposite adjacent
is approximately 3.14
radius
Differential of angles
Circular measure allows you to apply the principles of differential calculus, concerning infinitesimal changes. As already pointed out, for very small angles, the ratio for the sine is almost the same as its circular measure (in radians). So, for nearly zero angle, sin dx = dx. Because the adjacent equals the hypotenuse at zero angle and 1/1 = 1, cos dx = 1. These values are true, regardless of the value of x, because they concern only the infinitesimally small angle, dx. Suppose y = sin x. Apply the sum formula to the right-hand part of y + dy = sin (x + dx). Substituting sin dx = dx and cos dx = 1 gives: y + dy = sinx+cosx.dx Take away the original part: This leaves: Dividing both sides by dx :
y = sinx dy = cosx. dx dyldx = cos x
Similarly, if y = cos x, again use the sum formula and substitute for cos dx and sin dx: dyldx = - sin x.
+-J
301
If
y=sinx
9 = COS X
dx
If
y=cosx &lift
Y h% I?
+ dy = cos (x + dx)
%"I
~ 4 % ~
a$= I
i
qj2*
I
Y
'' 4
n
I
i (
r
.'a$,
.
:gW;uiw]ii:i.
i s
x: " !
,,, , ..
li
"7
"
E ~ " E ; ~ % *
- - - sin x dy
dx
Slope = -0.5
->
then - s i n x = a
then
d
303
dx
sinx
sinx=ax+bx2+cx3 +dx4 +ex5 +fx6 +gx7 dx 4 or cos x =I d - cos x = dx or -sin x =/ SO sin x = also =
+....
+2bx+3~~~+4dx~+5ex~i6fx~+7~~~+....
2b
1-
d -sinxorcosx= dx
I; s o a = 1
What helps derive this series is that the 4th derivative is the same quantity repeated, or the second derivative is minus the same quantity. So, first write sin x as a series of powers of x with different coefficients,which you need to find values for. Differentiate the series of sin x, term by term, to yield d/dx sin x, which must also be cos x, as already shown. Pursuing this, differentiate it term by term to yield dldxcos x, which must also be - sinx. Reversing signs, you have two expressions (series) for sin x. Both expressions consist of a series of powers of x. So, the respective coefficients must be the same, which lets you calculate them. The last form begins with -2b, which has no counterpart in the first one. When x is 0, sinx is 0, so -2b must be 0, too. The term -3 .2c is equal to a. You know that for small values of x, sinx = x, so a must be 1 and c must be -1 /3! As b was zero, d must also be zero. Next, -5 .4e = c, which you already know is equal to -3 .2a, so e must be +1/5! (minus times minus makes a plus). You have developed a series for sinx, in terms of powers of x, when x is the angle in radians.
Suppose
then
c o s x = a + b x + c x 2 +dx3
+ex4
+fx5 +5fr4
+gx6 +(lyx5
+ .........
- cos
:
also
d: }=
x
= -
b + c x + i d x 2 +4ex3
+ .,.......
x4
2c
+ 3*2d x + 4.3e
&,"#i
+ 5*4f x3 + 6.5g
+ .........
.....,,.. .....
...a
.# "W$
; ; T ,, ; g? '$l;
When x = 0
cos x = 1 d -c ~ ~ ~ ~ r - s i n x = O dx
d =0
- 6*5g = e, so g = -
1 I or- 6.5-4.302 6!
COS X
= 1 - - + - - - + ......
x2 2!
x4 4!
x6 6!
1 I 1 120 32 5040*128+
0---
2nd 3rd
@SUPPOSY
x = 1.5 (slightly less than 90') 1 9 1 1 729 cosx=1--*-+-.---. 81 2 4 24 16 720 64 - I - - +9 - - 27 81 8 128 5120+""
4th -
305
For the cosine series, try an angle of x = 1.5,which is slightly less than 90 degrees, so its cosine is less than 0.1. The 4th term evaluates to 0.01582. . . (in decimals). Many more terms are necessary to find an answer that is correct to 6 places.
2. Suppose a car starts from a stationary position and accelerates at a rate of 5 miles per hour per second. How far will the car travel in 10 seconds? 3. In the previous problem, how fast will the car be moving, in miles per hour, at the end of 10 seconds? 4. Suppose the car in problems 2 and 3 stops accelerating (acceleration becomes zero) at the end of the 10 seconds, and continues indefinitely at this zero acceleration rate. How far will the car have traveled from its initial position 20 seconds after it first started? 5. An object in free fall, in the gravitational field of the earth, accelerates downward at a rate of 32 feet per second per second (32 ft/sec2),assuming there is no effect from air resistance. Suppose you drop a lead ball (heavy enough to render air resistance irrelevant) off a building 20 stories high, where each story is 10 feet. How long will it be, in seconds, from the time the ball is dropped until it hits the ground?
6. In problem 5, how fast will the ball be traveling, in feet per second, when it hits the ground?
7. Refer to the graph of acceleration versus time in the following drawing. Suppose a car starts out traveling at a speed of 44 feet per second. Write an equation for the speed of the car v, in feet per second, as a function of time t, in seconds, based on the information given in this graph.
Time, - seconds I 10
8. Write an equation, based on the information in the above drawing, for the displacement s, in feet, of the car as a function of time t, in seconds. Assume that when t = 0, s = 0.
9. Based on the information in the above drawing and the derived equations, how fast will the car be traveling, in feet per second, after the following lengths of time? Express your answers in decimal form, to four significant digits.
(a) 1.000 sec (c) 5.000 sec (b) 2.000 sec (d) 10.00 sec
10. Based on the information in the above drawing and the derived equations, how far will the car have traveled, in feet, from its starting point, after the following lengths of time? Express your answers in decimal form, to four significant digits. (a) 1.000 sec (c) 5.000 sec (b) 2.000 sec (d) 10.00 sec
11. Refer to the graph of voltage versus time in the following drawing.The curve is a sine wave. The maximum voltage is +8 . O volts, and the minimum voltage is O -8.00 volts.Write down an equation for the voltage V (at any given instant) as a function of time t. 12. How rapidly, involts per second, is the voltage in the above drawing changing at the following times? Use a calculator if you need one, and express your answers to four significant digits.
307
13. What is the measure, in radians, of the following angles? Use a calculator and specify to at least four significant digits. (a) 10.00 degrees (c) 75.00 degrees (e) 220.0 degrees (b) 30.00 degrees (d) 145.0 degrees (f) 300.0 degrees
14. What is the measure, in degrees, of the following angles? Use a calculator and specify to at least four significant digits. (a) 0.2000 radians (c) 1.000 radians (e) 2.200 radians (b) 0.5000 radians (d) 1.700 radians (f) 3.500 radians
15. Assume that the earth makes one complete revolution around the sun, relative to the distant stars, in exactly 365.25 days. Given this information: (a) How many degrees of arc does the earth advance around the sun in one day? Express your answer to five significant digits. (b) How many radians of arc does the earth advance around the sun during the month of April, which has 30.000 days? Express your answer to five significant digits.
- - -
309
ly=sinaxI
y + dy = sina (x + dx) = sinaxcosadx + cosaxsinadx = sinax + adx cosax adx cosax
+ 3dx
cos3x
3dx cos3x
- = a cosax
dx
Assume the equation is y = sin 2x, instead of y = sin x. Following the same method, dyldx = 2cos 2x. Next, take y = sin 3x. The derivative is dyldx = 3 cos 3x. Finally, using a general multiplier, a, if y = sin ax, dyldx = acos ax. Using the shortened form of writing: dldx sin ax = a cos ax.
Sinusoidal motion
Using the simple equation: y = sin x, the slope of the curve at the zero (starting) point is equal to its magnitude at maximum, which is why the cosine has the same amplitude as the sine wave. When the multiple constant a was introduced, a times as many waves were in the basic period, so the slope of the original wave is a times as steep.The amplitude of the derivative is multiplied by a. Now assume the equation y = A sin bt represents some motion with passage of time, t. A is the maximum movement from its average position and y is the distance from this reference position at time t. b is a constant rate that shows how fast the thing moves every time it passes through the zero (reference) position and thus, how many times it will make its complete excursion back and forth in a given time. Velocity is the first derivative, given by dyldt. It figures to dy/dt = Ab cos bt. Acceleration is the next derivative, given by the equation: b ~ d2y/dt2 = - ~ sin bt Notice that the maximum velocity occurs every time that the object passes through zero (reference) position and zero velocity occurs at each extreme. Zero acceleration occurs at the zero position, when velocity is a maximum, and is a maximum at each extreme. Notice that the zero position and the zero acceleration coincide. Maximum excursion and maximum acceleration also coincide.Acceleration is b? times position (in whatever units are used) and it is of the opposite sign.When position is maximum upwards, acceleration is maximum downwards, and vice versa.
y = A sin bt
- = Ab
cos bt
Harmonic motion
This fact about systems in mechanics, electric circuits, acoustics-in fact every branch of science+xplains the cyclic interchange of energy, called harmonic motion. Part 2 showed that such a system has a characteristic period (oscillation time) regardless of the amplitude of movement.There the movement was called resonance. Harmonic motion is the name given to the movement it makes during the cyclic period, which is sinusoidal. In this particular example, the pressure and movement are sinusoidal. In an electrical system, the voltage and current would be sinusoidal. In an acoustic system, the air flow and pressure variation would be sinusoidal, and so on. The natural relationship is fixed by quantity b. Only at one frequency, which makes bt = 2n, will this natural relationship hold, where energy interchanges with no external force applied.Thevalue of b2 is fixed by the stiffness of the spring and by the mass of the moving weight. Change either one and b2 changes, which results in a different natural resonance frequency.
311
Displacement = A sin bt
I
Velmityv = Ab
cos, bt7
HARMOMC MOTION
/\/
LINEAR SPRING
E L
a,
Compression
Tension
m
E
I
a
r
m
cd
cd
t
0
-Q
z"
c s a
- - - - - a a a a
m cd ' ~ 3
m
C
C
0
s a
I n
3 0
vi
m C
7 0
a
r-
-0 E: 7 0
-0
cg
V1
c
7
0
' ~ 3 C
m
0
v,
a
' n
Icl
r-
Compression
Tension
NONLINEAR SPRING
Nonlinear relationships
Plotting the force/displacement relationship tabulated in the previous section as a graph, you find that it can be resolved in two components. The linear part is the same as the linear spring-1 5 poundals for every inch. Then, the square-law part is proportional to the square of displacement. Because displacement is in opposite directions, one is considered positive, the other negative. So, one way the square-law component will add to the linear force. The other way, it will partially cancel the linear force.
313
Now, assume the movement is somehow made sinusoidal so that the force produced is determined by the sinusoidal variation in position. You can show this position by plotting motion and force separately, each against time. By plotting each, you are using the curve at top left as a "transfer characteristic." For each point in time on the motion sinusoid, you project the corresponding point on the transfer curve horizontally onto the corresponding time point on the force curve. On the last graph, the dashed line is a true sinusoid, and the solid line curve is the force produced by this nonlinear spring. The top part is more pointed and the bottom part is flattened.
314
Substituting the movement equation into the transfer characteristic,you have a term in sin2at. Transposition in the bottom left panel converts the sin2at term to a form that contains cos 2at, a double-frequency sinusoid. This component is usually called a second harmonic, because its frequency is twice that of the basic (fundamental) movement frequency.
+Complete "period" of movement +
s = Ssinat
=z+
Symmetrical nonlinearity
The nonlinearity considered in the last two sections wasn't symmetrical.The top of the wave was stretched and the bottom was compressed. This relationship is asymmetrical. Consider a symmetrical nonlinearity, in which both top and bottom are compressed.You might think of it as a spring, but it can apply to many things. Both ways, for greater displacement, force ceases to be proportional.You find that this nonlinearity is equivalent to adding a cubic term to the transfer characteristic. The equation takes the form:f = as + bs3. In the example shown, constants a and b are 125 and -1, respectively. Making a similar transposition, the sin3at term gives a combination of a sinat term and a sin 3at term. When substituted into the main equation, the
315
sin at term reduces the amplitude of the fundamental,but the sin 3at term helps it follow the original amplitude as it leaves the zero line, and flattens it as it approaches maximum amplitude. Study this concept carefully.
s = Ssinat
+ 3 1.25sin3at
sin at
cos4at = cos22at - sin22at
= 2cos22at - 1
sin at
sin4at = 2sin2atcos2at
= 4 sinatcosat (cos2at - sin2at)
cos4at = 2 cos22at - 1
= 1 - 8sin2at
+ 8sin4at
317
Look at 4th and 5th power terms. A pure 4th power term results in sin4at. Follow down the substitutions that lead to sin4at = 118 {3 - 4 cos 2at + cos 4at). The 4th power adds both second and fourth harmonics, as well as a zero line offset.To get a pure 4th (if for some reason you'd want it) added to the fundamental, you must add a 2nd power term as well. The method is similar with 5th power. Follow down the substitutions that lead to:
So, this modifies the fundamental, as well as adding (or subtracting from) the third harmonic and providing some of the fifth.
+1
Time
Nearer to the zero line, the x2 term causes a downward bend. Then, as the curve extends outwards,the x4 terms overtakes it, causing an upward bend at the ends.
319
Now, substitute this transfer curve into a sinusoid of the form x = A sin at. This equation gives a general expression for the resultant wave of the form shown in the box. Substitute different values for A into the coefficients and tabulate the results to show amplitudes of fundamental, offset, second, and fourth harmonics. Notice that the signs of the offset and the second harmonic change as the amplitude increases. Only the fourth harmonic stays in the same direction, however, it's very small at smaller amplitudes, so it has a negligible effect. At an amplitude of A = 2, the second disappears. The points on the output, for values of A at 1, 2, and 3, are marked on the curve shown in the previous section. Later, this book defines maximum and minimum points more specifically.
= 2 c o s 2- I ~
= 1 - 2sin2A
sin3A = 3sinA - 4sin3 A sin4A = 4sinA ( 2 c o s ' ~ cosA) sin5A = 5sinA - 20sin3A + 1 6 s i n 5 ~ sin6A = cosA (6sinA - 32sin" A + 32sin5A)
For the even powers, both sinnA and cosnA use a form of the expression for cosnA, and substitute it for the lower powers. For the odd powers, take the expression for sin n A to get sinnA and the expression for cos n A to get cosnA with similar substitutions.Here again, only the results are tabulated. Try a few to see how to do it. Notice that the expressions for even powers all have a constant term, but the odd powers do not.This pattern is because the even powers cause an asymmetrical effect. The substitutions used to derive the expressions in the previous section become involved in detail working. Nothing was difficult and the routine became familiar with practice, but the very number of substitutions made means that a mistake could creep in at any point.We need a simple means to check the results. Although the checks shown here are no absolute guarantee that an expression is correct, if they follow the pattern, and the numerical coefficients check out correctly, the answer is much more likely to be right. Use two angles for each check: A = 0 and A = n/2,which is 90 degrees. Whatever the multiple, n A is always 0 when A is 0, so sin n A should always be 0 and cos n A always 1 in this column. For the 90-degree column, n A should always be n right angles. So, for sinnA, the sequence will be +1 .O, -1 .O, and +l . . .and cos n A will have the same sequence, beginning at 0 instead of 1. In the powers' table (0)" is always 0 and (1)" is always 1. So, sinnA will always be 0 for A = 0 and 1 for A as a right angle. Similarly, cosnA will always be 1 for A = 0 and 0 for A as a right angle.
321
4
Quantity
All these check columns should have either 0 or 1 in the appropriate pattern. If one of the coefficients in the detail working has gone wrong, it will almost inevitably cause a different result in one or both of these checks.
y = Asin c t + a (Asin ~
t ) ~ (Asin ~ t ) ~ b -
bA4= 1 8
8 or 0.0128 b is- 625 8 a is-or - 25 022
Check
323
Dividing through by 2 makes it simpler. Now, solve the equation as a quadratic. It doesn't matter that the variable is sin A instead of xor some more familiar variable. The formula method gives values of sin A as 1 or 113. If the problem required it, you can now give angle A appropriately. Check the answer(s), either in the original problem (which wasn't given here) or in the form. In this case, both answers check.
sinA == 1 or-
1 3
Check
If sinA = 1, cos2A = - 1
1 7 If sinA = - , cos2A =3 9
324
Time, l seconds 10
3. At what points in time is the acceleration of the weight greatest positively? What is the acceleration in m/sec2 at these points? Express your answer to three significant figures.
4. At what points in time is the acceleration of the weight greatest negatively? What is the acceleration in m/sec2 at these points? Express your answer to three significant figures.
5. Suppose the tension of the spring is increased so the weight oscillates at the third harmonic of the original frequency, but the positive and negative peak amplitudes (excursions) remain exactly 6 and -6 meters, respectively. At what points in time is the velocity of the weight maximum positively? What is the velocity, in meters per second (mlsec), at these points? Express your answers to three significant figures.
6. In the situation of problem 5 at what points in time is the velocity of the weight greatest negatively? What is the velocity in m/sec at these points? Express your answer to three significant figures.
7. In the situation of problem 5, at what points in time is the acceleration of the weight greatest positively? What is the acceleration in m/sec2 at these points? Express your answer to three significant figures.
8. In the situation of problem 5, at what points in time is the acceleration of the weight greatest negatively? What is the acceleration in m/sec2 at these points? Express your answer to three significant figures. 9. Using the formulas for multiples and powers (page 320), find the following. Assume all angle measures are in radians. You may use a calculator; express your answers to four significant figures.
325
10. Using the formulas for multiple components of power sinusoids (page 316), find the following. Assume the angle 0 is 35 degrees in all cases. You may use a calculator; express your answers to four significant figures. (a) (c) (e) (8) sin4 (28) sin4 (48) sin3 (38) sin5 (38) (b) sin4 (38) (d) sin4 (58) (f) sin5 (28) (h) sin5 (48)
11. Using the formulas for multiple components of power sinusoids (page 316), find the following. Assume the angle 8 is 55 degrees in all cases. You may use a calculator; express your answers to four significant figures. (a) (c) (e) (8) sin4 (28) sin4 (48) sin3 (38) sin5 (38) (b) (d) (f) (h) sin4 (38) sin4 (58) sin5 (28) sin5 (48)
12. Supposeyou twirl a ball around on a string that is 10 feet long, as shown in the following drawing. The ball makes one complete revolution around your body every 2 seconds, exactly.What is the tangential speed of the ball in ft/ sec? Use a calculator and express your answer to four significant figures. 13. Assume the ball whose motion is shown in the above drawing rotates in a horizontal plane. What is the northward-moving component of the ball's speed at the instant the ball is traveling towards the northwest (45 degrees west of north)? Express your answer to four significant figures.
North
- - -
327
You worked through some examples where functions could be differentiated, term by term. Here are examples of various functions in general groups. The Trig functions can family y = axn,for which the derivative is: dyldx = anxnpl. be assembled as a series of such terms. A related group has the general form: y = a/xn. Another way of writing that, as in the section of indices, would be: y = axpn.Then, the general form gives the derivative as: dyldx = -an . xp("+l), which can be switched back to its original form: dyldx = -an/xn+' . To work with functions in general, since they can take various forms, a general form is: y =f (x), which is read " y is a function of x" or " y equals f of x." This expression can mean any function of x, with the implicationthat it is a function for which you already can derive the derivative.
y = uv y + dy = (u + du) (v + dv)
= uv
+ udv + vdu + d
udv
= uv
dy =
+ vdu
y = sin2x dy dx
= 2sinxcosx
= 2 [sin x (- sin x)
r l v
-= -sinx
+ cos x
cos x
329
USING FORMULA
330
(y+dy) (v + dv) = u + du yv
+ ydv + vdy + W
v = u + du
Substitute for y
y+,+dy=-+- u idv v v
du v
vdu - udv dy = v2
331
dy dx
x3*7x6- x7*3x2 x
ame answer
- (7 -3)
xy
x6
sin 2x x
u = sin 2x
-=
-=
2 cos 2x
3X2
dx
dy-x3* -dx
Using Formula
y=tanx=-
sin x
COS X
u = sin x
V=COSX
*=
cos x dx dv -=-sinx dx
x2+ 4 y= sln 2x
dy - = 2x sin 2x - ( x 2 + 4) 2 cos 2x dx
sin22x
dx
- 2x --
sine written
- = cosecant
csc
tangent I written
= cotangent
cot
Example
y = sin5 x
+ 25 cos x - loo C O S x + 80 C O S X) ~ ~
333
To check this equation, convert sin5x to functions of multiples of x (chapter 18). differentiate this term by term. Now, substitute back for cos 3x and cos 5x, collect and simplify, to find the same answer in somewhat different form. sin2 x = 1 - cos2x, so sin4x = (1 - cos2 x)2. After this substitution,the result is the same.
Equation of a circle
An interesting use for the function of a function formula is to find the derivative of the equation for a circle. In its simplest form, this equation is x2 + y2 = 3. Radius is constant, so 2 is constant. Turning it around and taking the square root, you have an expression for y. The plus or minus sign in front of the surd means that y can be positive or negative. Actually, a circle has four combinations of the same numeric value of x and y. Both x and y can be either positive or negative and give a point in each quadrant. The method of finding the derivative is to make u equal to (r2 - x2)? and y = u1I2An interesting way to check the result in all 4 quadrants, is to take the half right angles, where x and y are each r divided by root 2. The slope is unity at each of these points, but of changing sign. By checking, each answer is correct.
When x and y are both the same sign, the slope is - 1 Il opposite signs I? +1
dy When x = 0, - = 0 dx
dy When x = I . is undefined -, dx
334
y = tanx
dy -= 1 + tan2x (see p. 3-87) dx
= 2 tanx (1 + tan2x)
+ tan2x) (1 + tan2x)}
= 2 ( ( 1 + tan2x) Gtanx
+ 3tan2x)}
+ tan2x) (2 + 3tan2x)
335
f '(x)dx = f(x)
DIFFERENTIATION
CORRESPONDING INTEGRATION
y = asinx
9= acosx dx
y = acosx y = asinx
Integration consists of finding what function, when differentiated, will give the one we start with
336
Patterns in calculations
Reviewing the study of mathematics, always begin with a positive process, then reverse it to produce a negative process. After counting, you got into addition, which was reversed to make subtraction. After shortening multiple addition to make multiplication, it was reversed to parallel multiple subtraction, making division.Then, indices brought powers, then reversed it to find roots. In each, what began as a negative process, searching for a question to produce an answer, later developed into a positive approach to eliminate the search. Integration has a similar relationship to differentiation.
POSITIVE PROCESS
5 and 3 make
REVERSE
5 times 3 are
n
Powers
d dx of axn is
- of dx
is anx " -
337
ALL of these,
+4
+x
Definite integrals
This more specific use for integration is practical.The general integral (above) has mainly a theoretical value. A definite integral "adds it up" between definite values. It specifies that the curve starts at a certain point and follows the derivative to a new point. The integral is written the same way as for the general integral, but limits are put against the long S. The lower one is where it begins, the upper one is where it ends. Next, the integral (the general one, less the constant) is put in square parentheses,with the limits outside at the right.Then, substitute the values of the integral, first at the upper limit, then at the lower limit, which you subtract from the value at the upper limit. In the graph, the general integral is plotted without the constant of integration. When substituting in the lower value, you could make the starting point by inserting a constant of integration that would make the point zero. However, it is not necessary, because you subtract this value from the upper value. Whatever you make the constant, it disappears when you subtract one value from the other. By substituting x = -2 and x = + 1, the second produces -11 and the first produces +16. By subtracting the first from the second, the change is -27. Substituting values x = +2 and x = +3, the same process produces the change of y in this range as +7.
338
lrb ydx
339
If y represznts the height of continuous succession of infinitely small elements of an area, gives the area under curve y, between points x I and x
=[
(,x
+ 7)dx
10
tr
14)
T
-x + - l o 1
=[aX2+7X~2 = (7.70)
(++
l2
CHECK
1 @ Average y = - (8 + 12, = l o 2
Area of a circle
The area does not have to be under a curve. Here, the area of a circle is found by two methods. In the first, the element of area is a wedge from center to circumference, taken at angle (in circular measure) x. The element has an area 112 base times height. The height is r, and the base is rdx. So, the area of the element is 1/2r2dx. Angle x is the variable. Integrating produces 1 /2r2x. the lower limit is zero, the upper one is 2n. Substitute and subtract (subtracting zero doesn't alter the upper limit), gives the well-known formula: nr2.
Total area is
of area
2n
= (zr2)- (0)
=m
continued
Alternative
Total area is
2xxdx =2nx*dx
The other method uses a thin ring at radius x from the center. Here, the area of the element is the length of the ring, 2nx times its thickness, dx. Integrating that from zero to r gives the same well-known result. Compare the methods carefully until you understand how each is done.
dJ=p
Area of /length
ELEMENT 1 is
x breadth
h
Total = f o 2xrdx
= 2xrx
X- x dx !
= (nrl') -(O) = X E
341
J:
2nr2sin xdx
Volume of a pyramid
To make the formula more general, A is used to represent the area of the base and an element of volume at x is taken from the apex. Follow the same method down through. The difference is that the area is proportional to the square of the distance from the apex: (xlh)'. See the example at the bottom of page 342.
=Sf?
2e
xdx f
0
,a .2] [
-
=($) @)
-~ -
t e
VOLUME of PYRAMID
Area of base = A Area of element
=A
(;>' (:>' dx
A x 'dx
I,
343
Volume of cone
The method on the previous page for finding the volume of a pyramid can also be applied directly to the volume of a cone. Its base is a circle whose area (see u. "Area of a circle") is n' Notice that, as compared with the curved surface area, the height is the vertical height, which is measured perpendicular to the base; not the slant height, which is measured up the surface. Another method to find the volume of a cone uses an element that is a cylindrical shell of radius x. Check it through; the answer should be the same.
Method 1
of base A
Volume
Method 2
Area of element, surface of 2nx (r - x)h cylinder r Volume of element =
dx
As before
Volume of sphere
Here again, you have a choice of methods to find the volume. The first method takes "slices" of the sphere (very thin, of course) and the second takes cylindrical shells. Taking slices, x goes from -r to +r. The cylindrical shell method takes values of x from zero to r. However,the volume of the element has a product function. If you remember the differentiation, it's not difficult.The first method is simpler.
Area of element
r
4
7c(rZ-
x 2, dx
3 nr3
+-)
3
Tnr
Alternative Method
d m dx
345
2. Using the quotient formula, find the derivative of the quotient of the functions u and v when: (a) u = - 3 x - 6 (b) u = x' + 2x (c) u = sinx (d) U = ~ 4 - 4 X and and and and
v v v v
= x2 2 = sin x = 3 +cosx = -2x 2
3. In rectangular coordinates, the slope m of a line whose equation is y = mx + b, where b is a constant, is dy/dx. Find the slope of a line tangent to a circle centred at the origin and having a radius of 3 units, when the point on the circle through which the tangent line passes corresponds to the following angles counterclockwise from the x axis:
(a) (c) (e) (g) 10 degrees 105 degrees 300 degrees 2 radians (b) 55 degrees (d) 190 degrees (f) 1 radian (h) 4 radians
4. Suppose an oscilloscope shows a waveform like the one in the following drawing. Assume each vertical division represents exactly 1 volt (1 V), and each horizontal division represents exactly 1 millisecond (1 msec). The peak signal amplitudes are exactly plus and minus 5 V. The ramps are straight lines. Assign t = 0 for the time at the origin (the center of the display).This waveform is passed through a circuit called a dzflerentiator, which produces an output waveform that is the derivative of the input waveform. Draw a graph of the output waveform. Include the maximum and minimum amplitudes.
5. Suppose the waveform in the above drawing is passed through two successive differentiator circuits. Draw a graph of the output waveform from the second differentiator. Include the maximum and minimum amplitudes.
8. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals and check your results by differentiation:
(a) s4x3dx (b) 6x5dx (d) x4dx (c) 9x8dx (f) -4 sinx dx (e) 2cos x dx
9. Evaluate the integrals from problem 8 as definite integrals, with limits of and +1. Assume angle measures to be in radians.
10. The following drawing shows the quadratic function, that is, a function of the form y = ax2 bx c, where a, b, and c are constants. First the area under this curve between the following points on the abscissa:
+ +
and and and and
11.Find the derivative of the function shown in the above drawing.Then find the area under the resulting curve between the same abscissavaluesas in problem 10.
- - -
348
Plot a graph
349
Point of inflection
What might be even more difficult by simply plotting points, without help from the derivative, is a curve of the type represented by: y = x4 - 6x2 + Xx. Six points are tabulated, from x = -3 to x = +2. Without better knowledge, you might look for a mistake in the region between x = 0 and x = -1. It doesn't look like a smooth curve.
350
The derivative is: dy/dx = 4x3 - 12x + 8 . This equation can be factored to: 4(x + 2)(x- l ) ( x - 1). Notice that the two identical roots are x = + 1. Mathematically, both a maximum and minimum occur at x = 1. Such a point is called a point of inflection. It means that, right at the point of the root ( x = + I ) , the curve is momentarily level.
f
- 27
gMaximum
+ 54
Slope -
351
Most often, the second derivative finds points of maximum slope in the original function. Whichever it finds, it provides more information that enables the original function curve to be plotted more accurately.
352
The other curve merely changes the coefficient of the x term. Because it doesn't reach the second derivative, it will have the same roots. Here, you see what happens when the curve is tilted-what changing the x coefficient does. Instead of a point of inflection, it has a point of minimum slope. If the x coefficient was changed the opposite way, the coincident maximum and minimum at the point of inflection would be separated, and that point would become one of maximum negative slope. The first derivative would have three different roots, instead of having two of them coincident.
OBLONG
Perimeter = 2p
I
- - - p - 2x dA
or
x =
dx
1 or also = - p 2
353
To make this exercise more interesting, suppose that the box only needs the square base-no top. Now, the total area is 4Vlx +x2. Differentiating, dA/dx = -4v/x2 + 2x, which will be zero when V = l/2x3, making the height half the length of the square sides.
BOX
X2 - X
4v -
*
Cube
4v
+ 4x
OPEN-TOPPED BOX
4V
4v
X
( y+ -5+
X2)=
2x
354
Suppose you want a cylindrical container with no top. Following the same method for the open box, the height needs to be equal to the radius-half the diameter. In short, if a closed container is cut in two, two open containers of minimum surface area are formed.
CYLINDRICAL CONTAINER
Minimum Surface Area for Constant
VOLUME
SURFACE AREA ~ = 2 n r 2
Tofind minimum
fi = 4a r - 2v dr r
OR
r3=V
2n
2v fi = 2rrr -dr
OR r 3-v
-c
Conical container
What is the best shape for an ice cream cone?You want one in which the cone will accommodate a given volume with minimum surface area. which, to put h "in the picVolume is: V = 1/3nr2h.Surface area: A = nr& ture," is A = r(? + h2)'I2.Substituting to get h in terms of V and r, then substituting that into the one for A, differentiating and equating to zero, you find that h, for minimum surface area, is equal to root 2 times r (diameter divided by root 2). Do you not see many ice cream cones this shape? Maybe the manufacturer doesn't want to give you so much ice cream for the cost of the cone!
CONICAL CONTAINER
Constant Volume Minimum Surface (Curved)
1 VOLUME V = -nr 2h 3
3v : A =nr n; r
-dA dr -
I (4n2 r Z2 q 7 n2r4+ r2
3v
356
In the circle, the r represents radius. In the ellipse, two constants replace it, designated q and s. They are half the principal axes of the ellipse.These principal axes can be regarded as maximum (major) and minimum (minor) diameters of the ellipse.
X
0
W -2an-2by+a2+b2=r2 I
2. Ellipse
(X - a)* + General - (Y - b) = 1 d s2
2
@
Special x 2 + * = 1 9 s
, 5
Special y = fx
357
An alternative way to generate curves describes these curves more effectively. If you drove around a circular track, you would not have a compass attaching you to the center of the track! You would direct your course with the steering wheel. Paralleling that idea, visualize going along a parabolic course, positioning yourself by two things; a focus and a directrix. For the parabola, you keep the two distances, from the focus and the directrix, equal. That distance, at a given point, is designated u. Where the focus is opposite the directrix, those two distances are each f (called focal length). Drawing a line through the focus parallel to the directrix, you can divide the u, measuring your distance from the directrix, into 2 and y. f Fact 1 relates to the u that measures your distance from the focus. Fact 2 relates to the other u Combine them, rearrange, and you have an equation that is . of the same form as a parabola. The condition described here is, in fact, another way to generate a parabola. Because the two 12s are equal, this curve has an eccentricity of 1 (unity).
o2
f
Directrix
-I
Which is an equation for a parabola
358
PROOF:
1 Fact l : x 2 + Y 2 = e 2 F a c t 2 : y + f ( l + - ) = u ~2
1 Combine 1 a n d 2 : ~ ~ + ~ ~ = e ~ ( y + f ( 1 + - ) ] ~ e
Rearrange
- 2ef
(I + e) y = f 2(1 + e)'
Directrix
359
Single At Infinity
1 Finite
1 Infinite
Single
0
Equal
<1
Unequal
Only one
Equation of Parabola
0
dX rzl
Check
=Y
.-
360
When
= ef
-
e f y 2-- (1 - e)
2 2
b = Half minor
axis = f
fi
361
REFLECTION PROPERTIES
Focus of hyperbola
\ \
I I I
*Hyperbola directrix
362
g/,?
Another parameter helps define hyperbolas. To derive it, write the algebraic equations in yet another form. For the circle, the equation: x2 + y2 = ? is divided through by ?, so the left-hand side consists of two ratios squared, which together make 1. For the ellipse, the half axes are labeled q and s. The sum of x 2 / q 2 and is 1.The hyperbola reverses one of these signs, so the difference is equal to 1. For the parabola, one of these second-order terms disappears.
Asymptotes
The new parameter that helps construct these curves is called an asymptote. It is a straight line through the origin (the point where x = 0 and y = 0) whose equation is: x / y = q/s. The curve approaches this line more and more closely as it moves further from the origin. Notice the various lines identified in the previous section for the complementary ellipse and hyperbolas. On this page, notice one particular hyperbola, the right hyperbola. An ellipse has two pairs of complementary hyperbolas, both of which use the same pair of asymptotes. A right hyperbola has two identically shaped curves; both touch a central circle.
= e 2 x 2 + 2 e f ( e + l ) x + f 2 ( e + 1)*
(e2-1)~2+2ef(e+1)x-y2=-f2(e+1)2
(e (e2- 1 ) x 2 +2 ef (e + 1) x - y2+f2e2-- + 1)- fze2 (e + I) f 2 ( e + (e - 1) (e - 1)
f2(e + 1) e- 1
(d- ) ( x + I
fe e- 1
-)
-y2=-
f2(e+ 1) e- 1
f2
r 1 +./2
HYPERBOLAS
/
363
Second-order curves
To prepare for the next step, which relates all of these curves to conic sections, notice the different characteristics of these curves. A circle has a single focus and only 1 curve. Viewed as a special ellipse, you could say that it has a single focus because the two elliptical foci coincide. It's not difficult to understand zero eccentricity-that's what "round" means to some people! Both second-order terms have equal coefficients. Its directrix is at infinity in any direction. An ellipse begins eccentricity which, by the definition given in mathematics, is less than 1 for any completed curve (circles and ellipses). An ellipse has two directrices that are parallel with the minor axis and closer to the ellipse as the ellipse itself elongates. Its equation has two second-order terms that are unequal but the same sign. A parabola is a marginal curve-the first one not to complete itself within finite dimensions. Theoretically, it has 2 foci, one finite, the other infinitely removed. Its eccentricity is 1 and it has only one second-order term. A hyperbola goes a step further than the parabolas by having 2 finite foci and 2 directrices. The hyperbola's eccentricity is greater than unity, secondorder terms are opposite sign, and it is characterized by asymptotes.
Second-Order
364
CONIC SECTIONS
Parabola
Hyperbola Ellipse
Hyperbola
365
1. Find the point (x7y) on the graph of the function y =f (x) = -3x2 at which the function attains its maximum value.
+ 2x + 2
2. There are infinitely many points (x, y) on the function y =f (x) = 2 sin x + 2, at which the slope of the function is maximum. Write a general expression for these points. 3. Suppose you are standing on a vast, frozen lake in the middle of the night, holding a flashlight. The beam from the flashlight is cone-shaped.The outer face of the light cone subtends a 20-degree angle with respect to the axis (the ray corresponding to the beam center). How can you aim the flashlight to form a circular region of light on the ice? 4. In the situation described in problem 3, how can you point the flashlight so the edge of the region of light forms an ellipse on the ice? 5. In the situation described in problem 3, how can you aim the flashlight so the edge of the region of light forms a parabola on the ice?
6. In the situation described in problem 3, how can you aim the flashlight so the edge of the region of light forms a half-hyperbola on the ice?
7. Determine x and y intercepts, local maxima, local minima, and points of inflection (if any) for the following functions. Specify the points as ordered pairs ( ~ Y),where Y =f ( 4 . 7 (a) f (x) = 2x3 - 5 (c) f(x) = 2tanx (b) f(x) = (x2 3)(x - 4) (d) f(x) = -3cosx
8. Using the informationyou obtained in the previous problem, plot graphs of the functions given. Intercept points, local maxima, local minima, and points of inflection (if any) should be labeled. Otherwise, the curves can be approximately drawn.
- - -
Introduction to coordinate systems 367 To convert them to polar coordinates,the radius r is the square root of the sum of the squares of x and y. Angle 61 has a tangent of ylx. At one time, the English used a negative index after the ratio symbol. This would be written tanp1ylx. The method commonly used today is arctan ylx, which represents exactly the same. The other conversion is simpler. If the polar coordinates are r and 0, the equivalent rectangular coordinates are x = r cos 0, y = r sin 61.
Y
Equivalence
O = arctan Y x
the angle whose tangent is
y = rsin 0
x = rcos0
b 8= arc tan (a + -) X
r = d x 2 + (ax + b12
General
r sin 8= ar cos 0 + b
Special
b =0
EQUATION of a CIRCLE
(x -a)2+ (y - b)2= R2 ~ ~ - 2 a x + a ~ + ~ ~ - 2 b ~ + b ~ = R ~
x2+ r2= R*
2=
R2
r =R
Special
a=O b=O
r2= x 2 + y
= ~ ~ ax + 2by-a2-b2 + 2
x=rcose
y=rsin8
r2=~2+2arcosO+2brsin0-a2-b2
r2-2 [acosO+ b sine] r + (a2+ b 2 ) - R 2 = 0
General
z.
The polar system can use an additional angle in several ways. It still uses an origin and a reference axis as the starting point. The simple method is to use a reference plane in addition to the reference axis. A plane that contains the point P and the reference axis will have a specific angle to the reference plane. That angle has the symbol 4, the Greek letter phi. Then, starting from the reference line, within the plane already defined by 4, measure angle 8, the Greek letter theta, to the radius r, which measures the distance from the origin. Thus, the point is completely defined by r, 4, and 8. As in rectangular coordinates, it is . specified by x, y, and z
V]
.4
X .
c d
x axis
x = rsin Bcosq
@ = arctan Y X
370
a = tana=-dy
dx
b = tan p=-dy
dz
c is intercept on y axis
371
+ b,=
cr cos 8+ d
4
a
sin w = d-
r
L = c cos 8d
a sin ecas 4
MULTIPLE INTEGRATION
Example
Rectangular parabolic section: Element
= ydxdz = a (x2+ z2) dxdz
J-TJ-y
h 2Si (x2+z2)
i-t
-6
3. The following drawing is a graph of a curve in polar coordinates.Values of 0 are shown in degrees. Draw an approximation of this curve in rectangular coordinates, substituting x for 0 and y for r. Consider only positive values for all variables.
270
4. Draw an approximation of the curve in the above drawing in rectangular coordinates, substituting y for 0 and x for r. Consider only positive values for all variables.
5. Determine the equation of Line A (a straight line) in rectangular three-space shown in the following drawing.
374
- - -
- - -
378
Complex quantities
IMAGINARY QUANTITIES
- Quantities
+ Quantities
IMAGINARY OPERATOR i
+i
ixixi = - i
+i
A
*+
-4
.+
ixixixi = +
-
-i
Complex quantities
379
a isbis-
a is + bis-
Complex quantities
The Pythagorean theorem, whether you think in terms of geometry, trigonometry, or algebra, shows that the magnitude of each root, which is the length of the vector from the origin, is 1.You have taken three steps with the cube root of -1.
380
Complex quantities
Suppose that you start with the same quantity in the second quadrant (120 degrees), and write in the polar coordinates as 1, with the angle at 120 degrees. Multiply this first cube root of +l by itself, to get the square at 240 degrees, and again to get the cube when it is 360 degrees, which proves that the quantity you began with is the cube root of 1. Check your work with this technique to gain confidence in the use of complex quantities. See the complex quantity interpretation of the three cube roots of 1.Cubing the first root at 120 degrees multiplies that angle by 3, making 360 degrees, which is the same as 0, thus it is positive. Cubing the second at 240 degrees multiplies that by 3, making 720 degrees, where it becomes positive after two revolutions. Cubing the third at 360 degrees (a.k.a. 0 degrees) makes either no revolutions, keeping it positive or 3 revolutions, where it arrives at positive again. In the last two sections, everything was kept simple by taking only quantities that had a magnitude of 1. How are quantities with magnitudes other than 1 represented? Look at the cube root of 8. Using the method already used a few times now, the first cube root of +8 is -1 plus i root 3, which is 120 degrees. Now, multiply that by itself and simplify: -2 - i2 root 3. Multiplying by the root again returns the answer to +8; the imaginary part disappears to prove that the cube root is correct.
COMPLEX QUANTITIES
Complex quantities
381
1 Revolution
2 Revolutions
3 Revolutions
Cube Root of 8
is - I
0
-
+i h
or
1- i 3
2/120 or 2/240
382
Complex quantities
MULTIPLICATION
a+ib=
c+id=
d m
ac-bd+i(ad+bc) = r s [ c o s 0 c o s ~-sinesin$]
$1
= rscos(e+$)+irssin(e+$)
Product of Magnitudes
I
-1
m l ELI
If the quantity a + ib has a magnitude r that is greater than unity, its reciprocal will have the magnitude 1/r, which will be less than unity.The larger shaded area uses unit magnitude on the positive real axis for its base, and the magnitude r of the quantity a ib for its top side. Scaling this area down to make the longest side fit unit magnitude on the positive real axis, the side that was 1 in the bigger triangle is now the reciprocal of the original complex quantity, in both magnitude and polar angle.
Complex quantities 383 The algebra shows how to calculate these values. Having a complex quantity in the denominator is not easy to handle. However, multiplying top and bottom by a - ib, the denominator becomes the sum of two squares, which reverses the sign of the imaginary part in the numerator. In the study and use of complex quantities, a quantity such as a - ib is called the conjugate of a + ib, or vice versa.
RECIPROCAL EXPRESSIONS
a = rcos I
b = rsin 0
384
Complex quantities
DIVISION
- cos
(-0
)=- -
1 . -sin(-$)= s
c c2+ d 2 -d c2+ d 2
+ @ ) ]= ac + bdc2+i d(bc 2
ad)
Rationalization
You have already performed rationalization without naming it as such. In complex quantities, rationalization is what simplification is in fractions and similar subjects. A complex quantity is a simple combination of a real part and an imaginary part. Complex quantities can, as numerators, share the same denominator, as a matter of convenience or simplicity, but the denominator should be entirely real. Otherwise, the real and imaginary parts of the numerator are not truly real and imaginary, but each are complex. Take a simplification that consists of two complex quantities multiplied together in the numerator and two more multiplied together in the denominator. When these quantities are multiplied, the numerator and denominator can each be simplified to single real and imaginary parts. Now, to rationalize, the numerator and denominator are each multiplied by the conjugate of the denominator, so only the numerator contains both real and imaginary parts. If desired, the whole quantity can be written separately: as a real part and as an imaginary part.
Complex quantities
385
Rationalization
Evaluate
Write k = ac - bd: L = bc + ad
Write m = eg - fh; n = fg + eh
- km + e n + i( e m kn) -
m2+ n2
Example
10 - i5
39 + i2 5(2 - i l )
386
Complex quantities
sion, magnitudes multiply and divide, but angles add and subtract. For powers and roots, the magnitudes take powers and roots, but angles multiply and divide by the indices. Any of these operations can be performed with real and imaginary parts by using the operator, i.
MAGNITUDE
5-- i6 1-i2
SUMMARY
a + ib
1st Quadrant
w
Same Magnitude -a+ib 2nd Quadrant
X
X
-a-ib
3rd Quadrant
Operation -+ Magnitude
Phase
+
t
-
( ) "
( ) "
.e/ le/
+n
+
-
xn
+ + Imaginary + +
Real
Complex quantities
387
working easier to follow, y is expressed as a complex fraction-real and imaginary parts in both numerator and denominator. At a point where the denominator is zero (I), the value of y goes to infinity, called a pole. Where the numerator goes to zero (2), the value of y is zero, called a zero.
Dependent variable (y)
Complex Plane
variable
iz
388
Complex quantities
a
Check
x 2 + x + 1= O
BY formula
x = - 12
+JiT 4d
1 i43 x=--+2 2
id2 x2=-- I - -
x2+x+1=o
x2+ix-I=O
Byformula
1 1 ~ = - i 2- - J - ~ + l +
Check
x = --
43 . 1 2 '5
43 i x = -I+ i 2 2
1 X2=--
43
i y x 2 + i x - 1 = 0 )/
Complex quantities
389
2 / 720
2 1360" -
2 /288"
Roots
1. Multiply 0.6 +j0.8 by 0.8 +j0.6. Verify that the product is pure-imaginary and has a magnitude of 1.
390
Complex quantities
2. Square each of the quantities in problem 1.Then multiply the resulting complex numbers together, and verify that the product is pure-real and has a magnitude of 1.
3. Solve the following quadratic equations. Include imaginary, complex, and real solutions.
' (a) x - 2x + 2 = 0 (c) 13x2 - 4 x + 1 = 0 (e) x - j 2 x - 8 - 0 ' (b) x 2 - 2 x + l 0 = 0 (d) x -j2x - 10 = 0 '
4. Find the six 6th roots of 64. Express the coefficients in decimal form to three significant digits. Plot the corresponding vectors on the complex plane. 5. Find the ten 10th roots of 1,024. Express the coefficients in decimal form to three significant digits. Plot the corresponding vectors on the complex plane. 6. Find the nine 9th roots of 5 12. Express the coefficients in decimal form to three significant digits. Plot the corresponding vectors on the complex plane. 7. Refer to the following drawing. Find the sum of these two complex numbers.
+j
A
-2 - j3
---j
8 . Plot the vector denoting the sum of the complex numbers shown in the above drawing.
9. Find the product of the complex numbers shown in the above drawing.
Complex quantities
391
10. Plot the vector denoting the product of the complex numbers shown in the above drawing. 11. Divide the complex number shown by the second-quadrant vector by the complex number shown by the third-quadrant vector in the above drawing. Express the coefficients in decimal form to three significant digits. 12. Plot the vector denoting the quotient you found in problem 11. 13. Divide the complex number shown by the third-quadrant vector by the complex number shown by the second-quadrant vector in the above drawing. Express the coefficients in decimal form to three significant digits. 14. Plot the vector denoting the quotient you found in problem 13. 15. Refer to the following drawing. Find the product of these two complex numbers.
Each radial division represents one unit
-1
For Problems 15 through 17, Chapter 22
16. Plot, in polar coordinates, the vector denoting the product of the complex numbers shown in the above drawing. 17. Convert the product vector from problems 15 and 16 to standard complex form-that is, to the form a +jb, where a and b are real and j is the square root of - 1. Express the coefficients to three significant digits.
- - -
393
The panel shows the basic pattern, called the Maclaurin series. Iff (x) is the function that you want to expand into a series, find the successive derivatives of the function, as in the second line under the panel (below the n line). Then, find the value of this derivative when x = 0, which you write in the next line. This value, divided by factorial n, becomes the coefficient of xn in the expansion.This number is then written in the last line, and it agrees with the original series (as derived earlier). When no term exists for a given power of x, the value of that derivative when x is zero is also 0.
394
BINOMIAL APPROACH
If n is huge,
395
4!
If n is huge,
( l
;x )= n
1 +x+-+
X?
2!
-+-+-+.... ! 3! 4! 5
X3
x4
x5
Same as f(x)
If (1 + -) n
Then ( 1 + -) n
1 1
1 I 1 =e=1 + I +-+-+-+-+....S1! 2! 3 ! 4!
nx
=ex = I
+x+-+-+-+-+.... 2 ! 3! 4! 5 !
x2
x3
x4
x5
Value of e
Calculate the value of e which you can do on your calculator, to more decimal places, if you wish. Enter 1 in memory. Dividing 1 by 1 is still 1 . Add that into memory. Dividing by 2 provides 0.5. Add that into memory. Dividing by 3 produces 0.16666. Add that into memory. Keep dividing by the next higher integer till you have enough decimal places.
. I 6 6 6 6 6 6
+4
+5
> .041 6 6 6 6
+
.0083333 . 0 0 1 3 8 8 8 . 0 0 0 0 2 4 8
t 6
+7
t 8
+9 I.>
continued
396
Concept of logarithms
From this point on, we introduce two alternative symbols for e: the lower case Greek epsilon (e) and the Arabic 'ayn (r).You should get used to seeing these. The inverse function of y = ex has some unexpectedly useful properties.To keep up with the convention of making x the independent variable and y the dependent, start by writing the equation the other way: x = ey.The inverse of
397
this equation is read, " y equals log to the base E of x." "Log" is short for the word logarithm, a word that is derived from the Greek that means "words about numbers," the study of numbers. The "arithm" part is also used in "arithmetic." What the statement means is that to obtain x, e has to be raised to the power y. Thus it is the exact inverse of the statement x = 9:the same fact, stated the opposite way, starting at x to find y, instead of vice versa. No simpler way exists to define a logarithm. A better understanding of what logarithms are comes from using them or applying them in mathematics. The graph shows values of x corresponding to values of y at 1,2, and 3. Logarithms allow you to calculate values of y for values of x between 1, 2.7 183, 7.389 1, 20.085, etc. Having calculated such inbetween logarithms to any required accuracy, multiplication and division can be replaced with simple addition and subtraction, and indices can be replaced with simple multiplication and division.
x=&Y Inverse y = log_x
C
or log, x = y
If logEx = m log, y = n
X -=m -n
398
n
1
f(x)=axn
ax ax ax a/x a/x a/x a/x 'I2
ax-l/2
f,(x)=anxn-'
a 2ax
3 -1 -2 -3 0.5
-0.5 0.1
0.1
If
x=cY
399
E You calculated a series for e and % in the section, "Natural growth and decay functions." It represents natural, or exponential growth (or decay). As x increases in linear increments, ex increases in exponential increments: its rate of growth is proportional to itself, ex.Fairly obviously e-", which is the same as 1/ex, yields the same series of terms, but with signs alternately changed to plus and minus. You can find this by substituting (-x) for x in the series. You can also find the series for eixand ePixby making a similar substitution in the original series. Here, you have evaluated the terms for the -x series for a short distance.
Functions of
<
x2 x4 cosx= I - - + -21 4 !
""
..
ix3
ix5
ciX
&-jX
= cosx
+ isinx
zzX
E-~
&ix
= cosx - isinx
Exponential growth Exponential decay Both combinations of real and imaginary trigonometry (sin and cos) functions
an.)
&-ix
- &-IX i2
401
Significance of ciX
Following the same method for elx, real and imaginary terms are plotted separately (see figure on top of page 402). The first real term is a constant. Successive terms pull the curve up and down, approaching something that looks like an expanding sine wave. The first imaginary term (second term of the series) is a linear upward slope, which represents the beginning of a sine wave. Beyond this slope, the combination is similar to the real terms. Remember that the real and imaginary terms are quite separate entities in the complex quantity. If you could visualize them in the complex plane, the effect would be rotational+specially if you could combine positive and negative imaginary series, according to the formula in, "Relationship between exponential and trigonometric series." However, the imaginary terms can be isolated as a series by adding the conjugate series, which is what the formula does.
+ &a-ib =
2
E
cosb
a+ib
Real part of
or -
is
cosb
eat C o s u t
Sine-wave Curve
Exponential Coefficient
403
real, part imaginary (see figure at bottom of page 402).These numbers should not be confused with imaginary functions of e, such as eix,which are complex quantities or complex functions of x, but are not complex exponential functions of x. Notice that the conjugate pairs of complex exponential functions can be combined to produce a real function.The writing can be simplified by assuming the conjugate to be used to obtain the real function, but instead using only one of the pair with the words, "the real part of." Whichever method of expression you use, the complex exponential function (either a conjugate pair of them or the real part of one) is a convenient way to represent a sine-wave curve with an exponential coefficient.
Complex p plane
The complex p plane is the significance of the real part of the complex exponential function or of the conjugate pair. The envelope lines at top and bottom follow equations: eatand -eat. Between these amplitude boundaries, as amplitude markers, is the expanding cosine wave of stated angular frequency. Angular frequency, using the symbol lower case Greek omega w, is 2n times periodic frequency. At the right is the concept of a complex p plane. With axes -a and +a, horizontally, and positive and negative i times angular frequency vertically, the plane accommodates the complex quantity p = a + iw.The quantity pertinent to the problem under study is notp itself, but P.Used this way, the plane represents exponents of e, and is called the complex p plane.
-a
Real frequency
Hyperbolic functions
The trigonometric functions, such as cosx and sinx, represent an angle in radians, stated in circular measure. In this measure, 2n radians represent a complete rotation (360 degrees).This relationship is easy to visualize.
405
To complete the pattern, just as cos x is equal to a complementary pair of imaginary exponential functions (so is sin x), you need functions that consist of complementary pairs of real exponential functions. To correspond with normal circular measures, these functions are called hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic sine. Following the trig ratio pattern, a hyperbolic tangent also exists. These use the symbols or abbreviations, cosh, sinh, and tanh, adding the h to represent hyperbolic. In reading, they are pronounced "cosh," "shine," and "tank," which area easier to pronounce. These functions are hyperbolic because the ratio is measured along the curve of a hyperbola, instead of around a circle. Notice that however large a hyperbolic "angle" becomes, it remains in the same quadrant, unlike the circular measured angle, which rotates through four quadrants. NOTE: in this diagram, rotation is drawn the opposite direction from the usual convention for space reasons only.
cosx = isinx =
&ix ix
&-ix &-ix
2
-
coshx = iZX+ E - ~ 2
of &i0
(2.00,0.0183) 0.01 0
1 I 1 I 1 I 1 I 1 I 1 I 1 I 1 I 1 I
1 Time, hours
2. Given the function you obtained in problem 1, calculate the energy remaining in the battery after the following elapsed time periods.You can use a calculator. Express your answers to three significant figures. (a) 10 minutes (c) 90 minutes (b) 30 minutes (d) 3 hours
3. Write out, and calculate, a series for the value of e to five terms. Express your answer in decimal form to four significant digits.
407
4. Write out, and calculate, a series for the value of l/e to five terms. Express your answer in decimal form to four significant digits. 5. Write out, and calculate, a series for the value of eJ to five terms,wherej is the engineering expression for the square root of - 1.Express your answer in decimal form to four significant digits.
6. Write out, and calculate, a series for the value of l/eJ to five terms. Express your answer in decimal form to four significant digits.
7. Refer to the following drawing.This is a graph of the radioactivity in the soil following the detonation of a hypothetical nuclear bomb. The half life, or the time required for the radioactivity level to fall to 50 percent of its initial value, is one million years. The decay curve is approximately plotted on a log-log graph, which is common in scientific and engineering applications.Write down a function that depicts the curve shown. Let the percentage of radioactivity remaining be represented by y, and the time in millions of years be represented by x
Percentage of radioactivity remaining
10
NOTE: The corresponding points on the curve might not all be shown on the graph. Express your answers to four significant digits.
NOTE: corresponding points on the curve might not all be shown on the The graph. Express your answers to two significant digits.
10. Write out, and calculate to four terms, the series for the following hyperbolic cosines. Angles are in radians. Express your answers to three significant digits. (a) cosh 1 (c) cosh2 (b) coshn/2 (d) coshn
11. Using the exponential formulas on page 405, calculate the hyperbolic cosines of the following angles in radians. Express your answers to five significant digits. (a) 0.5 (c) 2.0 (b) 1.0 (d) 4.0
12. Write out, and calculate to four terms, the series for the following hyperbolic sines. Angles are in radians. Express your answers to three significant digits. (a) sinh 1 (c) sinh 2 (b) sinh n/2 (d) sinh n
13. Using the exponential formulas on page 405, calculate the hyperbolic sines of the following angles in radians. Express your answers to five significant digits. (a) 0.5 (c) 2.0 (b) 1.0 (d) 4.0
- - -
410
When the coefficients are simplified by dividing by the factorial number series, they are a sort of harmonic series that doesn't converge very rapidly. Numerators are successive powers of x, and denominators are the simple number series, not the factorial. You'll want logs of numbers bigger than 2. Here, the rate of convergence is shown in finding log 2 by this method. Two things slow its convergence: the only diminishing factor is essentially a harmonic series of the integral number reciprocals. It straddles the ultimate value, which means it has to converge much further to reach its ultimate value.
Find Log, 2
411
f(x) = log, (I - x)
f,(O) = - 1
f3(0) = - 2
log,
1- x
-+
log,(l
+ x) - log,(l
- x)
412
Calculating logarithms
Here you calculate two logarithms to find a comparison in convergence rate. To calculate log 1.1, make x = 1/21. Successive terms now converge by more than 400 : 1.Three terms of the series produce the log correct to six decimal places. As you already saw, to calculate log 2, x = 113, so convergence is about one decimal place for each extra term. For accuracy to six places, seven terms are required. Now try log 3; x = 112. The series converges much more slowly, but try another way. You've already "done" log 2. Log 3 = log 2 + log 1.5, because Log1.5usesx = 1/5anditcon3 = 2 x 1.5.So,findlog1.5andaddittolog2. verges faster than log 2 did. Now you have a quicker reliable 6-figure value for log 3.
413
+L(i)ll = .000088 11 2
+L(L)13
13 2
= .MHX)18 8
+ Log ,l.5
In the example at the top page 413, you tackle finding all the logs for integers up to 10. Notice the short cuts you can take. Log 4 is twice log 2. You can derive it either from 4 = 2 x 2 or from 4 = 2?. Log 5 is log 4 + log 1.25. Log 6 is log 2 + log 3. Log 7 is log 4 + log 1.75.Log 8 is 3 times log 2 because 8 is 23.Log 9 is twice log 3 because 9 = 3'. Finally, log 10 is log 2+ log 5.
414
L0gE7 = log,4
1.945910
2.302585
Common logarithms
Although all logarithms must be calculated in their basic form to the base c, sometimes called hyperbolic or Naperian logarithms (from the name of the discoverer of logarithms), they are generally called either natural logarithms or log base e.
Logl,3: .477 121 2.302585 110986122 .9210340 1775782 1611810 163972 161181 279 1 2303 488 461 27
LoglolO=l
Loglo100=2 Etc.
23 4
415
If logs used base 10,then log 10 to base 10 is 1.You change the base by dividing the natural logarithm by log 10. The resulting figure is the same number's logarithm in base 10.
Multiplication 56 x 35
= 1960
Log35 = 1.5441 Log 56 = 1.7482 Log 1960 = 3.2923
Division 1224 + 36 = 34
Log 1224 = 3.0878 Log 36 = 1.5563 Log 34 = 1.5315
LO^ 256
64 X 0.125 = 8
= 2.4082
416
INDICES
1
LO^ 12 = 1.0792
X 3 3.2376 Log 1728 = 3.2375
= 1 7 2 8 ~ 12
Log 1728 = 3.2375 s 3 1.0792 (nearest) Log 12 = 1.0792 2 lo = 1024 Log 2 = 0.3010 X I0 3.0100 Log 1024 = 3.0103 Log 1024 = 3.0103
0.0625 = 0.5
BO~OW 2
417
35 4'5 By Logs
Log 35 = 1.5441
Antilog 1.2353 = 17.19
By Binomial Expansion
SOL5By Logs
Log 50 = 1.6990
By Binomial Expansion
353.55339
[353.5534]
In this one, 4-figure logs are rather limited.Using the same calculator, either with logs or the xY key, the result is 353.5533906.Thechoice of binomial expression produced all except the last two digits with only 4 terms.
418
Of course, your calculator won't pick up a binomial series for you. That's just an exercise to show that the binomial works to check your calculating. How does the calculator do it? It has built-in programs that run the log series-so fast it will read an answer in a fraction of a second. Remember, it works in binary, even though it keeps track of decimal digits. It's fast, but you have the brains!
Log v
419
The 4th column subtracts from 3, which is log 1000.To do this on a calculator, you have a choice: use logs or the xYkey. Either way, you have a twist to get k into it. If k was other than a power of 10, it would complicate matters a little. One method is to use the 1/ x (reciprocal) key, then multiply by 1000 (or whatever k is).
Antilog:
420
2. Redraw approximations of the functions of the above drawing in rectangular coordinates. Choose scales that are reasonable for the range of values in each case.The scales need not be the same on each axis, but both axes must be linear.
3. Refer to the following drawing. These functions are graphed in rectangular coordinates. Redraw approximations of the functions on a semilog scale (with the x axis linear and the y axis logarithmic). Choose scales that are reasonable for the range of values in each case.
4. Redraw approximations of the functions of the above drawing in log-log coordinates. Choose scales that are reasonable for the range of values in each case. The scales need not be the same on each axis, but both axes must be logarithmic. 5. Using the formula logloxy = loglox + logloy, find the following products by adding numbers. You may use a calculator. Express your answers to three significant digits. (a) 5.44 3.67 (c) 36.7 2.56 (b) 10.5 0.567 (d) 0.987 0.822
6. Using the formula logloxY= yloglox, find the values of the following expressions to three significant digits.You may use a calculator. (a) 5.443.67 (c) ?16.7'.~~ (b) 10.5.567 (d) 0.987O.~~'
7. If natural logs (base-e) were used instead of base- 10 logs in the calculations for problem 6, would the results still be valid? 8. If base-7 logs were used rather than base-10 logs in the calculations for problem 6, would the results still be valid?
- - -
423
f(x) = secx
f(x) = secx f,(x) = secx tanx f2(x)= secx ( 1
+ 2tan2x)
f3(x) = secxtanx (5 + 6tan2x) G(x) = secx (5 + 28tan2x + 24tan4x) f5(x) = secx tanx (6 1 + 180tan2x
+ 120 tan4x)
f (x) = arcsinx
If y = arcsinx
- = COSY =
dx dy
q 1/ sin y- d G d y T dx
f(0) = 0
f, (0) = 1
arcsinx
qi-7
X
f2(0) = 0 arccosx:
f3 (0) = 1 f4 (0) = 0
f(0) =2
7C
9+72x2+24x4 f5(o)=9 (1 - x ~ ) ~ / ~
225x + 600x 3+ l20x (1 - x2)l 112
f6 (O)
Convergence of a series
The basic binomial series showed how to assess the convergence of a series (see "Calculating logarithms" in chapter 24). There you used a specific series to find a certain quantity, rather than using a general series to find a function.The convergence here concerns the range of values for the function, for which the series does converge, or for which it can be used. Notice the ratios between successive coefficients in the % series. They are the harmonic series of whole numbers, which eventually reach infinity (at infinity). However large x is made, provided it is still finite, the series will eventually converge. In the basic log series [for log(1 x)], the ratio between successive coefficients is a fraction that has its numerator, the denominator of the next earlier term and as its denominator, the numerator of the next term. As the series approaches an infinite number of terms, this ratio becomes 1 (i.e.,the coefficients
425
cease to converge). So,the only way that this series can converge indefinitely is for x to be less than 1. In the modified log series, the coefficients again approach unit ratio. Although the condition for continued convergence is still that x must be less than unity, the quantity for which you are finding the log is: (1 x ) / ( l - x), which reaches infinity only when x reaches unity. So, this series can find logs up to infinity. Here, we use the term "infinity" in a non-rigorous way, representing it by the symbol 00.
Log cx= 1 + x
x2 x3 +-+-+-+ x4 ...................+-x W
2 ! 3! 4!
m!
Coefficient ratios
V
1
00
Converges provided
V
Coefficient ratios
J
V
2
V
3
V
4
V
m-
2 3 4 3
Converges provided
[=I]
V
Coefficient ratios
J
V V
3
5
V
7
V
m-2
3 5 7 5
Converges provided
[=I1
A useful conversion
Chapter 23 showed that the exponential function with an imaginary index is identical to a complex quantity that consists of a real cosine term and an imaginary sine term. This fact can be used more easily by writing the imaginary exponential function in simpler form, represented by y. Be careful to remember that y is never a simple quantity, but always a complex one of the form elx.Similarly, 1/ y is its conjugate complex quantity, F i x .
A Useful Conversion
E ~ X cosx =
&-ix
+ isinx = y
1 = cosx - isinx = Y
=+ (y
sinx=- y - 2i
i) i)
+ isin nx = yn
Y
Then, cos nx
sin nx
= L (Y + 2 n ,
(y"-
=i 5 )
;)
Power/multiple conversions
These (y 1/y) and (y - 1/y) forms can easily make conversions from powers of trigonometric functions to their multiples, and vice versa. It becomes merely a matter of expanding those binomials and pairing off from the ends. From this method, it becomes obvious why even powers of both sine and cosine functions result in cosine multiple functions. With odd powers, the sine functions produce multiple sine functions, while the cosine functions produce multiple cosine functions. As you will notice, the results are exactly the same as those obtained in Part 3 by a much more lengthy method. The form: (y + 1/y), etc., makes conversion of a compound power combination easier to follow through. Take sin2x cos4x. Each factor, sin2x or cos4x, can be converted to multiple functions by either method. The forms, -1/4(y2 - 2 + 1lY2)and 1116(y4 + 4y2 + 6 + 4/y2 + 1ly4), can be multiplied out in one extra line and then converted back to multiple form. The work becomes very short.
427
Even Powers
+ 4cos2x + 3
Odd Powers
cos5x
=A $=A
(Y +
I+) L
sin2 xcos4 x
64
64
32
2 +COS~X ~ -
C O S - cos6x ~ X
Same result d
429
The easiest method is to assume that (x + 1)/(x2 - 4) is equal to a/(x 2) + b/(x - 2), then solve for a and b. Integrating, the solutiontakes the form: 1/4 log(x + 2)+ 3/4 log(x - 2) + a. That is not its simplest form. Putting the two factors together (adding logs is the same as multiplying the numbers they belong to) and making the constant of integration (c) a factor, the result at least looks much simpler.
x*-
must be reducible to
a x+2
+-x -b2
a -+--
x+2
+ 2) -(a + b) x + 2 ( b x2- 4
a)
Numeric:
3a-3b-9~=-24
- log,
dx
(ax + b) = ax + b
Integrate:
Check
431
First, rearrange the formula so that one factor term is on the left and the other is on the right with the product term. That form is standard for integrals. From there, it's easier to follow an example. Suppose you must integrate x cos x. Assume that u of the product formula is x, and v is cos x on the left side. Now, find v and u' to complete the right side. uv ' is x sin x and the remaining expression integrates easily to cos x. Check by differentiating the answer. First, dldx of x sin x, using the product formula, is sin x + x cos x. Then, dldxx is - sin x. Putting it together, + sin x cancels - sin x, leaving x cos x, which was what you had to integrate.It checks.
V'
= sinx
XOSX
v =
Check
D D
= x3sinx + 3x2cosx -
= x 3sinx
+ 3x 2cosx - 6x sinx +
6 sinxdx
+ (3x2- 6) cosx
Check d
6) sinx +
6x cosx
433
In this case, write x = sin 0.The denominator is then cos B and dx becomes cos e dB. Substituting all these parts, the cosine terms in numerator and denominator cancel, leaving the very simple integral, sin B dB.The result, - cos B merely must be expressed in terms of the first variable, x. A check shows that the answer is correct. Making x = tan0 works in much the same manner. Follow it through and you'll get the idea of what to look for in deciding on the variable that will help. jcos3 xsin2xdx cosx = dsinx dx
!COG
cosxdx = dsinx
= =
xsin2xdx
jcos2 xsin2xdsinx
1 - sin2x) sin2xdsinx 1 1 - sin3x - - sin5x 3 5
Check /
= =
(sin2x - sin4x)cosx
sin2x ( 1
- sin2x)cosx
then
d1 Y = x cos0
-
and
dx = cosOd0
jsin edB
continued
If
then d + x2= sec0 l and dx = sec26de tang* sec20de-J - tan 0sec0d 0 sec 0 sin 0
=Jade
-
1 cos 0
= sect3
435
dy -= f , (x) dx d log y dy
-
.-. dx dlog x
1 d log x - ------ - 1 Y dx x
dx = -x
d log x
d210g
When x2= 2 a
+ J&$ a-
2-
1.8)
Numerator:
scale
-x-
log scale
437
x2= 2 - 5
4 3
4J31=dy
x2= 4 3 -
Drawing hints
The curve shown in the graph at the top of the next page is drawn from the data in the previous section, calculating just two extra points for x = 0.5 and x = 2. Notice that, in finding points on a log scale, you can use more convenient measures than the printed scales. For instance, if 5" is a decade of x, 2.5" is a decade of x2 and 1.25" is a decade of x4.So, to find a value of root 3 or reciprocal root 3, measure from the center (a reference value of 1) a distance of log 3 on a 2.5" decade, instead of using the 5" measure printed. Slope is easily aligned by finding points on the x2 scale in a 4: 1 ratio (2: 1 ratio on the x scale), then finding points on they scale that are 4: 1 ratio for unity slope (either way, up or down); 16 : 1 for a slope of 2; 64: 1 ratio for a slope of 3 (remembering the scale is logarithmic, so the ratio goes in powers), and so on.
3. Determine the value of sec x, using the series expansion, to four terms and three significant figures, for an angle of exactly 45 degrees.
4. Determine the value of sec x, using the series expansion, to four terms and three significant figures, for an angle of exactly 1 radian. 5. Using the series expansion to four terms, find the angle, in radians, representing arcsin 0.500. Express the angle value to three significant digits.
439
8. Express the angle from problem 7 in degrees. 9. What is the minimum value that a real number plus its reciprocal can attain?
10. Refer to the following drawing. This is a semilog graph, with a base- 10 log scale on the y axis and a linear scale on the x axis. A portion of the curve of a function, y =f (x), is plotted on this graph. Several points are labeled. What is the function?
10
11. What is the derivative of the function whose graph is plotted in the above drawing? 12. What is the second derivative of the function whose graph is plotted in the above drawing? 13. What is the third derivative of the function whose graph is plotted in the above drawing? 14. Determine the derivatives dyldx, at the points labeled, for the function whose graph is plotted in the above drawing. Why does the derivative increase, while the slope in the graph appears to decrease?
16. Determine the third derivatives d3y/dx3,at the points labeled, for the function graphed in the above drawing.
- - -
units
~ ' ( + b) = ax' + by' a
Then
z=x+y
Multi-formula nomograms
At top left is a slightly different-proportioned set of scales for the same operation shown in the previous section, but the sum or product appears on one of the outside lines instead of the middle one (which might not be central). At lower left, the principle extends to a 4-line nomogram where scales can produce two results, zand u-one for x + y, the other for x - y. the logarithmic scales can represent xy and x/y.
443
At right is an example of a chart that does this. Notice the length (or range) of the various scales.The spacing of the lines must be calculated to provide correct geometry. Always one scale (in this case, the one for u)must have much less range than the others.
z'
a a+b
0 k-a-++b+
Then
z=x+y
1 unit
+3
units-2
units*
444
445
Convergent Linear
Reciprocal
it
Reciprocal z = xy
447
v
INVERSION
Imag ,
Imag .
448
Other possibilities
Before proceeding to a final idea for a graphical resolution of complex quantities, look at some other possibilities. A slide rule with square-law scales (markings proportional to the square of the value) would do it.The same set of scales would produce magnitude with real and imaginary components, but not the angle.
449
Nomogram 1
Nomogram 2
450
The two nomograms, set out on different proportions, do essentially the same functions as the slide rule (but with problems in proportion, which is why more than 1 nomogram is desirable), except that they also provide an angle scale. Notice how the scales change the distribution of values.
<
T \
Imaginary Axis
Real Axis
Imaginary Axis
451
O------i
452
fundamental) "splits the difference" between the sawtooth and the sine wave. Adding some fifth harmonic again splits the difference and the resulting wave begins to look like the sawtooth. Add enough odd harmonics and you finish up with a sawtooth. But how do you find how much of each harmonic to use? With Fourier's series, you can write anf (x) describe the wave you want to to make. This sawtooth would have an f (x)for just one period-a straight line going from +A to -A, to which you can write a linear equation. Both the sawtooth and the sine waves that compose the line are symmetrical above and below the zero line over a complete period. However, if you multiply the two together and integrate the product over the whole period, the result will only be zero if that harmonic is not present in the synthesis. At the bottom of the third, the dashed lines show the two waveforms-the sawtooth and the third harmonic.The solid line is the two waves multiplied together. In the first half of the sawtooth, the product crosses the zero line where the fifth harmonic does-the same way. In the second half, it reverses, resulting in a wave that sits more above than below the zero line in both halves, showing that fifth harmonic is part of the sawtooth.
Waveform Synthesis
Any periodic waveform can be synthesized from fundamental and harmonics. How to calculate their relative magnitudes?
/\
.
I \ 11
Average value of f(x)sin3x I Average value of f(x) is zero Average value of sin3x is zero In whole period of waveform average value of product is zero onlv if f(x) does NOT confain sin3x
453
Fourier series
A square wave can be regarded as a switch. It's a simple function that reverses a constant value every half period. Reversing the second harmonic at half the fundamental period results in a reversed wave that is still balanced above and below zero.When this is done to third, the first and second half periods have two half waves up and one down. This function lets you write the general form for the Fourier series. Each successive harmonic frequency's waveform is multiplied, point by point, by the function for the waveform that you want to synthesize (or analyze). The product curve is integrated over the whole period and divided by n to find the average value.
General Form
f(x)= a o + a , s i n x + a , s i n 2 x + .
. . . . . . . . .. + a , + b, cos x + bZcos2x + . . . . . . . . . .+ b,
sinnx cosnx
+. .......... + ...........
a. is average value, if other than symmetrical above and below zero line
Fourier Series
a,, =
,, S
1
b, =
171:
nx I '"~(X)COSdx
0
A triangular waveform
A triangular waveform is obviously a cosine series. But first, the function for a triangular wave is in two parts-two straight line sections. Substituting in Fourier, each must be integrated separately. A common factor out front simplifies to -4Aln. Inside the big brackets is a series of odd harmonic cosine terms, whose coefficients are 1/n2.
454
%= o
a, = 0
oFious1+y c o m e series
]
nx
Arc -2 + Ki n ~ ~ ( y - c x s n x d x ~ o )
1, [t( y X )
-
sin nx - n ?FOI A
25
A square wave
Look at the square wave on the next page, which is useful not only as an entity in itself, but as a step toward other waveforms as well. This is obviously a sine series. Like the triangular waveform, f(x) has two parts, one for each half wave. Integrating over the whole period, the amplitude is 4Alnn. Putting the 4Aln outside the brackets, the terms inside are 1l n sin nx, with odd values of n only.
455
0-
2n
Obviously
a,=
= ,
7 0 :
11"Asinnndx +L(ln n
0
-
-A
(- A) sinnxdx
2x
2X -- -+- 2A
When n is odd
0 When n i even s
-- When n is odd - 4A
nn
Series =
Check d
456
b,= 0
When n is odd
=
o When n is even
i i Series -A + = [ s i n x i - s 1 n 3 x + - s1 n s x i 2
3
...
457
458
f (x) = sinx
x -!$+~[iinx+isin~x+
...l
o
0
7t 27t
371
4c 7
459
Each series produces a constant, the direct current from the rectifier, plus a new Fourier series, the alternating "ripple" that rides the dc. Notice that the constant from the half wave is half that in the full wave. The half wave also has a sine term that the full wave does not. The amplitude of the cosine series for the half wave is half that of the full wave. The illustration here verifies the conclusion that was deduced mathematically on the previous page. The dotted wave at the top is the first one. The solid line is the same waveform of half the amplitude. Add this line to an identical sine wave (peak from baseline) amplitude and you have (bottom solid curve) the second curve. It's quite simple to verify the conclusion derived from the calculation.
c o s n ~ d x =;i sinnx ;; ; ~
%sinnxdx n n:
-
= 7c n7c2 sinnx
![&
2Ax + n n cosn x
n n +2cos
nx dx +l T
I:I
-sinnx :A2 n 7c
...
Signs alternate
1/2 Cosine
Coefficients
Const. Fund. 2nd 3rd Series
2 -
4th
4 371
461
y' = k ( 1 - x 2,
3rd term:
6th term:
Approximations for comparison: x 1 term: y = 2terms:y= 1 . 5 ~ - 0.5x3 3 terms: y = 1.875~ 1 . 2 5 ~+ 0.375~ 4terms: y = 2.1875~-2.1875x3+1.3125x5-0.4375x7 5 terms: y = 2.4609~ 3.2812~ + 2.9531x - 1.4062~+ 0.2737~ 6 terms: y = 2.7070~ 4.51 17x + 5.4141~- 3.8672~ + 1.5039x9- 0.2461~ -
Sin5a
sin7 wt = 35 sinot - 21 sin 30t + 7 sin 5ot - sin 70t 64 sin9ot = 126sinot - 84sin3ot + 36sinSot - 9sin7ut - sin9ot 256 sin 11 cot= 462sinot - 330sin3ot + 165sin5wt - 55sin7ot + 1lsin9ot - sin1 l o t 1024
continued
463
sinwt
sin3wt
sin5wt
sin7wt
sin9wt
sin l l o t
corn. den.
sinot sin30t total: sinwt sin3wt sink total: sinwt sinbt sinswt sin7wt total: sinwt sin3wt sinswt sin7wt sin9wt total: sinat sin3wt sin5wt sin7 wt sin9wt sin "wt total:
8
decimal
128
3 terms,
decimal
4 tenns,
decimal
5 tenns,
decimal
6 terms,
+ 63
63 0.0002403
decimal
4. Devise a coordinate system that can plot all possible ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y) within a finite area.
Time, microseconds
5. Devise a coordinate system that can plot the entire set of complex numbers within a finite area.
6. An alternating-current (AC) sine wave is half-wave rectified, so the negative half of the wave is "chopped off" while the positive half is left alone. Suppose the peak amplitude of the AC input is plus-or-minus 100.0volts.What is the average voltage of the output, to four significant digits?
7. An AC sine wave is full-wave rectified, so the negative half of the wave is "inverted (made positive) while the positive half is left alone. Suppose the peak amplitude of the AC input is plus-or-minus 100.0 volts. What is the average voltage of the output, to four significant digits?
8. Suppose the AC input in problem 6 is a square wave, rather than a sine wave. What is the average output voltage in this case? 9. Suppose the AC input in problem 7 is a square wave, rather than a sine wave. What is the average output voltage in this case?
- - -
Numbering
People are used to dealing with the decimal number system which has ten unique digits (in our way of thinking). This probably arose from the fact that humans have ten fingers, including thumbs, on which to "count." Digital machines, such as computers, use schemes that have some power of two unique digits, most often 2(2'), ~ ( 2 ~ ) ,16(24).This is because it is easier for electronic circuits to or deal with groups of switches, each of which has two possible states (offJon). In these systems, the numerals 10, 100, 1000, etc., don't represent the same actual quantities as they do in the decimal system.Thenumbering schemes are different. Perhaps if we humans had evolved with only eight fingers, we would be using a base-8 number system.
Decimal system
The decimal number system is also called modulo 10, base 10, or radix 10. Digits are representable by the set (0, 1,2, 3,4, 5,6,7, 8, 9). The digit just to the left of the radix point is multiplied by 1oO, 1.The next digit to the left is multiplied by or 1ol, or 10.The power of 10 increases as you move further to the left. The first digit to the right of the radix point is multiplied by lop1,or 1/10.The next digit to the right is multiplied by lop', or 1/ 100.This continues as you go further to the right. Once the process of multiplying each digit is completed, the resulting values are added. This is what is represented when you write a decimal number. For example,
Binary system
The binary number system is a method of expressing numbers using only the digits 0 and 1.It is sometimes called base 2, radix 2, or modulo 2. The digit immediately to the left of the radix point is the "ones" digit.The next digit to the left is a "twos" digit; after that comes the "fours" digit. Moving further to the left, the digits represent 8, 16, 32, 64, etc. (in our way of thinking), doubling every time. To the right of the radix point, the value of each digit is cut in half again and again, that is, 112, 114, 118, 1/16, 1/32, 1/64, etc. Consider an example using the decimal number 94:
When you work with a computer or calculator, you give it a decimal number that is converted into binary form.The computer or calculator does its operations with zeros and ones. When the process is complete, the machine converts the result back into decimal form for display. In a communications system, binary numbers represent alphanumeric characters, shades of color, frequencies of sound, and other variable quantities.
Octal system
Another scheme, sometimes used in computer programming, is the octalnumber system, so named because it has eight symbols (according to our way of thinking), or 2'. Every digit is an element of the set (0, 1,2, 3,4,5,6,7).
Hexadecimal system
Yet another numbering scheme, also used in computer work, is the hexadecimal number system, so named because it has 16 symbols (according to our way of thinking), or These digits are the usual 0 through 9 plus six more, represented by A through F, the first six letters of the alphabet. The digit set thus becomes {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A, B, C, D, E, F).
Trinary logic
Trinary logic allows for a neutral condition, neither true nor false, in addition to the usual truelfalse (highllow) states. These three values are representable by logic - 1 (false), 0 (neutral), and +1 (true). Trinary logic can be easily represented in electroniccircuits by positive, zero, and negative currents or voltages.
Fuzzy logic
Infuzzy logic, values cover a continuous range from "totally false," through neutral, to "totally true." Fuzzy logic is well suited for the control of certain processes. Its use will probably become more widespread as the relationship between computers and robots matures. Fuzzy logic can be represented digitally in discrete steps. For a smooth range of values, analog systems are used.
Basic gates
An inverter or NOTgate has one input and one output; it reverses the signal. An OR gate can have two or more inputs. If both, or all, of the inputs are 0, then the output is 0; if any of the inputs are 1,then the output is 1. An AND gate can have two or more inputs. If both, or all, of the inputs are 1, the output is 1; otherwise the output is 0.
Digital mathematics
BOOLEAN OPERATIONS
469
SOME THEOREMS IN BOOLEAN ALGEBRA EQUATION X+O = X X*l = X X+1= 1 X*O = 0 X+X = X X*X = X -(-XI = X X+(-X) = X
X*(-X)
=0
OR identity
AND identity
Double negation
X+Y+Z = (X+Y)+Z = X+(Y+Z) X*Y*Z = (X*Y)*Z = X* (Y*Z) X*(Y+Z) = (X*Y)+(X*Z) -(X+Y) = (-X)*(-Y) -(X*Y) = (-X)+(-Y)
Composite gates
Sometimes an inverter and an OR gate are combined.This produces a NOR gate. If an inverter and an AND gate are combined, the result is a NAND gate. An exclusive OR gate, also called an XOR gate, has two inputs and one output. If the two inputs are the same (either both 1 or both 0), then the output is 0. If the two inputs are different, then the output is 1. The functions of logic gates are summarized in the table below. Their schematic symbols are shown in the drawings.
NUMBER OF INPUTS
REMARKS Changes state of input. Output high if any inputs are high. Output low if all inputs are low.
1 2 or more
AND
2 or more
Output low if any inputs are low. Output high if all inputs are high.
NOR
2 or more
Output low if any inputs are high. Output high if all inputs are low.
NAND
2 or more
Output high if any inputs are low. Output low if all inputs are high.
XOR
Output high if inputs differ. Output low if inputs are the same.
NOT
q m
XOR
I 3
AND
)-
NAND
NOR
Binary circuits work with signals that attain discrete, well-defined levels. These systems are actually nothing more than groups of electronic switches. Some binary digital circuits are relatively simple,but others are complicated almost beyond imagination. The microprocessor in a personal computer, for example, has so many digital gates that a legible diagram of it (one that you could read without a magnifying glass) might occupy several square miles. Binary symbols are usually represented in a digital code called ASCII (American National Standard Code for Information Interchange), which is a seven-unit scheme for the transmission of data. Letters, numerals, symbols, and control operations are represented. ASCII (pronounced "ASK-ee") is designed primarily for computer programming and communications. There are 27, or 128,possible representations.
230 = 1,073,741,824 bytes). The abbreviations for these units are KB, MB, and GB respectively. Alternatively you might see them abbreviated as K, M, and G. There are larger data units. The terabyte (TB) is 2" bytes, or 1,024 GB. The petabyte (PB) is 2" bytes, or 1,024 TB.The exabyte (EB) is 260bytes, or 1,024 PB.
Flip-flops
Aflip-Jop is a form of sequential logic gate. In a sequential gate, the output state depends on both the inputs and the outputs. A flip-flop has two states, called set and reset. Usually, the set state is logic 1 (high), and the reset state is logic 0 (low). R-Sflip-flop inputs are labeled R (reset) and S (set). The outputs are Q and -Q. (Often, rather than -Q, you will see Q', or perhaps Q with a line over it.) The outputs are always in logically opposite states.The symbol for an R-S flipflop, also known as an asynchronousfl(ip-flop,is shown at drawing A below. The logical processes that take place in an R-S flip-flop are shown at A in the table.
FLIP-FLOP STATES
A: R-S flip-flop R
0 0
1
1
B: J-K flip-flop
J
0 0
1 1
flgohg
Synchronousflip-flop states change when triggered by the signal from a clock. In static triggering, the outputs change state only when the clock signal is either high or low. This type of circuit is sometimes called a gated$@-$op. Inpositiveedge triggering, the outputs change state at the instant the clock pulse is positivegoing. The term edge triggering derives from the fact that the abrupt rise or fall of a pulse looks like the edge of a cliff (drawing B above). In negative-edge triggering, the outputs change state at the instant the clock pulse is negative-going. Master/slave (M/S) flip-flop inputs are stored before the outputs are allowed to change state. This device essentially consists of two R-S flip-flops in series. The first flip-flop is called the master, and the second is called the slave. The master flip-flop functions when the clock output is high, and the slave acts during the next low portion of the clock output. This time delay prevents confusion between the input and output. J-Kflip-flop operation is similar to that of an R-S flip-flop, except that the J-K has a predictable output when the inputs are both 1. Part B of the above table shows the input and output states for this type of flip-flop. The output changes only when a triggering pulse is received.The symbol for a J-K flip-flop is shown in drawing C above. R-S-Tflip-flop operation is similar to that of the R-S flip-flop, except that a high pulse at theT input causes the circuit to change state. Tflip-flop operation uses only one input. Each time a high pulse appears at theT input, the output state is reversed. That is, 1 becomes 0, and 0 becomes 1.
Compression
Data compression is a way of maximizing the amount of digital information that can be stored in a given space, or sent in a certain period of time. Text files can be compressed by replacing often-used words and phrases with symbols such as =, #, &, @, etc., as long as none of these symbols occurs in the uncompressed file. When the data is received, it is uncompressed by substituting the original words and phrases for the symbols.
Yellow
White
A colorpalette is obtained by combining pure red, green, and blue in various ratios. Assign each primary color an axis in three-space as shown. Call the axes R (for red), G (for green), and B (for blue). Color brightness can range from 0 to 255, or binary 00000000 to 11111111.The result is 16,777,216(256~) possible colors. Any point within the cube represents a unique color.
Digital mathematics
475
Some RGB systems use only 16 levels for each primary color (binary 0000 through 111I). This results in 4,096 possible colors. RGB colors are commonly expressed as hexadecimal numbers, ranging from 00 (zero intensity) to F F (maximum intensity) for each color. Red is listed first, then green, and finally blue, forming a six-digit number to represent a particular color. For example, you might see FF8040 representing F F for red, 80 for green, and 40 for blue. The range of values from 00 to F F for each color yields 16,777,216total possible colors.This scheme is sometimes referred to by graphics people as "millions of colors."
Building up
You can easily build up complex logic operations by means of a truth table. An example of such a building process is shown in the table below.
TRUTH TABLE FOR -(X+Y)+XZ
There are three variables X, Yand Z. Each can be either 0 or 1 (low or high). All the possible combinations are listed by writing binary numbers XYZ upwards from 000 through 111.This forms the first three columns of the truth table. If there are n total variables, there will be 2" possible combinations. The fourth column lists the values of X + Y, the OR function. Some rows are duplicates of each other; you write all the resultants down anyway.
Breaking down
Suppose you were called upon to break down a logical operation, rather than to build it up. This is the kind of problem encountered by engineers. In the process of designing a certain digital circuit, the engineer is faced with figuring out what combination of logic gates will yield the complex operation, say, XY + -(XZ) + YZ. Proceed by listing all the possible logic states for the three variables X,Y, and Z in three columns, exactly as in the table below.
TRUTH TABLE FOR XY+-(XZ)+YZ
Next, find the values of XY, listing them in the fourth column. Next, find values XZ and list them in a fifth column. Negate these values to form a sixth column, depicting -(XZ). (You might be able to perform the AND and NOT operations together in your head, skipping over the XZ column. But be careful! It's easy to make errors, and in a digital circuit, one error can be catastrophic.) Next, find valuesYZ and list them in a seventh column. Finally, perform the OR operation on the values in the columns for XY, -(XZ) andYZ. A multiple-valued OR is 0 only if all the individual variables are 0; if any or all of the inputs are 1, then the output is 1.
Digital mathematics
477
:
For Problems 1 and 2, Chapter 27
Output
2. Write down a truth table for the logic circuit shown in the above drawing. Include columns for each of the four variables, and break down the function into steps as performed by each of the three logic gates.
3. What is the difference between lossy data compression and lossless data compression?
4. How many total input signal combinations are there in a logical system with: (a) (b) (c) (d) two inputs? five inputs? eight inputs? 12 inputs?
5. Draw schematic diagrams of binary digital circuits that represent each of the following logic functions. Try to use the smallest possible number of gates. (There are often multiple answers to problems such as these, but engineers strive for the simplest designs.) (a) (b) (c) (4 (e) -(XU) -(X + Y ) (-XI + (-Y) (-X)(-Y) -X(Y Z) XY
+ +
8. What hexadecimal number values do the binary numbers in problem 6 represent? 9. In the RGB color model, what colors are represented by the following numbers?
(a) F O O FOO (c) O O F O OF (e) FFFFFF (b) O F O OF O (d) 000000
- - -
7. The answers are: (a) 130,912 (d) 157,549 (b) 163,123 (e) 92,333 (c) 17,145
8. There is no difference, except that when cents are included you must place a decimal point (period) between the second and third digit from the right. 9. The total weight is exactly 10 pounds. 10. To balance 1 pound, 6 ounces, and 14 drams, you would use weights of 1 pound, 4 ounces, 2 ounces, 8 drams, 4 drams, and 2 drams.To balance 2 pounds, 13 ounces, and 11 drams, you would use weights of 2 pounds, 8 ounces, 4 ounces, 1 ounce, 8 drams, 2 drams, and 1 dram. To balance 5 pounds, 11 ounces, and 7 drams, you would use weights of 4 pounds, 1 pound, 8 ounces, 2 ounces, 1 ounce, 4 drams, 2 drams, and 1 dram. 11. The solutions are as follows. (a) You would experiment with the ounce weights until the presence or absence of a single ounce weight made the difference between the balance tipping and not tipping. Then you would do the same with the dram weights, until the presence or absence of a single dram weight made the difference between the balance tipping and not tipping. You would then consider the weight of the parcel to be the heavier of the two. (b) You would experiment with the ounce weights until the presence or absence of a single ounce weight made the difference between the balance tipping and not tipping.You would then consider the weight of the parcel to be the heavier of the two. 12. There are 72 inches in 2 yards. 13. The car owner needs 10 gallons and 3 quarts in all (43 quarts). 14. In general, it is more economical to buy the gallon. A gallon is four quarts. Thus the price is $3.60 per gallon (4 times 90 cents) if he buys by the quart, but $3.50 per gallon (given) if he buys by the gallon. In the scenario of problem 13,
481
the cost of 43 quarts (purchased by the quart) is $38.70, while the cost of 11 gallons (purchased by the gallon) is $38.50. It is still more economical to buy the oil by the gallon in this case. 15. The woman spent $47.5 1 altogether.
Chapter 2
1. The answers are: (a) 23 (d) 391 (g) 3,087 (b) 42 ( 4 99 (h)4,176 (c) 506 (f) 189 (i) 2,889
3. The clerk's method yields a total price of $35.00, while the lady's method yields $31.00. She would therefore save $35.00 - $31 .OO = $4.00.
4. The cat weights 93 - 85 = 8 pounds. 5. Place the 4-ounce weight on the pan of the scale, and the 2-pound weight on the other pan.This is a difference in weight of 1 pound and 12 ounces (remember there are 16 ounces in a pound). Then add rice to the scale pan containing the 4-ounce weight (leaving the weight there) until the scale balances. The amount of rice in the pan must then be equal to the difference between the weights, or 1 pound and 12 ounces. 6. The distance between B and C is 293 - 147 = 146 miles, assuming all three towns lie along a straight line. 7. The charge is based on the direct distance between towns A and B. Assuming all three towns A, B, and C lie along a straight line, the charge will be based on the difference 1,200 - 250 = 950 miles. 8. One mile is 1,760 yards. The frontage sold is 1,460 yards. There are thus 1,760 - 1,460 = 300 yards left to sell.
Chapter 3
1. The answers are: (a) 87,822 (d)2,738 (b) 216,513 (e) 147,452 (c) 864 (f) 49,181
4. The total number of flights in a week is (4 x 6) + 2 = 24 + 2 = 26. 5. The total number of flights in a year is (26 x 52) - 24 = 1,352 - 24 = 1,328. 6. The answers are: (a) $2.25 (d) $27.00 (g) $1,252.00 (b) $4.50 (e) $64.50 (h) $2,502.00 (c) $8.25 (f) $252.00
7. Five 100-item packages would cost ((100 x $.25) + $2.00) x 5 = ($25.00 $2.00) x 5 = $27.00 x 5 = $135.00. Two 250-item packages would cost ((250 x $.25) $2.00) x 2 = ($62.50 + $2.00) x 2 = $64.50 x 2 = $129.00. The saving is therefore $135.00 - $129.00 = $6.00.
8. Ten single tickets cost $1.75 x 10 = $17.50. A 10-trip ticket costs $15.75. By purchasing a 10-trip ticket, you save $17.50 - $15.75 = $1.75. 9. Taking 22 round trips (which is 22 x 2 = 44 one-way trips) with single tickets costs $1.75 x 44 = $77.00.The saving is therefore $77.00 - $55.00 = $22.00. 10. Under the employers's plan, an employee would start at $500 a month and get five $50 raises, so at the beginning of the sixth year, the pay would be $500 + ($50 x 5) = $500 + $250 = $750 per month. Under the employees' plan, an employee would start at $550 a month and get ten $20 raises, so at the beginning of the sixth year, the pay would be $550 + ($20 x 10) = $550 $200 = $750 per month, the same rate as under the employer's plan. Under the employer's plan, an employee would make the following amounts:
12 = $6,000 during the first year 12 = $6,600 during the second year 12 = $7,200 during the third year 12 = $7,800 during the fourthyear 12 = $8,400 during the fifth year
for a total of $36,000 during the first five years. Under the employees' plan, an employee would make the following amounts: $550 x 6 = $3,300 during the first six months $570 x 6 = $3,420 during the second six months
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$590 x 6 = $3,540 during the third six months $610 x 6 = $3,660 during the fourth six months $630 x 6 = $3,780 during the fifth six months $650 x 6 = $3,900 during the sixth six months $670 x 6 = $4,020 during the seventh six months $690 x 6 = $4,140 during the eighth six months $7 10 x 6 = $4,260 during the ninth six months $730 x 6 = $4, 380 during the tenth six months For a total of $38,400 during the first five years. The employees' plan results in more total earnings over five years; the difference is $38,400 -36,000 = $2,400.
11. If you buy 4,500 items, you must buy 4 lots of 1,000 and one lot of 5OO.That is a total cost of (4 x 1,000 x $6.25) + (500 x $6.75) = $25,000.00 + $3,375.00 = $28,375.00. If you buy 5,000 items, the total cost is 5,000 x $5.75 = $28,750.00. The difference is therefore $28,750.00 - $28,375.00 = $375.00.
12. You need 30 sets of 100 parts to get 3,000 parts (30 x 100 = 3,00O).Thetotal weight is therefore 30 x 2.5 = 75 ounces.This is 4 pounds and 11 ounces. 13. The tank's capacity is 4 x 350 = 1,400 gallons. 14. The locomotive must haul 182 x 38 = 6,9 16 tons. 15. The journey was 27 x 260 = 7,020 miles. 16. The cost of a trip on the first railroad is 450 x $. 10 = $45.00.The cost of a trip on the second railroad is 320 x $. 15 = $48.00. The difference is therefore $48.00 - $45.00 = $3.00 per one-way trip. The first railroad is cheaper than the second (although the trip will probably take longer because the mileage is greater). 17. A one-way trip on the first airline costs $15 x 2,400 = $360.00; a one-way trip on the second airline costs $.lo x 3,200 = $320.00. the second airline is cheaper by an amount of $360.00 - $320.00 = $40.00 per one-way trip. 18. The answers are determined as follows. (a) For a family of two on the first airline, a one-way trip will cost ($.I5 $.09) x 2,400 = $.24 x 2,400 = $576. On the second airline it will cost ($. 10 + $. 10) x 3,200 = $.20 x 3,200 = $640.00. Thus the first airline is cheaper by an amount of $640.00 - $576.00 = $64.00. (b) For a family of three on the first airline, a one-way trip will cost ($.I5 + $.09 + $.09) x 2,400 = $.33 x 2,400 = $792.00. On the second airline it will cost ($.10+$.10+$.10) x 3,200 = $.30 x 3,200 =
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$960.00. Thus the first airline is cheaper by an amount of $960.00 - $792.00 = $168.00 19. The total number of chews is 50 x 7 x 3 = 1,050 chews. 20. There are 9 x 7 = 63 flowers around the edge of the plate.
Chapter 4
1. The answers are: (a) (d) (8) (k) (n) 49 653 984 1484 1,234 (b) (e) (h) (1) 81 2,081 654 379 (c) (f) (j) (m) 616 3,931 237 439
2. The answers are: (a) 240 (c)2,945 (b) 753 (d) 362
3. The answers are: (a) (c) (e) (g) 494-117 1,473-213 4,889-113 1,226-15/28 (b) (d) (f) (h) 2,928-718 4,791 484-11117 3,204-13129
4. The profit per share is equal to $14,000,000.00/2,800,000.00 = $140/28.00 = $35.0017 = $5.00. 5. The fare per passenger should be $8,4 15.00155 = $153.00. 6. The tool costs $5,000.00 and there are 10,000 parts to be made. Each part has a gross manufacturing cost of $5,000.00/10,000 = $5.00/10 = $.50. Parts are made for $.25 each; therefore the cost of each part is $.50 - $.25 = $.25. 7. The total weight is 58 x 2000 pounds = 116,000 pounds. Each wheel carries 116,000/8 pounds = 14,500 pounds. 8. The total time, 8 hours, is equal to 8 x 60 x 60 seconds = 28,800 seconds. There are 1,200 parts. Therefore, the time required to make each part is 28,800/1,200 = 288112 = 14416 = 72/3 = 24 seconds. 9. The full package weighs 1,565 x 16 = 25,040 ounces. The empty package weighs 2.5 x 16 = 40 ounces. The total weight of the parts is
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25,040 - 40 = 25,000 ounces. The weight of each part is therefore 25,000/10,000 = 25/10 = 240unces. 10. The full package weighs 2,960 x 16 = 47,360 ounces. The empty package weighs 5 x 16 = 80 ounces. The total weight of the parts is 47,36080 = 47,280 ounces. The number of parts in the package is therefore 47,28013 = 15,760. 11. One mile is 5,280 feet. This is to be divided into 33 equal parts. The width of each lot is therefore 5280133 = 160 feet. 12. On each gallon of gas, the car travels 462122 = 21 miles. 13. The quantities must all be divided by 160 to get the amounts needed for 1 gallon. First, convert all figures to fluid ounces.There are 128 fluid ounces to the gallon. Thus, there must be (75 x 128)/160 = 60 fluid ounces of ingredient l , (50 x 128)/160 = 40 fluid ounces of ingredient 2, (25 x 128)/ 160 = 20 fluid ounces of ingredient 3, and (10 x 128) = 8 fluid ounces of ingredient 4 to make 1 gallon of the mixture. 14. The answers are: (a) 718 (d) 74111000 (b) 315 (e) 161125 (c) 9/16
15. The answers are: (a) 4161999 (d) 1481259 (b) 7/33 (e) 1011111 (c) 7/37
Chapter 5
1. These sets of fractions have the same value:
2. The simplest forms of the fractions, in order, are: 112, 2/7,3/ 13,213,315, 11115, 13117, 13116,213, 113,215, and 19/23. 3. The answers are: (a) 10,452 divides by 3 and 4 (b) 2,088 divides by 3,4, 8, and9 (c) 5,841 dividesby3, 9,and 11
7. The answers are: (a) (c) (e) (f) 0.666666. . . 0.8 0.857142857142.. . 0.875 0.333333. . . 0.2 0.142857142857. . . 0.125 (b) 0.75 (d) 0.833333.. . (g) 0.888888.. .
8. The answers are: (a) (c) (e) (f) (b) 0.25 (d) 0.166666 . . . (g) 0.111111.. .
9. The answers are: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 4161999 2 1/99, reducible to 7/33 1891999, reducible to 7/37 57 14281999999, reducible to 517 9091999, reducible to 1011111 901999, reducible to 101111
10. If a measurement is specified as 158 feet, the actual distance is at least 157.50000. . . feet, but less than 158.50000 . . . feet. If a measurement is specified as 857 feet, the actual distance is at least 856.50000.. . feet, but less than
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857.50000 . . . feet.The margin for error is equal to a span of exactly one foot (plus or minus exactly six inches) in either case. 11. The quotient, rounded off to three significant digits, is equal to 5.39. Using a calculator capable of expressing eight digits in the display, (a) 932.50000/172.50000 = 5.4057971, and (b) 931.50000/173.50000 = 5.368876.The only digit that remains the same over this span is the numeral 5. Therefore, in a practical experiment involving this quotient of measured values, one could justify the result to only one significant digit: 5. 12. The quotient, rounded off to three significant digits, is equal to 109. Using a calculator capable of expressing eight digits in the display, (a) 93,750.000/856.50000 = 109.45709, and (b) 93,650.000/857.50000 = 109.21282. The left-hand three digits, 109, are the same over this span. Therefore, in a practical experiment involving this quotient of measured values, one could justify the result to three significant digits: 109. The best method of shortening the process and making it less "messy" is to use a calculator (or better yet, a computer programmed to determine significant digits). 13. The answers are determined as follows. (a) The prime numbers less than 60 are 2,3,5,7, 11, 13, 17, 19,23,29,31,37, 41,43,47, 53, and 59. (b) To test a number to see if it is prime, divide it by each and every prime starting with 2 and working up the list. If none of the quotients is a whole number, then the tested number is prime. If any of the quotients is a whole number, then the tested number is not prime. (c) The largest number you can test using this list is 60 x 60 = 3600. 14. The answers are: (a) 11/16 (d) 2-9/20 (b) 64/91 (e) 1-11/34 (c) 17/40
Chapter 6
1. The answers are: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 4,2 12 square inches 22 1 square feet 87,500 square yards 2 1 square miles 1,020 square inches 598,400 square yards
2. A right angle measures 90 degrees (114 of a circle). It is so named because it represents the optimum angle for attaching the legs to a table top.
5. The area is 220 x 110 = 24,200 square yards. This is 24,200/4,840 = 5 acres.
6. The area of a parallelogram is equal to the length of the base times the height. Using a 20-inch side as the base and 12 inches as the height, the area is 20 x 12 = 240 square inches. Using a 15-inch side as the base, the height (straight-across distance between the 15-inch sides) must be such that, when multiplied by 15, the result is 240 (the area). This height is equal to 2401 15 = 16 inches. 7. The answers are: (a) (1 1 x 16)/2 = 88 square inches (b) (3 1 x 43)/2 = 666.5 square inches (c) (27 x 37)/2 = 499.5 square inches 8. The area of a triangle is equal to half the length of the base times the height. In this case, it is (39 x 48)/2 = 936 square inches. The product of the base and the height is 1,872 (twice the area). This quantity is a constant, no matter which side of the triangle is considered the base. Therefore, if the 52-inch side is used as the base, the height must be 1,872/52 = 36 inches. 9. The property can be divided into two parts: a rectangle measuring 200 by 106.5 yards, and a triangle whose base length is 150 yards and whose height is 200 yards. The area of the rectangle is 200 x 106.5 = 21,300 square yards. The area of the triangle is (150 x 200)/2 = 15,000 square yards. The total area is 2 1,300 + 15,000 = 36,300 square yards. An acre is 4,840 square yards, so the area of the property is 36,300/4,840 = 7.5 acres. 10. Assuming the property is rectangular, the total area is 300 x 440 = 132,000 square yards. The owner wants to keep a piece that measures 110 x 44 = 4,840 square yards. Therefore, the area he wants to sell is 132,000 - 4,840 = 127,160 square yards.
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11. Convert all lengths to inches. Then consider the outside rectangle that measures 207 by 216 inches. Its area is 207 x 216 = 44,712 square inches. From this, subtract two rectangles measuring 8 1 by 84 inches and 24 by 60 inches.The areas of these rectangles are, respectively, 6,804 and 1,440 inches. The floor area of the room is therefore (44,712 - 6,804) - 1,440 = 36,468 square inches.You might want to divide by 144 to obtain the answer as 253.25 square feet. 12. Consider the walls as a set of rectangles, each of which is 7 feet (84 inches) high. Then starting at the upper left-hand corner and proceeding clockwise, the areas of the rectangles are: 84 x 84 = 7,056 square inches 24 x 84 = 2,O 16 square inches 60 x 84 = 5,040 square inches 24 x 84 = 2,O 16 square inches 63 x 84 = 5,292 square inches 54 x 84 = 4,536 square inches (window = 0 square inches) 54 x 84 = 4,536 square inches 27 x 84 = 2,268 square inches (window = 0 square inches) 27 x 84 = 2,268 square inches 84 x 84 = 7,056 square inches 8 1 x 84 = 6,804 square inches 48 x 84 = 4,032 square inches (door = 0 square inches) 48 x 84 = 4,032 square inches The surface area of the walls is the sum of all these areas, or 56,952 square inches. You might wish to divide this figure by 144 to obtain the answer as 395.5 square feet.
Chapter 7
1. In an hour, a car going 35 mph will go 35 miles, and 36 minutes is 315 of an hour. Therefore, in 36 minutes, if the car travels at a constant speed, it will go 35 x 315 = 21 miles. 2. The answers are: (a) Upstream speed is 10 - 2 = 8 mph (b) Downstream speed is 10 + 2 = 12 mph
(a) The upstream journey takes 12 hours and burns 12 x 112 = 6 tons of fuel (b) The downstream journey takes 8 hours and burns 8 x 112 = 4 tons of fuel
5. To make the downstream journey at a land speed of 8 mph, the water speed would need to be cut to 6 mph, or 60 percent of (0.6 times) its former speed.This would result in the ship burning 112 x 0.6 = 0.3 tons of fuel per hour. The journey would take 12 hours, which would burn 12 x 0.3 = 3.6 tons of fuel, which is 0.4 tons less than before. (a) The speed reduction would save fuel. (b) The fuel savings for the downstream journey would be 0.4/4 = 10 percent. (c) Without the speed reduction, the round-trip fuel burned is 10 tons. With the downstream water speed reduction, 0.4 tons are saved going downstream but nothing is
saved going upstream. Therefore the total fuel saving for the round trip is 0.4/10 = 4 percent.
6. Suppose the water speed were cut by 2 rnph going upstream, from 10 rnph to 8 mph. Then the land speed would be reduced to 6 mph, and it would take the ship 9616 = 16 hours to make the upstream journey. Assuming the fuel con-
sumption decreased in proportion to the water speed reduction, there would be 0.5 x 0.8 = 0.4 tons burned per hour. In 16 hours the ship would burn 16 x 0.4 = 6.4 tons of fuel.Therefore, if the water speed upstream were reduced by 2 mph, the total amount of fuel burned would increase from 6 tons to 6.4 tons.This is a change of 100 x 0.416 = 6.667 (or 6-213) percent. 7. The value increases by $10,000, and the dividend paid on the initial investment is $50,000 x 0.5 = $2,500. Therefore, the total amount made in cash is $10,000 + $2,500 = $12,500.This is 100 x $12,500/$50,000 = 25 percent.
8. In the first week, the percentage growth is lOOx(24 16)/ 16 = 100 x 0.5 = 50 percent. In the second week, the percentage growth is 100 x (36 - 24)/24 = 100 x 0.5 = 50 percent. In the third week, the percentage growth is 100 x (54 - 36)/36 = 100 x 0.5 = 50 percent. In the fourth week, the percentage growth is 100 x (8 1 - 54)/54 = 100 x 0.5 = 50 percent. For the whole month, the percentage growth is 100 x (81 - 16)/16 = 100 x 65/16 = 406.25 percent.
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9. See the following drawing. In the middle of the second week, the height is 30 inches as interpolated from the graph. 10. At 90 mph, a car travels 3 miles in 3/90 or 1/30 of an hour, which is 2 minutes. For the whole lap, this car takes 6 + 2 = 8 minutes.That translates to an average speed of 8 x 6018 = 60 mph. At 120 mph, a car travels 3 miles in 3/ 120 or 1/40 of an hour; that's 1.5 minutes. For the whole lap, this car takes 6 + 1.5 = 7.5 minutes. That translates to an average speed of 8 x 6017.5 = 64 mph.
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20
PI
11. At 32 miles per gallon, the car will travel 18 x 32 = 576 miles on 18 gallons. 12. Using the first method: 100 boards cost $2,000 + ($. 15 x 100) = $2,015 500 boards cost $2,000 + ($. 15 x 500) = $2,075 1,000 boards cost $2,000 + ($. 15 x 1,000) = $2,150 2,000 boards cost $2,000 + ($. 15 x 2,000) = $2,300 5,000 boards cost $2,000 + ($.I5 x 5,000) = $2,750 10,000 boards cost $2,000 + ($. 15 x 10,000) = $3,500 Using the second method: 100 boards cost $200 + ($.65 x 100) = $265 500 boards cost $200 + ($.65 x 500) = $525 1,000 boards cost $200 + ($.65 x 1,000) = $850 2,000 boards cost $200 + ($.65 x 2,000) = $1,500 5,000 boards cost $200 + ($.65 x 5,000) = $3,450 10,000 boards cost $200 + ($.65 x 10,000) = $6,700 13. See the following drawing.The figures can only be approximated. Finding the exact answer requires algebra. 14. At 28 mpg, a trip of 594 miles burns 21.2 1 gallons of gas (to the nearest hundredth of a gallon). At 24 mpg, the same trip burns 24.75 gallons. Therefore, by going at the lower speed, the gas saving is 24.75 - 21.21 = 3.54 gallons. At 40 mph, a trip of 594 miles requires 14.85 hours. At 60 mph, the same journey will
take 9.9 hours. Therefore, by going at the higher speed, the time savings is 4.95 hours, or 4 hours and 57 minutes. 15. At the end of the first year, the property value rises by $200,000 x 25% = $200,000 x 0.25 = $50,000, so it appreciates to a value of $200,000 + $50,000 = $250,000. During the next year it decreases by $250,000 x 10% = $250,000 x 0.1 = $25,000, so it depreciates to a value of $250,000 - $25,000 = $225,000. You can't simply subtract the percentages to calculate the final value, because the percentages are not based on the same amount. 16. The total tax is ($30,000 x 20%) + (($120,000 - $30,000) x 22%) = ($30,000 x 0.2) + ($90,000 x 0.22) = $6,000 + $19,800 = $25,800. 17. The area of the triangle is (16 x 12)/2 = 96 square feet. Therefore, the parallelogram also has an area of 128 square feet. Consider one of the 16-foot sides as the "base" of the parallelogram. Then the "height" of the parallelogram (the distance between the 16-foot sides) is equal to 96/16 = 6 feet. 18. At 1,000feet per minute, it will take the aircraft 22,00011,000 = 22 minutes to reach an altitude of 22,000 feet. A forward (land) speed of 360 miles per hour is equivalent to 360160 = 6 miles per minute. So in 22 minutes, the aircraft will travel forward 22 x 6 = 132 miles.
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19. If the plane burns fuel at half the rate, a given amount of fuel will last twice as long. It took the plane 22 minutes to climb to cruising altitude, so it will be able to fly 44 minutes level. At 420 miles per hour, which is 7 miles per minute, this is a distance of 44 x 7 = 308 miles.
Chapter 8
1 . The equation is 12 - x = 2x. To solve, add x to each side, getting 12 = 3x. Then divide each side by 3, getting 4 = x.Thus x is equal to 4. 2. The equation is 19y = y + 36. Subtract y from each side, getting 18y = 36. Then divide each side by 18, getting y = 2.
8. Let x be the number of full members.Then there are 2,000 - x student members. The total annual dues received from full members is 20x dollars; the total annual dues received from student members is 8x dollars. The overall total received is 35,200 dollars.This number is equal to 20x + [8(2,000 - x)] We can write the equation 2 0 + (16,000 - 8 ~ = 35,200 ~ ) Simplifying gives 12x + 16,000 = 35,200 Subtracting 16,000 from each side, we get
Dividing through by 12 reveals that x = 1,600.Thereare thus 1,600 full members and 2000 - 1,600 = 400 student members.
9. Using x for the tens' digit, the ones' digit is +2. The problem tells us that
Subtracting x from each side, we get 2x = 2. Therefore, x = 1.The tens' digit is 1, and the ones' digit is 1 2 = 3, so the number is 13.
10. Letting x represent the tens' digit, the ones' digit is x + 1. The original number is therefore equal to lOx+x+ 1 = l l x + 1 Four times this quantity is the new number, which is
We are further told that the new ones' digit is x, and the new tens' digit is
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4 4 x + 4 = 31xf30
Subtracting 31x from each side gives
13x + 4 = 30
Subtracting 4 from each side tells us that
Dividing through by 13 gives us x = 2. Therefore, the original tens' digit was 2, and the original ones' digit was 3, so the original number was 23. 11. For the original number, let the tens' digit be represented by x Then the ones' digit is x + 1.The number is therefore equal to
Adding 9 to this yields 1 1 x 10.Now suppose the digits in the original number are reversed.Then the number is equal to
which simplifies to 1 lx + 10.This is, as we already showed, equal to 9 plus the original number.
12. Let the tens' digit of the original number be represented by a Let the ones' digit be a x.Then the original number is equal to
15. Each of these three problems is solved by showing that the "equations" are not really equations at all, but are actually statements declaring that two different numbers are equal. In the first example, multiply out the left-hand side, obtaining
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Subtract 4x from each side, getting 2 = 0, which is a false statement. In the second example, subtract 5x from each side, getting 3 = -7, which is a false statement. In the last example, multiply each side by 2, obtaining
Finally subtract 2x from each side, getting 16 = 24, which is a false statement. 16. The graphs for (a) and (c) are straight lines, while the graphs for (b) and (d) are curves. 17. The sequence of expressions goes like this:
starting number add 6 multiply by 3 multiply out the previous expression subtract 12 divide by 3 subtract x to get final result
Chapter 9
1. The products are as follows.WARNING: signs (+and -) can be tricky! The (a) (b) (c) (d) x2 - 2x - 3 x2 - 8x + 15 x2 - 1 x3 1
2. The quotients are as follows.WARNING: signs (+and -) can be tricky! The (a) (b) (4 (d) x -3 x -5 x -Y x3 - x + 2
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4. Solutions exist for (a), (b), and (c), but not for (d). In the first three cases:
(a) x = 712 and y = 1512 (b) x = 16/25 and y = -4125 (c) x = -5/2 and y = -1 The last pair of equations, (d), implies that x is a number equal to itself plus or minus 1. There exists no such number.Therefore, this pair of simultaneous equations has no solution.
5. Let x represent the length and y represent the width.Thenthe area of the original rectangle is equal to xy. The following equations hold true according to the information given: ( x + 5 ) ( y + 2 ) = x y + 133 ( x + 8 ) ( y + 3) = x y 217
Subtracting x y + 10 from each side of the top equation, and x y side of the bottom equation, yields:
+ 24 from each
Multiplying the top equation through by 3 and the bottom equation through by 2 gives:
y = 17 feet
"Plugging in" to the top equation previously yields:
6x
6 . We are given that c = 28, a = 3, and b = 4. Let the unknown parts be x and y. From the information given, these two simultaneous equations result:
- x. Using
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This can be solved for x, yielding x = 16.Thus y = 28 - 16 = 12. 7. Let the fraction be called x/y. Then, from the information given, we obtain the following two simultaneous equations: (X 3 ) / b 3) = 415 (x - 4)/0f - 4) = 314 Cross-multiplying these gives two equations that are more straightforward: 5x+15 = 4 y + 1 2 4~ - 16 = 3y - 12 Solving these yields x = 25 and y = 32, so the fraction is 25/32.
8. Let the fraction be called x/y. Then, from the information given, we obtain the following two simultaneous equations:
Solving these yields x = 3 1 and y = 55, so the fraction is 31/55. 9. Let the fraction be called x/y. Then, from the information given, we obtain the following two simultaneous equations:
Cross-multiplying these gives: 12x+ 1 2 = 7 y + 7 16~-16=9y-9 Solving these yields x = 23.5 and y = 41, so the fraction is 23.5141.This is not a fraction in the strict sense, but a quotient. But it must be in this form to meet the conditions stated in the problem. 10. Let the numbers be x, x + 1, x + 2, and x + 3. Then according to the problem, Multiplying out each side of this equation yields Subtracting the quantity (2 x) from each side results in this equation:
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Therefore, x = 21. The four consecutive numbers are 2 l,22,23, and 24. 11. Let the numbers be x, x problem,
Multiplying out each side gives us this: Subtracting the quantity (x3 + 6x2)from each side gives: Solving this yields x = 3.Therefore, the numbers are 3,4,5,6, and 7. 12. The man is told the width is x feet, and the length is x + 50 feet.This would result in an area of x(x + 50) = x2 + 50x square feet. However, it turns out that the actual width is x - 10 feet. The seller offers an extra 10 feet in length, to make the new length x + 60 feet. This results in a total area of (x - 10)(x + 60) = x2 + 50x - 600 square feet.This is 600 square feet less than what he was originally told, no matter what the actual dimensions are.
Chapter 10
1. The solutions are found as follows: (a) The factors are (x + 8) and (x - 1).The expression is zero when either of the factors is equal to zero; that is, when x = -8 or when x = 1. (b) The factors are (3x - 13) and (x - 1).The expression is zero when either of the factors is equal to zero; that is, when x = 1313 or when x = 1. (c) The factors are (7x 1) and (x - 7).The expression is zero when either of the factors is equal to zero; that is, when x = - 117 or when x = 7. (d) The factors are (6x - 5) and (5x - 8).The expression is zero when either of the factors is equal to zero; that is, when x = 516 or when x = 815.
2. The solutions are: (a) x = 9 o r x = -5 (b) x = 3 or x = -2 (c) x = (7 + 2l11')/2 or x = (7 - 2l1I2)/2 (d) x = 6 + 4 0 ~ ~ ~ o r x = 6 -1120 4 NOTE: "112 power," or exponent of 112, indicates the square root. the
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NOTE:This formula should first be converted to standard quadratic form, which is 5x2 - 24x - 5 = 0. (d) x = 5 + 24'12 or x = 5 - 24'12 NOTE:This formula should first be converted to standard quadratic form, whichisx2 - lox + 1 = 0. 4. The solutions can be found using the quadratic formula.The results are: (a) x = 1 o r x = -215 (b) x = O o r x = 315 (c) x = 3/ 10; this is the only solution (it "occurs twice")
5. Let the unknown quantity be x. Then, according to the problem, x 2/x = 4. This can be rearranged to standard quadratic form: x2 - 4x + 2 = 0. The quadratic formula can be used to find the solutions: x = 2 + 2'l2 or x = 2 - 2'12. (The 112 power indicates a square root, and can replace a surd.)
6. If we let x be the width, then we can derive the equation x(2x - 10) = 2800, which can be translated to standard quadratic form: 2x2 - 1O - 2800 = 0. The x quadratic formula yields solutions x = 40 feet or x = -32.5 feet. (The negative value has no practical meaning; it is a mathematical artifact.) The length of the enclosure is 2x - 10 feet according to the problem; this is 70 feet. 7. Let x be the length of a side of the square. Then the area of this square is equal to x2 square feet. From the information in the problem, we can derive the equation (x 6)2 = 4x2, which translates to standard quadratic form: -3x2 + 12x + 36 = 0. Using the quadratic formula, we obtain the solutions x = -2 or x = 6. (The negative value has no practical meaning; it is a mathematical artifact.) The length of a side of the original square is therefore 6 feet.
This can be rearranged into standard quadratic form: x2 - 9x = 0. Using the quadratic formula, we obtain x = 0 or x = 9. There are thus two number sequences that fulfill the requirements of the problem: (8, 9, 10) and (-1,0, 1). Both solutions are mathematically valid, although the latter is a bit "strange" (check it and see!). 9. Let x represent the width of the strip.The outside rectangle is 60 by 80 feet. Then the length of the inside rectangle is 80 - 2x feet, and its width is 60 - 2x feet. The outside rectangle has an area of 4800 square feet; thus the inside one has an area of 2400 square feet. From these facts we know that (80 - 2x)(60 - 2x) = 2400. This converts to standard form: 42 - 28Ox
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Chapter 11
1. The answers are: (a) 4,851 (c) 14,391 (e) 2,499 (b) 8,075 (d) 39,951
2. The answers are: (a) 424 (c) 676 (e) 113 (b) 142 (d) 99.6
3. The answers are: (a) 5.477 (c) 7.746 (e) 8.944 (b) 7.071 (d) 8.367
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(a) Consider that y = 20 - x. Then the equation xy = 96 can be rewritten in terms of only x, and rearranged into standard quadratic form as x2 - 20x + 96 = 0. Using the quadratic formula yields x = 8 or x = 12. If x = 8, then the fact that xy = 96 means that y = 12. If x = 12,then the fact that xy = 96 means that y = 8. Therefore the solutions, written as ordered pairs, are (xi y) = (8, 12) or (x, y) = (12,8). (b) Consider that x = y + 5.Thenthe equation x2 + y2 = 53 can be rewritten in terms of only y, and rearranged into standard quadratic form as 2 9 10y - 28 = 0. Using the quadratic formula yields y = -7 or y = 2. If y = -7, then the fact that x = y + 5 means that x = -2. If y = 2, then x = 7. Written as ordered pairs, the solutions (x, y) are therefore (-2, -7) or (7, 2). (c) Consider that y = 34 - 3x.Then the equation xy = 63 can be rewritten in terms of only x, and rearranged into standard quadratic form as -3x2 34x - 63 = 0. Using the quadratic formula yields x = 9 or x = 713. If x = 9, then the fact that xy = 63 means that y = 7. If x = 713, then the fact that xy = 63 means that y = 27.Therefore the solutions, written as ordered pairs, are (x, y) = (9,7) or (x, y) = (7/3,27). (d) Consider that x = y + 6.Then the equation x2 + y2 = 26 can be rewritten in terms of only y, and rearranged into standard quadratic form as 2y2 + 12y + 10 = 0. Using the quadratic formula yields y = -5 or y = -1. If y = -5, then the fact that x = y + 6 means that x = 1. If y = -1, then x = 5. Written as ordered pairs, the solutions (x, y) are therefore (1, -5) or (5, - 1).
5. To obtain the relative force figures, let y be the wind speed in miles per hour. Then, because the force f is proportional to the square of the speed, f = ( y / 3 0 ) ~ x . ~ h u s , answers are, to two significant digits: the (a) y = 10 thereforef = (10/30)'x = 0 . 1 1 ~ (b) y = 20 thereforef = (20/30)?x = 0.441;: ~ (c) y = 40 thereforef = ( 4 0 1 3 0 ) ~= 1 . 8 ~ = (d) y = 60 thereforef = (60130)~~ 4 . 0 ~ (e) y = 100 thereforef = (100/30)'x = 1l x 6. To obtain the relative brilliance figures, let y be the distance in feet. Then, because the brightness b is proportional to the inverse of the square of the dis~hu , tance, b = (1O . O O / ~ ) ~ X .sthe answers are, to four significant digits: (a) y = 2.000 therefore b = (10.00/2.000)2x = 2 5 . 0 0 ~ (b) y = 5.000 therefore b = (10.00/5.000)2x = 4.000.;: (c) y = 15.00 thereforeb = (10.00/15.00)2x = 0.4444~ = (d) y = 25.00 therefore b = (10.00/25.00)~~0 . 1 6 0 0 ~ (e) y = 100.0 therefore b = (10.00/100.0)2x = 0.0100.;:
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7. Let the dimensions of the box be 6 inches, y inches, and z inches.Then, based on the information given, we have the following two equations: 6yz = 48 0 (formula for volume of box) ) 2(6y) + 2 ( 6 ~ + 2yz = 376 (formula for surface area of box) These can be simplified to yz = 80 and 6y + 62 + yz = 188. Substituting from the first equation directly into the second, the second simplifies further to y + z = 18. This can be changed to y = 18 - z, and then the first equation can be rewritten as (18 - z)z = 80. Converting this to standard quadratic form yields -2+ 18- - 80 = 0. Using the quadratic formula, z = 8 or z = 10. We know that yz = 80. So if z = 10,then y = 8; if z = 8, then y = 1O.The other two dimensions are 8 inches and 10 inches. (It doesn't matter which of these is the width and which is the depth.) 8. Let the sides be x and y, measured in feet. Based on the information given, we can state the following: xy = 435,600 (formula for area) 2x + 3y/2 = 2,640 (perimeter minus half of side y) The second equation can be rewritten as x = 1,320 - 3y/4. Substituting into the first equation above, (1,320 - 3y/4)y = 435,600. Converting to standard quadratic form, we obtain the equation -Y2 1 , 7 6 0 ~ 580,800 = 0. Solving via the quadratic formula yields the results y = 1,320 or y = 440. Knowing that xy = 435,600, this yields the results x = 330 or x = 990.There are thus two possible sets of dimensions for the enclosure: 1,320 by 330 feet, or 440 by 990 feet.
9. As in problem 8, let the sides be x and y, measured in feet. Based on the information given, we can state the following:
xy = 435,600 (formula for area) 2x + 2y = 2,750 (available fencing plus 110 feet)
The second equation can be rewritten as x = 1,375 - y. Substituting into the first equation above, (1,375 - y)y = 435,600. Converting to standard quadratic form, we obtain the equation -Y2 1 , 3 7 5 - 43 5,600 = 0. Solving via the quad~ ratic formula yields the results y = 880 or y = 495. Knowing that xy = 435,600, this yields the results x = 495 or x = 880. The enclosure therefore measures 495 by 880 feet (x and y are interchangeable). This is simply a coincidence.
10. Let the numbers be x and y. Then according to the information given:
The second equation can be written as y = 3x. Substituting this into the first equation gives x(3x) = 432, or 3x2 = 432. Dividing each side by 3 gives
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x2 = 144.There are two solutions: x = -12or x = 12.Because y = 3x, this gives respective y-values of -36 and 36. Expressed as ordered pairs, the solutions are (x, y) = (-12, -36) or (12,36). 11. The sums are: (a) 3 -j2 (4 2 (b) 7 -j8 (dl 0 (b) 1 j12 ( 4 -.8 (b)-9+j6 (dl 45
12. The differences are: (a) 6 j3 6) j12 (a) 12-j14 (c) 4 j14
Chapter 12
1. The average speed over this 3-minute period is 20 miles/hour (half the final speed) because the acceleration is constant.This is 113 milelminute. Thus, in 3 minutes, the car travels 1 mile. 2. Because the acceleration rate is uniform, the average speed for the 6-minute period is 50 miles/hour, which is 516 milelminute. Therefore, in 6 minutes, the car will go 5 miles.
3. Because the deceleration is uniform, the average speed for this 30-second period is 30 miles/hour, or 112 milelminute. Thus, the car will require 114 mile to come to a stop.
4. The speed is 60 miles/hour. First, multiply 88 feetlsecond by 3,600 seconds/ hour toget 3 16,800feetlhour; then divide by 5,280 feetlmile to get 60 miles/hour. 5. First, convert 240 miles / hour into feet/ second. From the previous problem we know that 60 miles/ hour is 88 feet/ second.Thus 240 miles/ hour is 352 feet/ second.Velocity (v) is equal to acceleration (a) times time (t): v = at, provided the units are uniform throughout the calculation. Thus 352 = 16t, so t = 352/16 = 22 seconds. The acceleration rate is constant, so the average speed for these 22 seconds is 35212 = 176 feetlsecond. The total distance is therefore 176 feet/ second multiplied by 22 seconds = 3,872 feet. 6. The energy is equal to half the mass times the velocity squared; that is, e = mv2/2. Let the lighter pellet have mass m, and the heavier pellet have mass 2m. Let v be the velocity of the lighter pellet. Then "plugging in" the numbers from the information given, we obtain the equation 2m(150)'/2 = mv2/2.The
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8 --
-6 --4 --
t=3
Chapter 13
1. The wide-screen movie has an aspect ratio of 2 : 1,which is equivalent to 6 : 3 (ratio of width to height). The TV picture has an aspect ratio of 4 : 3. Therefore, the movie image is 614, or 312, as wide as the TV image when both have the same height. This means that the TV image is only 213 as large as the movie image. A total of 113 of the movie image is lost (116 at either side).
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2. In this case, think of the movie aspect ratio (width to height) as 12: 6 (2 : 1 times 6/6), and the TV aspect ratio as 12 : 9 (4 : 3 times 313). The movie image is therefore 619, or 213, as high as the TV image when both are the same width. 3. To simplify this problem, imagine that all the children get money in proportion to their ages, but double the "effective ages" of the boys. The boys' "effective ages" are 80, 68, and 52; the girls' "effective ages" are 37 and 23. Add these all up to get 260. Divide the estate, $22,100, by 260 to get 85 "dollars per effective child year." Each child's share is then determined by multiplying 85 by his or her "effective age." The boys receive $6,800, $5,780, and $4,420; the girls get $3,145 and $1,955. 4. The boys' actual ages will be 50,44, and 36; their "effective ages" will therefore be 100, 88, and 72.The girls' actual (and "effective") ages will be 47 and 33. Add these numbers to get 340. Divide the estate (still, presumably, $22,100) by 340 to get 65 "dollars per effective child year." Now the boys receive $6,500, $5,720, and $4,680; the girls receive $3,055 and $2,145. 5. Let the length of the hypotenuse be represented by x. Then x2 = 1 2 + 52 = 144 + 25 = 169.The value of x is the square root of 169, or 13. ~ 6. Because the gradient is 1: 8, in an 8,000-foot span of road, the altitude gained will be 1,000 feet (8,000 divided by 8).To find the horizontal distance, construct a right triangle with the base, call it x, as the horizontal distance, the height = equal to 1,000 feet, and the hypotenuse 8,000 feet. Then x2 + 1,000~ 8,000~. This solves for x = 7,937 feet (to four significant digits). 7. Let the height of the mountain, in miles, be represented by x. Let x be the height of a right triangle whose base is 8 miles long. Then x/8 = tan 9" = 0.1584 (to four significant digits). Solving this equation, x = 1.267 miles. Now suppose the angle is 5 degrees. Let y be the distance to the mountain; it is the length of the base of a right triangle whose height is 1.267 miles. Therefore, 1 . 2 6 7 1 = tan 5" = 0.0875. Solving this equation yields ~ y = 14.48 miles. 8. Convert all distances to feet. We will round off to the nearest foot in each calculation. For the first 3 miles (15,840 feet), the altitude gained is 15,8401 42 = 377 feet. For the next 5 miles (26,400 feet), the altitude gained is 26,400/100 = 264 feet. For the next 2 miles, there is no change. For the next 6 miles (31,680 feet), the altitude gained is -31,680/250 = -127 feet (or a loss of 127 feet). For the next 4 miles, there is no change. For the last 5 miles (26,400 feet), the altitude gained is 26,400/125 = 21 1 feet. The total altitude gained is the sum of all these figures: 377 + 264 + 0 + (-127) + 0 + 21 1 = 725 feet.
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9. Consider that each rafter forms the hypotenuse of a right triangle whose base measures 22 feet; the angle between the base and the hypotenuse is 30 degrees. Let x be the length of the hypotenuse. Then 22/x = cos 30" = 0.8660. Solving, x = 25.40 feet. 10. Let the rafter length be y when the angle is 20 degrees. Then 22/y = cos 20" = 0.9397. Solving, y = 23.41 feet. This is 1.99 feet shorter than is the case with a 30-degree angle. 11. Consider a right triangle whose base is the height of the wall (50 feet), and whose hypotenuse is the length of the ladder (60 feet). Then the cosine of the angle between the ladder and the wall is 50/60 = 0.8333.The angle can be determined, using a calculator, to be 33.56 degrees. Let x be the distance between the base of the ladder and the wall; this is the side opposite the 33.56-degree angle. By trigonometry, x/50 = tan 33.56" = 0.6634. Solving, x = 33.17 feet. Using the Pythagorean theorem, x2 + 502 = 602.Thus x2 = 3600 - 2500 = 1100, so x is the square root of 1100, or 33.17 feet. 12. The theorem states that x2 = 882 + 442 = 7,744 + 1,936 = 9,680. Thus x = 98.39 cm. 13. Consider the 45-degree angle. Its cosine is 0.707 1.This is the ratio of the base to side y; that is, 88/y = 0.707 1. Solving, we get y = 124.4 cm. 14. The tangent of angle q is the ratio of the 44-cm side to the 88-cm side; "in your head" you can probably see that this ratio is 112.Thus tan q = 0.500. Using a calculator with inverse trig functions, determine that q = 26.6 degrees. 15. The tangent of angle r is the ratio of the 88-cm side to the 44-cm side. Therefore, tanr = 2. Using a calculator with inverse trig functions, determine that r = 63.4 degrees. 16. The interior angles of a triangle always add up to 180 degrees. Therefore, 90 + q + r = 180. We know that q = 26.6. Thus r = (180 - 90) - q = 90 - q = 90 - 26.6 = 63.4 degrees.
Chapter 14
1. To find the tangents of A and B, we must find the cosines. Recall sin2 A + cos2 A = 1, for any angle A. This formula can be used to cos A = 0.6 and cos B = 0.8. The tangent of any angle is equal to the divided by the cosine. Thus, tan A = 0.810.6 = 413 = 1.333, tan B = 0.610.8 = 314 = 0.75.The sine of the sum of the angles is: sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B = (0.8) (0.8) + (0.6) (0.6) = 0.64 + 0.36 = 1 The cosine of the sum of the angles is: cos(A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B = (0.6)(0.8) - (0.8)(0.6) = 0.48 - 0.48 = 0 that find sine and
The tangent of the sum of the angles is: tan(A + B) = (tan A + tan B)/(1 - tan A tan B) = (413 3/4)/(1 - (4/3)(3/4)) = (25/12)/0 = undefined!
The tangent of the difference of the angles is: tan(A - B) = tan(A + (-B)) = ((tan A + tan(-B))/(l - tan A tan(-B)) = (413 - 3/4)/(1 - (4/3)(-314)) = (7/12)/2 = 7/24 = 0.2917 2. The two places are at the base angles of an isosceles triangle.The apex of the triangle is at the center of the earth (see drawing below). The two equal sides are 4000 miles long. The apex angle is the difference in longitude, which is 100.5 - 37.5 = 63 degrees. Divide this isosceles triangle in half by dropping a perpendicular from the apex to the middle of the base. Then the hypotenuse of this triangle measures 4000 miles, and the angle between at the center of the earth is 6312 = 31.5 degrees. Side x, which is half the distance asked for in the problem, is of a length such that x/4000 = sin 31.5" = 0.5225. Therefore, x = 2090 miles, and the distance is twice this, or 4180 miles.
Kenya
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3. The lines of sight would cross at an angle equal to the difference in longitude between them. The two places differ in longitude by 63 degrees. Thus the lines would cross at a 63-degree angle (see drawing below). Actually, when you talk about lines crossing, you can also consider two supplementary angles. Thus it is just as correct to say that the lines cross at an angle of 180 - 63 = 117 degrees.
Earth
4 sin3A
This gives the result 0.936. (That's right-the sine of three times this angle is almost exactly the same as the sine of twice the angle. You can use a calculator or trig tables to find the measure of the angle, and draw its multiples as vectors on the coordinate plane.This will illustrate what's going on.) 8. The sine of the angle has already been determined as 0.96, from the previous problem.Then use the formula cos A = (1 - sin2A)'/' 2 12 1 = (1 - 0.96 ) = 0.28 9. Using the table on page 237, note that sin 15" = 0.259. Let A = 15". Let the square root sign (surd) be represented as the 112 power. Then: sin 30" = sin 2A = 2 sin A(l - sin2A)'/' = 0.518(0.933)"~= 0.500
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This second result is somewhat imprecise because of the limited number of significant digits in the calculations. 10. Using the table on page 237, note that sin 30" = 0.500. Let A = 30". Let the square root sign (surd) be represented as the 112 power. Then: sin 60" = sin 2A = 2 sin A(l - sin2A)'/? = 1.000(0.75)~'~ 0.866 = and
11. Using the table on page 237, note that tan 45" = 1.000. Let A = 45O.Then: tan 90" = tan 2A = (2 tan A)/(1 = 2.000/0 = undefined! and tan 135" = tan 3A = (3 tan A - tan3 A)/(l = 2.000/(-2.000) = -1.000
2 C O S A
-
tan2 A)
3 tan2 A)
12. Using the table on page 237, note that cos 60" = 0.500. Let A = 60". Then: cos 120" = cos 2A = ~ and
-
1 = -0.500
13. Using the table on page 237, note that cos 90" = 0.000. Let A = 90.Then: cos 180" = cos2A = 2cos2 A - 1 = -1.000 and cos 270" = cos 3A = 4 cos3 A - 3 cos A = 0.000 14. To find the tangents of the original angles, it is easiest to use a calculator. Let the angles be called A, B, C, and D. Then, to three significant digits: tan A = tan 29" = 0.554 tanB = tan31 = 0.601 tan C = tan 59" = 1.66 t a n D = tan61 = 1.80 From the formula for the tangent of three times an angle: tan 3A = tan 87" = (3 tan A - tan3 A)/(1 - 3 tan2 A) = (1.662 - 0.170)/(1.000 - 0.921) = 18.9
To find the cosine, remember that for any angle B, sin2B + cos2 B = 1 and therefore cos2 B = I
-
sin2B
The formula for cos 2A on page 239 states that: cos2A = 2cos2A- 1 Substituting: cos 2A = 2(1
-
16. Let cos A = x. Then the equation, reduced to standard quadratic form, becomes 8x2+x-3=0 Using the quadratic formula to solve this, we obtain expressions containing the square root of 97, which is approximately 9.85.The resulting solutions are: x = 0.553 or x = -0.678 Remembering that x = cos A, a calculator can be used to find the angles, which are, respectively, 56.4 degrees, which is in the first quadrant, and 132.7 degrees, which is in the second quadrant.
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Chapter 15
1. Dividing 1 by 37, we obtain 0.0270 (the first three significant digits are 2, 7, 0). Continuing the division yields a repeating decimal: 1/37 = 0.027027027027. . .The error, x, is the difference between the three-significant-digit value and the full repeating decimal:
2. In the binary system, 15 is denoted 1111, and 63 is denoted 111111. Multiplying these yields 111011000 1. In decimal form this equals:
3. In the binary system, 1922 is denoted 11110000010, and 3 1 is denoted 11111. The quotient is 111110. In decimal form this equals:
Checking with a calculator, 1922/3 1 = 62. 4. Fractional exponents involve both powers and roots. The solutions are found as follows: (a) Find the 4th root of 16,which is 2; then cube 2 to obtain 16j14 = 8. (b) This expression is equivalent to 243415.First find the 5th root of 243, which is 3; then take the 4th power to obtain 243.8 = 8 1. (c) This expression is equivalentto 25'12. First find the square root of 25, which is 5; then cube this to obtain 251.5 - 125. (d) Find the cube root of 64, which is 4; then square 4 to obtain 64213 = 16. (e) Find the cube root of 343,which is 7; then take the 4th power of 7 to obtain the result 343413= 240 1. 5. The equivalents are as follows: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f ) (g) (h) (i) Decimal 62 = Binary 111110 Decimal 8 1 = Binary 1010001 Decimal 111 =Binary 1101111 Decimal 49 = Binary 110001 Decimal 98 = Binary 11000 10 Decimal 222 = Binary 11011110 Decimal 650 = Binary 1010001010 Decimal 999 = Binary 1111100111 Decimal 2000 = Binary 11111010000
7. The product 129 . 31 = 3999, and the product 129 . 4 1 = 5289. This is an error of 5298 - 3999 = 1290, which is 32 percent of the correct value (3999). The binary equivalent of 129 is 10000001, and the binary equivalent of 3 1 is 11111.The product of these numbers is binary 1111100 11111,which is equivalent to decimal 3999. If the second-to-last digit in the second binary number is reversed so the number becomes 11101, the binary product becomes binary 111010011101, which is equivalent to decimal 3741. This is an error of 3999 - 3741 = 258, which is 6.5 percent of the correct value (3999). 8. The value of each expression is one larger than the larger of a or b. The formula is the same as the one used for the Pythagorean theorem. Therefore, each of these number groups represents relationships among sides of right triangles. They are special cases because all three sides are in ratios that can be expressed as integers. 9. The value of each expression is two larger than the larger of a or b.The reason for this is the same as that for the previous problem. They are special cases of right triangles whose sides are in integral ratios. 10. The first four expressions are:
(a) loo2 = 10,000 (b) 1 0 0 ~ = 10 '~ (c) 1oop2 = 0.0001 (d) = 0.1 The second four expressions can be derived as whole-number powers of (b) and ( 4:
= ( 1 0 0 l / ~ = lo3 = 1,000 )~ (e) (f) 1 0 0 ~ =~ 1 0 0 ~ 1 =)lo5 = 100,ooo 1 ( ~ ~ 1'2 3 (g) 1 0 0 - ~ 1 ~ ( l o o ) = (0.1)~ 0.001 = = (h) 1 0 0 - ~ /= ( 1 0 0 - ~ / ~ ) ~ I ) = o.oooo1 ~ = (0. ~
11. The answers can be found by taking successive square roots (112 powers) of 100. Note that 100'' = 10.Then, using a calculator that displays eight digits:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
1 0 0 ~ = loll2 = 3.1622776 '~ 1 0 0 ~ '= (3.1622776)~'~ 1.7782793 ~ = 100"'~ = (1.7782793)~'~ 1.3335213 = 100'"~ = (1.3335213)'" = 1.1547819
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12. The value will approach 1.The reason for this is that the exponent approaches zero, and any nonzero number to the zeroth power equals 1. 13. Note that 25 = 32, and therefore, 32lI5 = 32.2 = 2. This answers part (b). From this, we can determine the answers to (d), (0, and (h): (d) 32.4 = (320.2 )2 = 22 = 4 (f) 32.6 = (320.2 )3 = 23 = 8 (h) 32.8 = (320.2 )4 = 24 = 16 The value of 32'-I is the same as (32.2)112, which is 2lI2.Using a calculator that displays seven or eight digits (depending on its mood), this is found to be 1.4142135.This answers part (a). From this, we can determine the answers to (c), (4, (g), and 6): (c) (e) (g) (i)
= 32.3 = (320.1 )3 = (1.4142135)~ 2.828427 32.5 = (32.1)5 = (1.4142135)~ 5.656854 = = 32.7 = (320.1 )7 = (1.4142135)~ 11.313708 32.9 = (320.119 = (1.4142135)~ 22.627416 =
14. The expressions can be simplified to the following: (a) 6 (4 2 (g) 0.0123 0) 3 ' (b) (4 (h) (k) 28 2 9 0.3333 (4 7 ( 0 81 (i) 0.1111
Chapter 16
1. The progression types and parameters are: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) arithmetic; a = 1, d = 4 arithmetic; a = -9, d = 6 geometric; a = 16, r = 3/4 geometric; a = -8 1, r = -2/3 harmonic; a = 1512, d = 1/ 5 geometric; a = 1, r = 1/2 geometric; a = 1, r = 2 (b) 1,248 (e) 196.875 (h) 1,995 (c) 10,235 (f) 65.625
3. The sums are: (a) 2 (d) 6.25 (g) 100 (b) non-finite (e) 1,000 (h) 512 (c) 1,000 (f) 100
Then the results are as follows. Notice that it's not always necessary to compute the factorials of the numerators; the terms of the factorials in the denominators often cancel out some of the terms of the factorials in the numerators. (a) 50!/(50 - 3)! = 50!/47! = 50 49 - 48 = 1 17,600 permutations (b) 10!/(10 - 5)! = 10!/5! = 10 . 9 . 8 . 7 . 6 = 30,240 permutations (c) 12!/(12- 6)! = 12!/6! = 1 2 . 1 1 . 10 . 9 . 8 . 7 = 665,280 permutations (d) 10!/(10 - 4 ) ! = 10!/6! = 10 9 8 7 = 5,040 permutations (e) 7 ! ( 7 - 6 ) ! = 7 ! = 7 . 6 . 5 . 4 3 . 2 = 5,040 permutations
Ck = n ! / ( k ! ( n- k ) ! )
Notice that the n's and k's in each part of this problem are the same as the n's and k's in each part of the previous problem. This is convenient, because the results can be obtained by dividing the answers of the previous problem by k ! in each case: (a) 117,600/3! = 117,600/6 = 19,600 combinations (b) 30,240/5! = 252 combinations (c) 665,280/6! = 924 combinations (d) 5,040/4! = 2 10 combinations (e) 5,040/6! = 7 combinations
6. Suppose that zero were allowed as the first digit in the numbers. Then there would be 1 o7 = 10,000,000 possible telephone numbers in this area code.There are 1 o6 = 1 ,000,000 telephone numbers whose first digit is zero (this in effect creates six-digit numbers). Because the first digit cannot be zero, the total number of available telephone numbers is 10,000,000 - 1,000,000, or 9,000,000.
7. In this case, there will be 10,000,000 - 3,000,000, or 7,000,000 available numbers.
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(c) There are 12P2 12!/(12 - 2)! = 132 different ways in which the horses = can come in first and second, taking order into account.Your chance of making a correct guess is therefore 1 132. 1
9. This probability is 1/(12/3) = 114. Another way of thinking of this is to figure the chance that a particular horse will finish in the top quartile (114).
10. First, determine the number of sunlike stars in our galaxy. This is 0.06.2. 1011 =0.12. 1011 = 1.2. lo1' stars. Three percent of these stars have at least one earthlike planet; this number is 0.03. 1.2. lo1' = 0.036 . 10'' = 3.6 . lo8 stars. One in five, or 20 percent, of these planets can be expected to have life as we know it; this number is at least 0.2 3.6 lo8 = 0.72 lo8 = 7.2 - lo7, or 72,000,000, planets. (We say "at least" because some stars might have more than one earthlike planet.) 11. This problem can be solved easily via a bit of trickery. Suppose there are 100 people in the bar. (You can choose any number, but it's best if it's large and divisible by 2, 5, and 10).Then there are probably 50 men and 50 women in the bar. One in 5 men has probably had a ticket in the past year; that is 1/5 . 50 = 10 men. One in 10 women has probably had a ticket in the past year; that's 1/ 10 50 = 5 women. Therefore, 15 of the 100 people have probably had tickets in the past year. If you choose a person at random, the probability is 151100 = 15 percent that you will select a person who has had a speeding ticket in the past year. 12. If you choose one man, chances are 115 that he has had a ticket in the past year. If you choose a woman, chances are 1 10 that she has had a ticket in the 1 past year. Thus, the probability that they have both had tickets in the past year is (1/5)(1/10) = 1/50, or 2 percent. 13. The probability is 112, or 50 percent that the coin will come up heads, and 50 percent that it will come up tails. (Coin tosses are not affected by history.)
Chapter 17
1. The derivatives are as follows: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f ) (g) (h) dyldx = lox dyldx = 2x 3 dyldx = 2x + 3 dyldx = 2x - sin x dy/dx = 12x2- 8x - 4 dyldx = cos x - 2 sin x dyldx = 20x3 + 4x dyldx = -2xP3 - 16xP5
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2. First, convert 5 miles per hour (miles/hour) into feet per second (ftlsec). Remember that 30 miles/hour = 44 ft/sec; therefore 5 miles hour = 4416 = 7.333 ft/sec. The acceleration a is therefore 7.333 ft /sec2. Knowing that the initial velocity v = 0 ft/sec, we can surmise that v, in terms of the time t in seconds, is a formula whose derivative is dvldt = a = 7.333. Therefore, v = 7.333t. Assign the initial displacement s = 0 ft (the starting position). Then we can surmise that s, in terms of t, is a formula whose derivative is dsldt = v = 7.333t. Therefore, s = 3.667t2. When t = 10, s = 3.667 . 10' = 366.7 ft. In 10 seconds the car will move 366.7 feet from its starting position. 3. Simply plug the value t = 10 into the above formula derived for v in terms of t.This gives v = 7.333 - 10 = 73.33 ftlsec. 4. In the second 10 seconds (from t = 10 to t = 20), the car will travel 73.33 ft/sec. 10 sec = 733.3 ft. We already know that in the first 10 seconds, the car traveled 366.7 ft. Therefore, the total distance traveled in 20 seconds is 733.3 ft + 366.7ft = 1,100 ft. 5. Given that the acceleration a = dvldt = 32, surmise that v = 32t, if t = 0 at the instant the ball is dropped. This tells us that dsldt = 32t, where s is the displacement downward from the point at which the ball is dropped. Therefore, s = 16t2. The building is 20. 10 = 200 ft high. Substituting 200 for s gives 200 = 16t2. heref fore, t = 3.536 seconds (to four significant figures). 6. We know v = 32t. When the ball hits the ground, v = 32 . 3.536 = 113.2 ftlsec. 7. Let the acceleration, in ft/sec2, be represented by a. Then using the slopeintercept form for a straight line, a = t - 4. Because a = dvldt, we can surmise that v = t2/2 - 4t + c, where c is a constant. Given that the starting velocity is 44 ft/sec, we know that c = 44. Therefore, v = t2/2 - 4t + 44. 8. Because v = dsldt, we can surmise that s = t3/6 - 2t2 44t c. Given that s = 0 when t = 0, we know that c = 0, so the formula is simply = t3/6 - 2 3 4dt.
9. Simply plug the time values into the equation derived in problem 7. The speeds are, rounded to four significant digits: (a) 40.50 ft/sec (c) 36.50 ft/sec (b) 38.00 ft/sec (d) 54.00 ft/sec
10. Simply plug the time values into the equation derived in problem 8. The displacements are, rounded to four significant digits: (a) 42.17 ft (c) 190.8ft (b) 81.33 ft (d) 406.7ft
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11. Note that one complete cycle, equivalent to 360 degrees, takes place in 5 seconds.Then the angle q, in degrees, is equal to 72t,where t is in seconds.The voltage V peaks positively and negatively at 8 times the maximum value of the sine function. Therefore, we can surmise that V = 8 sin 72t (with angles expressed in degrees). 12. To find these values, we must find the derivative of the function obtained in the previous problem. Knowing that the derivative of the sine is the cosine, we can determine that dV/dt = 8 cos72t (with angles expressed in degrees). Plugging in values for t and using a calculator yields these results: (a) f8.000 voltlsec (c) -8.000 voltlsec (e) +2.472 voltlsec (b) -6.742 volt/sec (d) +8.000 volt/sec (f) -8.000 voltlsec
13. Using a calculator with a pi (n) key, you can determine that there are 0.0 17453 radians 1degree (to five significant digits). Thus the angle measures, to four significant digits, are: (a) 0.1745 radians (c) 1.309 radians (e) 3.840 radians (b) 0.5236 radians (d) 2.53 1 radians (f) 5.236 radians
14. Using a calculator with a pi (n) key, you can determine that there are 57.296 degreeslradian (to five significant digits). Thus the angle measures, to four significant digits, are: (a) 11.46 degrees (c) 57.30 degrees (e) 126.1 degrees (b) 28.65 degrees (d) 97.40 degrees (f) 200.5 degrees
15. To find the answer to (a), divide 360 degrees by 365.25 days, to obtain 0.98563 degreeslday (to five significant digits).To figure out (b), first multiply the answer (a) by 30.000 to obtain 29.569 degreeslmonth for April. Then multiply this by the radiansldegree figure determined in problem 13, which yields 29.569 0.017453 = 0.51607 radianslmonth for April
Chapter 18
1. First, derive a formula for the wave.The period is 3.000 seconds, corresponding to one complete cycle or 2n radians. The value of 2n is approximately 6.283. The peak amplitude, s, of the wave is plus or minus 6.000 m. The wave has a sinusoidal shape and begins at (0, 0), increasing positively, so it corresponds to a multiple of a sine function. The formula for s in terms of time t is: s = 6.000 sin(6.283/3.000)t = 6.000 sin 2.094t Differentiating this yields:
Remember that angles are specified in radians here, not in degrees. Rounding off to three significant figures yields n = 26.3 m/sec2 as the maximum upward acceleration. 4. The greatest negative acceleration occurs at the positive displacement peaks, that is, at t = 0.750, t = 3.750, t = 6.750, etc. Because the function is symmetrical, we can surmise from the previous problem that at these points, a = -26.3 m/sec 2 .
5. The period is 1.000 second, corresponding to 2n or approximately 6.283 radians. The formula for s in terms of time t is therefore:
s = 6.000 sin(6.283/1.000)t = 6.000 sin 6.283t
Differentiating this yields dsldt = (6.000 . 6.283) cos 6.283t = 37.70 cos 6.283t The velocity is greatest positively at t = 0.000, t = 1.000, t = 2.000, etc.Take the easiest example where t = 0.000.Then: cos 6.283t = cos 0.000 = 1.000 and the velocity, rounded to three significant figures, is therefore 37.7 m/sec upward.
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6. The greatest negative (downward) velocity is at t = 0.500, t = 1.500, t = 2.500, etc. It is the same magnitude as the maximum upward velocity, but has a negative value: -37.7 mlsec.
7. The acceleration, a, is greatest positively (upward) at the minimum displacement points on the graph, that is, at t = 0.750, t = 1.750, r = 2.750, etc. Using the formula on page 309, we can obtain
a = d2s/dt2 = -(6.000 . 6 . 2 ~ 3sin)6.283t = -236.9 sin 6.283t ~ Plugging in t = 0.750 yields: a = -236.9 sin(6.283 . 0.750) = -236.9 . -1.000 = 236.9 m/sec2 Remember that angles are specified in radians here, not in degrees. Rounding off to three significant figures yields a = 237 m/sec2 as the maximum upward acceleration. 8. The greatest negative acceleration occurs at the positive displacement peaks, that is, at t = 0.250, t = 1.250, r = 3.250, etc. Because the function is symmetrical, we can surmise from the previous problem that at these points, a = -237 m/sec 2 . 9. The answers are derived as follows: (a) sin2(n/2) = (1/2)(1 - cos n) = (1/2)(1 - (-1)) = 1.000 (b) cos2(n/3) = (1/2)(1 cos(2n/3)) = (1/2)(1 - 0.5) = 0.250 (c) sin3(n/4) = (1/4)(3 sin(n/4) - sin(3n/4)) = (1/4)[(3. 0.7071) - 0.70711 = (1/4)(1.414) = 0.3535 (d) cos3(3n/4) = (1/4)[3 cos(3n/4) + cos(9n/4) = (1/4)((3 -0.7071) + 0.7071) = (1/4)(-1.414) = -0.3535 (e) sin5(n/3) = (1/1 6)[10 sin(n/3) - 5 sin n + sin(5n/3)] = (1/16)(10. 0.8660 - 5 . 0 - 0.8660) = (1/16)(7.794) = 0.4871 (0 cos6(2n/5) = (1/32)[10 15 cos(4n/5) + 6 cos(8n/5) + cos(12n/5)] = (1/32)(10 + (15 . -0.809017) + (6 . 0.309017) + 0.309017) = (1/32)(10 - 12.135255 + 1.854102 + 0.309017) = 0.0008708
10. The answers are derived as follows. Angles greater than 360 degrees are reduced by subtracting an integral multiple of 360, such that the resulting angle is between 0 and 360. Coefficients in the formulas are exact integral values. (a) sin4 70 = (3 - 4 cos 140 + cos 280)/8 = (3 + 3.0642 + 0.1736)/8 = 0.7797
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(b) sin4 105 = (3 - 4cos 210 + cos420)/8 = (3 - 4cos 210 + cos 60)/8 = (3 + 3.4641 + 0.5000)/8 = 0.8705 (c) sin4 140 = (3 - 4 cos 280 + cos 560)/8 = (3 - 4 cos 280 + cos 200)/8 = (3 - 0.69459 - 0.93969)/8 = 0.1707 (d) sin4 175 = (3 - 4cos 350 + cos 700)/8 = (3 - 4cos 350 cos 340)/8 = (3 - 3.93923101 + 0.93969262)/8 = 0.00005770 (e) sin3 105 = (3/4)sin105 - (1/4)sin315 = (3/4)(0.96592) - (1/4)(-0.707 11) = 0.72444 + 0.17678 = 0.9012 (f) sin570 = (lOsin70-5sin210+sin350)/16 = (9.39626 + 2.50000 - 0.17365)/16 = 0.7327 (g) sin5 105 = (losin 105 - 5sin315 +sin525)/16 = (losin 105 - 5sin315 + sin 165)/16 = (9.65926 + 3.53553 + 0.25882)/16 = 0.8409 (h) sin5 140 = (10 sin 140 - 5 sin 420 + sin 700)/ 16 = (losin140 - 5sin60 +sin340)/16 = (6.42788 - 4.33013 - 0.34202)/16 = 0.1097
11. The answers are derived as follows. Angles greater than 360 degrees are reduced by subtracting an integral multiple of 360, such that the resulting angle is between 0 and 360. Coefficients in the formulas are exact integral values. (a) sin4 110 = (3 - 4 cos 220 + cos 440)/8 = (3 - 4 cos 220 + cos 80)/8 = (3 + 3.06417 + 0.17365)/8 = 0.7797 (b) sin4 165 = (3 - 4cos 330 + cos 660)/8 = (3 - 4cos 330 cos 300)/8 = (3 - 3.46410 + 0.50000)/8 = 0.004488 (c) sin4 220 = (3 - 4cos 440 + cos 880)/8 = (3 - 4cos 80 + cos 160)/8 = (3 - 0.69459 - 0.93969)/8 = 0.1707 (d) sin4 275 = (3 - 4cos 550 + cos 1lOO)/8 = (3 - 4 cos 190 + cos 20)/8 = (3 + 3.93923 + 0.93969)/8 = 0.9849 (e) sin3 165 = (314) sin 165 - (1/4) sin 495 = (314) sin 165 - (114) sin 135 = (3/4)(0.25882) - (1/4)(0.70711) = 0.19412 - 0.17678 = 0.01734 (f) sin5 110 = (lOsinll0 -5sin330+sin550)/16 = (losin 110 - 5sin330 + sin 190)/16 = (9.39693 + 2.50000 - 0.17365)/16 = 0.7327 (g) sin5 165 = (10 sin 165 - 5 sin495 + sin 825)/16 = (10 sin 165 - 5sin 135 sin 105)/16 = (2.58819 - 3.53553 + 0.96593)/16 = 0.01 162 (h) sin5 220 = (10 sin 220 - 5 sin 660 + sin 1loo)/ 16 = (10 sin 220 - 5 sin 300 sin 20)/ 16 = (-6.42788 + 4.33013 + 0.34202)/16 = -0.1097
+ +
12. First, calculate the circumference of the circle, c, in terms of the radius, r. Knowing that r = loft, c = 2nr = 62.83 19ft. The ball traverses this distance
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every 2.000 seconds; therefore the tangential speed v of the ball, in ftlsec, is 62.8319/2.000 = 31.42ftlsec. 13. The northward component of the ball's speed, vn, is equal to the tangential speed (31.42ftlsec) multiplied by the cosine of the angle west of north. This angle is 45 degrees, whose cosine is 0.707 1.Therefore, vn at this instant is:
Chapter 19
1. Use the formula on page 327 to derive the answers. This formula can be written in "shorthand notation as
where the prime represents the derivative. (a) (uv) = 2x3 + (3x2)(2x+ 3) = 2x3 + 6x3 + 9x2 = 8x3 + 9x2 (b) (uv)' = (2x - 6)(3 sin x) + (3 cos x)(x2 - 6x + 4) = 6xsinx - 18sinx + 3x2 cosx - 18xcosx+ 12cosx = (6x- 18)sinx+ (3x2 - 18x+ 12)cosx (c) (uv)' = cos2 x - sin2x (d) (uv)' = (5x4)(-2x3 + 2) + (-6x2)(x5 - 4) = -10x7 + lox4 - 6x7 + 24x2 = -16x 7 + lox4 + 24x2 2. Use the formula on page 330 to derive the answers. In "shorthand this formula is
where the prime represents the derivative. (a) (u/v)' = [(-3)(x2 + 2) - (2x)(-3x - 6)]/(x4 + 4x2 + 4) = ( 3 ~ 2 1 2+ ~ + dX2+ 4) (b) (u/v) = [(2x + 2)(sin x) - (cos x)(x2 + 2x)]/ sin2 x 2 = (2xsinx+2sinx-x cosx-2xcosx)/sin2x x)(3 (c) (u/v)' = [(COS + cos x) - (- sin x)(sin x)]/(cos2x + 6 cos x + 9) = (3 cos x + cos2x + sin2x)/(cos2 x + 6 cos x + 9) = (1 3 cosx)/(cos2 x + 6 cos x + 9) = ~ 4 (d) ( U ~ V )[(12~3)(-2~2) ( - 4 ~ ) ( 3 ~ 4 = (-24x5 + 12x5- 16x)/4x
3. Calculus is not necessary to solve this problem (although you can use it if you want). It is only necessary to add 90 degrees, or n/2 (approximately 1.571) radians, to the angles given, and then find the tangent of the resulting angle.Thus the answers are as follows. Angles in (a) through (e) are in degrees; angles in (f ) through (h) are in radians:
4. The derivative is the slope of a function at a given point. If we let the derivative, in volts, equal the slope of the graph in Vlmsec, then the graph of the output will appear as shown in the following drawing.The vertical lines represent instantaneous voltage transitions. Mathematically they are undefined in slope.
1 msec
5. In a practical circuit, the output of the second differentiator will be zero volts, continuous (that is, no output). Mathematically, the vertical lines in the graph of above cannot be differentiated,so the graph will appear as shown in the following drawing. The open circles represent points "missing" from the line V = 0. 6. Start at the point t = 0, v = 0 when integrating. First integrate the function f (t) = 5t from t = 0 to t = 1. The indefinite integral is 2.5t2 c. The constants
of integration can be ignored because we will take definite integrals. The curve will have a parabolic (quadratic) shape and will attain a value of +2.5V at t = 1 msec. The second straight-line part of the function, which slopes downward from t = 1 to t = 3, has the equation
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I+
1 msec
Evaluated from 1 to 2, this is 2.5,which adds on to the existing 2.5 volts to result in + 5 V at t = 2. The curve will be parabolic like the first part, but curved downward rather than upward. Evaluated from 2 to 3, this function is -2.5, so the parabola continues to curve downward, reaching f2.5 V at t = 3. The next straightline part of the function slopes up just like the first part, so the parabola will start upward again. You should be able to surmise from this that the waveform will be periodic with quadratic shape, with maximum peaks at +5 V and minimum peaks at 0 V, as shown below.
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7. To get the second integral, you must integrate the function shown in the graph above. Start at the point t = 0, v = 0. First integrate the function
f (t) = 2.5t2
from t = 0 to t = 1. The indefinite integral is 5t3/6.The constants of integration can be ignored because we will take definite integrals. The curve has a cubicfunction shape, begins at zero, and ends up at +5/6 V at t = 1 msec. In decimal form this is approximately +O. 8333 V. Next, integrate
+ 5t2
Evaluatedfrom t = 1to t = 3,the definite integral is 22.5 - 4.1667 = + 18.333 V. This adds to the initial value of f0.83 33 V to give +19.1667V at t = 3msec. The integral (area under the curve) from t = 3 to t = 4 can be determined, upon visual inspection, to be the same as the first part from t = 0 to t = 1, that is, +0.8333V. Thus, at t = 4 msec, the function will attain a value of 19.1667 0.8333 = +20 V. This completes the evaluation of the first complete wave cycle from t = 0 to t = 4. During the next cycle, the wave will increase by 20 V more, to +40 V. As time progresses, in theory, the voltage will continue increasing without limit. Thus the waveform, graphed starting at t = 0, will look like the following drawing. In a practical circuit, the voltage could not increase without limit, but would level off at some maximum determined by the voltage of the power source.
Voltage
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8. The integral functions, denotedf (x), are as follows.The constant of integration, in each case, is represented by c. (a) f (x) = x4 c (c) f (x) = x9 c (e)f(x)=2sinx+c
+ +
9. The above functions are solved for x = 1 and also for x = -1. Then, the difference
is found. In every case, the constants of integration cancel out, so they need not be included in the calculations. (a) f(1) = 1 andf(-1) = 1; definite integral is 1 - 1 = 0 (b) f(1) = 1 andf(-1) = 1; definite integral is 1 - 1 = 0 (c) f ( l ) = landf(-l)=-1; definite integral is 1 - (- 1) = 2 (d) f(1) = 1/5andf(-1) = -115; definite integral is 1/ 5 - (- 1/ 5) = 2/ 5 (e) f (1) = 1.683andf (-1) = -1.683; definite integral is 1.683 - (- 1.683) = 3.366 (f) f(1) = 2.161 andf(-1) = 2.161; definite integral is 2.16 1 - 2.161 = 0 10. Before it is possible to find the areas under the curve, the function itself must be known. We are told it is quadratic. By checking the points shown on the graph, it can be determined that
y = ((x + 1)?/2) - 2 = (1/2)x2 + x - 3/2
where c is the constant of integration, which cancels out when definite integrals are calculated. Call this functionf (x).Then: (a) f(0) = Oandf(-2) = 1113; definite integral is 0 - 11/3 = - 11/3 (b) f(1) = -516 and f(0) = 0; definite integral is -5/6 - 0 = -5/6 (c) f(2) = 1/3andf(-1) = 1116; definite integral is 1/3 - 11/6 = -312 (d) f(4) =76/6andf(-1) = 1116; definite integral is 7616 - 1116 = 6516
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which is the integral of its derivative (312 being an arbitrary constant which cancels out in definite-integral calculations).To find the areas, evaluate the function between the limit values. (a) f (0) = 0 and f (-2) = 0; definite integral is 0 - 0 = 0 (b) f(1) = 312 andf(0) = 0; definite integral is 312 - 0 = 312 (c) f(2) = 4andf(-1) = -1/2; definite integral is 4 - (- 112) = 912 (d) f (4) = 12 and f (- 1) = - 112; definite integral is 12 - (- 112) = 25/2
Chapter 20
1. The maximum is at the point where the derivative is zero. The derivative is
The maximum therefore occurs at (x, y) = (1/3,7/3). We know it is a maximum rather than a minimum because the coefficient of the x2 part of the equation is negative, making the parabola open downward. 2. When the slope of the function is maximum, the derivative will be maximum. The derivative of the function is
The cosine function attains maximum values of 1, so 2 cos x attains maxima of 2. These maxima occur when x, in radians, is equal to any integral multiple of 2n. The values of x andf (x) can be tabulated as follows:
...
x = -4n x = -2n x=O x = 2n x=4n
f (x) = 2 sin(-4n) + 2 = 2 f (x) = 2 sin(-2n) + 2 = 2 f (x) = 2 sin(0) + 2 = 2 f (x) = 2 sin(2n) + 2 = 2 f (x) = 2 sin(4n) + 2 = 2
...
Thus, the slope off is maximum at points (x, y) = (2nn, 2), where n is any integer.
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3. The edge of the region of light will be a circle if, and only if, the flashlight is pointed straight down, that is, so the axis of the beam is perpendicular to the plane of the lake surface.
4. The edge of the region of light will be an ellipse if, and only if, the beam axis subtends an angle of more than 20 degrees with respect to the plane of the lake surface. 5. The edge of the region of light will be a parabola if, and only if, the beam axis subtends an angle of 20 degrees with respect to the plane of the lake surface. 6. The edge of the region of light will be a half-hyperbola if, and only if, one of the following conditions is met: The beam axis intersects the lake surface and subtends an angle of less than 20 degrees with respect to the surface. The beam axis is aimed at the horizon. The beam axis is aimed into the sky at an angle of less than 20 degrees above the horizon. 7. The characteristics of the functions are as follows. (a) If x = 0, then f (x) = -5, so they intercept is at (0, -5). Iff (x) = 0, then 2x3 = 5, so x = 1.357 and the x intercept is at (1.357, 0). Taking the first derivative,f '(x) = 6x2.The slope of the curve is zero when 6x2 = 0. This equation has only one solution: x = 0, corresponding to the point (0, -5). It indicates a point of inflection because f is a cubic function. There exist no absolute maxima or minima. (b) This function is stated in factored form. Multiplied out, it is
If x = 0, then f (x) = -12, so the y intercept is at (0, -12). Iff (x) = 0, then x = 4 is the only real solution, so the x intercept is at (4, 0). Taking the first derivative,
Settingf '(x) = 0, which will show points at which the slope of the curve is zero, there are two real solutions, x = 2.215 and x = 0.4503. "Plugging in" these values and calculatingf (x), the points are found to be:
The second derivative can reveal whether these points represent local minima (second derivative positive), local maxima (second derivative negative), or points of inflection (second derivative zero).
f "(x) = 6x - 8
532 Answers to questions and problems When x = 2.215, f "(x) = 5.29. This represents a local minimum. When x = 0.4503,f "(x) = -5.298.This represents a local maximum. The second derivative is equal to zero when x = 4/3 = 1.333. At this x value, f (x)= - 12.741.Thus, the only point of inflection in the curve is:
The slope of the curve is not zero at this inflection point, but the point defines the transition from the range where the curve is concave downward to the range where the curve is concave upward. (c) This function has no local maxima or minima; its shape is similar to that of the tangent function, except stretched vertically by a factor of 2. Inflection points occur on the x axis at integral multiples of n radians; that is, at points (nn, 0), where n is any integer. (d) The curve is an inverted cosine wave, stretched vertically by a factor of 3. Minima occur where x is an integral multiple of 2n, and y = -3. Maxima occur where x is an odd integral multiple of n, and y = 3. Inflection points occur where x is an odd integral multiple of n/2, and y = 0. 8. The graphs of the functions in problem 7 are shown in the following illustrations.
Inflection (0,-5)
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18
-12 --6-
x-intercept
i I I I I I
-18 -12
-6
Localmax. (0.4503,-11.37)
y-intercept (0,-12)
/Ld-hcal
\
-18
--6 ---
12
18
rnin (2.215,-14.11)
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Chapter 21
1. See drawing.
3d2
2. See drawing.
3d2
535
3. See drawing.
250
4. See drawing.
-0 0
I I I I I I I I I
Ix 5
+ 4.
+ 1.
7. Use the formula on page 370. It is necessary to know the intercept points on all three axes. We are given the z-intercept point (z = 5). The x-intercept and yintercept points can be inferred from the two points (2, 4, 0) and (5, 1, 0). The line connecting these points lies in the plane, and the intercepts can be determined to be x = 6 and y = 6. Thus:
6215
+6
Chapter 22
1. The product is multiplied out as follows:
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3. These equations can be solved using the quadratic formula from Chapter 10. The answers are derived as follows:
(a) Here, the coefficients are
Plugging these values into the quadratic formula yields x = [4 + (16 - 52)lP]/26 x = [4 - (16 - 52)lP]/26 which solves to x = (2 + 3j)/l3 or x = (2 - 3j)/13. (d) In this equation, one of the coefficients is imaginary:
Plugging these values into the quadratic formula yields x = [j2 + (4 + 40)~'~]/2 1 x = [j2 - (4 +40) 1 2I/ 2
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which solves to x =j + 3 or x =j - 3. 4. Refer to the following drawing. The six vectors each have radius 2, and are spaced equally around a circle; therefore they are separated by 360/6 = 60 degrees. Let the roots be represented by rl through r6.Then:
rl = 2 cos 0 +j2 sin 0 = 2.00 r2 = 2 cos 60 j2 sin 60 = 1.OO j1.73 r3 = 2 ~ 0 120 +j2sin 120 = -1.00 fj1.73 s r4 = 2 cos 180 +j2 sin 180 = -2.00 r5 = 2cos240 +j2sin240 = -1.00 -j1.73 r6 = 2 cos 300 +j 2 sin 300 = 1.OO -j1.73
--
5. Refer to the following drawing. The ten vectors each have radius 2, and are spaced equally around a circle; therefore they are separated by 360110 = 36 degrees. Let the roots be represented by rl through rlo.Then:
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rl = 2 cos 0 +j2 sin 0 = 2.00 r2 = 2cos36fj2sin36 = 1.62fj1.18 r3 = 2 cos 72 +j 2 sin 72 = 0.618 +j1.90 r4 = 2 cos 108 j2sin 108 = -0.618 +j1.90 r5 = 2cos144+j2sin144 = -1.62+j1.18 rg = 2 cos 180 +j 2 sin 180 = -2.00 r7 = 2cos216+j2sin216 = -1.62 -j1.18 rg = 2 cos 252 j2 sin 252 = -0.61 8 -j1.90 rg = 2cos288 +j2sin288 = 0.618 -j1.90 rlo = 2cos324fj2sin324 = 1.62 -j1.18
+j
Vectors are spaced at 36-degree intervals
6. Refer to the following drawing.The nine vectors each have radius 2, and are spaced equally around a circle; therefore they are separated by 36019 = 40 degrees. Let the roots be represented by r l through rg. Then:
rl = 2 cos 0 +j 2 sin 0 = 2.00 r2 = 2 cos 40 +j 2 sin 40 = 1.53 +j1.29 r3 = 2 cos 80 j2 sin 80 = 0.347 j1.97 r4 = 2cos120+j2sin120 = -1.00+j1.73 r5 = 2cos 160 +j2sin 160 = -1.88 +j0.684 r6 = 2 cos 200 j2 sin 200 = - 1.88 -j0.684 r7 = 2 cos 240 j2 sin 240 = - 1. O -j1.73 O rg = 2cos280 j2sin280 = 0.347 -j1.97 rg = 2 cos 320 j2 sin 320 = 1.53 -j1.29
+ + + +
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7. To add two complex numbers, simply add their components individually. In this case the result is
8. Refer to the following drawing. Note that this summation obeys the "parallelogram rule" for vectors.The end points of the sum and addend vectors, along with the origin, constitute the four vertices of a parallelogram. 9. Multiplying the two complex numbers proceeds as follows:
11. First, find the reciprocal of the second complex number using the formula on page 38 3.Then multiply the result by the first complex number.The reciprocation proceeds as follows:
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-2 -j3
--
The multiplication is a little "messy" and the signs are tricky, but the process is straightforward:
+j
-3 +j5
Product = 14-j
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+j
1 I
1 I
1 I
1 I
1 I
-j
13. First, find the reciprocal of the second complex number using the formula on page 383.Then multiply the result by the first complex number.The reciprocation proceeds as follows:
14. Refer to the following drawing. 15. When multiplying complex numbers in polar coordinates, the angles add while the magnitudes multiply. Thus the product vector has magnitude 8, and angle 390 degrees, which reduces to 30 degrees. 16. Refer to the following drawing. 17. Use the formulas on page 383.The radius r and the angle 8 are: r=8 8 = 30 degrees
543
/r+
Each division represents 0.1 unit Answer to Problem 14, Chapter 22 Each radial division represents two units
544
and the imaginary coefficient, b, is calculated by: b = r sin0 = 8 . 0.500 = 4.00 Therefore, the complex number is 6.93 +j4.00.
Chapter 23
1. We are told this is an exponential decrement. Therefore, we know that the curve has the form J? = a e b Xwhere a and b are constants. The values of a and b , can be found by trial and error by "plugging in" the points shown. The result is the equation y = ep2". 2. The answers are derived as follows: (a) Note that 10 minutes is equal to 116 hour. Therefore = e-2/6 = e-l/3 - 0.716 watt hours (b) Note that 30 minutes is equal to 112 hour. Therefore -212 = e-' = 0.368 watt hours y =e (c) Note that 90 minutes is equal to 1.5 hours. Therefore = e-i?.l.5) = eK3 = 0.0498 watt hours = 49.8 milliwatt hours (d) The remaining energy after 3 hours is = e-'?.3) = (.-6 - 0.00248 watt hours = 2.48 milliwatt hours
. 3. Use the first formula on page 399, "plugging in" 1 for x Then
4. Use the second formula on page 399, "plugging in" 1 for x.Then
5. Use the third formula on page 399, "plugging in" 1 for x. Then
545
6. Use the fourth formula on page 399, "plugging in" 1 for x. Then
7. The half life is 1,000,000 years, so the radiation level decreases according to the function y = 2-" when x is specified in millions of years. 8. The percentage of radiation, p, remaining after x million years is equal to 100(2-"). Therefore the answers are derived as follows: (a) p = 1 0 0 ( 2 ~ ~ . ~ ) = 100(2-~/') = 100/2~/' 1 = 100/(25 )1 2 = 100/32"~ = 17.68 percent = (b) p = l00(2-~)= l 0 0 / 2 ~ 100/32 = 3.125 percent (c) p = l00(2-~)= l 0 0 / 2 ~ 100/128 = = 0.7812 percent (d) p = 100(2-~O)= 100/21 = 100/1,024 = 0.09766 percent (e) p = 1 0 0 ( 2 - ~ ~ ) 100/2~' = = 100/1,048,576 = 0.00009537 percent 9. To obtain solutions to these problems, first convert the percentages to proportions. Then "plug in" these proportions. The solutions are therefore derived as follows: (a) 10 percent is equal to 0.1 .Therefore
The subject of logarithms, which are needed to solve an equation like this, has not yet been covered in this course. However, a calculator with an "xth-root-of " function key can be used to solve this problem by trial-and-error. Only two significant digits are called for. In this case, the xth root of 10, or 10(11"), is equal to 2. Thus x can be found to be approximately 3,300,000 years. (b) 5 percent is equal to 0.05.Therefore, 0.05 = 2-" = 1/2" so 2" = 110.05 = 20 and 20(11") = 2 By trial and error with a calculator, x is found to be approximately 4,300,000 years. Another way of solving this is to note that 5 percent is exactly half of 10 per-
546
cent, the level in part (a). So the value of x must increase by the half life, or 1,000,000 years, from 3,300,000 to 4,300,000 years. (c) 2 percent is equal to 0.02.Therefore, 0.02 = 2-" = 112" s02" = 110.02 = 50 and 50(11") = 2 By trial and error with a calculator, x is found to be approximately 5,600,000 years. (d) Because 1 percent is halfof 2 percent, x in this case is 1,000,000more than in the previous problem, or approximately 6,600,000 years. (e) 0.1 percent is equal to 0.001. Therefore, 0.001 = 2-" = 112" s02" = 1/0.001 = 1,000 and 1,000(~~")2 = By trial and error with a calculator, x is found to be approximately 10,000,000 years. This is essentially the same scenario as that depicted in problem 8(d). (Teaser question: Why don't the numbers agree exactly?) 10. The answers are derived as follows: (a) cosh 1 = 1.00 + 0.500 + 0.04165 + 0.0013889 = 1.54 (b) cosh n/2 = cosh 1.5708 = 1.00 + 1.2337 + 0.25365 + 0.02086 = 2.51 (c) cosh 2 = 1.00 + 2.00 0.6667 0.08888 = 3.76 (d) coshn = cosh3.14159 = 1.OO + 4.9348 4.0587 1.3353 = 11.3
11. The answers are derived as follows, using a calculator with an ex function key: (a) cosh 0.5 = (e0.5+ e ~ O . ~ ) / 2 = (1.64872 + 0.60653 1)/2 = 1.1276 (b) cosh 1.0 = (e + ep1)/2 = (2.71828 + 0.36788)/2 = 1.5431 (c) cosh 2.0 = (e2 + ep2)/2 = (7.38906 + 0.13534)/2 = 3.7622
547
13. The answers are derived as follows, using a calculator with an ex function key:
(a) sinh 0.5 = (e0-5- e ~ O - ~ ) / 2 = (1.64872 - 0.606531)/2 = 0.52109 (b) sinh 1.0 = ( e - e e 1 ) / 2 = (2.71828 - 0.36788)/2 = 1.1752 (c) sinh 2.0 = (e2 - ee2)/2 = (7.38906 - 0.13534)/2 = 3.6269 (d) sinh 4.0 = (e4 - ee4)/2 = (54.5982 - 0.0183156)/2 = 27.290
Chapter 24
1 . Refer to the following drawing. The labeled points are plotted exactly; the curves are drawn approximately.
2. Refer to the following drawing. The labeled points are plotted exactly; the curves are drawn approximately. 3. Refer to the following drawing. The labeled points are plotted exactly; the curves are drawn approximately. 4. Refer to the following drawing. The labeled points are plotted exactly; the curves are drawn approximately.
548
(10,500)
10
549
10
30
60
1DO
5. Let the expressionloglobe represented as log (no subscript). Use a calculator, and allow an extra decimal place during calculation. (a) This product can be found using logs and antilogs as follows: log 5.44 = 0.7356 log 3.67 = 0.5647 sum of logs = 1.300 antilog of sum of logs = 20.0 This is the product of the original two numbers, as you can verify by multiplying them out directly. (b) This product can be found using logs and antilogs as follows: log 10.5 = 1.021 log 0.567 = -0.2464 sum of logs = 0.7746 antilog of sum of logs = 5.95 This is the product of the original two numbers, as you can verify by multiplying them out directly. (c) This product can be found using logs and antilogs as follows: log 36.7 = 1.565 log 2.56 = 0.4082 sum of logs = 1.9732 antilog of sum of logs = 94.0 This is the product of the original two numbers, as you can verify by multiplying them out directly. (d) This product can be found using logs and antilogs as follows:
550
log 0.987 = -0.005683 log 0.822 = -0.08513 sum of logs = -0.0908 13 antilog of sum of logs = 0.8 11 This is the product of the original two numbers, as you can verify by multiplying them out directly. 6. Let the expression loglobe represented as log (no subscript). Use a calculator, and allow an extra decimal place during calculation. (a) This expression can be evaluated using logs and antilogs as follows: log 5.44 = 0.7356 multiply by exponent = 2.700 antilog of this product = 50 1 This can be verified, if desired, using a calculator that has a yx function key. (b) This expression can be evaluated using logs and antilogs as follows: log 10.5 = 1.021 multiply by exponent = 0.5789 antilog of this product = 3.79 This can be verified, if desired, using a calculator that has a yx function key. (c) This expression can be evaluated using logs and antilogs as follows: log 36.7 = 1.565 multiply by exponent = 4.0064 antilog of this product = 10,100 This can be verified, if desired, using a calculator that has a yx function key. (d) This expression can be evaluated using logs and antilogs as follows: log 0.987 = -0.005683 multiply by exponent = -0.00467 14 antilog of this product = 0.989 This can be verified, if desired, using a calculator that has a yx function key. 7. The results will still be valid if natural logs are used rather than base- 10 logs. 8. The results will be the same if base-7 logs are used. In fact, it does not matter what the logarithm base is, as long as the same base is used throughout the calculation.
551
Chapter 25
1. First, the angle must be converted to radians.To get radians, multiply degrees by 2nl360, or 0.017453.Thus the angle value to be "plugged into" the series is
When this number is placed in the series for tan x at the beginning of the chapter, the values of the first four terms are:
These are summed to obtain 0.997. As you probably know, the actual tangent of 45 degrees is exactly 1.This is the value toward which the series converges. 2. This problem is a little less tedious to solve, because the angle value is easy to "plug into" the series.The first four terms are:
These sum to 1.52.Using a calculator, the value of tan 1 is found, to three significant figures, to be 1.56. 3. Note from problem 1 that an angle of 45 degrees is 0.785385 radians. Then the first four terms of the series for sec 0.785385 are:
These sum to 1.41. Using a calculator, and remembering that the secant is the reciprocal of the cosine, the value is found to be 1.41 to three significant figures. 4. This is less tedious because the angle value is easy to "plug into" the series. The first four terms are:
These sum to 1.79. Using a calculator, the value of sec 1 is found, to three significant figures, to be 1.85.
552
These sum to 0.5236.This angle value is in radians. 6. To obtain degrees from radians, multiply by 1801%or 57.296. The angle in problem 5 is therefore equal to 0.5236 - 57.296 = 30.0 degrees. Using a calculator, you can determine that the actual degree value of arcsin 0.500 is exactly 30 degrees.This is the value toward which the series converges. 7. The first four terms are:
These sum to 1.05.This angle value is in radians. 8. The angle from problem 7 is equal to 1.05 57.296 = 60.2 degrees. Using a calculator, you can determine that the actual degree value of arccos 0.500 is exactly 60 degrees.This is the value toward which the series converges. 9. There is no minimum value. The larger a number becomes negatively (that is, the smaller it gets in arithmetic terms), the more negative the sum of the number and its reciprocal becomes. While the reciprocal approaches zero, the number, and therefore the sum, keeps getting smaller without limit. 10. The function is y =f (x) = x3. 11. The derivative is y' = f '(x) = 3x2 12. The second derivative is y" =f "(x) = 6x. 13. The third derivative is y 11' - f "'(x) = 6. 14. From problem 11, dyldx: = 3x2.~ h u the derivative at (1, 1) is 3, the derivas tive at (3, 27) is 27, the derivative at (5, 125) is 75, and the derivative at (8, 512) is 192. The derivatives increase, while the apparent slope of the graph decreases, because the y-axis scale is logarithmic rather than linear.This "compresses" the vertical scale and reduces the apparent slope of the graph. 15. From problem 12, d?y/dx2 = 6x.Thus the second derivative at (1, 1) is 6, the second derivative at (3, 27) is 18, the second derivative at (5, 125) is 30, and the second derivative at (8,5 12) is 48.
553
16. From problem 13, d 3 y / d ~ 3 6.Thus the third derivative is a constant, and is = equal to 6 at all four labeled points on the graph.
Chapter 26
1. The general series for a square wave with amplitude A and period 2n, expressed through the first five terms, is
f (x) = (4A/n)[sin x (sin 3x)/3 +(sin 7x)/7 (sin 9x)/9
+ +
+ (sin 5x)/5 + . . .]
In this general series, the values x are in radians, not in absolute time units. The period of the square wave in the drawing on page 464 is 30 microseconds. This represents 2n, or 6.283, radians. Therefore, 4.775 microseconds represent 1 radian. All of the x times in microseconds must therefore be multiplied by I/ 4.775, or 0.2094, in order to obtain angles in radians for "plugging into" the general expression for the series. The amplitude, A, is 4 millivolts. The series representing this wave, where x is in microseconds and f (x) is in millivolts, is:
f (x) = 5.093{sin(O.2094~) [sin(0.6282~)/3] +[sin( 1.047x)/5] [sin(1.466~)/7] [sin(l .885x)/9] . . .) = 5.093 sin(0.2094~) 1.698 sin(0.6282~) +1.019sin(l.O47x) 0.7276sin(l.466~) 0.5659 sin(1.885~) . .
+ + + +
2. The period of the wave in the drawing on page 464 is 0.00003 seconds.This represents 2n, or 6.283, radians. Therefore, 0.000004775 seconds represent 1 radian. All of the x times in seconds must be multiplied by 1/0.000004775 = 209,400 to obtain angles in radians. The amplitude, A, is 0.004 volts. Thus, the series representing this wave, where x is in seconds and f (x) is in volts, is:
3. The required number of scales are: (a) (b) (c) (d) Three (10-I to 1oO,10' to 1ol, and 10' to 10') Two (10' to 10'and 10'to 10') ~ i v (lo1 to lo2, lo2to lo3, 10' to lo4, 104to lo5,and lo5 to lo6) e One (lo7 to lo8)
4. Such a system can have four number lines, arranged as shown in the following drawing.The four number lines intersect at the zero points and represent the positive-~, positive-y, negative-x, and negative-y axes. In each case, the value 1 or
554
- 1 is halfway from the zero point to the end of the line; the value 2 or -2 is halfway from 1 or -1 to the end; the value 3 or -3 is halfway from 2 or -2 to the end, and so on.These lines are "geometrically compressed" so the values increase toward infinity without ever going off the ends of the lines.
5. This system works on the same principle as the solution to problem 4. See the following drawing. The vertical axis is simply multiplied by j (the engineer's expression for the square root of -1).The horizontal axis represents real numbers a; the vertical axis represents imaginary numbersjb. 6. To determine the average voltage, note that the full cycle can be broken into two halves. The first half is the sine function multiplied by 100.0, over the range 0 to n.The second half is a zero function over the range n to 2n.To find the average value of the first half of the function, determine the integral Jl 00 sin x d x from . 0 to n, and then divide the result by n This is: -lOO.O(cos n
-
cos O)/n
to four significant digits.The second half of the cycle, being a zero function, will cut the average value in half over the full span 0 to 2n. Therefore, the average output is +3 1.83volts.
555
-P
Answer to Problem 5, Chapter 26
7. The average amplitude is the same as that of the first half of the cycle in problem 6, because both halves of the cycle are identical in the output of a full-wave rectifier.Thus, the average output is +63.66 volts.
8. In this case, the average output for the first half of the cycle is f100.0 volts, and the average voltage for the second half of the cycle is 0 volts. Therefore, the average output of this circuit is +100.0/2 = +50.00 volts. 9. Here, the average output is +100.0 volts. This is because both halves of the cycle produce a constant +100.0 volt output. When a square AC wave is fullwave rectified, the result is pure DC with no ripple (in theory).
Chapter 27
1. A Boolean expression for the circuit in the drawing on page 477 is -[(WX)(Y + Z)]. Inputs W and X pass through an AND gate, inputs Y and Z pass through an OR gate, and the result passes through a NAND gate (logic AND followed by negation). 2. See following table.
556
W
Y+Z
(WX)(Y+Z)
- [(WX)(Y+Z)l
3. Lossy compression sacrifices some detail, and is used only with graphics files. Lossless compression does not sacrifice any detail or precision; it can be used with all types of files, including programs and text.
4. The answers are as follows: (a) With two inputs, there can be 2' = 4 binary signal combinations. (b) With five inputs, there can be 25 = 32 combinations. (c) With eight inputs, there can be 2* = 256 combinations. (d) With 12 inputs, there can be 212 = 4,096 combinations. 5. See the following drawing. 6. The decimal equivalents are:
557
Y
output
10. The colors represented by these numbers can be qualitatively (approximately) described as follows:
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Maroon or dark red Dark green Navy or very dark blue Light gray Darkgray
- - -
560
Index
asynchronous flip-flop, 472 avoirdupois weight, 19 circles, equations, 333, 355 cone, area, 340, 355 cone, volume, 343, 355 conic sections, second-order curves, 364 cylinders, area, 340 cylinders, minimum surface area, 353-354 definite integrals, 337-338 directrix, 356-359 eccentricity, 356-359 ellipses, directrix, focus, eccentricity, 357-358 ellipses, equations, 355 ellipses, focus property, 360 ellipses, reflection properties, 360, 361 focus, 356-359 function derivative, 332-333 functions, 326-334 functions, cosecant, 332 functions, cotangent, 332 functions, division, 329-332 functions, multiplication, 327-329 functions, quotient formula, 330-332 functions, secant, 332 functions, tangent, successive derivatives, 334 hyperbolas, eccentricity greater than unity, 361-362 inflection points, 349-350 integration, 335-344 logarithmic function, 398-399 maxima, 347-349 minima, 347-349 parabolas, equations, 355 parabolas, focus property, 359 parabolas, reflection properties, 360, 361 pyramid, volume, 341-342 relationships and patterns, 336 second derivatives, 350-352 second-order curves, 356, 363 sphere, surface area, 341 sphere, volume, 344 volume calculations using integration, 341-342
angles (cont.) differential measurement, 300 infinitesimal changes, 301 multiple angles, trigonometry, 239-240 obtuse angles, 234-235 right angles, 86-87 supplementary angles, 243-244 triangle, 213-214 arccosine, series for, 423-424 arcsine, series for, 423-424 arctangent, series for, 396 area, 84-99 boxes with minimum surface area, 352-353 circle, using integration, 339-340 cones, 355 cones, using integration, 340 cylinders, minimum surface area, 353-354 cylinders, using integration, 340 different shapes with same area, 87-88 floors, finding area for tile or carpet, 96 integration calculation, 338-339 length-times-length calculation, 84-85 maximum area with constant perimeter, 352 parallelograms, 89-91 practical problems and applications, 95-97 right angles, 86-87 sphere, surface area, 341 square measures, 85-86, 88 triangles, 89, 93 triangles, acute, 91 triangles, obtuse, 92 walls, finding area for wallpaper, 97 arithmetic progressions, 268-269, 271-272 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), 471 aspect ratio, 209 associativity of AND, 469 associativity of OR, 469 asymptotes, 362
B
base 2, 467 base 10, 466 binary circuits, 471 binary number system, 467 binary numbers, 256-257 calculator method, 262 decimal conversion, 257-258, 260 division, 260-261 multiplication, 258-260 binary signal, 465 binary symbols, 471 binomials converging series, 285-286 expansion, 281-282 expansion, logarithmic, 417 growth and decay functions, 394-395 infinite geometric progressions, 283-284 powers, progressions, 280-281 roots found using binomials, 284-285 series, 282-283 bit, 471 Boolean algebra, 467-469 Boolean operations, 469 borrowing in subtraction, 26-27 boxes, area calculations, 352-353 brackets in algebraic equations, 127-129, 140-141 brightness, 474 brilliance, 474 byte, 471-472
C
calculators, 451 calculus, 143, 326-365 area calculations, boxes with minimum surface area, 352-353 area calculations, maximum area with constant perimeter, 352 asymptotes, 362 circles, area, 339-340 circles, directrix, focus, eccentricity, 357-358
Index
carrying in addition, 14-16 carrying in multiplication, 39-40 characteristics, logarithms, 415 chords, 242-243 circles angle measurement using progressions, 298-300 angles, 242-243 area calculation using integration, 339-340 calculus equations, 355 chords, 242-243 coordinate systems, equation of a circle, 367-368 directrix, focus, eccentricity, 357-358 equation of a circle, functions, 333 grades, 298 quadrants, 234-235 radians, 299-300 clock, 473 coefficients, 147 color palette, 474 combinations and progressions, 279-280 common denominators, fractions, 75-76 commutativity of AND, 469 commutativity of OR, 469 complementary angles, 243-244 complex quantities, 377-391 angles, 377 checking results, 384 cube roots, 380-381 division, 383-384 graphic solutions, 447 imaginary quantities, 377-378, 425-426 magnitude checking, 386 multiplication, 382 planes, complex, 386-387 problem solving, 379-380 quadratic roots, 388 rationalization, 384-385 reciprocals, 382-383 roots, 389 summarizing results, 384 vectors, 377 composite gates, 470-471 compression, 473-474 cones area calculations, 340, 355 volume calculations, 343,355 conic sections, second-order curves, 364 constant acceleration, 198-199 constant of integration, 336-337 constants, algebraic, 142 contradiction, 469 coordinate systems, 366-374 circles, equation of, 367-368 lines, equation in rectangular coordinates, 370 lines, equation in spherical polar coordinates, 371 multiple integration, 372 origin, 366 plane systems, 366 planes, equation in rectangular coordinates, 370 planes, equation in spherical polar coordinates, 371 polar systems, 366 second-order curves, threedimensional, 372 straight lines, equation of, 367-368 three-dimensional systems, 369 cosecant, 332 cosh, 405 cosine, 218, 223-224, 231-234 series for cosine, 304-305 cotangent, 332 counting (see also number systems), 3-1 1 abacus method, 6-1 1 accuracy depending on method, 249-250 binary numbers, 256-257 decimal number system, 4-5, 253 duodecimal numbers, 5, 254-255 magnitude order, 251-252 millions and billions, 10-1 1 numbers larger than ten, 5-6 tens to hundreds to thousands, 7-8 zero usage, 6, 9 cube roots, 180-182 complex quantities, 380-381 cubed numbers, 142 curves drawing. 437-438
561
fitting curves to parameters, 436-437 quadratic, series for, 459 second-order, 356, 363 second-order, conic section, 365 second-order, threedimensional, 372 sine waves, 237-238 slope on logarithmic scales, 434-436 cylinders area calculation using integration, 340 minimum surface area, 353-354
D
data compression, 473-474 decay funcctions, series, 394-395 decimal number system, 466 decimal numbers, 4-5, 253 binary conversion, 257-258, 260 duodecimal conversion, 255-256 fractional equivalents, 62-63, 65-67 repeating numbers, 63-67 definite integrals, 337-338 degree measurement of angles, 220 DeMorgan's Theorem, 469 dependent variables, 297 derivatives, second derivatives, 350-352 differentiation, 294-298, 308-325 algebra combined with trigonometry, 322-323 angles, 300 fourth power term in transfer characteristics, 317 harmonic motion, 310-31 1 integration vs., 335 linear or nonlinear relationships, 31 1 multiples and powers, 319-321 nonlinear relationships, 312-314 power sinusoids, multiple components, 316-317
562 Index
differentiation (cont.) power-term combination, 318-319 problem solving, 321-322 series for cosine, 304-305 series for sine, 302-303 sine waves, 308-309 sinusoidal motion, 309-310 successive, 294-295,297-298 successive, in sine waves, 301-302 symmetrical nonlinearity, 314-316 digital mathematics, 465-476 dimensions, 100-101 algebraic, 142 time as fourth dimension, 101 directrix, 356-359 disjunction, 476 distributivity, 469 dividends, 111-1 12 division, 50-68 algebra explained in terms of long division, 150-151 approximate long division and fractions, 78-79 binary numbers, 260-261 calculator method, 51 checking answers with multiplication, 56 complex quantities, 383-384 factors, 56 fractions, 60-66 functions, 329-332 logarithms, 41 5 remainders, 57-60 remainders, repeating numbers, 63-67 double negation, 469 dry measure addition of units, 22 metric system, 94-95 multiplication, 45 subtraction, 32 duodecimal numbers, 5, 254-255 decimal conversion. 255-256 calculating equations, 355 directrix, focus, eccentricity, 357-358 focus property, 360 reflection properties, 360, 361 energy constant acceleration, 198-199 gravity as energy source, 195-196 kinetic, 199-200, 203 potential, 201-202, 203 power and energy, 194-195 resonance cycles, 203-204 storage, stressed springs, 201-202 transfer, released springs, 202-203 transfer, resonance cycles, 203-204 velocity and kinetic energy, 199-200 work and energy, 193-194 epsilon functions of, 399 raised to a power, significance, 401 value of, series calculations, 395-396 equations in algebra, 125-126, 142-143 equilateral triangles, 220 exabyte, 472 exclusive OR, 470 exclusive OR gate, 470, 471 expansion, binomial, 281-282 exponential functions, complex, 401-403 gated, 473 J-K, 472, 473 masterlslave (MIS), 473 R-S, 472 R-S-T, 473 states, 472 synchronous, 473 T, 473 focus, 356-359 foot-poundal, 193 force, 187-189, 192-193 gravity as force, 196-197 formula method, quadratic solutions, 165-168 Fourier series, 453 fractions, 60-66, 69-83 addition, 74 approximate long division, 78-79 approximate long multiplication, 81 calculator method, 61,76-77 cancellation method using factors, 69-70 common denominators, 75-76 counting systems using fractions, 250-251 decimal equivalents, 62-63, 65-67 different fractions with same value, 69 factors, 70-72 factors, calculator method, 73-74 improper fractions, 76 partial fractions and integration, 428-429 percentages, 109-1 13 prime numbers, 71, 72-73 rate-of-growth, time, 109 repeating numbers, 63-67 significant numbers, 77-78 significant numbers, calculator method, 79-8 1 simultaneous equations, 146-149 square numbers, 72-73 subtraction, 74-75 functions, 326-334 circle, equation of, 333 cosecant, 332 cotangent, 332 decay, series, 394-395 derivatives, 332-333
F
factorial notation, 278-279 factors algebraic equations, long division method, 151 division, 56-57 fractions and cancellation, 69-70 multiplication, 44 progressions, factorial notation, 278-279 quadratic equations, 157160 squared numbers, 175 flip-flops, 472-473 asynchronous, 472
E
(see epsilon) eccentricity, 356-359 edge triggering, 473 electronic logic gates (see logic gates) ellipses
E, E
Index
division, 329-332 exponential, 399 growth, series, 394-395 hyperbolic, 404-405 maxima and minima, 347-349 multiplication, 327-329 quotient formula, 330-332 secant, 332 tangent, successive derivatives, 334 fuzzy logic, 468 eccentricity greater than unity, 361-362 hyperbolic functions, 404 405 second-order curves, 363 hyperbolic logarithms, 414 hypotenuse, 215
563
L
lengths area calculations, 84-85 metric system, 94-95 multiplication, 45 linear relationships, 3 11 lines equation in rectangular coordinates, 370 equation in spherical polar coordinates, 371 equation of, 367-368 intersecting, 213 perpendicular, 21 5 liquid measure addition of units, 22 metric system, 94-95 multiplication, 45 subtraction, 32 logarithms, 396-397, 409-421 binomial expansion, 417 calculating, 4 12-414 calculus, logarithmic function, 398-399 characteristics, 41 5 division, 415 formulas using logarithms, 418-419 gap in series of derivatives, 397-398 hyperbolic, 414 indices, 416 laws using, 419 multiplication, 415 Napierian, 414-415 natural, 414 roots vs. powers, 416 series, 409-4 11 shift functions, 415 slope on logarithmic scales, 434-436 logic, 467-468 logic gates, 468, 470, 471, 476 basic, 468 characteristics, 470 composite, 470 symbols, 471 lossless image compression, 474 lossy image compression, 474
I
image compression, 474 lossless, 474 lossy, 474 imaginary numbers, 180-1 82 imaginary quantities, 377-378, 425-426 independent variables, 297 indices, number system placeholders, 262-264, 265 inequations in algebra, 143 infinite geometric progressions. 283-284 infinitesimal change, 291-294 inflection points, 349-350 integration, 335-344 area calculations, 338-339 circle, area, 339-340 cone, area, 340 cone, volume, 343 constants, 336-337 cylinder, area, 340 definite integrals, 337-338 differentiation vs., 335 multiple integration, 372 partial fractions, 428-429 product formula, 429-432 pyramid, volume, 341-342 sphere, surface area, 341 sphere, volume, 344 variables, changing variables, 432-434 volume calculations, 341342 intersecting lines, 213 inverter, 468 isosceles triangles, 220, 222, 240-241
G
gated flip-flop, 473 geometric progressions, 269-270, 272-274 infinite, 283-284 gigabit, 471 gigabyte, 471-472 grades, 298 graphs, 113-1 17, 444-450 algebra, 124-125 complex quantities, solving, 447 infinitesimal change, 291-294 inflection points, 349-350 linear representation, modified, 448-450 maximum and minimum points, 348-349 progressions, 291 quadratic equation curve, 155 scale changes, 446 gravity energy source using, 195-196 force using, 196-197 work measurement using, 197-198 growth functions, series, 394-395 growth rates fractional increase, 109 time as component, 108-109
H
harmonic motion, 310-31 1 harmonic progressions, 270 hexadecimal number system, 467 hue, 474 hyperbolas asymptotes, 362
J
J-K flip-flop, 473
K
kilobit, 471 kilobyte, 471 kinetic energy, 203 velocity and, 199-200
M
magnitude complex quantities, 386 orders of, 251-252 mass, 187, 197
564
Index
ratios, 443-444 reciprocal, 444 nonlinear relationships, 31 1, 312-314 NOR, 470, 476 NOR gate, 469, 470 NOR operation, 476 NOT operation, 476 number games and tricks, 132-134 number systems, 3-1 1 bases defined, 4 binary, 256-257 decimal, 4-5, 253 decimal-binary conversion, 257-258 decimal-duodecimal conversion, 255-256 duodecimal, 5, 254-255 imaginary numbers, 180-182 indices, 262, 265 magnitude order, 251-252 placeholder importance, indices, 262-264 roots, 264 septimal, 250-251 surds, 265 vinculum use, 265 zero, 6, 9 numbering, 466 parallelograms, area calculation, 89-91 parentheses in algebraic equations, 127-129, 140-141 percentages, 109-1 13 money and dividends, 111-112 profit and loss, 112-113 permutations, 277-278 perpendicular lines, 215 petabyte, 472 plane coordinate systems, 366 planes complex, 379, 386-387 complex, frequency planes, 404 complex, p planes, 403-404 coordinate systems, equation in rectangular coordinates, 370 coordinate systems, equation in spherical polar coordinates, 371 polar coordinate systems, 366 positive-edge triggering, 473 potential energy, 201-202, 203 poundals, force measurement, 187 power acceleration at constant power, 200-201 energy and power, 194-195 power/multiple conversions, 426-428 powers, 264 combinations of terms, 318-319 multiples and powers, differentiation, 319-321 sinusoidal, fourth-power term in transfer characteristics, 317 sinusoidal, multiple components, 316-31 7 prime numbers, 71, 72-73 product formula, integration, 429-432 progressions, 268-307 arithmetic, 268-269, 271-272 binomials, converging series, 285-286 binomials, expansion, 281-282
master, 473 masterlslave (MIS) flip-flop, 473 maxima, 347-349 megabit, 471 megabyte, 471 metric system and conversions, 94-95 microprocessor, 471 minima, 347-349 minus index, 264 modulo 2, 467 modulo 10, 466 multiple-valued OR, 476 multiplicand, 37-39 multiplication, 34-49 addition vs., 34-35 algebraic, 140-141 approximate long multiplication and fractions, 81 binary numbers, 258-260 calculator method, 40-41 carrying, 39-40 checking answers, 41-42, 56 complex quantities, 382 dry measures, 45 factors, 44 functions, 327-329 length units, 45-46 lengths, area calculations, 84-85 liquid measures, 45 logarithms, 41 5 multiplicand vs. multiplier, 37-39 order of numbers, 40-42 patterns of multiplied numbers, 35-37 subtraction used in multiplication, 42-43 tables of multiplication, 35-37 weight units, 44-45 zeros, dropping extra, 37, 41 multiplier, 37-39
0
obtuse angles, 234-235 octal number system, 467 octet, 471 orders of magnitude, 251-252 OR, 468, 469, 470, 471, 475, 476 associativity of, 469 commutativity of, 469 multiple-valued, 476 OR function, 475 OR gate, 468, 470, 471 OR identity, 469 OR operation, 476
N
NAND, 470 NAND gate, 470, 471 Napierian logarithms, 414 natural logarithms, 414 negations, 476 negative-edge triggering, 473 nomograms, 442-444 multi-formula, 442-443
P
palette, color, 474 parabolas calculus equations, 355 focus property, 359 reflection properties, 360, 361 second-order curves, 363
Index
binomials, finding roots, 284-285 binomials, infinite geometric progressions, 283-284 binomials, powers of a binomial, 280-281 binomials, series, 282-283 change, infinitesimal, 291-294 change, rate of change, 289-290 circular measurement of angles, 298-300 combinations, 279-280 convergence, rate of, 276 converging series, 274-276 converging series, binomials, 285-286 dependent variables, 297 differentiation, 295-297 differentiation, angles, 300 differentiation, successive, 294-295, 297-298 differentiation, successive, sine waves, 301-302 factorial notation, 278-279 geometric, 269-270,272-274 graphing change, 291-294 harmonic, 270 independent variables, 297 permutations, 277-278 series for cosine, 304-305 series for sine, 302-303 sum of arithmetic series, 271-272 sum of converging series, 275-276 sum of geometric series, 272-274 variables, 297 proportion (see ratios) pyramids, volume calculation using integration, 341342 Pythagorean theorem, 216-217, 238 curves, series for quadratic curve, 459 factors used to solve equations, 157-160 formula method for solving, 165-1 68 graphs and curves, 155 interpreting results geometrically, 163 sample problem: picture frames, 170-1 71 simultaneous equations, 183 solving quadratic equations, 156 quotient formulas, functions, 330-332
565
right angles, 86-87 right triangles, 214-21 5, 216-217, 222 roots, 264 binomials to find roots, 284285 complex quantities, 389 R-S flip-flop, 472, 473 R-S-T flip-flop, 473
S
saturation, 474 secant, 332 second derivatives, 350-352 second-order curves, 356, 363 conic section, 364 three-dimensional, 372 septimal numbers, 250-25 1 sequential logic gate, 472 series, 392-408 arccosine, 423-424 arcsine, 423-424 arctangent, 396 complex exponential functions, 401-403 complex frequency planes, 404 complex p planes, 403-404 convergence, 424-425 decay functions, 394-395 epsilon, functions of, 399 epsilon, significance, 401 exponential vs. trigonometric convergence, 400 exponential vs. trigonometric relationships, 399-400 exponential, significance, 400 Fourier, 453 gap in series of derivatives, 397-398 growth functions, 394-395 hyperbolic functions, 404-405 logarithmic, 409-41 1 logarithms (see logarithms) patterns, 392-393 quadratic curves, 459 secant, 423 trigonometric series, 422 shift function, logarithms, 415 simultaneous equations in algebra, 146-149
R
radians, 299-300 radix 2, 467 radix 10, 466 radix point, 466, 467 rationalization, complex quantities, 384-385 ratios, 209-228 angles identified by, 21 5-216 aspect ratios, 209 cosines, 218, 223-224 manipulation of, 209-21 1 nomograms, 443-444 problem solving using, 211-212 shape and size distinctions, 213 sines, 218, 223-224 summed angles, 229 tangents, 218, 223-224 trigonometric ratios for angles, 221 reciprocals, 264 algebra, 149-150 complex quantities, 382-383 nomograms, 444 rectangles, area calculation, 86-8 7 resonance cycles, energy, 203-204 travel and velocity, 204-205 RGB, 474, 475 RGB (red/green/blue) color model, 474 rhomboids, area calculation, 89-9 1 rhombus, area calculation, 89-9 1
quadrants, 234-235 quadratics, 154-171 checking answers, 162-1 63, 169 comparing methods used to solve, 164-165 complete solution, 160-162 complex quantities and quadratic roots, 388
566 Index
simultaneous equations in quadratics, 183 sine, 218- 223-224, 230-231, 233-234 series for sine using progressions, 302-303 sine waves, 237-238 differentiation, 308-309 fourth power term in transfer characteristics, 317 harmonic motion, 310-31 1 linear or nonlinear relationships, 31 1 nonlinear relationships, 312-314 power sinusoids, multiple components, 316-317 power-term combination, 318-319 sinusoidal motion, 309-310 successive differentiation, 301-302 symmetrical nonlinearity, 314-316 waveform synthesis, 451-452 sinh, 405 sinusoidal motion, 309-310 slave, 473 slide rule, 441 slope, logarithmic scales, 434-436 speed measurements, 102-107 acceleration, 189-192 acceleration at constant power, 200-201 average speed calculations, 103-105, 107 constant acceleration, 198-199 making up time, 107 rate of change and progressions, 289-290 reference quantity, 105-106 velocity, 192, 199-200 spheres surface area calculation using integration, 341 volume calculation using integration, 341 springs energy storage in, 201-202 energy transfer in released, 201-202 resonance cycles, energy transfer, 203-204 travel and velocity in resonance cycles, 204-205 square roots, 176-180 continued square roots, 178-179 cube roots, 180-182 imaginary numbers, 182 placeholder importance, 179 positive and negative signs, 180 square waves, 454 offset, 456 switching functions, 456-459 triangular waves vs., 454-455 squared numbers, 72-73, 142 difference equals sum times difference, 173-174 factors, 175 roots (see square roots) sum-and-difference principle in geometry, 175 squares, area calculation, 86-87 static triggering, 473 subtraction, 24-33 borrowing, 26-27 change-making, 28-30 checking answers using addition, 25-26 dry measures, 32 fractions, 74-75 large numbers, 27-28 liquid measures, 32 weight units, 30 successive differentiation, 294-295, 297-298, 301-302 sum and difference formulas, 175, 236-237 supplementary angles, 243-244 surds, 265 switching functions, square waves as, 456-459 symmetrical nonlinearity, 314-316 time (see also speed measurements), 100-1 19 rate-of-growth calculations, 108-109 speed, distance times time, 102-107 triangular waves, 453-454 series, trigonometric series, 422 square waves vs., 454-455 triggering, 473 edge, 473 negative-edge, 473 positive-edge, 473 static, 473 trigonometric series, 422 trigonometry algebra combined with, 322-323 angles, in a circle, 242-243 angles, multiple angles, 239-240 angles, triangle measurement, 213-214 area calculations, 89, 93 area calculations, acute triangles, 91 area calculations, obtuse triangles, 92 complementary angles, 243-244 cosine, 218, 231-232, 233-234 curves, sine waves, 237-238 degree measurement of angles, 220 difference-angles ratios, 235-236 equilateral triangles, 220 hypotenuse, 215 isosceles triangles, 220, 240-24 1 obtuse angles, 234-235 problem solving, 223, 225-226 Pythagorean theorem, 216-217, 238 ratios for angles, 221 ratios to identify angles, 215-216 right isosceles triangles, 222 right triangles, 214-217 sine, 218, 230-231, 233-234 sine-cosine-tangent tables, 223-224 sum angles, ratios, 229
T
T flip-flop, 473 tangents, 21 8, 223-224, 232-234 successive derivatives, 334 tanh, 405 terabyte, 472
Index
sum and difference formulas, 236-237 supplementary angles, 243-244 tangent, 218, 232-234 trinary logic, 468 truth statements in algebra, 143 truth tables, 475-476 volume cone, using integration, 343, 355 pyramid, using integration, 341-342 sphere, using integration, 344
567
W
waveforms Fourier series, 453 quadratic curves series, 459 square, 454 square, offset, 456 square, switching functions, 456-459 synthesis, 451-452 transfer characteristics, 461-463 triangular, 453-454
v
variables, 142, 297 vectors, 277 velocity, 192 acceleration a t constant power, 200-201 kinetic energy and, 199-200 rate of change and progressions, 289-290 resonance cycles, 204-205 vinculum, 265
weight units addition of units, 19-21 balance (scales) use, 31 metric system, 94-95 multiplication, 44-45 subtraction, 30 work, 187-188, 192-193 energy and, 193-194 gravitational measure of, 197-198
X
XOR, 470 XOR gate, 470, 471
z
zero, 6, 9
multiplication, 37, 41
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