Pottery or ceramics or ceramic art refers to the creation of

objects that are made up of hard brittle material produced from

non-metallic minerals by moulding them while the material is wet
and then firing them at high temperatures. They are often made
up of clay, porcelain, steatite, etc.

Pottery plays an important role in studying culture and

reconstructing the past. Historically with distinct culture, the style
of pottery changed. It reflects the social, economic and
environmental conditions a culture thrived in, which helps the
archaeologists and historians in understanding our past. It holds
significant value in understanding cultures where script was either
absent or remains undeciphered. Understanding of presence of
fire, cooking, storage, sedentary or migratory populace, social
stratification can all be developed via studying pottery.

For people, pottery provided opportunity to store, cook, transport,

trade and essentially became an expression of artistic creativity.

Pottery is majorly of two types

1. Handmade
2. Wheel thrown

Handmade pottery is rather a primitive style pottery developed in

early ages which with time transforms to wheel thrown. The
different motifs drawn on the surface plays an important role in
understanding a culture and its beliefs.
Evolution of Pottery

I. Neolithic Age

We find the first reference of pottery in this age. Naturally it is

hand-made pottery but during the later period footwheel is also
used.
 Features

 Unglazed/unburnished that is having rough surface

 Handmade coarse grey pottery
 Material – clay mixed with mica and sand
 Pottery is devoid of any painting
 In many cases twisted rice husk cords were impressed into wet
clay for decoration
 Found throughout India including the South. Burzahom – coarse
grey pottery
 Included black-burnished ware, greyware and mat-pressed ware

II. Chalcolithic Age

 Chalcolithic Era, the first metal age, is marked by the

occurrence of distinct cultures in various parts of our country
namely – Ahar culture in South Eastern Rajasthan, Malwa
culture in Western MP, Jorwe culture in Western
Maharashtra, etc.

 People of this age used different kinds of pottery.

 1. Black-and-red-ware Pottery
  Black and red ware seems to have been widely used.
Cultures like Ahar-Banas showed the presence of Black and
Red ware pottery with white linear designs.

2. Black-on-red ware
 Jorwe ware is painted black-on-red and has a matt surface
treated with a wash.

3. Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP)

OCP people are regarded as the junior contemporaries of

Harappa.

This pottery is identified with the Copper Hoard Culture that was
found in upper Ganga Valley and Ganga Yamuna doab area.

 The colour of the pottery ranges from orange to red.

 The period covered by the OCP culture is roughly placed between
2000 BC and 1500 BC.
 Major sites are – Jodhpura (Rajasthan), Attranjikhera (UP)
 Ganeshwar, located near Khetri copper mines, was initially
believed to have OCP but researches have confuted this.
 III. Harappan Civilization

Polished Ware Pottery with rough surface

 Both polished and unpolished type of pottery existed

 Pottery generally has a red surface and is wheel
thrown although handmade ones too exist
 Polished wares were well fired.
 Most of the pottery is polychrome meaning more than two
colours are used to colour the pottery.
 Most of the pottery is utilitarian. Such potteries usually have flat
bases
 Geometrical design along with paintings depicting flora and
fauna are observed
 Perforated pottery was also found may be used for straining
liquor.
 Pottery throughout the civilization was uniform (mass
thrown) revealing some form of control and leaving less space of
individual creativity
 Presence of luxurious pottery obtained from certain sites reveals
economic stratification in the society
 1. Mature Harappa

Burial Pottery of Harappa

 Burnished and painted pottery

 Burial pottery was specially and distinctly made
 Reveals the Harappan belief in life after death
 Presence or absence of this pottery in the grave goods reflected
social stratification

2. Late Harappa

Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP) – As we know the late Harappan

cultures(1900BC – 1200BC) were primarily chalcolithic. Some
specific chalcolithic sites show the elements of late Harappan(like
use of burnt bricks, etc). These sites have OCP.
Black-grey burnished ware produced on slow wheel – Found in
Swat Valley. This resembles the pottery from north Iranian
plateau.

Black-on-red painted and wheel turned pottery – Also found in

Swat Valley. This shows a connection that Swat Valley was
associated with Harappa.

Grey-ware and Painted Grey Ware, generally associated with

Vedic people have been found in conjunction with some late
Harappan pottery. It has less intricate designs as compared to the
early and mature periods suggesting a dilution of the rich culture.

IV. Vedic Era – PGW

The Vedic Era saw the emergence of Painted Grey Ware(PGW)

Culture.

The Rig Vedic sites have PGW but iron objects and cereals are
absent. Hence it is considered a pre-iron phase of PGW. On the
other hand, the Later Vedic sites are considered iron-phase of
PGW.
This pottery is an Iron Age pottery found in Gangetic plain and
Ghaggar – Hakra valley, lasting from roughly 1200 BC – 600
BC. Mathura was the largest PGW site.
 Characterized by a style of fine, grey pottery painted with
geometric patterns in black.
 Are confined to few geographical locations, namely – Punjab,
Haryana and upper Ganga Valley. This culture is associated
with village and town settlements (but without large cities)

V. Later Vedic Era – NBPW

The later Vedic people were acquainted with 4 types of pottery –

Black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware and
red ware.

VI. End of Later Vedic Era – NBPW

Towards the very end of Later Vedic Age around 6th century BC,
we see the emergence of 2nd phase of urbanization(1st being
Indus Valley Civilization). This era marked the beginning of
the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
Map showing areas where NBPW pottery was found
 Glossy, shining type pottery.
 Made of fine fabric and served as tableware for richer class.
Considered deluxe pottery only found with the elites revealing
societal stratification which was a result of Brahmanical
hegemony.
 This pottery continued to exist during the Mahajanapada era.
 Found in Ahichatra, Hastinapur (both in UP), Navdatoli
(Madhya Pradesh)
 Classified into two groups – bichrome and monochrome
 Monochrome pottery has a fine and thin fabric. Potted on fast
wheel and have a strikingly lustrous surface. 90% of this type
is jet black, brownish black and bluish black and 10% have
colours like pink, golden, brown among others.
 Bichrome pottery is found less. It shows all the features
of monochrome except that it shows combination of two
colours.
A Bichrome pottery with two colours

VI. Megalithic Era

This culture is placed between- 3rd Century BC to 1 Century AD.

st

Megaliths refers to monuments constructed

of big (mega) stones (lith). This culture is particularly known for
its large stone graves. In the South this age is characterized by
the use of iron.
 Megalithic Pottery found in Kerala

 Well baked and durable

 Wheel thrown
 Bulk of these are plain however, a sherd from Koldihawa reveals
black painting on the surface.
 It has been excavated throughout India but majorly from the
South. Mostly in Vindhyas.
 They were used as grave goods revealing belief in life after death.

Puppets
The puppets are believed to be around since the time of Harappa and Mohenjodaro
civilisation dating back to 2300 BC. Several dolls with strings are found in some of
the harappan cities.
The Mahabharata refers to popular entertainment in India including art of puppetry
and shadow theatre. There is reference in Gita where the three qualities found in
men (Satta, Rajah and Tamah) are said to be the three strings pulled by the Divine
to lead man in life.
Silappadikaaram – earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Sangam
literature.
Puppetry throughout the ages has held an important place in traditional
entertainment. Puppetry has been successfully used to motivate emotionally and
physically handicapped students to develop their mental and physical faculties.
Awareness programmes about the conservation of the natural and cultural
environment have also proved to be useful. These programmes aim at sensitising
the students to the beauty in word, sound, form, colour and movement. The
aesthetic satisfaction derived from making of puppets and communicating through
them helps in the all round development of the personality of the child.
Stories adapted from puranic literature, local myths and legends usually form the
content of traditional puppet theatre in India which, in turn, imbibes elements of all
creative expressions like painting, sculpture, music, dance, drama, etc. The
presentation of puppet programmes involves the creative efforts of many people
working together.

Several types of Puppet forms are available in our diverse culture of India:
• String Puppets
Characteristics:
a) It has jointed body and limbs that allow movement.
b) Puppets are made of wood, or wire, or cloth stuffed with cotton, rags or saw
dust. T
c) The puppet is suspended from a hand held control strings that are attached to
different parts of the puppet’s body.
d) The puppet is manipulated by operating the control as well as by loosening or
pulling the relevant string(s).
e) For the convenience of manipulation and support, two rods are attached to the
hands of the puppets.
Examples:
i. Kathputli (Rajasthan)
ii. Kundhei (Orissa)
iii. Gombeyatta (Karnataka)
iv. Bommalattam (TN)
• Shadow Puppets
Characteristics
a) Shadow puppets are flat puppets that are operated against the rear of a tightly
stretched white cloth screen.
b) They are cut out of leather, which has been treated to make it translucent.
c) Shadow puppets are pressed against the screen with a strong source of light
behind it.
d) The manipulation between the light and the screen make silhouettes or colourful
shadows for the viewers who sit in front of the screen.
e) The puppet shapes or cutouts are perforated and split bamboo or cane sticks are
attached vertically to the puppet for handling and manipulation.
Examples:
i. Togalu Gombeyatta (Karnataka)
ii. Tholu Bommalata (AP)
iii. Ravanachhaya (Orissa)
iv. Tolpavakoothu (Kerala)
v. Chamadyache Bahulya (Maharashtra)
• Rod Puppets
Characteristics
a) These puppets have mostly three joints. The heads, supported by the main rod, is
joined at the neck and both hands attached to rods are joined at the shoulders.
b) The main holding rod that supports the puppet may be hidden by a robe or
costume of the puppet.
c) The action rods are usually connected to the hands of the puppet and
manipulated by the puppeteer to show action.
d) The body and hands have a bamboo base covered and plastered with hay and
rice husk mixed and moulded into required shape.
e) Due to the absence of legs the puppets are draped in a sari or dhoti as per the
character.
f) The puppet movements are highly dramatic.
Examples:
i. Putul Nautch (WB)
ii. Yampuri (Bihar)
iii. Kathi Kandhe (Orissa)
• Glove Puppets
Characteristics
a) The glove puppets are worn on hands just like a glove.
b) The middle finger and thumb act as hands of the puppet and the index finger
acts as the head.
c) Head is made of either papier mache, cloth or wood, with two hands emerging
from just below the neck.
Examples:
1. Pava-kathakali (Kerala)
2. Kundhei nach (Orissa)
In the past, traditional puppet shows were used to convey religious messages in
villages. Today, due to the influence of modern communication methods, the
traditional puppetry is at the cross roads in many states of India with most
puppeteers taking to alternate source of livelihood. However, contemporary
puppetry has a tremendous scope in the field of education, entertainment and
awareness generation.
Pavai (Centre for Puppetry) explores and uses the art of puppetry for
communication at various levels and works towards its promotion and preservation
with the help of children, youth and the teaching community.
Painting
The origin of Indian painting goes back to 8000 years and an account of its
development is inextricably meshed with the development of Indian civilization.
• Prehistoric painting: Theme of painting were Hunting theme (group Hunting
scenes); Figures of animals & birds; Battle Scenes; Dancing Scenes. Example;
Bhibetka Caves (MP).
• Mural paintings: Indian Mural Paintings are paintings made on walls of caves
and palaces. The caves of Ajanta, Ellora and Elephanta also on the Bagh caves and
Sittanvasal are examples of it.
Miniature Paintings: Miniature paintings are executed on books and albums, and
on perishable material such as paper and cloth. The Palas of Bengal were the
pioneers of miniature painting in India. The art reached its zenith during the
Mughal period and was pursued by the painters of different Rajasthani Schools of
painting, like Bundi, Kishangarh, Jaipur, Marwar and Mewar. The Ragamala
paintings also belong to this school, as do the Company paintings produced during
the British Raj.
Folk paintings: The rural folk paintings of India bear distinctive colorful designs,
which are treated with religious and mystical motifs.
Coins
The study of coins is known as Numismatics. The importance of
coins as a source of reconstructing history cannot be denied,
particularly in case of ancient history where very few chronicles
were produced.
1. Indus Valley Civilization – BC

The Harappan Seal is the most distinctive artefact of the Indus

Valley Civilization. It was made of a stone called steatite.
However, it’s believed that it was *NOT* used as a coin. It served
various other purposes like – sealing a package of trade, as
amulets, etc.

2. Janapadas / Mahajanapadas –

The earliest account of issuing of coins dates back to the 7th-6th

Century BC. These coins were ‘punched-mark’ coins made in
silver. They were initially issued by merchant guilds and later, by
the state.

3. Post-Mauryan Period
For the first time, we see regular Dynastic coins being issued.

The Greeks bring along their old age tradition of issuing coins.
They are the first ones to issue gold coins(besides the use of
Silver).

Greek Coins

It is then followed by the Kushan Empire who become the first

Indian Empire to issue gold coins.

Kushan Coins

The Western Kshatrap coins are reckoned to be the earliest coins

bearing dates.
3. Gupta Period

The Kushan gold coins subsequently influence Gupta dynasty.

They become more rich and elaborate in design depicting a wide
variety of events – commemorate dynastic succession, significant
socio-political events – like marriage alliances, the horse sacrifice,
etc. and for that matter artistic and personal accomplishments of
royal members (Lyrist, Archer, Lion-slayer etc.)
We see the decline in the number of coins produced in this phase
suggestive of a decline in trade and commerce.

Theatre Forms of India

A living example of diversity in India

Indian social system is characterized by living traditions which reflect the ideals of
the society. Indian theatre forms are a framework of acting, dialogue, poetry, and
music. It started as a narrative form of art where recitations, dance, and music
played a central role in depicting the local history, societal ethos etc. It is based
on spontaneous creativity emerging from circumstances where the intensity of
expressions and natural emotions are drawn from the social system and not from
any classical or grammatical roots.

Traditional theatre forms are generally presented during religious festivals, ritual
offering, gatherings, prayers, almost throughout the year. It reflects the local
lifestyles, beliefs, social wisdom, and emotions of the common. It is an
amalgamation of entertainment and religious traditions.

Earlier Sanskritic theatre was dominant in the society where Ashvagosha,

Kalidasa, Vishakadatta etc contributed immensely. Later due to divergence
towards poetry, restricted creative spaces, loss of popularity and advent of
Muslim rulers led to the decline of Sanskritic theatre forms. Later the Folk
theatres boasted the rich tradition of India to various parts of the country.

Different forms of traditional theatre

Bhavai

 It is a traditional theatre form of Gujarat and Rajasthan.

 Kutch and Kathiawar are the main centres of this theatre form.
 It is a synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments.
 It consists of dance to narrate series of small plays known as Vesha or
Swanga.
 It is accompanied by semi-classical music.
 Bhungal, tabla, pakhaawaj, rabaah, sarangi, manjeera etc.
Nautanki

 Nautanki is popular in the state of Uttar Pradesh. It is an offshoot of Swang.

 It is mentioned in Abu Fazl's Ain-e-Akbari.
 The theme is based on historical, social and folk tales, delivered through
dance and music.
 Kanpur, Lucknow, and Hathras are the most popular centres of this theatre
form.
 Dialogues are delivered in a lyrical fashion accompanied by drum beats
called Nagara.
Download Theatre Forms Of India PDF

Rasleela

 It is a theatre form popular in Uttar Pradesh.

 It depicts the legends of Lord Krishna.
 In this theatre form, dialogues are in pros combined with songs and scenes
from the pranks of Krishna.

Bhand Pather
  It is a traditional theatre form of Kashmir.
 It consists of unique combinations of dance, drama, and acting.
 Surnai, Nagara, and dhol are the instruments used in this theatre form.
 It is mainly performed by the farming community, reflecting their ideas
and way of living.

Swang

 It is a popular theatre form of Punjab and Haryana.

 It is mainly a musical drama sung through verses.
 Ektara, Harmonium, Sarangi, Dholak, and Kharta are the instruments used in
it.
 Rohtak and Haathras are the two important style in this theatre form.

Maach

 Maach is a theatre form of the region of Malwa in Madhya Pradesh.

 The term Maach is used for the stage as well as the play.
 It is based on mythological themes and later romantic folks tales were also
included.
 Songs are given importance between the dialogues in this theatre form.
 Dialogues in this form are called Bol and Ryhm in narration is termed
as Vanag.
 Tune of the theatre is known as Rangat.
Ankia Naat

 It is a theatre form present in the state of Assam.

 It was started by Shankaradeva and his disciple Mahadeva in the 16th
century A.D.
 Cultural glimpses of Assam, West Bengal, Odisha, Mathura, and Brindavan
can be seen this theatre form.
 The narration begins with a story in Sanskrit and later switch to Brajboli or
Assamese.
 the narrator called as Suthradhar is accompanied by a group of musicians
known as Gayan-Bayan Mandali who play the 'Khol' and cymbals.
 Use of Masks to depict special expression is one of the unique features of
this theatre form.

Dashavatar

 It is the most developed theatre form of Konkan and Goa.

 The ten incarnation of Lord Vishnu- the god of preservation and creativity
are personified by the performers.
 Apart from makeup, performers wear a mask of wood and papier mache.

Krishnanattam
  It is a folk theatre form of Kerala.
 It came into existence in the 17th century under the patronage of Calicut
king Manavada.
 It narrates the birth, childhood pranks and various deeds depicting victory of
good over evil by Sri Krishna.
 It is performed for eight consecutive days.
 Different plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa Krida, Kamasavadha,
Swayamvaram, Bhanayudham, Vivida Vadham, and Swargarohana.

Yakshagana

 It is the oldest theatre form popular in Karnataka.

 It emerged in the Vijayanagara empire and was performed by Jakkula
Varu community.
 It is a descriptive dance drama.
 It is presented from dusk to dawn.
 The stories are drawn from Ramayana, Mahabharata and other epics from
both Hindu and Jain tradition.

Therukooth

 Therukooth is a popular folk drama of Tamil Nadu.

 Therukooth means "street play".
  It is performed during the annual temple festival of Mariamman(Rain God)
for a rich harvest.
 It plays various themes and one the theme is based on Draupathi in Hindu
epic Mahabharata.
 It is a combination of song, music, dance, and drama.
 Harmonium, drums, and cymbals are the instrument used in it.

Koodiyattam

 It is Sanskritic theatre tradition of Kerala.

 Chakyaar(actor), Nambiar(instrumentalist) and Nangyaar( those taking
woman's role) are the main characters of Koodiyattam.
 The main protagonists are Suthradhar(narrator) and the Vidushak(jesters).
Dialogues are delivered by Vidushak alone.
 Hand gestures and eye movements are the features of this theatre form.

Villu Paatu

 It is a musical theatre popular in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

 Villu Paatu means bow-song.
 In this, using a bow-shaped instrument, the stories of Ramayana are
narrated.
Mudiyettu

 Mudiyettu is a traditional folk theatre of Kerala.

 It is performed in the month of Vrichigam. ie November-December.
 It is performed only in Kali Temple as a presentation to Goddess.
 It is a part of Bhadrakali cult. It depicts the triumph of Goddess Bhadrakali
over the asura Darika.
 Mudiyettu is performed by Marar and Karuppu community.
 Shiva, Narada, Darika, Danavendra, Bhadrakali, Kooli, and Koimbidar are
the seven charaters of Mudiyettu.
 In 2010, Mudiyettu was inscribed in the UNESCO's Representative List of
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity after Koodiyattam
Some of the other important theatre forms are Kala of Vaishnaite
tradition, Bhuta in Karnataka, Daskathia in Odisha, Garodas in
Gujarat, Jatras in Eastern India, Kariyila in Himachal Pradesh, Powda in
Maharashtra, Burra Katha in Andhra Pradesh, Bayalata in Karnataka
and Kuruvanji in Tamil Nadu.

Indian Dance and Theater

India is a land of diversity and this diversity is
manifested in its art and culture. India has a rich
tradition of Dance and Theater since ancient times. The
art forms have been patronized by various rulers from
time to time and this helped in the development of
dance and theatre.
Indian dance can be categorized into Classical, Folk and
Tribal, each having its own unique characteristics. But
the underline theme of all the dance form has
remained religion.
Indian Theater tradition has mostly been found
associated with traditional festivals. They combine
dance and drama and are based on mythological text
signifying good winning over evil.
Classical Dances

 Kathakali is a classical dance form of Kerala. It

derives its name from 'Katha' means
story and 'kali' means drama. The fold traditions,
Ramanattam and Krishnanattam performed in
temples under the patronage of feudal
lords became the source of Kathakali.
 Kathakali declined after the breakdown of the
feudal lords. Later renowned Malayali
poet Vallathol Narayana Menon revived it under
the patronage of Mukunda Raja. He
established Kerala Kala Mandalam for the
progress of Kathakali.
 Kathakali is a dance-drama where the actor does
not speak their lines.
 It is performed in open air theatre or in temple
premises. Brass lamp is used for lighting.
 Kathakali depicts the eternal conflict between God
and Evil in most of its presentations.
 Representation of Rasa through movement of Eye
and Eyebrows is the most remarkable feature of
Kathakali. This needs strenuous training to
perform.
 Malayalam with many Sanskrit word is the
language used in Kathakali songs.
 The Mask like elaborate facial makeup is governed
by the complex symbolism of colour, line, and
design.
 Reddening white portion of the eye is a peculiar
feature of Kathakali.
 Each character like Heroes, Anti-heroes, Villians,
Demons, Snags, and King have a prescribed
makeup and costume.
 Combination of colour determines the type and
mood of character in the play. These are Pacha,
Katti, Thaadi(Velupu Thaadi, Chuvap Thaadi,
Karup Thaadi). Green is associated with Good, red
with valour and ferocity, black with evil and
primitiveness, and white with purity.
  Guru Kunchu Kurup, Gopi Nath, Rita Ganguly etc are the
famous proponents of Kathakali.

4. Mohiniattam

 Mohiniyattam is a classical dance tradition

of Kerala which gained prominence under the rulers of
Travancore. After a period of decline, it was revived by
famous poet Vallathol Narayana Menon along
with Kalyani Ammal.
 'Mohini' means beautiful and 'Attam' means dance. It
is essentially a solo dance performance that
incorporates Lasya and Tandava style.
 It generally narrates the story of the feminine dance of
Vishnu.
 White and off-white is the principal colour used in
costumes of Mohiniyattam.
 Mohiniyattam perform symbolizes the element of air.
  It includes a peculiar manner of dancing with feet and
legs apart. Knees are greatly bent and rhythmic syllable
words are used in recitation.
 The dancer's feet are perfectly synchronized with the play
of drum.
 Sunanda Nair, Madhuri Amma, Jayaprabha Menon etc
are the main proponents of Mohiniyattam.

5. Odissi

 Odissi derives its name from 'Odra Nirtya' mentioned in Natya

Shastra. Khandariya-Udayagiri caves provide some of the early
examples of Odissi dance.
 It was patronized mainly by the Jain King Kharvela and primarily
performed by Maharis.
 Kabichanda Kallicharan Patnaik revived this dance form after
the independence. Later efforts of Charles Fabri and Indrani
Rehman bought International acclaim to this dance form.
 Mudras and postures for expressing emotions are similar to that
of Bharatanatyam.
 The three bent form of dance called Tribangha posture is an
 important feature of Odissi.
 Odissi dance performs Natya combined with an element of
dancing and acting.
 It is a unique representation of gracefulness, beauty, and
sensuality.
 Geometrical shapes and patterns are created with dancers body.
Hence it is called 'Mobile Sculpture'.

Elements of Odissi includes

Mangalcharan: It is the beginning of the dance.

Batunirtya: It comprises of dancing.
Pallavi: It includes the facial expression and
representation of the song.
Tarijham: Pure dance before the conclusion.

 Odissi dance music is Hindustani.

 Water is symbolized in this dance form.
  Guru Pankaj Charan Das, Guru Kelu Charan
Mohapatra etc are the main proponents of this dance
form.

6. Manipuri

 The mythological origin of Manipuri dance is traced to the

celestial dance of Siva and Parvati along with 'Gandharva in
the valley of Manipur.
 The dance gained prominence after the advent
of Vaishnavism.
 Rabindra Nath Tagore introduced it
in Shantiniketan thereby brought back the prominence of
this dance form in modern times.
 Manipuri emphasis on devotion. It incorporates
both Tandava and Lasya in which more emphasis is given to
Lasya.
 The body connected through curves in the shape of '8'
called Nagabhanda Mudra is an important feature of this
dance form.
 Ras Leela is a recurring theme of Manipuri dance recital.
 Drums, flute, horns, esraj, tamboura, cymbals, and mridang
are some of the important instruments used in Manipuri
dance.
  Jhaveri sisters, Guru Bipin Singh etc are the famous
proponents of Manipuri dance form.

7. Kathak

 Kathak is the traditional dance form of Uttar

Pradesh. Kathak derives its name from the ' Kathika'
or storyteller who recites verses from the epics with
music and gestures.
 During the Mughal times, it was influenced by Islamic
features, especially in costume and dancing style.
 Later in the twentieth century, Lady Leela
Sokhey revived the classical style of Kathak.
 It is commonly identified with the court tradition in
North India.
 In the technique, Kathak follows Vertical lines with no
breaks and deflection. Footwork is very important in
training of dancers.
 Kathak is based on Hindustani music.
  It consists of different kharanas like Lucknow, Jaipur,
Raigarh, and Banaras.
 Jugalbandi is one of the main features of Kathak
recital. It shows a competitive play between dancer
and tabla player.
 Gatbhaar is the dance without music or chanting.
Mythological episodes are outlined by this.
 Kathak is accompanied by dhrupad music. During the
Mughal period, Taranas, Thumris, and Gazals were
introduced.
 Lachha Maharaj, Shambu Maharaj and Birju Maharaj etc
are the main proponents of Kathak.

8. Sattriya
 In the 15th century AD, Vaishnava saint of
Assam, Shankaradeva introduced the Sattriya form of
dance.
 Sattriya derives its name from the Vaishnava Monastries
Known as Sattras.
  It focuses more on the devotional aspect of dance, It narrates
the mythological stories of Vishnu.
 The dance form is performed in a group by male
monks known as Bhokots as part of their daily rituals.
 Khol and Flute are the main instruments played in Sattriya
dance.
 Rhythmic syllables and dance postures along with footwork
has given greater emphasis in Sattriya dance.
 It combines the elements of Lasya and Tandava.
 There is a strict guideline laid down for the hand gestures and
footwork in Sattriya dance.
 Gayan-Bhayanar Nach and Kharmanar Nach are two
streams evolved in the modern times.

Folk Dances of India - Art & Culture

Folk dances help in exploring the rich cultural landscape of India.
Each state or region has a unique folk dance forms according to
the myths and legends of that state or region. It is a rich mix of
composite art. Unlike Classical dance, Folk dances
are spontaneous, performed by the local people without any
formal training. Folk dances are confined to a certain section of
the people or a particular locality. The knowledge is passed down
to each generation.

Here we discuss some of the unique folk dances in India.

Chhau
 Source: ArmChairLounge

 Chhau is a tribal martial art popular in the states of West

Bengal, Jharkhand, and Odisha. Chhau originates from
'Chhaya' means shadow.
 It narrates mythological stories. It is a form of mask dance in
which martial movements are used to narrate the stories.
 Sarpa Nirtya, Mayur Nirtya etc. are some of the natural
themes used to Chhau dance.
 Saraikela Chhau in Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj (the mask is
not used in this) in Odisha and Purulia Chhau in West
Bengal are the three main styles of Chhau dance.
 Chhau was inscribed on the Representative List of Intangible Cultural
Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2011.

Veeranatyam

 Veeranatyam is popular in the eastern and western region of

river Godavari.
 Veernatyam means 'Dance of the Brave'. It is a tribute to the
God Shiva and Goddesses Veerabhadra.
  The dance consists of hand gestures, flaming tridents, and
spears.
 Colorful dhotis are the costume of Veeranatyam which is
covered by sacred ash.
 The dancer uses a big flaming plate of a palm and till the fire
is extinguished, the dance will go on.

Dollu Kunitha

 Dollu Kunitha is an outstanding and dynamic folk art

of Karnataka.
 The dance is confined to males with good physique. A
hollow drum is tied on the waist of the performer.
 It is a religious and cultural ritual and is performed mostly
by Kurubas, devotees of Beere Devaru.
 The dancers stand in a circle and moves as they start
beating the drum.

Matki Dance
  Matki dance is a folk dance popular in the state of Madhya
Pradesh, especially in the Malwa region.
 It is a variation of Rasa dance. The love episode of
God Krishna during his younger age is depicted in the dance.
 Women perform it during marriages and festivals. Fingers or ring
on the finger is used to strike the empty pot while maintaining
the time beat.
 Dhol is the musical instrument used in this folk dance. Sari and
lehenga are the costumes.
 Aada and Khada Nach are the popular variants of Matki dance.

Ootam Tullal

 Ootam Thullal is a folk dance of Kerala. Kunchan Nambiar

introduced it in the 18th century.
 It is a solo performance where the performer act and dance
during the recital.
 The artist is accompanied by chorus singer, drummer, and cymbal
player.
 Mythological stories are the basis of chorus songs. Interprets of
choicest and select excerpts of Malayalam Literature is
presented with immense beauty.
 The performer also has the freedom to reflect his view of the
audience.
  Green makeup and colourful costumes are used in the dance.

Kolattam

 Kolattam is a folk dance originated in Tamil Nadu. This

dance form is popular throughout India.
 Kolattam is derived from 'Kol' means stick
and 'Aatam' means dance.
 It is a dance performance by young girls with little stick
held in hand to celebrate the birthday of God Rama.
 Pinnal Kolattam is a variety of Kolattam dance where the
dance is accompanied with songs or chorus that speak of
trapping of sticks in rhythm.

Indian Music
Music has been a way of life in India. It is closely interlinked to the social and
cultural life of Indians.

Indian Music and Musical Instruments

Natyasastra of Bharata which is supposed to have been written sometime between
2nd century B.C and 2nd century A.D is a landmark in the history of Indian music.
It has several chapters that have formed the basis for the development of Indian
music. It is believed that Indian music was more or less uniform till the 13th
century but later bifurcated into two musical systems:

The Hindustani music

The Hindustani music originated in North India in the 13th and 14th century. The
Hindustani music has elements of ancient Hindu tradition, Vedic philosophy and
Persian tradition as well. It is based on Raga system. The Raga is a melodic scale
comprising of basic seven notes. Hindustani Music is vocal-centric. The major
vocal forms associated with Hindustani classical music are the khayal, Ghazal,
dhrupad, dhammar, tarana and thumri.

The Carnatic music

Carnatic Music is a form of classical Indian music from south India. It is one of the
important cultural heritage of India. It has a rich history and developed over
centuries. The present form of Carnatic music evolved during the 18th century.
The period saw the emergence most popular musicians in Carnatic music,
Thyagaraja, Shamashastri and Muthuswami Dikshitar who compiled various
composition in the period. The structure of Carnatic music is very complex. It is
based on the Ragam and Thalam. Raga is basically the scale and the seven notes
whereas Thalam is the rhythmic foundation of Carnatic music.

Music Instruments
India has a rich musical history with records of Music instrument in the ancient
Hindu scriptures. There are four types of musical instruments used in Indian music
which are Percussion Instruments, Wind Instruments, Solid Instruments, String
Instruments. The various instruments are the subtypes of these basic types. Some
important instrument in Indian music are sitar, sarod, sarangi, flute, shehnai etc.

Hindustani Music

Evolution of music in North India

 The Hindustani music originated in North
India during the 13th and 14th century. It focuses more on musical structure. It has
been influenced by various elements such as Arab, Persian and Afghan elements
which have added a new dimension to the Hindustani music. Hindustani music
adopted the scale of Shudha Swara Saptaka or the Octave of Natural Notes . In the
ancient times, it has been passed from one to another through the Guru-Shishya
Parampara. Musical instruments used in Hindustani are Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar,
Santoor, Flute and violin.

There are ten main styles of singing in Hindustani music like the Dhrupad . Khayal
, Tappa , Chaturang , Tarana . Sargam , Thumri and Ragasagar , Hori and Dhamar .

Important schools of Hindustani music:

1. Dhrupad

It is one of the oldest and grandest forms of Hindustani music. Dhrupad

consolidated its position as a classical music form in the 13th century but reached
its zenith during the period of Emperor Akbar. He employed and patronised best-
known dhrupad singers like Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas and Tansen. Tansen
was one among the nine jewels of Akbar s court. Dhrupad became a major form of
singing in the medieval period but fell in a state of decline in the 18th century.

Dhrupad singing can be further divided into the following Gharanas:

Dagari Gharana: The Dagar family sings in the Dagar Vani. Dagars are Muslims
but usually sing Hindu texts of Gods and Goddesses. Darbhanga Gharana: The
proponents of this school are the Mallik family. They sing the Khandar Vani and
Gauhar Vani. Bettiah Gharana: The exponents of the Gharana are the Mishras.
They sing Nauhar Vani and Khandar Vani styles.

2. Khayal

The origin of this style can be traced to

Amir Khusro. This style is popular among the singers as it offers greater scope for
improvisation. The usual theme of Khayal is romantic in nature. The major
Gharanas under Khayal are:

Gwalior Gharana: This is one of the oldest gharanas of Khayal. It is very rigorous
and emphasises equally on melody and rhythm. Kirana Gharana: The artists of
Kirana Gharana are better known for their mastery over the slow tempo
ragas. Agra Gharana: It is said to have been founded by one Khuda Baksh of
Agra in the 19th century and later it was revived by Faiyaaz Khan. Since then this
gharana has been renamed as the Rangeela Gharana. Patiala Gharana: Bade
Fateh Ali Khan and Ali Baksh Khan established this gharana in the 19th century.
This gharana stresses more on the use of greater rhythm. The most well-known
composer of this gharana is Bade Ghulam Ali Khan Sahab. Bhendi Bazaar
Gharana: This gharana was established by Chajju Khan, Nazeer Khan and
Khadim Hussain in the 19th century. The singers of this gharana were trained to
control their breath for a long period of time and could sing long passages in a
single breathe.

3. Thumri

The compositions in this style are either romantic or devotional. It is based on

mixed ragas and is considered as semi-classical Indian music. This style was
inspired by the Bhakti movement. The compositions are usually sung in a female
voice. It is characterised by inherent sensuality and this differentiates this style
from the others. The important Gharanas of Thumri are Banaras and Lucknow.
Begum Akhtar is said to be the greatest proponents of this style. Pt. L.K. Pandit,
Malini Rajurkar are the names of few who specialize this style of singing.

4. Tappa

This style originated from the folk songs of North East India but developed into a
semi-classical Indian music under the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah. The
style is almost getting extinct today. Some of the very few expounders of this style
are Mian Sodi, Pandit Laxman Rao and Shanno Khurana.

5. Tarana

In this style, rhythm plays a crucial role. It is sung in a fast tempo and singers need
specialised skills in rhythmic manipulation. It usually consists of main melody,
short, repeated short times with variation and elaboration at the performer s
discretion. Pandit Rattan Mohan Sharma is given the title of Tarana ke Baadshah
and is currently the World s Fastest Tarana singer.

6. Ghazal

A Ghazal is a poetic form of rhyming couplets. It is said to have originated in Iran

in the 10th century AD. Ghazal was spread into South Asia by the influence of Sufi
mystics and the courts of the Islamic sultanate but reached its zenith during the
Mughal period. Amir Khusro is said to be one of the first expounders of the ghazal.
Ghazals from the Indian sub-continent have an influence of Islamic Mysticism.
Important Ghazal singers are Ghulam Ali, Pankaj Udhas, Rahat Fateh Ali Khan,
etc.

Carnatic Music

Evolution of music in the southern part of India

 Carnatic music is one of the forms of
Indian classical music. It is confined to southern India, the states of Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala while the classical music of the rest of
the country is under the name of Hindustani.

The main emphasis in the Carnatic music is on the vocals. The music is created in
the traditional octave form and the music is kriti based and focuses more on the
saahithya or the lyric quality of the musical piece.

Every composition of Carnatic style consists of several parts which can be

divided into:

Pallavi: The first thematic lines of the composition are referred to as the Pallavi .
This portion is sung first and is often repeated in each stanza. Anu Pallavi: The
stanza that follows the Pallavi is called the Anu Pallavi. Varnam: This part reveals
the raga of the composition to the audience. It is made up of two parts: Purvanga or
the first half and Uttaranga or the second half. Ragamalika: This is the concluding
part of the Pallavi. In this part, there is a scope of improvisation for the artist.

Theoretical system of Carnatic Music

Swara:

Swara is a Sanskrit word that connotes a note in the successive steps of the octave
or the seven steps in the Indian classical music. Hence they are also called Sapta
Swaras. In the ancient period, the term Swara was associated with the recitation of
Vedas, particularly in the Samaveda. In Natyasastra, Bharata had divided the
swaras into twenty-two notes scale. Swaras are associated with both Hindustani
and Carnatic classical music systems. They include Sa (Sadja), Ri (Rishabha), Ga
(Gandharva), Ma (Madhyama), Pa (Panchama), Dha (Dhaivata), Ni (Nishada).

Raga:

The ragas form the basis of the melody and are akin to the melodic tone of Indian
classical music. The word raga is derived from the Sanskrit word Ranj which
means to delight or to make happy and satisfy a person. Each melodic structure of
the raga has something similar to the distinct personality subject and the mood
evoked by the sounds.

Indian Music Instruments

Music Instrument in India

For any music to be created, one needs to have some semblance of music
instruments. The musical instruments can be broadly divided into four major
categories depending on the means by which sound is produced in the instrument.
The table below shows the classification of the musical instruments.

Awanad/ Avanaddha Vadya

These are also called Percussion instruments as one has to strike or scrap or strike
them with another similar instrument to produce musical sound.These are believed
to be oldest musical instruments. The earliest references to these instruments have
been found in the Vedas.The most ancient among this group of instruments are the
Bhumi Dundubhi or the earth drum.These are also called membranophone
instruments as they contain an outer membrane which is beaten to generate a
particular sound.They generally have one or two faces covered with animal skin or
hide.They are made by stretching the animal skin across a metal or earthen pot,
wooden barrel or frame.

Examples of this group include Tabla, Mridangam, Drum, Dhol, Congo.

Tabla: It is a percussion instrument originated from the Indian Subcontinent. It

consists of a pair of single-headed, barrel-shaped drums of different sizes. It is an
important instrument for Hindustani classical music and is the main qawali
instrument used by Sufi musicians. Notable players include Ustad Alla Rakha
Khan and his son Zakir Hussain, Shafat Ahmed and Samata Prasad.

Mridangam: It is a percussion instrument of Indian origin. It is mostly used in

Carnatic music. The earliest mention of mridangam has been found in Sangam
literature (Tamil) where it is known as "tannumai". D.A. Srinivas, also known as
"Mridangam Srinivas" is one of the most famous players.
Sushira Vadya

In this group, the sound is produced by blowing air into a hollow column. Hence
they are also known as wind instruments.

 The pitch of the note is determined by controlling the air passage.

 The melody is played by using the fingers to open and close the instrument.
 The simplest and the commonest among this group of instruments is the
flute.
 Other wind instruments include Shehnai, Pungi, Harmonium, Nadaswaram.
Flute: The flute in its many forms has been in use in India since the Vedic period.
The bamboo flute is one of the oldest Indian musical instruments. It is used in both
Hindustani and Carnatic classical music styles. Not only in classical music it is
also a folk instrument popular in north India. Ont of the most famous flautist of
India is Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia.
Harmonium: It is a western instrument which was incorporated into Indian music
around the 19th century. It is used in devotional, classical and light-classical in

Hindustani music.

Shehnai: It is a tubular instrument and gradually widens towards the lower end.
Shehnai is similar to Nadaswaram which is used in South India. The sound of
Shehnai is considered auspicious and is used for all festive occasions and
weddings. The legendary Ustad Bismillah Khan has been given the title of
"Shehnai king". He took Shehnai to its zenith through his soulful play. Today Pt.
Anant Lal, Pt. Daya Shankar are also noted Shehnai players.
 Ghana Vadya
The earliest musical instruments created by man are said to be the Ghana Vadya or
solid instruments. Once constructed, they do not require any special tuning. They
are principally rhythmic in function and are best suited as an accompaniment to
folk and tribal music and dance.

Different Ghana Vadya include Manjira, Ghatak,Jaltarang, Kanch-tarang, Jhanj,

Khartal.