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Seventeenth Edition
World Politics
Trend and Transformation
Letter to Instructors ix
Letter to Students xii
Resources for Students and Instructors xiv
Acknowledgments xvi
About the Authors xix
iii
Contents
iv
Contents v
MindTap™
As an instructor, MindTap™ is here to simplify your workload, organize and immediately grade
your students’ assignments, and enable you to customize your course as you see fit. Through
deep-seated integration with your Learning Management System, grades are easily exported and
analytics are pulled with just the click of a button. MindTap™ provides you with a platform to
easily add current events videos and article links from national or local news sources.
We thank you for using this book to help introduce your students to world politics. Our
hope is that it helps students to critically analyze and understand global affairs—and to better
assess the possibilities for the global future and its potential impact on their own lives.
Sincerely,
Shannon L. Blanton & Charles W. Kegley
Letter to Students
Dear Student:
In a constantly changing world, it is important to be able to analyze effectively key events and
issues in international affairs, and to assess critically different viewpoints concerning these
issues. By providing you with the leading ideas and the latest information available, World
Politics: Trend and Transformation offers the tools necessary for understanding world affairs, for
anticipating probable developments, and for thinking critically about the potential long-term
impact of those developments on institutions, countries, and individuals across the globe. In
essence, World Politics strives to help you become an informed global citizen and establish a
foundation for life-long learning about international affairs.
World Politics aims to put both change and continuity into perspective. It provides a picture
of the evolving relations among all transnational actors, the historical developments that affect
those actors’ relationships, and the salient contemporary global trends that those interactions
produce. You will learn about key theories and worldviews for understanding international
relations, and examine some of the most prominent issues in global politics, including war,
terrorism, world trade, global finance, demographic trends, environmental degradation, and
human rights. To facilitate your understanding, World Politics incorporates a number of features
to clarify complex ideas and arguments:
●● An Atlas with detailed political maps of each continent opens the book.
●● Learning Objectives open each chapter, serving as a road map to the book’s key
concepts and helping you assess your understanding.
●● Controversy features examine rival viewpoints on major international relations issues
and encourage you to think critically and develop your own opinions.
●● A Closer Look features address contemporary issues, pose critical thinking questions,
and feature relevant videos through the Carnegie Council for Ethics in International
Affairs (CCEIA).
●● Each chapter includes key terms, their definitions, and pertinent videos through the
Carnegie Council.
●● Each chapter ends with a Summary of the learning objectives and a list of Suggested
Readings, Videos, and Web Resources to help you prepare for your papers and essays.
As a student, the benefits of using MindTap with this book are endless. With automatically
graded practice quizzes and activities, an easily navigated learning path, and an interactive
eBook, you will be able to test yourself in and out of the classroom with ease. The accessibility
of current events coupled with interactive media makes the content fun and engaging. On your
xii
Letter to Students xiii
computer, phone, or tablet, MindTap is there when you need it, giving you easy access to
flashcards, quizzes, readings, and assignments.
We trust that you will find World Politics: Trend and Transformation to be an invaluable
resource as you seek to learn more about global affairs. Whether the study of world politics is
one among many interests that you are exploring as you earn your degree or a keen passion
that may lead you to play an active role in shaping our world, this book is designed to provide
you a comprehensive coverage of the trends and transformations that characterize international
relations. It is our hope that as you conclude reading World Politics you will be as fascinated
as we are with the complex dynamics of global interactions, and feel compelled to continue
to observe, critically analyze, and address the challenges and opportunities that we share as
members of a global community.
Sincerely,
Shannon L. Blanton & Charles W. Kegley
Resources for Students
and Instructors
Students
Cengage Unlimited
Cengage Unlimited is the first-of-its-kind digital subscription that empowers students to learn more for less. One
student subscription includes total access to every Cengage online textbook, platform, career and college success
centers, and more—in one place. Learn across courses and disciplines with confidence that you won’t pay more to
access more. Available now in bookstores and online. Details at www.cengage.com/unlimited.
Access your World Politics, Seventeenth Edition resources via www.cengage.com/login.
If you purchased MindTap™ access with your book, click on “Register a Product” and then enter your
access code.
Instructors
Access your World Politics, Seventeenth Edition resources via www.cengage.com/login.
Log in using your Cengage Learning single sign-on user name and password, or create a new instructor
account by clicking on “New Faculty User” and following the instructions.
xiv
Resources for Students and Instructors xv
Many people—in fact, too many to identify and thank individually—have contributed to the development of
this leading textbook in international relations. We are thankful for the constructive comments, advice, and data
provided by an array of scholars and colleagues.
Reviewers for this Edition Rebecca Cruise, University of Oklahoma
Jonathan Davidson, European Commission
Daniel S. Geller, Wayne State University
Philippe Dennery, J-Net Ecology Communication
Nicholas Giordano, Suffolk County Community College
Company, Paris
Walter Hill, St. Mary’s College of Maryland
Drew Dickson, Atlantic Council of the United States
Mir Husain, University of South Alabama
Agber Dimah, Chicago State University
Baris Kesgin, Elon University
Gregory Domin, Mercer University
Anip Uppal, Central New Mexico Community College
Thomas Donaldson, Wharton School of the University
of Pennsylvania
Past Reviewers and Other Contributors
Nicole Detraz, University of Memphis
Duane Adamson, Brigham Young University–Idaho Zach Dorfman, Carnegie Council for Ethics in
Daniel Allen, Anderson University International Affairs
Ruchi Anand, American Graduate School in Paris Ayman I. El-Dessouki and Kamal El-Menoufi, Cairo
Osmo Apunen, University of Tampere University
Bossman Asare, Graceland University Sid Ellington, University of Oklahoma
Chad Atkinson, University of Illinois Robert Fatton, University of Virginia
Andrew J. Bacevich, Boston University Matthias Finger, Columbia University
Yan Bai, Grand Rapids Community College John Freeman, University of Minnesota–Minneapolis
Katherine Barbieri, University of South Carolina Eytan Gilboa, Bar-Ilan University in Israel
George Belzer, Johnson County Community College Giovanna Gismondi, University of Oklahoma
John Boehrer, University of Washington Srdjan Gligorijevic, Defense and Security Studies Centre,
Pamela Blackmon, Penn State Altoona G-17 Plus Institute, Belgrade, Serbia
Austin Blanton, Auburn University Richard F. Grimmett, Congressional Research Office
Cullen M. Blanton, Hoover High School Ted Robert Gurr, University of Maryland
Robert G. Blanton, University of Alabama at Birmingham Aref N. Hassan, St. Cloud State University
Linda P. Brady, University of North Carolina at Russell Hardin, New York University
Greensboro James E. Harf, Maryville University
Leann Brown, University of Florida Cristian A. Harris, North Georgia College and State
Dan Caldwell, Pepperdine University University
John H. Calhoun, Palm Beach Atlantic University Charles Hermann, Texas A&M University
John Candido, La Trobe University Margaret G. Hermann, Syracuse University
Colin S. Cavell, Bluefield State College Stephen D. Hibbard, Shearman & Sterling, LLP
Roger A. Coate, Georgia College & State University Steven W. Hook, Kent State University
Jonathan E. Colby, Carlyle Group, Washington, D.C. Jack Hurd, Nature Conservatory
Phyllis D. Collins, Keswick Management Inc., New York Ashley Brooke Huddleston, University of Memphis
City Lisa Huffstetler, University of Memphis
Christopher R. Cook, University of Pittsburgh at Patrick James, University of Southern California
Johnstown Loch Johnson, University of Georgia
Reverend George Crow, Northeast Presbyterian Church Christopher M. Jones, Northern Illinois University
xvi
Acknowledgments xvii
Also helpful was the input provided by Honors dedicated, and helpful editors at Cengage deserve
undergraduate student Lyndsey Shelton at the special gratitude: Lauren Gerrish, Associate Product
University of Alabama at Birmingham, who provided Manager, and Claire Branman, Senior Content
invaluable research assistance. The always helpful and Manager, exercised extraordinary professionalism in
accommodating Project Manager Phil Scott with SPi guiding the process that brought this edition into
Global, and Photo Researcher Sujatha Selvakumar print. Gratitude is also expressed to the always instruc-
with Lumina Datamatics, made valuable contribu- tive advice of Valerie Hartman, Cengage’s skilled
tions to this book. In addition, our highly skilled, Political Science Senior Marketing Manager.
About the Authors
xix
xx About the Authors
Professors Blanton and Kegley have individually published extensively in leading scholarly
journals, including Alternatives, American Journal of Political Science, Armed Forces and Society,
Asian Forum, The Brown Journal of International Affairs, Business and Society, Comparative
Political Studies, Conflict Management and Peace Science, Conflict Quarterly, Cooperation and
Conflict, Ethics and International Affairs, Feminist Economics, Politics and Gender, The Fletcher
Forum of World Affairs, Foreign Policy Analysis, Futures Research Quarterly, Harvard International
Review, International Interactions, International Organization, International Politics, International
Studies Quarterly, Jerusalem Journal of International Relations, Journal of Conflict Resolution,
Journal of Peace Research, Journal of Politics, Journal of Political and Military Sociology, Journal of
Third World Studies, Korean Journal of International Studies, Leadership, Orbis, Political Research
Quarterly, Social Science Journal, Sociological Forum, and Western Political Quarterly.
Together Blanton and Kegley have coauthored publications appearing in the Brown Journal
of World Affairs, Futures Research Quarterly, Mediterranean Quarterly, and Rethinking the Cold
War, as well as multiple editions of World Politics (since the twelfth edition’s 2009-2010 update).
Dedication
To my husband Rob and our sons Austin and Cullen,
in deep appreciation of their love and support
—Shannon Lindsey Blanton
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Oman Bangl.
Sudan Eritrea Yemen Thai. Vietnam Philippines
Cam. Marshall
Djibouti Is.
South Ethiopia Sri Fed. St. of
Maldives Brunei Micronesia
Sudan Lanka Palau
Uganda Somalia Malaysia
Rwanda Kenya
Ecuador Singapore
Congo Indian Papua Solomon
Burundi Seychelles Indonesia
Tanzania New Guinea Is.
Br a z i l Malawi Comoros Ocean Samoa
Peru Angola
Zambia
ue
South Madagascar Vanuatu
biq
Bolivia Zimb. Fiji
South Mauritius
zam
Paraguay Atlantic Bots. New
Namibia
Mo
Caledonia
Pacific Chile Australia
Eswatini
Ocean South Lesotho
Ocean Uruguay Africa
Argentina New
Zealand
Antarctica
Norway Finland
Sweden Estonia
Latvia
Denmark Russia
Mauritania Lithuania
Bahamas United
Mali Niger Kingdom
Ireland Belarus
Senegal Neth.
Cuba St. Kitts and Chad Germany Poland
Dominican Nevis Gambia Burkina
Guatemala Belgium
Haiti Rep. Antigua and Faso
Barbuda Guinea Moldova
Belize Jamaica Puerto Rico Lux.
Liech. CzechiaSlovakia Ukraine
Guadeloupe Guinea-
Bissau Nigeria Austria Hungary
Honduras Dominica Martinique Côte France Switz.
St. Vincent and St. Lucia d’Ivoire Ghana Slovenia Romania
Sierra Central
Nicaragua the Grenadines Barbados Andorra Croatia Serbia
El Salvador Grenada Leone Benin Cameroon African Montenegro
Trinidad & Liberia Togo Rep. Bos.&
Costa Monaco San Herz. Bulgaria Georgia
Panama Tobago Equatorial
Rica Guinea Marino Albania
Venezuela French Portugal Spain Kosovo North Macedonia Armenia
Guiana Congo Italy Turkey
Guyana Atlantic Sao Tome Greece
& Principe Gabon Azerbaijan
Colombia Suriname Ocean
Gibraltar (U.K.) Cyprus
Malta Syria Iran
Cabinda (Angola) Congo Tunisia Lebanon
Iraq
Israel
Morocco Kuwait
Algeria
Libya Egypt Jordan
Part 1
Trend and Transformation
in World Politics
NASA Images
and constructivist theoretical traditions that schol-
ars and policy makers use most often to interpret
world politics, and also considers the feminist and
Marxist critiques of these mainstream traditions. A World Without Borders
Chapter 3 further strengthens your understanding of world poli- Reflecting on his space shuttle experience,
tics by introducing three ways of looking at international decision-
astronaut Sultan bin Salman Al-Saud
making processes by transnational actors.
remarked that “the first day or so we all
pointed to our countries. The third or fourth
day we were pointing to our continents.
By the fifth day, we were aware of only
one Earth.” As viewed from outer space,
planet Earth looks as if it has continents
without borders. As viewed from newspaper
headlines, however, world politics looks
much different.
1
Chapter 1
Discovering World Politics
Guy Bell/Shutterstock.com
Image 1.1 What Future for Humankind? Many global trends are sweeping across a transforming planet. Environmental issues
often transcend state boundaries and call for a global response. Shown here, thousands of youth demonstrate in Parliament Square in central
London in 2019 to object to the government’s lack of action regarding climate change. How might you influence the future of world politics?
Learning Objectives
LO 1-1 Describe the core difficulty of investigating human phenomena such as international relations.
LO 1-2 Explain different ways in which we perceive reality, and how these perceptions can influence
international politics.
LO 1-3 Identify foundational concepts and units of analysis used to assess world politics.
2
Chapter 1 3
❝
The glorious thing about the human race is that it does change the world—constantly. It is
the human being’s capacity for struggling against being overwhelmed which is remarkable
and exhilarating.”
— L or rain e H an s b er ry, A mer ican au thor
I
magine yourself returning home from a two-week vacation on a tropical island where you
were completely “off the grid,” with no access to the news. The trip gave you a well-deserved
break before starting a new school term, but now you are curious about what has happened
while you were away. Checking your newsfeed, the headlines catch your eye. The civil war in
Syria, which has displaced almost a fourth of the entire country and created a massive refugee
crisis, seems to be grinding to a halt, though a report reveals the government committed human
rights atrocities in putting down its opposition. You read that elsewhere in the Middle East, an
intense famine will have lasting effects in Yemen, as emphasized by a United Nations report that
half of the children under the age of five will have stunted growth due to the lack of food. The
deadly Ebola virus is resurfacing in the Congo, with over one thousand deaths thus far. A series
of church bombings took place in Sri Lanka. These attacks, which killed almost 300 people,
were apparently the responsibility of ISIS, which is still a threat despite losing its home territory.
Listening to NPR reports on your drive home, you hear coverage of several economic crises
around the world. The situation in Venezuela is particularly dire; the rate of inflation over the
past year was an astounding 10 million percent, which has rendered their currency essentially
worthless and left many people at the brink of starvation. Despite this, it appears that their
president will survive the latest round of protests against his rule. Puerto Rico, which was already
facing a massive debt crisis, continues to struggle to rebuild from a hurricane that devastated
the island in 2017. Across the Atlantic, the United Kingdom continues to wrestle with how to
implement the “Brexit” plan that will formally separate it from the rest of the European Union.
In addition to the economic uncertainties and disruptions that could result from this move, the
report indicates that Brexit could potentially reignite tensions between the United Kingdom and
Northern Ireland. You wonder if this will interfere with your plans to spend a month in Europe
after your graduation next year. You hear about the ongoing “trade war” between the United
States and China. As these conflicts will result in higher prices on a wide variety of products, you
worry about how much the conflict will affect the cost of the new laptop you need to purchase
for the upcoming semester. On a global scale, a recent forecast by the International Monetary
Fund points out that this trade conflict, as well as trade problems between the United States and
the European Union, could contribute to a further slowing of the world economy as a whole.
You hope that conditions improve before you graduate and enter the job market.
Shortly after arriving home, you get a news alert that social media companies are coming
under fire in the United States as well as Europe, as these platforms are connected with
politically-related misinformation campaigns that influenced several elections around the world.
You also hear that relations between the United States and Cuba are deteriorating, with the U.S.
government seeking to strengthen existing sanctions on the neighboring country and further
limit travel. You wonder if this will affect the study abroad that your roommate plans to take
during the upcoming semester.
4 Discovering World Politics
After such a depressing series of news items, you decide to seek out some more positive
stories, and find a couple of interesting podcasts to listen to while you unpack. You learn about
the Event Horizon Telescope Project, whose work has resulted in the first actual pictures of a
black hole, something that scientists have long known existed but never actually seen before.
You are encouraged by how hundreds of scientists from twenty countries were able to cooperate
in this massive project. The energy and enthusiasm of Katie Bouman, the 29-year-old computer
scientist who played a lead role in the project, is particularly impressive to you. Next you hear
about the various school strikes for climate that are taking place throughout the world, in which
elementary through high school students are demonstrating to demand action in response to
climate change. You listen to an interesting interview with one of the leaders of the group, Greta
Thunberg, a 16-year-old student who has been successful in pushing for climate-friendly poli-
cies in her home country of Sweden, and recently addressed the United Nations on the topic.
With all of the conflict and hardship in the world, you find it encouraging that people can work
together to advance human knowledge and to confront global challenges.
The scenario just described is not hypothetical. The events identified record what actually occurred
during the month of May 2019. Undoubtedly, many individuals experienced fear and confusion
during this period. However, it is, uncomfortably, not so different from other eras. Putting this infor-
mation about unfolding events together, you cannot help but be reminded that international affairs
matter and events around the world powerfully affect your circumstances and future. The “news” you
received is not truly new, because it echoes many old stories from the past about the growing sea of
turmoil sweeping the contemporary world. Nevertheless, the temptation to wish that this depressing,
chaotic world would just go away is overwhelming. If only the unstable world would be still long
enough for a sense of predictability and order to prevail . . . . Alas, that does not appear likely. You
cannot escape the world or control its turbulence, and you cannot single-handedly alter its character.
We are all a part of this world. If we are to live adaptively amid the fierce winds of global change,
world politics then we must face the challenge of discovering the dynamic properties of world politics. Because
The study of how
global actors’ world events increasingly influence every person, all can benefit from investigating how the global
activities entail the system works, how the decisions and behavior of individuals, states, and transnational actors
exercise of influence
to achieve and influence the global condition, and how changes in world politics are remaking our political and
defend their goals economic lives. Only by doing so, can we address what former U.S. President Bill Clinton defined
and ideals, and how
it affects the world as “the question of our time—whether we can make change our friend and not our enemy.”
at large.
To understand the political convulsions that confront the world’s almost 8 billion people, it is
critical that we perceive our times accurately. Yet interpreting the world in which we now live
Chapter 1 5
and anticipating what lies ahead for the globe’s future—and yours—presents formidable chal-
lenges. Indeed, it could be the most difficult task you will ever face. Why? In part, it is because
the study of international relations requires taking into account every factor that influences
human behavior. This is a task that seminal scientist Albert Einstein believed is extremely chal-
lenging. He once hinted at how big the challenge of explaining world politics was when he was
asked, “Why is it that when the mind of man has stretched so far as to discover the structure of
the atom we have been unable to devise the political means to keep the atom from destroying
us?” He replied, “This is simple, my friend; it is because politics is more difficult than physics.”
Another part of the challenge stems from our constant bombardment with a bewildering
amount of new information and new developments, and the tendency of people to resist new
information and ideas that undermine their habitual ways of thinking about world affairs. We
know from repeated studies that people do not want to accept ideas that do not conform to
their prior beliefs. A purpose of this book is to help you question your preexisting beliefs about
global affairs and about the world stage’s many actors. To that end, we ask you to evaluate rival
perspectives on global issues, even if they differ from your current images. Indeed, we expose
you to prevailing schools of thought that you may find unconvincing, and possibly offensive.
Why are they included? Many other people make these views the bedrock of their interpre-
tations of the world around them, and these viewpoints accordingly enjoy a popular following.
For this reason, the text describes some visions of world politics with which even your authors
may not agree so that you may weigh the wisdom or foolishness of contending perspectives.
The interpretive challenge is to observe unfolding global realities objectively in order to describe
and explain them accurately.
To appreciate how our images of reality shape our expectations, we begin with a brief
introduction to the role that subjective images play in understanding world politics. We then
present a set of analytic tools that this book uses to help you overcome perceptual obstacles
to understanding world politics and to empower you to more capably interpret the forces of
change and continuity that affect our world.
Although you may not have attempted to define explicitly your perceptions about the world
in your subconscious, we all hold mental images of world politics. Whatever our level of self-
awareness, these images perform the same function: they simplify “reality” by exaggerating some
features of the real world while ignoring others. Thus, we live in a world defined by our images.
Many of our images of the world’s political realities are shaped by illusions and misconcep-
tions. Our images cannot fully capture the complexity and configurations of even physical
objects, such as the globe itself (see “Controversy: Should We Believe What We See?”). Even
images that are currently accurate can easily become outdated if we fail to recognize changes in
the world. Indeed, the world’s future will be determined not only by changes in the “objective”
facts of world politics but also by the meaning that people ascribe to those facts, the assumptions
6 Discovering World Politics
Controversy
Should We Believe What We See?
Without questioning whether to represent three-dimensional
the ways they have organized objects on paper, all of them
their perceptions are accurate, involve some kind of distortion.
many people simply assume Thus, cartographers must
seeing is believing. But is choose among the imperfect
there more to seeing than ways of representing the globe
meets the eye? Students of by selecting those aspects of
perceptual psychology think the world’s geography they
so. They maintain that seeing consider most important to
is not a strictly passive act: describe accurately, while
what we observe is influenced adjusting other parts.
by our preexisting values and There exists a long-standing
expectations (and by the visual habits reinforced by the controversy among cartographers about the “right” way
constructions society has inculcated in us about how to to map the globe; that is, how to make an accurate
view objects). Students of perception argue that what projection. Consider these four maps (Maps 1.1, 1.2,
you see is what you get, and that two observers looking 1.3, and 1.4). Cartographers’ ideas of what is most
at the same object might easily see different realities. important in world geography have varied according
This principle has great importance for the to their own global perspectives. Each depicts the
investigation of international relations, where, depending distribution of the Earth’s land surfaces and territory but
on one’s perspective, people can vary greatly on how portrays a different image. In turn, the accuracy of their
they view international events, actors, and issues. rival maps matters politically because they shape how
Intense disagreements often arise from competing people view what is important.
images.
To appreciate the controversies that can result What Do You Think?
when different people (with different perspectives) see 1. What are some of the policy implications associated
different realities, even though they are looking at the with the image of the world as depicted in each of
same thing, consider something as basic as objectively the respective projections?
viewing the location and size of the world’s continents.
All maps of the globe are distorted because it is 2. Why are some features of the map distorted?
impossible to represent perfectly the three-dimensional Consider the role that politics, history, culture, and
globe on a two-dimensional piece of paper. The racism, among others, might play. Can you think of
difficulty cartographers face can be appreciated by any ways modern cartographers might modify any
trying to flatten an orange peel. You can only flatten it of these world projections?
by separating pieces of the peel that were joined when 3. In thinking about images and the important role
it was spherical. they play in foreign policy, should a consensus be
Cartographers who try to flatten the globe on reached as to the map that is distorted the least?
paper, without ripping it into separate pieces, face the Would it be better for everyone to use one map or
same problem. Although there are a variety of ways to use many different types of projections? Why?
(Continued )
Chapter 1 7
on which they base their interpretations, and the actions that flow from these assumptions and
interpretations—however accurate or inaccurate they might be.
foreign invasion, which caused a generation of Soviet policy makers to perceive U.S. defensive
moves with suspicion and often alarm.
Similarly, the founders of the United States viewed eighteenth-century European power
politics and its repetitive wars as corrupt, contributing to two seemingly contradictory ten-
dencies later evident in U.S. foreign policy. The first is America’s impulse to isolate itself (its
disposition to withdraw from world affairs), and the other is its determination to reform the
world in its own image whenever global circumstances become highly threatening. The former
led the country to reject membership in the League of Nations after World War I; the latter gave
rise to the U.S. globalist foreign policy following World War II, which committed the country
to active involvement nearly everywhere on nearly every issue. Many Americans, thinking of
their country as virtuous, have difficulty understanding why others sometimes regard such far-
reaching international activism as arrogant or threatening; instead, they see only good intentions
in active U.S. interventionism.
Because leaders and citizens are prone to ignore or reinterpret information that runs counter
to their beliefs and values, mutual misperceptions often fuel discord in world politics, espe-
cially when relations between countries are hostile. Distrust and suspicion arise as conflicting
parties view each other in the same negative light—that is, as mirror images develop. This mirror images
The tendency of
occurred in Moscow and Washington during the Cold War. Each side saw its own actions as states and people
constructive but its adversary’s responses as hostile, and both sides erroneously assumed that in competitive
interaction to
their counterpart would clearly interpret the intentions of their own policy initiatives. When perceive each other
psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner (1961) traveled to Moscow, for example, he was amazed similarly—to see
others the same
to hear Russians describing the United States in terms that were strikingly similar to the way hostile way others
Americans described the Soviet Union: each side saw itself as virtuous and peace-loving, whereas see them.
the other was seen as untrustworthy, aggressive, and ruled by a corrupt government.
Mirror-imaging is a property of nearly all enduring rivalries—long-lasting contests between enduring
opposing groups. For example, in rivalries such as Christianity with Islam during the Crusades rivalries
Prolonged
in the Middle Ages, Israel and Palestine since the birth of the sovereign state of Israel in 1948, competition fueled
by deep-seated
and India and Pakistan since decolonization in 1947, both sides demonize the image of their mutual hatred that
adversary while perceiving themselves as virtuous. Self-righteousness often leads one party to leads opposed actors
to feud and fight
view its own actions as constructive but its adversary’s responses as negative and hostile. over a long period
When this occurs, conflict resolution is extraordinarily difficult. Not only do the oppos- of time without
resolution of their
ing sides have different preferences for certain outcomes over others, but they do not see the conflict.
underlying issues in the same light. Further complicating matters, the mirror images held by
rivals tend to be self-confirming. When one side expects the other to be hostile, it may treat its
opponent in a manner that leads the opponent to take counteractions that confirm the original
expectation, therein creating a vicious circle of deepening hostilities that reduce the prospects
for peace (Sen, 2006). Clearing up mutual misperceptions can facilitate negotiations between
the parties, but fostering peace is not simply a matter of expanding trade and other forms of
transnational contact, or even of bringing political leaders together in international summits.
Rather, it is a matter of changing deeply entrenched beliefs.
Although our constructed images of world politics are resistant to change, change is pos-
sible. Overcoming old thinking habits sometimes occurs when we experience punishment or
discomfort as a result of clinging to false assumptions. As Benjamin Franklin once observed,
10 Discovering World Politics
“The things that hurt, instruct.” Dramatic events in particular can alter international images,
sometimes drastically. The Vietnam War caused many Americans to reject their previous images
about using military force in world politics. The defeat of the Third Reich and revelations of
Nazi atrocities committed before and during World War II caused the German people to con-
front their past as they prepared for a democratic future imposed by the victorious Allies. More
recently, the human and financial costs of the prolonged U.S. wars in Iraq and Afghanistan
led many policy makers and political commentators to reexamine their assumptions about the
meaning of “victory” and the potential implications as U.S. engagement moved beyond initial
combat to address issues of governance and stability.
Often, such jolting experiences encourage us to construct new mental maps, perceptual
filters, and criteria through which we interpret later events and define situations. As we shape
and reshape our images of world politics and its future, we need to think critically about the
foundations on which our perceptions rest (see “A Closer Look: A Clash of Civilizations?
Freedom, Security, and Values”). Are they accurate? Are they informed? Do they inhibit our
ability to gain greater understanding of others? Questioning our images is one of the major
challenges we all face in confronting contemporary world politics.
If we exaggerate the accuracy of our perceptions and seek information that confirms what we
believe, how can we escape the biases created by our preconceptions? How can we avoid over-
looking or dismissing evidence that runs counter to our intuition?
There are no sure-fire solutions to ensure accurate observations, no ways to guarantee that
we have constructed an impartial view of international relations. However, a number of tools
can improve our ability to interpret world politics. As you undertake an intellectual journey of
discovery, a set of intellectual roadmaps provides guidance for your interpretation and under-
standing of past, present, and future world politics. To arm you for your quest, World Politics:
Trend and Transformation advances four keys to aid you in your inquiry.
The belief that one’s own view of reality is the only reality is the most dangerous
of all delusions.
— Pa ul Wat zlawick , Aus tr ian psych ologist
Introducing Terminology
A primary goal of this text is to introduce you to the vocabulary used by scholars, policy
makers, and the “attentive public” who routinely observe international affairs. You need to
be literate and informed about the shared meaning of common words used worldwide to
discuss and debate world politics and foreign policy. Some of this language has been in use
Chapter 1 11
A Closer Look
A Clash of Civilizations? Freedom, Security, and Values
Islamic head coverings that choose to wear the concealing
obscure the face, such as the garments to protect their
niqab and burqa, have become femininity and express their
a contentious political issue in devotion to God. Some argue
many societies around the world. that such coverings enable
In 2018, Denmark became the them to move about in public
fifth European country to enact anonymously, shielded from
a national ban on full-facial veils sexual pressure, and so actually
in public places, and others allow considerable personal
including Muslim-majority Turkey freedom. Others decry the
have some limitations on where practice and point to cases
they may be worn. Widespread where women are forced to
demand for such legislation began in France in 2011, wear such garments or face violent repercussions such
with French President Nicolas Sarkozy declaring, “the as disfigurement, beatings, or death. In this context, the
burqa is not welcome in France. In our country, we practice induces fearful obedience, denies individual
can’t accept women prisoners behind a screen, cut off choice, and silences the voices of women. Such was
from all social life, deprived of all identity. That’s not our evident in February 2015 when Al Khansa, an all-female
idea of freedom.” The European Court of Human Rights policing unit of the Islamic State, poured acid on the
supported arguments that such laws do not prevent faces of fifteen Iraqi women because they were not
the free exercise of religion in a place of worship, the properly covered. As explained by Saed Mamuzini, an
face plays an important role in social interaction within official from the Kurdistan Democratic Party in Mosul,
secular society, and hidden identity creates a potential “they have implemented this punishment so that other
security risk. In 2017, it further ruled that Belgium’s ban women in the city will never consider removing or not
on veils does not violate the European Convention on wearing the niqab” (Constante, 2015).
Human Rights.
Europe is not alone in its resistance to full-face veils.
The African countries of Chad, Cameroon, and Niger Watch the Carnegie Council
have also restricted head-coverings, citing terrorism Video:
concerns. However in Canada, a federal court took “Who Cares What You Wear on Your Head?”
a different approach in February 2015 when it ruled
in favor of a native Pakistani woman who challenged
the Canadian prohibition against wearing clothing You Decide:
that obscures the face during citizenship ceremonies. 1. How do our perceptions shape how we view the
Touching off a firestorm of debate within that country, burqa or niqab? How is clothing an expression of a
the finding supported her argument that wearing a veil society’s collective awareness?
is an expression of her Muslim faith and cultural values.
Perceptions clearly vary on whether such coverings 2. Does wearing the burqa inhibit or promote women’s
are repressive or liberating, and whether legislation freedom and dignity?
banning the clothing is a victory for democracy or a 3. Would you support a similar ban in your country?
blow for individual freedom. Some women say they Why?
since antiquity, and some of it has only recently become part of the terminology employed in
diplomatic circles, scholarly research, and the media. These words are the kind of vocabulary
you are likely to encounter long after your formal collegiate education (and the course in which
you are reading World Politics) has ended, and your future employers and educated neighbors
will expect you to know. Some of these words are already likely to be part of your working
12 Discovering World Politics
vocabulary, but others may look new, esoteric, pedantic, and overly sophisticated. Nonetheless,
you need to know their meaning to engage in effective analysis and well-informed debate with
other scholars, practitioners, and attentive observers of world politics. So take advantage of
this “high definition” feature of World Politics. Learn these words and use them for the rest of
your life—not to impress others, but to understand and communicate intelligently.
To guide you in identifying these terms, as you may already have noticed, we present certain
words in boldface in the text and provide a broad definition in the margin. When we use a
key term again in a different chapter, we will highlight it at least once in italics, although the
marginal definition will not be repeated. In all cases, the definition will appear in the Glossary
at the end of the book with a notation of the chapter in which it first appeared.
actor
An individual, group,
state, or organization
Distinguishing the Primary Transnational Actors
that plays a major The world is a stage and in the drama there are many players. It is important to identify and
role in world politics.
classify the major categories of actors (sometimes called agents) who take part in international
power engagements. The actions of each transnational actor—individually, collectively, and with vari-
The factors
that enable one ous degrees of influence—shape the trends that are transforming world politics. So how do
actor to change scholars conventionally categorize the types of actors and structure analysis of them as players
another actor’s
behavior against its in international affairs?
preferences. The essential building-block units, of course, are individual people—almost 8 billion of us.
Every day, whether each of us chooses to litter, purchase something made abroad, or parent a
state
sovereignty child, we affect some small measure of how trends in the world will unfold. People, however,
A state’s supreme also join and participate in various groups. All of these groups combine people and their choices
authority to manage
internal affairs and in various collectivities and thereby aggregate the power of each group. Such groups often
foreign relations. compete with one another because they frequently have divergent interests and goals.
state
For most periods of world history, the prime actors were groupings of religions, tribes whose
An independent members shared ethnic origins, and empires or expansionist centers of power. When they came
legal entity with
a government
into contact, they sometimes collaborated with each other for mutual benefit; more often,
exercising they competed for and fought over valued resources. The more than 8000 years of recorded
exclusive control
over the territory international relations history between and among these groups provided the precedent for the
and population it formation of today’s system of interactions.
governs.
As a network of relationships among independent territorial units, the modern state sys-
nation tem was not born until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the Thirty Years’ War
A collectivity (1618–1648) in Europe. Thereafter, rulers refused to recognize the secular authority of the
whose people see
themselves as Roman Catholic Church, replacing the system of papal governance in the Middle Ages with
members of the
same group because
geographically and politically separate states that recognized no superior authority. The newly
they share the same independent states all gave to rulers the same legal rights: territory under their sole control,
ethnicity, culture, or
language. unrestricted control of their domestic affairs, and the freedom to conduct foreign relations and
negotiate treaties with other states. The concept of state sovereignty—that no other actor is
ethnic groups above the state—still captures these legal rights and identifies the state as the primary actor today.
People whose
identity is primarily The Westphalian system continues to color every dimension of world politics and provides the
defined by their terminology used to describe the primary units in international affairs. Although the term nation-
sense of sharing a
common ancestral state is often used interchangeably with state and nation, technically the three are different. A state
nationality, language,
cultural heritage, and
is a legal entity that enjoys a permanent population, a well-defined territory, and a government
kinship. capable of exercising sovereignty. A nation is a collection of people who, on the basis of ethnic,
Chapter 1 13
linguistic, or cultural commonality, construct their reality to primarily perceive themselves to be inter
governmental
members of the same group, which defines their identity. Thus, the term nation-state implies a organizations
convergence between territorial states and the psychological identification of people within them (IGOs)
Institutions created
(Stewart, Gvosdev, and Andelman, 2008). and joined by states’
However, in employing this familiar terminology, we should exercise caution because this governments, which
give them authority
condition is relatively rare; there are few independent states comprising a single nationality. Most to make collective
states today encompass many nations, and some nations are not states. “Nonstate nations” are decisions to manage
particular problems
ethnic groups—such as Native Americans in the United States, Sikhs in India, Basques in Spain, on the global
or Kurds in Iraq, Turkey, Iran, and Syria—composed of people without sovereign power over the agenda.
Figure 1.1 Three Categories of Transnational Actors Shown here in three prominent categories of transnational actors are
specific examples of states, intergovernmental organizations, and nongovernmental organizations. As you embark upon your discovery of world
politics, it is useful to distinguish between various types of actors and begin to think about how they influence issues and outcomes around the world.
14 Discovering World Politics
levels of and seek to push their own agendas and exert global influence on an array of issues, such as envi-
analysis
The different aspects ronmental protection, disarmament, and human rights. For example, Amnesty International
of and agents in and Doctors Without Borders are NGOs that work to bring about change in the world and
international affairs
that may be stressed influence international decision making. Yet although many NGOs are seen in a positive light,
in interpreting others, such as terrorist groups and international drug cartels, are seen as ominous nonstate
and explaining
global phenomena, actors.
depending on In thinking about world politics and its future, we will probe all of these “units” or
whether the analyst
chooses to focus categories of actors. The emphasis and coverage will vary, depending on the topics under
on “wholes” (the
complete global
examination in each chapter. But you should keep in mind that all actors (individuals, states,
system and large and nonstate organizations) are simultaneously active today, and their importance and power
collectivities) or on
“parts” (individual depend on the trend or issue under consideration. So continuously ask yourself the question,
states or people). now and in the future: which actors are most active, most influential, on which issues, and
under what conditions? Doing this will help you think like
an international relations scholar.
Foreign Policy
Influences
Distinguishing Levels of Analysis
When we describe international phenomena, we answer a
“what” question—What is happening? What is changing?
Systemic Influences
When we move from description to explanation, we face the
more difficult task of answering a “why” question—Why did a
particular event occur? Why is global warming happening? Why
State or Internal is the gap between rich and poor widening?
Influences One useful key for addressing such puzzles is to visualize
an event or trend as the result of some unknown process. This
Individual encourages us to think about the causes that might have pro-
Influences
duced the phenomenon we are trying to explain. Most events
and developments in world politics are influenced simultane-
ously by many determinants, each connected to the rest in a
Policy- complex web of causal linkages.
Making
Process World Politics provides an analytic set of categories to help
make interpretive sense of the multiple causes that explain
why international events and circumstances occur. This ana-
Foreign Policy lytic distinction conforms to a widespread scholarly consensus
Decisions
that international events or developments can best be ana-
Figure 1.2 Three Levels of Influence: lyzed and understood by first separating the multiple pieces
Analyzing Factors That Shape International of the puzzle into different categories or levels. Following the
Relations We can group the factors that affect states’ influential work of Kenneth Waltz (1959) that examined the
foreign policies and the decisions of all other global actors
into three basic categories. At the systemic level are causes of war according to three “images,” investigators con-
structural features of the international system, at the state ventionally focus on one (or more) of three levels. Known as
level are internal or domestic influences, and at the individual levels of analysis, as shown in Figure 1.2, this classification
level are the characteristics of leaders. All three levels
distinguishes between individual influences, state or internal
simultaneously influence decisions, but their relative weight
usually depends on the issues and circumstances at the time influences, and structural systemic influences for understand-
of decision. ing and explaining world politics.
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ON PREJUDICE
This and the two following essays were published together in
Sketches and Essays.
392. ‘God’s image,’ etc. Fuller, The Holy State, II. 20, ‘The Good
Sea-Captain.’
Mr. Murray no longer libels men of colour. In Sketches and
Essays these words were changed to ‘men of colour are no
longer to be libelled.’
393. ‘That one,’ etc. Cf. Othello, Act V. Sc. 2.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED
PAG
E ‘Most ignorant,’ etc. Cf. Measure for Measure, Act II. Sc. 2.
395. ‘Cherish,’ etc. Reflections on the Revolution in France (Select
Works, ed. Payne, II. 102).
‘Rings the earth,’ etc. Cf. Cowper, The Task, III. 129–30.
396. ‘Murder to dissect.’ Wordsworth, The Tables Turned, l. 28.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED
This essay, which does not seem to have been published in The
Atlas, is printed from Sketches and Essays.
PAG
E
‘Reason,’ etc. Cf. 1 Peter iii. 15.
396. ‘There is nothing,’ etc. Cf. vol. VIII. (English Comic Writers) p.
398. 124 and note.
400. ‘Thus shall we,’ etc. Cf. 1 John iv. I.
‘Comes home,’ etc. Bacon, Essays, Dedication.
‘Still, small voice.’ 1 Kings xix. 12.
ON PARTY SPIRIT
Published in Winterslow.
PAG
E Mr. Currie. This should apparently be Corrie. See Memoirs, I.
405. 25.
The Test and Corporation Acts. Repealed in 1828.
409. ‘I am monarch,’ etc. Cowper, Verses supposed to be written
by Alexander Selkirk.
‘Founded as the rock.’ Macbeth, Act III. Sc. 4.
410. Mr. Burke talks, etc. Hazlitt seems to refer to Burke’s Essay,
On the Sublime and Beautiful, Part IV. §25.
411. ‘There’s no divinity,’ etc. Cf. Hamlet, Act IV. Sc. 5.
412. Essay on Wages. An Essay on the Circumstances which
determine the Rate of Wages, etc. (1826).
‘Throw your bread,’ etc. Cf. Ecclesiastes xi. 1.
413. ‘While this machine,’ etc. Hamlet, Act II. Sc. 2.
419. ‘Like the wild goose,’ etc. As You Like It, Act II. Sc. 7.
ON THE CONDUCT OF LIFE, ETC.
Published in Literary Remains, from which it is here reprinted.
See Mr. W. C. Hazlitt’s Memoirs (1867), I. 16, where the date of the
essay is fixed as 1822, when Hazlitt’s son was ten years old.
PAG
E ‘The salt of the earth.’ S. Matthew v. 13.
425.
‘According to your own dignity,’ etc. Cf. Hamlet, Act II. Sc. 2.
‘How shall we part,’ etc. Cf. Paradise Lost, XI. 282–5.
428. ‘The study of the Classics,’ etc. See vol. I. (The Round Table)
p. 4 and notes.
431. ‘Practique,’ etc. Henry V., Act I. Sc. 1.
435. ‘We hunt the wind,’ etc. See Don Quixote, Part I. Book II.
chap. xiii.
‘Quit, quit,’ etc. Cf. Suckling’s Song, ‘Why so pale and wan,
fond lover?’
436. ‘When on the yellow,’ etc. Coleridge, Love, St. 16.
437. ‘Nods and winks,’ etc. Cf. L’Allegro, 28.
439. ‘Paled,’ etc. Cf. Hamlet, Act I. Sc. 5.
BELIEF, WHETHER VOLUNTARY?
Published in Literary Remains (from which it is here printed) and
in Winterslow.
PAG
E ‘Wherein,’ etc. See vol. VIII. pp. 18–19.
445. ‘The squandering glances,’ etc. As You Like it, Act II. Sc. 7.
PAG
E ‘Ay, every inch a King!’ King Lear, Act IV. Sc. 6.
456. ‘Cooped,’ etc. Cf. Macbeth, Act III. Sc. 4.
PAG
E ‘We have reformed,’ etc. Cf. Hamlet, Act III. Sc. 2.
461. ‘My kingdom,’ etc. S. John xviii. 36.
463. ‘And pure religion,’ etc. Wordsworth, Sonnet, Written in
464. London, September 1802.
ON THE PUNISHMENT OF DEATH
Fraser’s Magazine for January 1831 contains an article on Capital
Punishment in which the author introduces an extract from an essay
by Hazlitt on the same subject. The extract is thus introduced: ‘It
forms part of an essay which was written a few years ago by the late
W. Hazlitt, at the request of a society then existing in London for
obtaining a repeal of that formidable law, and seems to contain
pretty much the sum of what might be brought forward against that
punishment by a philosophical reasoner. It has never yet been
published.’ Hazlitt’s essay has not been discovered, and this rather
obscure fragment is reprinted from Fraser’s Magazine.
PAG
E Beccaria. Cesare, Marchese de Beccaria (1735?–1794), whose
466. famous work, On Crimes and Punishments, appeared in
1764.
‘It is not the intensity,’ etc. Cf. Beccaria, chap. xxviii.
‘Crimes are more effectually prevented,’ etc. Ibid. chap, xxvii.
470. In Mr. Bentham’s phrase. See (e.g) Theory of Legislation,
Part III. chap. vi.
Note. For Burgh’s book see vol. IV. (Reply to Malthus), p. 85
et seq. and notes.
ADDENDA TO THE NOTES IN VOLS. I.–XI.
VOL. I.
PAG
E 3. The miser ‘robs himself,’ etc. Cf. Joseph Andrews, Book
IV.
chap. vii.
23. ‘Because on earth,’ etc. See vol. X., note to p. 63.
52. ‘A mistress,’ etc. Goldsmith, The Traveller, 152.
57. ‘Pure,’ etc. Dryden, Persius, Sat. II. l. 133.
68. ‘Two happy things,’ etc. The Tatler (No. 40) quotes the
epigram thus:
‘In marriage are two happy things allowed,
A wife in wedding-sheets, and in a shroud.
How can a marriage state then be accursed,
Since the last day’s as happy as the first?’
38. The Room over the way. See Cobbett’s Weekly Political
Register, Sept. 1817 (Selections, etc., v. 259).
41. St. Peter is well at Rome. Don Quixote, Part II. Book III.
chap, xli., and elsewhere.
45. ‘Lest the courtiers,’ etc. The Beggar’s Opera, II. 2.
60. ‘One note day and night.’ Burke, Regicide Peace (Select
Works, ed. Payne, p. 51).
63. ‘Which fear,’ etc. Cowper, The Task, II. 325.
166. ‘In Philharmonia’s undivided dale.’ Cf. ‘O’er peaceful
Freedom’s undivided dale.’ Coleridge, Monody on the
Death of Chatterton, 140.
171. ‘Unslacked of motion.’ See vol. IV. p. 42 and note.
174. ‘Of whatsoever race,’ etc. Cf. Dryden, Absalom and
Achitophel, I. 100–103.
239. ‘Meek mouths ruminant.’ Cf. ‘With ruminant meek
mouths.’ Leigh Hunt, The Story of Rimini, Canto II.
243. The Essay on ‘The Effects of War and Taxes,’ appeared
also in The New Scots Magazine for Oct. 1818.
259. ‘Soul-killing lies,’ etc. Lamb, John Woodvil, Act II.
268. ‘Certain so wroth,’ etc. Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, The
Prologue, 451–2.
273. ‘People of the nicest imaginations,’ etc. Cf. Swift,
Thoughts on Various Subjects.
284. ‘Resemble the flies of a summer.’ Cf. ‘Men would become
little better than the flies of a summer.’ Burke, Reflections
on the Revolution in France (Select Works, ed. Payne, II.
112).
328. ‘A new creation,’ etc. Goldsmith, The Traveller, 296.
VOL. IV.
23. ‘Those suns and skies so pure.’ Warton, Sonnet (IX.) to the
River Lodon.
93. ‘The fair variety of things.’ Akenside, Pleasures of the
Imagination, I. 78.
94. A neighbouring Baronet. See vol. XII., note to p. 202.
96. ‘Like life and death,’ etc. Cf. Lamb., John Woodvil, Act II.
106. ‘The beautiful is vanished,’ etc. Coleridge, The Death of
Wallenstein, v. I.
113. ‘Like a faint shadow,’ etc. Cf. The Faerie Queene, II. vii.
29.
152. Note. ‘The worse, the second fall of man.’ Cf. Windham,
Speeches, I. 311 (March 13, 1797).
156. ‘To warn and scare.’ Rev. Sneyd Davies, To the
Honourable and Reverend F. C. (Dodsley, Collection of
Poems, VI. 138).
189. ‘The vine-covered hills,’ etc. William Roscoe, Lines
written in 1788, parodied in The Anti-Jacobin.
211. ‘Free from the Sirian star,’ etc. Beaumont and Fletcher,
Philaster, Act v. Sc. 3.
218. ‘It was out of all plumb,’ etc. Tristram Shandy, Book III.
chap. xii.
225. ‘Stud of night-mares.’ Cf. ‘I confess an occasional night-
mare; but I do not, as in early youth, keep a stud of them.’
Lamb, Essays of Elia (Witches, and other Night-Fears).
243. ‘Tall, opaque words.’ Hazlitt was perhaps quoting from
himself. See vol. VIII. p. 257.
259. ‘To angels ’twas most like.’ The Flower and the Leaf, St.
19.
308. ‘Wild wit,’ etc. Gray, Ode, On a Distant Prospect of Eton
College.
317. ‘As much again to govern it.’ This line is not Butler’s, but
Pope’s. See An Essay on Criticism, 80–81:
‘There are whom heav’n has blest with store of wit,
Yet want as much again to manage it.’